Famous and (infamous) workplace and community training: a social history of training and development

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Famous and (Infamous) Workplace and Community Training: A Social History of Training and Development 1st Edition David M.

(Auth.)

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Famous and (Infamous) Workplace & Community Training

A Social History of Training and Development

Famousand(Infamous)WorkplaceandCommunity

Training

DavidM.Kopp Famousand (Infamous)Workplace andCommunity Training

ASocialHistoryofTrainingandDevelopment

Miami,FL USA

ISBN978-1-137-59752-6ISBN978-1-137-59753-3(eBook) DOI10.1057/978-1-137-59753-3

LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017946741

© TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s)2018

Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher, whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation, reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinany otherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation, computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthis publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesare exemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationin thisbookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublisher northeauthorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttothematerial containedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisher remainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutional affiliations.

Coverillustration:pixhook/GettyImages

Printedonacid-freepaper

ThisPalgraveMacmillanimprintispublishedbySpringerNature TheregisteredcompanyisNatureAmericaInc. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:1NewYorkPlaza,NewYork,NY10004,U.S.A.

ToSandra Mywife,mymuse,mybeginning,myend.Teamo

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Iwouldliketoacknowledgethemanypeoplewhosupportedmeduringthe writingofthisbook,especially:Barry,Marilyn,Gregorio,Juana,Zak,Nik, Isaac,andAshly.

SpecialthankstoPalgrave-MacmillanandtoStacyNotoandMarcus Ballenger,sponsoringeditors,andJazmineRobles,assistanteditor. ThanksalsotoBarryUniversity,KatieDesiderio,JoanneIttilucksatit, ChanelPreston,andAlexWheeler.

Finally,Iwouldliketothankthereviewersfortheirvaluablefeedback andinsight.

LISTOF ABBREVIATIONS

ADDIEAnalysis,Design,Development,Implementation,Evaluation

AHRDAcademyofHumanResourceDevelopment

APACAdultPerformerAdvocacyCommittee

ATDAssociationofTalentDevelopment

CSRCorporateSocialResponsibility

DAFGermanLaborFront

HRDHumanResourceDevelopment

IDInstructionalDesign

IRAsIrishRepublicanArmy’s

KSAKnowledge,Skills,andAttitudes

OJTOn-the-JobTraining

ROIReturnonInvestment

SDLSelf-DirectedLearning

SDLRSSelf-directedLearningReadinessScale

T&DTrainingandDevelopment

TTTTraintheTrainer

TWITrainingwithinIndustry

LISTOF FIGURES

Fig.2.1CodeofHammurabi(Credit:Valugi)19

Fig.2.2Factoryschool(ca.1920)(Credit:SiemmensAG)20

Fig.2.3Theshow,tell,do,checktrainingmethod22

Fig.3.1 “Theemotionalandthelogicalbuyers” (Source: Training manual, SecretsofSelling (Hargrave,1927))40

Fig.3.2ThecoverofHargave’s SecretsofSelling trainingmanual (ca.1927)41

Fig.3.3FromSecretsofSelling,the HowtoSelltheBlondandBrunet Buyers 43

Fig.3.4FordMotorCompany’s1923trainingmanualforsalesmenand dealers45

Fig.3.5PhysiognomichelpwantedadplacedintheOctober11th,1917 issueofPrinter ’sInk(“Printer ’sink.” 1917)47

Fig.3.6TheMertonMethod:Aligningthefacewithasuitablejob (Source:Merton(1920))49

Fig.4.1RosietheRiveterpropagandaposter(ca.1942 byJ.HowardMiller)57

Fig.4.2FrontcoverofAircraftRivetingtrainingmanualtailoredto femaleworkers(U.S.DepartmentofEducationand Training(ca.1942))59

