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Submissions due by February 25, 2026

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©2025 National Council for the Social Studies

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) pp. 3–9 ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

Water on the Move: An Integrated Unit for Second Graders Joy N. Stapleton, Koti L. Hubbard, Crystal P. Glover, Margaret Wilson Gillikin, Miranda L. Sigmon, and Tenisha L. Powell “I don’t see social studies and science lessons in the classroom” is a frequent comment from our PreK–6 preservice teachers.

This observation highlights the current pressure on teachers to prioritize literacy and math, often resulting in the marginalization of social studies and science.1 To combat this, the National Council for the Social Studies included integration in their revised definition of social studies, noting that for elementary grades, “social studies includes the interdisciplinary study of history, geography, economics, and government/civics and is well integrated with the study of language arts, the visual and performing arts, and STEM.”2 This expanded definition encourages teachers to go beyond integrating social studies and English Language Arts (ELA) to also include math and science instruction.

Setting the Context

As PreK–6 methods instructors, we prioritize research-based content integration to address limited instructional time for science and social studies, modeling this through collaborative planning and teaching. In the current project, we align standards across social studies, science, math, and ELA, focusing on the theme of water movement. Our compelling question, “How does water move?” connects our place-based integrated unit to local geography and culture, promoting ecological awareness and sustainable practices.3 Through this compelling question, designed to be both intellectually rigorous and interesting to children in a K–2 setting, this unit investigates the impact of rivers on people and places.4 Our preservice teachers live and work near the Catawba River, which spans from North Carolina into South Carolina and supplies water to over two million people.5 The local Indigenous community, known as yeh is-WAH h’reh or “people of the river,” has inhabited its banks for over 6,000 years.6 Near the state border, a hydroelectric dam forms Lake Wylie, a significant recreational area. Given its importance for water

and electricity, water movement is the central theme for our integrated unit. Teachers can adapt this unit for their communities by focusing on a local water source. We recognize that some families may have sensitive water-related experiences that could affect their children; therefore, teachers should communicate about the unit beforehand and share safety resources as the unit progresses.

The Inquiry Design Model

The Inquiry Design Model (see Figure 1) guides this unit, fostering inquiry-based learning to enhance critical thinking, problem-solving, and active engagement.7 Second graders explore the causes and effects of water movement on people and places through the compelling question, “How does water move?” Throughout the unit, we make learning relevant by integrating students’ everyday experiences and providing opportunities for them to share personal connections related to water, water overflow, and water movement.8 Supporting questions span multiple days as students investigate a range of sources, such as photographs, maps, and personal stories related to local water events.9 Source analysis tools from the National Archives use visual and text cues to prompt students’ thinking about each source’s origin and help students make sense of the primary source. We use modified versions of articles to make the information accessible (e.g., increase the font size, bold challenging words, and provide a vocabulary legend).10 Students also engage in science and engineering practices and the design process to develop and refine models of rivers and dams.11 The unit’s culminating summative performance task is an interdisciplinary visual map that showcases student learning, fosters environmental awareness, and promotes advocacy.

Staging the Question

The unit starts with students recalling personal experiences with water by responding to the prompt: “Write about an January/February 2026 3

How does water move?

Social Studies: 2.G.3. Explain how the distribution of human features, physical features, and natural resources within the U.S. changes over time and impacts economic activity. (to encourage inquiry into how rivers, lakes, mountains, and other land features affect economic activity [and] ... to explore how different geographic areas support different activities in different times due the availability of resources.)

Standards and Content (South Carolina)

Math: 2.MDA.9. Collect, organize, and represent data with up to four categories using picture graphs and bar graphs with a single-unit scale.

ELA: ELA.R.1. Use critical thinking skills to investigate, evaluate, and synthesize a variety of sources to obtain and refine knowledge. ELA.2.R.1.1. Ask and answer questions about print and non-print sources to narrow or broaden thinking.

Science: 2-ESS2-2. Develop a model to represent the shapes and kinds of land and bodies of water in an area. 2-ESS2-3. Obtain information to identify where water is found on Earth and that it can be solid or liquid.

2-ESS3-1. Design solutions to address human impacts on natural resources in the local environment.

Staging the Students recall personal experiences with water and write and illustrate moments involving water play, Compelling Question drinking, or washing.