Fig.5.1AnnaJaresko’sforcedlaborcard68

Fig.5.2FritzSauckel,GeneralPlenipotentiaryforNaziLabor Deploymentprogram69

Fig.5.3Oneofthemillionofeasternworkers(OST)forcedinto laborbytheNazis71 xiii

Fig.6.1TheBeatles(fromlefttoright:JohnLennon,RingoStarr, PaulMcCartneyandGeorgeHarrison)(ca.1965)84

Fig.7.1CoveroftheNationalSocietyfortheStudyofEducation Yearbook111

Fig.7.21877’sAdvicetoaWife114

Fig.7.3ParentEducationviaGentleMeasuresintheManagementand TrainingoftheYoung(1904)116

Fig.7.4TheBlackManandthePoliceman(Abbott’sFrightening System1871,p.10)117

Fig.8.1Thewonderelixir Kopp’sbabyfriend126

Fig.8.2Mrs.Winslow’sSoothingSyrupforChildrenTeething(ca.1903)130

Fig.8.3Thecoverand firstpageofaHitlerYouthhandbook(1934) (Fromtheauthor ’spersonalcollection)134

Fig.8.4Jobaidon flag-basedsemaphore(Reichsjugendfusshrung,1934, p.212)135

Fig.8.5Flowers(AHitlerYouthjobaidmakingthecaseforeugenics (Brennecke,1938,p.22))136

Fig.8.6Skull(PhysiognomicjobaidfromHitlerYouthhandbook (Brennecke,1938,p.13))136

Fig.9.1Coronetwasamajordistributorofsocialguidance films145

Fig.9.2TheU.S.governmentcreatedBerttheTurtletotrainyoungsters howtoprotectthemselvesagainstanatomicblast(ca.1951)146

Fig.9.3Factsaboutfallout(Excerptfrompage10ofgovernment pamphlet(FactsaboutFallout(1955))149

Fig.9.4Multimediamodalitiesuseddependingonintentistoeducate, explain,andclarify(Piskurich,2010)150

Fig.10.1ThecoverofatrainingmanualpublishedbytheNational AssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP) (ca.1955)166

LISTOF TABLES

Table6.11964–1965distributionofA-sidesbetweenLennonand McCartney93

Table6.21966–1967distributionofA-sidesbetweenLennonand McCartney95

Table6.31968–1969distributionofA-sidesbetweenLennonand McCartney96

Table6.4PaulMcCartney:patternofearlyhighself-directioninlearning97

Table6.5JohnLennon:instancesofself-directioninlearning99

Table6.6PaulMcCartney:codedeventsandprojectsstemmingfrom highSDL100

Table6.7JohnLennon:codedavoidantactivitywithintheDyad 1967–1969103

CHAPTER1

Introduction:OntheAxiologyofTrainingand Development IsTrainingValueNeutral?

Recently,Iwatchedajobtrainingvideoproducedbythe organizationAPAC.The14-minute-plusorientationvideo notonlydetailedwhatanewworkercouldexpectonthe job,butalsoofferedadviceontopicssuchashowto manage fi nances,jobsafety,andperformanceimprovement. Indeed,asatrainingprofessionalandacademic,Ithoughtit wasawell-done, fi rst-ratepieceofasynchronoustraining; however,whatmakesthistraining parsimoniouslyde fi ned hereas activitiesthatengendernewbehaviors notableis notthetrainingmethoditself,butthecontextofsaidtraining:APACistheacronymfortheAdultPerformer AdvocacyCommitteeandtheirtrainingvideo1 isentitled, Porn101.

Thatthepornographyindustrywouldevenhaveatraditionalemploymenttrainingvideoisanexampleofthecounterintuitivecollocationsthatthisbookexplores,thatis, typicaltrainingjuxtaposedagainstatypicalcontextandvice

1 © TheAuthor(s)2018

D.M.Kopp, Famousand(Infamous)WorkplaceandCommunity Training,DOI10.1057/978-1-137-59753-3_1

versa.Broadlyspeaking,thisbookexamineshowthe ordinary wassituatedwithinthe extraordinary2 and,whilethis bookisnotthe fi rsttoexploresuchadynamic, 3 itissui generisinconsideringhowcommoncommunity-basedand/or workplacetrainingsystemswerelinkedtocertainevents orerasbycontextualizingthemaspartofasocialhistoryof training.

Byexploringasocialhistoryoftraininginsituwithinits socio-culturalcontext,wecanalsobetterpositionourselves

tore fl ectuponanotherthemeIproffer,speci fi cally,onethat considerstheaxiologyoftraining:istrainingamoral?Indeed, similartotheconceptoftruth,thereisalsonocapitalTin training;inotherwords,theconstructoftraining,likewith food,water,andoxygen,is primafacie valueneutraluntil placedintoacontext.

Aslearningisoftenheldwithinaspeci fi csetting(Tessmer &Richey, 1997),Itakethepositionthat,oftentimes, trainingsystemswere,inpractice,themeanstofacilitate theendsofwhatmightbestrati fi edasthegood,thebad, andthedubiousofsociety.So,forexample,thevalueneutral trainingpropositionsof “ properlyutilizinganindividual’ s unusedcapabilities, ” and “usingsmallratiosoftraineesto trainers” seamlesslytransmogrifyto bad trainingafterwe learnthattheseareexcerptedfromthealQaedatraining manual(U.S.DepartmentofJustice, 2000,pp.15,47).

And,inthesameway,wemayconsiderthe good training usedbythenot-for-profi t DressforSuccess organizationthat empowerswomenbytrainingthemonlifeskillssuchas interviewingtechniquesandrésuméwritingsoastopromote economicindependenceandself-suf fi ciency(DressforSuccess, 2006).

Byanthropomorphizingtraining treatingtrainingitself asoneofthehumanparticipants andthenascribing subjectivemoralitytoit,wecanmoreeffectivelystepback andre fl ectontraining ’ s fi tnessandvirtuewithina socialcontext.ThistestsWaytz,Epley,andCacioppo ’ s ( 2010 )assertionthatwhensomethingisanthropomorphized,itrendersitworthyofmoralcareandconsideration and,forourpurposes,itallowsustobetterunderstand

notonlytheprocessesofthetraining,butso,too,the goals.

Forexample,considerathoughtexperimentwheretrainingisascoundrel,aidingandabettingsexismandtheobjecti fi cationofwomenasdeliberately4 memorializedinthe Hooters™ restaurant’ straininghandbookwithitsdirectives tothefemaleservers:

Lookwholesome,yetsexy ... and,whitebrasonlywithmake-upto bewornatalltimes.Approvedshortsaretobetight-fittingalsobut should fitsothatthebuttocksoftheserverarenotshowing ... jewelryandbodypiercingsaretobesubtle,yetsexy. (Hooters, 1999, 2007,pp.5–6)

Consider,too,trainingastheplottingfacilitatoroffervid fundamentalismmovementsasdocumentedintheIrish RepublicanArmy ’ s(IRAs)trainingbooklet(IrishRepublicanArmy&Army, 1996 )withitsgoaltounifyallofIreland byoverthrowingBritishruleofNorthernIreland,or,aswill bediscussed,intheHitlerYouthtrainingmanual (Brennecke,Childs,&Dodd, 1938 )wheretherewerenot onlytipsforrecallingtheworkingpartsofari fl eandthe correctwaytoperform fl ag-basedsemaphore,butalsotrainingthatsupportedthenarrativesofsocialDarwinismand eugenics,thestudyofimprovingthequalitiesofthe(Aryan) populationbydiscouragingreproductionbypersonshaving geneticdefectsorundesirabletraits(e.g.,Jews)(Childs& Brennecke, 2007 ).