Supporting Question 1

Supporting Question 2

Supporting Question 3

Supporting Question 4

How does a river flow?

What happens when there is too much water?

Can we stop water?

How does water work?

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Complete See-Think-Wonder chart based on photographs.

Construct a model of a river.

Add a dam to the river.

Experiment with making electricity from moving water.

Featured Sources Source A: The River That Flows Beside Me by Charlotte Guillain and Jo Empson (book)

Featured Sources Source A: Photos of water overflowing

Source B: “Clover neighbors Source B: Photos of lake, faucet, cut off from homes due to flooding” by Queen City News creek, ocean, river, rain, etc. (video)

Featured Sources Source A: Animal Engineers: Beaver Dams by Nancy Furstinger (book) Source B: “The Biggest Beaver Dam in the World” by Animal Wonders Montana (video)

Source C: “Floods and flash floods” by National Weather Service (webpage)

Featured Sources Source A: “Historic Murray's Mill” by PBS NC (video) Source B: “What is Hydropower?” by Little School (video) Source C: Map of Duke Energy Power Plants (webpage) Source D: Jessica Wells, “Go Behind the Scenes at Wylie Hydro Station” (article)

Summative Performance Task

ARGUMENT: How does water move? Construct an argument (e.g., detailed outline, poster, paragraph) supported with evidence that addresses the question of how water moves.

Taking Informed Action

UNDERSTAND: Examine the impact of the Flood of 1916 on the Carolinas.

ASSESS: Discuss the ways that dams control water and provide safety.

ACT: Develop posters for the school highlighting safety steps during flooding.

Figure 1. Inquiry Design Model Blueprint

4 Social Studies and the Young Learner

experience you have had with water. This can be an experience at your house or at a creek, river, lake, or ocean.” Students write and illustrate moments involving water play, drinking, or washing. These personal narratives underscore water’s importance in their lives and prepare them to explore their local river, the Catawba. These narratives serve as ongoing references throughout the unit, linking activities in the supporting questions to students’ authentic experiences.

Supporting Question 1: How Does a River Flow?

Ian Turnell / Pexels

The first lesson begins with reading The River That Flows Beside Me, a picture book that follows a river from mountain to sea, mirroring the Catawba River’s journey from the Appalachian Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean.12 This book features an eight-foot fold-out depicting a river’s journey, which we use to introduce students to the map of the Catawba River and the concept of maps in general.13 After discussing the Catawba River map, students examine photographs depicting wildlife, plant life, recreational activities, and manufactured structures along rivers (see Figure 2). Using the See-Think-Wonder protocol, students work in small groups to analyze the photographs, recording their insights on sticky notes and then placing them on a class chart. During the class discussion, the following questions are explored: How does the river support wildlife? How is the river used for recreation? What impact do human-made structures have on the animals, plants, and the river? How might heavy rainfall impact the river, people, plants, and buildings? Lastly, students compare and contrast the journey depicted in the picture book with their knowledge of the Catawba River.

Figure 2. Sample photograph from the See-Think-Wonder chart

Supporting Question 2: What Happens When There Is Too Much Water?

To explore the effects of excess water, Supporting Question 2 asks, “What happens when there is too much water?”

Students examine photographs illustrating common instances

of water overflow in daily life (e.g., puddles, overflowing cups, clogged drains in streets and sinks) and share personal connections. Students then watch a short video clip depicting flooding in a nearby community.14 The video illustrates how flooding affected residents by blocking access to their homes and communities. Working together, students define flooding, incorporating wording like “too much water” or “an overflow of water.” They document the causes and effects of the flooding seen in the video using an anchor chart.

During discussions, the teacher highlights student responses to deepen their understanding of cause and effect. For example, “Matt said he thinks rain caused the street to flood” and “Abby thinks people had to sleep in hotels; this is an effect of the flooding.” The discussion concludes with the teacher referencing a local news article confirming that a severe storm caused the flooding and led to fallen trees and damaged property.15 Students use the article to verify or revise their initial predictions.

Next, students examine local rainfall data to identify typical patterns and learn that flash floods result from short, intense rainfall.16 The class can build a rain gauge to collect and analyze rainfall data, combining math skills like measurement and probability with science skills, such as recognizing patterns to describe events, make predictions, and represent data mathematically.17 Hourly and daily rainfall maps and data from the United States Geological Survey can validate classroom findings.