However,onemusttakecarewhenanthropomorphizing historicaltrainingasthereisariskofwaxingtoonostalgic. Thatis,itcouldbetemptingtoviewevendysfunctional training,bywayoftrainingmanualsor fi lmsfromby-gone eras,withacertainamountoffondness;infact,cultural historianRonRobinwarns, “ fi naldocumentsareofteneulogiesratherthanautopsies” (Robin, 1995,p.12).Onthe otherhand,we,too,mustbemindfulnottoholdharmless theactualhumanactorswhocarriedoutdysfunctionaltrainingsolelybecauseofatheoreticalclaimthattherebeno judgmentastheywerejustfollowingtheinstructionsofa trainingmanual(ala, TheBanalityofEvil,Arendt, 1963). Thus,whilewecananthropomorphizetheseartifacts,we mustrememberthatthetrainingwascreatedbyhumans forhumans,sothetrainingmanualcouldbeviewedasan actualproxyforthehumantrainer;asaresult,wemay evaluatetheperformanceofartifactsinre fl ectingonpast behavioralsystemsbecausetheperson/objectboundaries areblurred(Gilchrist, 2012;Schiffer, 2002).Tobesure, thehistoricalrecordhasdocumentedtrainingsystems ’ active roleinhumaneventsbothintriumphandignominy;thiscan bebothgratifyingandanxiety-provoking.

Finally,asatertiarytheme,thisbookexploreshistorical examplesofcommunity-basedandworkplacetrainingsystems froma criticaltheory perspective.Thatistosay,Ikeepinmind theunderlyingcontexts,assumptions,andframeworksoftrainingprogramsfromparticularworldviewsguidedbythesocial, economic,andpoliticalsystemsinplaceatthetime(Ritchie, Lewis,Lewis,Nicholls,&Ormston, 2013).Bydoingthis,we areabletoquestionthatstatusquoand “givevoice” toaspects ofinjustices,inherentpowerdifferentials,oroppressionsthat mayhaveexistedatthattime.Marcusedescribedthisasthe dialecticofliberationanddomination(Marcuse, 1971),andit

iswhatGaventa(1982)referredtoastherolesofpowerand powerlessness.

Wecanalsogleanthenormsofthedaythatmaybehidden withintextusingacriticalhermeneuticsandsemiotics approach.So,forexample,inthetrainingmanual Howtobe a flightstewardess;ahandbookandtrainingmanualforairline hostesses [emphasisadded](Smith, 1966 ), 5 wequicklypickup onthenot-so-veiledpointthatinthe1960sand1970sitwas understoodthat fl ightattendantswerefemale,andfemales were fl ightattendants[notpilots].

Theessayspresentedinthisbookwerechosenfortheir instrumentality.Thatis,asinstrumentalcasestheycan

providethereaderinsightintonotonlythespeci fi cproposition thesocialhistoryoftraining butalsofacilitatean understandingofthelargerissuesthecasesthemselvesmay present(Yin, 2013).Thereviewofthetrainingandtraining methodsforeachcasewasaccomplishedbyanexamination oftrainingmanuals,handbooks,tradebulletins, fi lms,aswell asotherprimarysourcedocumentsrelevanttothecase;such methodologyisconsideredtobeareasonableframeworkfor qualitativeresearchandinquiry(Armstrong&Jones, 1987; Fisher, 2004).Historicalartifactssuchastrainingmanuals andtrainingephemeraserveastheirownindividualhistories thatprovideimportantevidenceaboutthewaytheywere usedand,asaresult,playavitalroleinculturalheritages (Pearson, 2008).

Thisbookismeanttobeanalyticalandexplorative,not prescriptiveorprogrammatic(e.g.,whileImaycommenton thegiventraining ’ seffectivenessorineffectiveness,training evaluation perse isnotmyfocusinthisbook).And,whilethe tacticalpurposeofthisbookistoraiseawarenessofthesocial historyoftrainingpractices,mystrategicpointisperhapsa post-modernone;thatis,exposinghistoricaltrainingpracticesfromaninerthistoricalfootnotetoacall-to-actionfor practitionerstore fl ect withamorecriticallens onthe hiddenpowerimbalancesandunintendedconsequences thatmaybeembeddedwithinthetrainingsystemsof today.Lessonslearnedhereincludetherecurringideathat thosewhowouldtrainmustbevigilantinensuringthatnot onlyareworkplaceandcommunitytrainingsystemsethical, butalsotheinterventions.And,whilemodern-daylaborand civilrightslawsmakecertainthattoday’ scommunityand workplacetrainingareinvariablyuncontroversialandvalue free6 present-daytrainingmanualsbeingpredictably genericandsanitized survivingtrainingmanualsand

ephemerafromby-gonedaysdogivetheopportunityto glimpseintoalessenlightenedtime,atimeof famousand infamoustraining.

Importantly,thereadershouldbeawarethatIonlyfocuson thetrainingaspectofeachhistoricalcasepresented;thatis, whileIdidmybesttogivesufficientdepthandbreadthto thecontextofeachessay,7 explicitlyincludingthesocial,economic,andpoliticalforcesinplaceatthetime,itisonlywith respecttothetrainingpracticesvis-a-visthecase;bynomeans isthisbookanditsessaysmeanttobeacomprehensiveand thoroughexaminationofthehistoricaltimeperiodsdiscussed. Asaresult,outsidethetrainingcontext,anyadditionalassessmentastothesignificanceorconsequenceoftheeventorerais necessarilybeyondthescopeofthisresearch.8

Tofacilitatethebreakdownofthecasespresentedineach chapter,essaysareorganizedaroundthe fiveW’sandHstructure(Detrani, 2016);thatis,thereaderwill findeachcasestudy generallyaddressesitscontextasfollows:

• WHAT:Typeoftrainingmethodused

• WHERE/WHEN/WHY:Contextofthetraining

• WHO:Audienceforthetraining

• HOW:Examplesofthespecifictrainingmethodsare delineatedwithinthegivenessay

So,letusbeginourconsiderationoffamousandinfamous trainingstartingwithabriefdefinitionandhistoryontraining.

NOTES

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼5hCTVWoLE0A

2.AnotherexamplethatfascinatedmeoccurredwhenIwas readingthetestimonyfromtheNurembergNazitrials

(Of fi ceofMilitaryGovernmentforGermany(US), 1946). IntheappendixwasapulloutofHitler ’sadministration;not onlywastheretheorganizationalchart,butamazinglyoneof thepositionboxeswasemptywithoutanyname,which leavesuswiththedubiouspropositionthatHitlerwashiring atthetime.

3.Manygoodbooksdetailextraordinaryaspectsoftheordinary, fromJaredDiamond’s, Guns,Germs,andSteel,andThomas Leddy’s, TheAestheticsofEverydayLife,toDavidBodanis’ , The SecretHouse,tonameafew.JasonGroteandJoshuaGlenn lookedattheordinary–extraordinaryintheirexperiment,SignificantObjects,ofmakingsignificanceoutofordinarythings vianarrative.

4.Hooters™ restaurantwasthe firstso-calledbreastaurant,with itsraisond’êtretoutilizefemalesexappeal;astheirchief marketingoffice(CMO)MikeMcNeilacknowledged, “sex appealislegalanditsells.” And,overtheyears,Hootersfaced investigationsintodiscriminationwithrespecttoitshiring practiceswiththeEqualEmploymentOpportunitiesCommission(EEOC)and,althoughitwasfoundthatHootersdid,in fact,discriminateagainstmenwhenhiringforservers,these suitsusuallyweredismissedorsettledbecauseitwasdeterminedthatbeingafemaleserveratHooterswasabona-fide occupationalqualification(BFOQ)and,therefore,necessaryto performthejobasaHootersgirl.Asaresult,theoverriding femalesexappealconcepthasbeenupheld(Pirani&Varga, 2010).