In groups, students use aluminum pans and modeling clay to sculpt river structures.18 They analyze river photographs to determine depth, width, curves, and pathways; or they can choose from templates offering various designs, like narrow rivers or broad curves. Natural materials, such as sand and grass, and classroom items, like toy houses or cars, enhance their floodplain models, adding authenticity. Some groups may focus on urban settings, while others depict rural landscapes. Students can simulate flooding by pouring water into their structures and adding obstacles to observe its impact.

Students consider what occurs with the extra water, where it flows, and how it affects nearby areas. They can note property damage and other observations.

Lastly, the class returns to the question, “What happens when there is too much water?” With teacher support, students reflect on the natural effects of flooding: rivers overflow flooding surrounding areas, forming puddles, and flooding roads. They deepen their understanding of flooding and brainstorm strategies for managing water flow through manufactured structures, a segue into the next supporting question.

Supporting Question 3: Can We Stop Water?

To explore “Can we stop water?,” students draw on their familiarity with beavers native to our region and their understanding of beaver dams. The teacher reads Animal January/February 2026 5

Engineers: Beaver Dams, discussing how beavers use materials to construct dams.19 This links to the eleven hydroelectric dams along the Catawba River.20 Guiding questions include “How are dams built? Are dams necessary?” These questions ensure that students define dams as barriers constructed to hold back water. Students build background knowledge by watching specific segments of “The Biggest Beaver Dam in the World,” which focuses on the effectiveness of dam construction in natural settings.21 Students analyze materials used in the beaver dams and their efficacy in controlling water flow.

Students investigate dam functionality, then design, build,

Figure 3. Students’ rivers before and after creating dams

6 Social Studies and the Young Learner

and refine their dams outdoors using the river model from the previous activity (see Figure 3). They select materials like sticks, leaves, rocks, and dirt from around the school and utilize classroom items, such as playdough, craft sticks, and blocks. As they experiment, students adjust their dam designs based on the effectiveness of materials in obstructing or controlling water flow. After successfully stopping the flow of water in their rivers, students are encouraged to think about how dams impact people, places, and animals.

While dams play a positive role in managing our environment, they also have a negative effect on marine habitats.

Students, with teacher guidance, can discuss the decline in

many fish populations that has resulted from dams interfering with fish migration. Conservation organizations and agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration implement solutions for restoring river habitats and reopening rivers.22

Supporting Question 4: How Does Water Work?

The final supporting question delves into the impact of moving water and the human influence on the environment and economy through hydropower. This lesson begins with an activity showing how water works using a mortar and pestle, corn, and cornmeal. Students grind corn into powder and discuss the difficulty and time required to grind a field of corn using this method. The teacher introduces tools to expedite this process and presents drawings or photographs of waterwheel-driven mills. Students identify the waterwheel, its mechanism, and the grinding component of the mill.

Further exploration occurs by watching a video about the historic Murray’s Mill, located along the Catawba River in North Carolina.23 This video illustrates how water powers the wheel to turn the grinding stones, processing corn or wheat.

Students further explore water’s capabilities by discovering how waterwheels and moving water from dams generate electricity. They view the video “What is Hydropower?” which provides an introductory explanation for hydropower.24 Teachers facilitate discussions linking the process of using moving water to create electricity. Students can access the Power Plants map on the Duke Energy website to locate the Wylie Hydro Plant in York County.25 Using the layers feature of the map, students can find the dam portion of the power plant. To deepen their understanding, students examine pictures and information from a behind-the-scenes tour of the Wylie Hydro Station by Lynn Dunn, a Duke Power employee.26 This material helps students connect how water from the Catawba River and Lake Wylie generates electricity. They compare turbines to waterwheels to reinforce their understanding of water’s role in power generation.

Students attempt to create hydroelectric power using their river for the final activity. Through experimentation, students realize the force needed to generate hydroelectric power. Students are reminded that the hydroelectric plants on the Catawba generate electricity for 2.5 million families.

They are encouraged to weigh the cost and benefits of dams and hydroelectric plants on humans and animals.