5.Thesexismandsexinnuendoendemictobeingastewardessin the1960swerecapturedinthefamedbook Coffee,TeaorMe? byBakerandJones(1968)Asanaside,yearslater,thebookwas revealedtohavebeenanelaboratefabricationghost-writtenby amaleAmericanAirlinespublicrelationsassociatenamed DonaldBain(Barry, 2007;Vantoch, 2013;Whitelegg, 2007).

6.SaveperhapstheaforementionedHooters™ trainingmanual.

7.WhatRaginreferredtothisasensuringeach “casewasacaseof” (Ragin&Becker, 1992).

8.Insum,Itakeaprosopographicalapproachinthatwithout havingaccesstotheactualtraineesandtrainersofagivenera, insightisgleanedintothetypicaltraineeandtrainerusingthe trainingmanualsofthedayaseloquentproxies.

REFERENCES

Arendt,H.(1963). EichmanninJerusalem:Areportonthebanality ofevil.London:PenguinBooks.

Armstrong,J.,&Jones,S.(1987). Businessdocuments:Their origins,sourcesandusesinhistoricalresearch.London:Mansell Publishing.

Baker,T.,&Jones,R.(1968). Coffeeteaorme?:Theuninhibited memoirsoftwoairlinestewardesses.NewYork:Taplinger. Barry,K.(2007). Femininityin flight:Ahistoryof flightattendants. Raleigh,NC:DukeUniversityPress.

Brennecke,F.,Childs,H.L.,&Dodd,W.E.(1938). TheNazi primer:OfficialhandbookforschoolingtheHitleryouth.New York:HarperandBrothers.

Childs,H.L.,&Brennecke,F.(2007). TheNaziprimer.Rockville, MD:WildsidePress.

Detrani,J.R.(2016). Journalism:Theoryandpractice.Waretown, NJ:AppleAcademicPress. DressforSuccess.(2006). Mission.Retrievedfrom www. dressforsuccess.org Fisher,S.(2004). Archivalinformation.SantaBarbara,CA:ABCCLIO.

Gaventa,J.(1982). Powerandpowerlessness:Quiescence&rebellionin anAppalachianvalley.Champaign,IL:UniversityofIllinoisPress. Gilchrist,R.(2012). Medievallife:Archaeologyandthelifecourse. Suffolk,UK:BoydellPress.

Hooters.(1999). Employeehandbook.Atlanta,GA:Hootersof America.

Hooters.(2007). Employeehandbook.HootersofAmerica,Inc. RetrievedOctober19,2016,from http://www.thesmokinggun. com/file/so-you-wanna-be-hooters-girl

IrishRepublicanArmy,GeneralHeadquarters.(1996). Handbook forvolunteersoftheIrishRepublicanArmy:Notesonguerrilla warfare.Boulder,CO:PaladinPress. Marcuse,H.(1971). Anessayonliberation.Boston:BeaconPress. OfficeofMilitaryGovernmentforGermany(US).(1946). Nurnberg militarytribunals:Indictments,caseno.1–12.Nuremberg, Germany/Washington,DC:OMGG. Pearson,D.(2008). Booksashistory:Theimportanceofbooksbeyond theirtexts.NewCastle,DE:OakKnollPress. Pirani,B.M.,&Varga,I.(2010). Actingbodiesandsocialnetworks: Abridgebetweentechnologyandworkingmemory.Lanham,MD: UniversityPressofAmerica.

Ragin,C.C.,&Becker,H.S.(1992). Whatisacase?:Exploringthe foundationsofsocialinquiry.London:CambridgeUniversity Press.

Ritchie,J.,Lewis,J.,Lewis,P.S.P.J.,Nicholls,C.M.N.,& Ormston,R.(2013). Qualitativeresearchpractice:Aguidefor socialsciencestudentsandresearchers.ThousandOaks,CA:SAGE. Robin,R.T.(1995). Thebarbed-wirecollege:ReeducatingGerman POWsintheUnitedStatesduringworldwarII.Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress.

Schiffer,M.B.(2002). Themateriallifeofhumanbeings:Artifacts, behaviorandcommunication.Oxfordshire,UK:Taylor&Francis. Smith,J.I.(1966). Howtobea flightstewardess;ahandbookand trainingmanualforairlinehostesses.NorthHollywood,CA:Pan AmericanNavigationService.

Tessmer,M.,&Richey,R.C.(1997).Theroleofcontextinlearning andinstructionaldesign. EducationalTechnology,Researchand Development,45(2),85–115.

U.S.DepartmentofJustice.(2000). alQaedatrainingmanual. Washington,DC:DepartmentofJustice. Vantoch,V.(2013). Thejetsex:Airlinestewardessesandthemaking ofanAmericanicon.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvania Press.

Waytz,A.,Epley,N.,&Cacioppo,J.(2010).Socialcognition unbound:Insightsintoanthropomorphismanddehumanization. CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience,19(1),58–62. Whitelegg,D.(2007). Workingtheskies:Thefast-paced,disorienting worldofthe flightattendant.NewYork:NewYorkUniversity Press.

Yin,R.K.(2013). Casestudyresearch:Designandmethods.Thousand Oaks,CA:SAGE.

CHAPTER2

WhatIsTraining?

Intheintroductorychapterofthisbook,Idefinedtrainingas activitiesthatengendernewbehaviors and,whilethatideaisessentiallyatitscore,itwillnowserveuswelltodescribeandexplorethe conceptoftraininginmoredepth,includingabriefchronology.

Attheoutset,itisimportanttonotethat,whileIusetheterm “training” throughout,aunifieddefinitionfor “training” remains elusive thatis,meaningstendtovarydependinguponthegiven goalsandobjectives,and,asitrelatestothisbook,thenatureof thetrainingwillbeafunctionofthecontextandpurposeofthe trainingitself.Infact,asofthiswriting,enteringtheword training intotheGooglesearchenginerenderedclosetotwo billionsearchresults!Moreover,scanningthoseresults,onesees furthersynonymicsubsetswithmeaningsrangingfrom instruction, teaching, tutoring,and conditioning to humanresource development(HRD),mentoring, and coaching.

Someinthe fieldcontendthat semanticsaside training means “traininganddevelopment” (Stewart&Sambrook, 2012).Othersinthe fieldnotonlyrefusetodefinetraining(Lee, 2001),butalsoclaimthatitdefiesdefinitionentirely(Blake, 1995).

© TheAuthor(s)2018

D.M.Kopp, Famousand(Infamous)WorkplaceandCommunity Training,DOI10.1057/978-1-137-59753-3_2

15

Thus,inthespiritofasocialscience,whenitcomestotraining people,training’sdefinitiondoesvarydependingonwhoyouask.

However,herearethreedescriptionsIculledfromtraining literature(Mayo&DuBois, 1987;Nadler&Nadler, 1990; O’Toole, 2010)thatgenerallyincorporatethevariationson thethemewithcategoriesthatarerelativelyimmutable,which isparticularlyvaluablesinceIwillbepresentingcasestudies fromearlierdecades.Therefore,forourpurposes,trainingwill beconsideredandencompass:

• learning whenitrelatestoapresentjoboractivity;

• development whenitfacilitatesgrowthwithintheindividual;and,

• education whenitisusedtoimproveaperson’smarketableskills.

And,thetrainingitselfmayvaryonacontinuumofformality; sometrainingwillbecertified,asseeninadiplomaorcertificate,andsometrainingmaybeinformalandincidental,asseen inself-directedlearning(SDL),modelingthebehaviorof othersorviaanyserendipitousevent(Bray, 2009;Chiu, Thompson,Mak,&Lo, 1999;King, 1964).1

Still,thetechnicalitiesandcardinalityoftrainingdefinitions aside,ultimately,itisthroughtheessaysthemselveswithinthis bookwherethereaderwillbeabletoinductivelyconfi rmthe presenceofthetrainingsystemwithinthespecificcasecontext, whateversemanticused.