Summative Assessment

In the summative assessment, students construct an argument to answer the compelling question, “How does water move?” They use evidence gathered from exploring support-

ing questions. Students may approach the question differently based on their interests in the unit. Students use circle maps, a graphic organizer, to record their understandings and build on existing knowledge and experiences. Circle maps are useful tools for brainstorming and “defining an idea in context” through words, symbols, or other visuals (see Figure 4).27 The inner circle of the map contains the compelling question. The outer circle provides information related to the topic, while the rectangle lists the sources of this information, which may include primary and secondary sources, personal experiences, insights from classmates, or guidance from the teacher. Sharing students’ circle maps in a whole group setting lets students see peers’ perspectives and facilitates a comprehensive discussion of the question.

Figure 4. Student’s circle map for “How does water move?”

Taking Informed Action

Following the model for Taking Informed Action in the IDM, students engage in activities to understand, assess, and act in response to what they have learned.28 To understand the impact of over 20 inches of rain within 24 hours, they examine primary and secondary sources, such as photographs, maps, personal stories, “The Great Flood of 1916” StoryMap, and a modified version of the article “July 16: Two Back-to-Back Hurricanes in the Carolinas.”29 While this flood and the more recent Hurricane Helene are extraordinary events, flooding is a common occurrence. The teacher addresses concerns about flooding in their community and helps students assess its potential impact. Integrating flood safety into the unit can provide reassurance. Teachers emphasize essential safety tips: Seek higher ground, avoid flooded areas, never cross flowing streams (even in a vehicle), and stay updated with weather alerts.30 Students act on their new knowledge by creating posters for their school highlighting safety steps one should January/February 2026 7

take during a flood (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. A flood safety plan flyer example to co-construct with students.

Created by Koti Hubbard using tips from Southeast Metro Stormwater Authority (www.semswa.org/flood-awareness-for-kids).

Conclusion

Amid legislative mandates and the ongoing focus on standardized testing, which disrupt science and social studies instruction in early childhood and elementary classrooms, we advocate for interdisciplinary approaches like the one detailed in this article.31 Our approach, centered on the question “How doss water move?” integrates standards from social studies, science, math, and literacy. It fosters exploration and deepens student understanding across key topics: the Catawba River, flooding, dams, and the power of water. Rooted in South Carolina state standards, the flexible supporting questions in this place-based unit can be easily adapted nationwide.

Notes 1. Paul G. Fitchett and Tina L. Heafner, “A National Perspective on the Effects of High-Stakes Testing and Standardization on Elementary Social Studies Marginalization,” Theory & Research in Social Education 38, no. 1 (2010): 114–130, https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2010.10473418; Janie Hubbard, “Social Studies Marginalization: Examining the Effects on K–6 Pre-Service Teachers and Students,” The Journal of Social Studies Research 37, no. 3 (2013): 137–150, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2013.04.003; Paul G. Fitchett et al., “An Analysis of Time Prioritization for Social Studies in Elementary School Classrooms,” Journal of Curriculum and Instruction 8, no. 2 (2014), https://doi.org/10.3776/joci.2014.v8n2p7-35; Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey, “Lessons From Pandemic Teaching for Content Area Learning,” Reading Teacher 74, no. 3 (2020): 341–345, https://doi.org/10.1002/ trtr.1947; Michelle Bauml, “‘Fitting It In’: Elementary Teachers Talk About Social Studies Instruction in Public School Classrooms,” The Journal of

8 Social Studies and the Young Learner

Social Studies Research 47, no. 3–4 (2023): 147–160, https://doi. org/10.1177/23522798231206188.

2. “Definition of Social Studies,” National Council for the Social Studies, www. socialstudies.org/about/definition-social-studies.

3. Kayode Ademola Iroye, “Environmental Education as a Viable Tool in Preventing Groundwater Pollution in Nigeria,” Studia Universitatis BabesBolyai, Geographia 66, no. 1 (2021): 11–26, https://doi.org/10.24193/subbgeogr.2021.1.01; Miri Yemini et al., “Place-Based Education—A Systematic Review of Literature,” Educational Review 77, no. 2 (2025): 640–660. https:// doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2023.2177260.

4. National Council for the Social Studies, The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K–12 Civics, Economics, Geography, and History (National Council for the Social Studies, 2013).