ON TRAINING MODALITIES

Generallyspeaking,trainingmodalityiswithrespecttotwo domains:timeandplace.Specifically,isthetrainingoccurring atthesame time withthetrainer(synchronous)ornot

(asynchronous)?Further,arethetraineeandtrainerinthesame place ornot?So,forexample,ifthetraineristrainingthetrainee inrealtimetogetherinthesameplace asseeninaclassroom orattheshop fl oorofawarehouse thisisa same-same scenario.Ontheotherhand,letussayatrainercreatestraining andthenatraineeissentthetrainingprotocolsthrough,for example,acorrespondencecourseor,inusinganexample fromtoday’sworkplace,viawatchingapreviouslyrecorded YouTubevideoorapodcastwherethetraineeplanstostudy thetraininginhisownpaceathishome,thiswouldbea different-different scenario.

Beforewestartwiththeactualcasestudies,however,it mighthelpthereadertobetterunderstandtheconceptof trainingbyreadinghowitwasoperationalizedasdescribed belowinahighlightedhistory.2

TRAINING’S BEGINNINGS

Theconceptoftrainingcanbetracedbacktoantiquity. Steinmetz(1976)concludedthatas “primitivemaninvented tools,weapons,clothing,shelter,andlanguage,theneedfor trainingbecameanessentialingredientinthemarchofcivilization” (p.3).InancientBabylonia,trainingprocessesbetween artisanandapprenticewerecodifiedsothattheartisancould teachhiscraftstothenextgeneration;thisalsoensuredthatthey wereabletomaintainanadequatenumberofcraftsmen,in general(Usher, 1920).

TheCodeofHammurabi which,bytheway,couldeasily wintheprizeforlargesttrainingmanual,measuring70 400 by60 9½00 hadlawschiseledintoitsblackdioriteforallcitizensto read.MostoftheselawsdealtwithstrictmoralandcivilconductintheeighteenthcenturyBCE(e.g.,insection218,a doctorcouldhavehishandscutofffollowinganunsuccessful

surgerywherethepatientdied!),butpartofthecode,particularlyinsections188–189,detailedtherelationshipbetween theartisanandtheunskillednovicethatcouldbeconsidereda rudimentaryapprenticeshipsystem:

Ifanartisantakeasonforadoption,andteacheshimhis handicraft,onemaynotbringclaimforhim.Ifhedoesnot teachhimhishandicraft,thatsonmayreturntohisfather ’s house.(CodeofHammurabi;sections188–189)

TheCodeofHammurabistandsasaforerunnertotheearly apprenticeshipprograms.Intheapprenticeshipsystemsthat followedcenturieslater,theunskilledprotégéwouldtrain underanexperiencedmasterinhopesoflearningthecraft anddevelopingfromanapprenticetoajourneymanandthen fromayeomantoamaster(Bertolet, 2016;King, 1964; Sleight, 1993).Evenmodern-dayorganizationslike Wikimedia,thenon-pro fitfoundationthatoperatesWikipedia, useasimilarclassificationsystemtodaytoranktheireditors (Fig. 2.1).3

Directinstructionwasessentialintheseearlyapprenticeshipprogramsbecausethetraineewasusuallyilliterate (Fleming,Gallichan,&Lamonde, 2005 );thisdirectinstructionalmethodgaverisetowhatisknownason-the-job trainingorOJTforshort(O ’ Leary,Straits,&Wandner, 2004 ;Steinmetz, 1976 ).InOJT,forexample,anew employeewaspairedupwithanexperiencedco-workerwho trainedthenewcomerbydemonstratingtheproperwayto performthetasksofthejob.OJTisstillthemostcommon andconsideredthemosteconomicalmethodusedfortrainingtoday(Werner&DeSimone, 2008 ).

AstheIndustrialRevolutiontookhold,thetraditional apprenticeprogramsforunskilledworkerswerereplacedby

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