5. “Catawba River: Once Wild,” American Rivers, www.americanrivers.org/ river/catawba-river.

6. “About the Nation,” Catawba Indian Nation, www.catawba.com/aboutthe-nation.

7. S. G. Grant et al., Inquiry-Based Practice in Social Studies Education, 2nd edition (Routledge, 2022).

8. John Dewey, The School and Society (University of Chicago Press, 1907).

9. “Document Analysis,” Educator Resources, National Archives, www. archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets.

10. “Adapting Documents for the Classroom: Equity and Access,” The Stanford History Education Group, https://teachinghistory.org/teaching-materials/ teaching-guides/23560.

11. “Standards,” South Carolina Department of Education, https://ed.sc.gov/ instruction/standards/; “Engineering Design Process,” Museum of Science, Boston, https://yes.mos.org/impact/engineering-design-process.

12. Charlotte Guillain and Jo Empson, The River That Flows Beside Me (Quarto, 2023).

13. Wikipedia, “Catawba River,” last modified July 6, 2025, https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Catawba_River.

14. Queen City News, “Clover Neighbors Cut Off from Homes Due to Flooding,” January 9, 2024, www.youtube.com/watch?v=zD-vv9KzTCU. 15. Andrew Dys, “Thousands Lose Power in York, Lancaster SC as Storm Hits: Tornado Watch Issued,” The Herald, January 9, 2024, www.heraldonline. com/news/weather-news/article284017673.html.

16. “Floods and Flash Floods,” National Weather Service, www.weather.gov/ ffc/floods.

17. National Research Council, A Framework for K–12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (National Academy of Sciences, 2012).

18. “Hands-on Activity: Floodplain Modeling,” Teach Engineering, www. teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_natdis_lesson07_activity1.

19. Nancy Furstinger, Animal Engineers: Beaver Dams (North Star Editions, 2018).

20. Kim Crawford, “Historic Hydropower Station on the Catawba-Wateree River Turns 100,” Illumination, Duke Energy, October 8, 2019, https:// illumination.duke-energy.com/articles/historic-hydro-power-station-onthe-catawba-wateree-river-turns-100.

21. Animal Wonders Montana, “The Biggest Beaver Dam in the World!” March 25, 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=btcS-_Wizp0, 2:00–2:41, 3:34–5:27.

22. “Barriers to Fish Migration,” National Oceanic Administration Association, www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/barriers-fish-migration.

23. North Carolina Weekend on PBS NC, “Historic Murray’s Mill,” July 14, 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2mvo4wKcYk. 24. Little School, “What is Hydropower? Science for Kids,” February 11, 2023, www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Zwe_2f_PyY. 25. “Regulated Power Plants and Battery Storage Sites,” Duke Energy, www. duke-energy.com/our-company/about-us/power-plants.

26. Jessica Wells, “Go Behind the Scenes at Wylie Hydro Station,” Illumination, Duke Energy, February 23, 2018, https://illumination.duke-energy.com/ articles/go-behind-the-scenes-at-wylie-hydro-station.

27. David Hyerle and Chris Yeager, Thinking Maps: A Language for Learning (Thinking Maps, 2007).

28. Carly Muetterties and Kathy Swan, “Be the Change: Guiding Students to Take Informed Action,” Social Education 83, no. 4 (2019): 232–237.

29. “The Great Flood of 1916,” North Carolina Geological Survey & UNC Asheville’s National Environmental Modeling and Analysis Center, ArcGIS StoryMaps. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/bcb2e5373c21491c9e6 8e96a8156d92b; Heidi Coryel Williams, “Hell and High Water: The Flood

of 1916,” Our State, Jan. 10, 2013, www.ourstate.com/flood-of-1916; Akeem Flavors, “From Great Flood, New Life for Catawba River: After Devastating Flood of 1916, Engineers Rebuilt the River and Transformed a Region,” Illumination, Duke Energy, July 8, 2016, https://illumination.duke-energy. com/articles/from-great-flood-new-life-for-catawba-river; Heidi Coryell Williams, “Hell and High Water: The Flood of 1916,” Our State: Celebrating North Carolina, January 10, 2013, www.ourstate.com/flood-of-1916.

30. “Flood Awareness for Kids,” Southeast Metro Stormwater Authority, www. semswa.org/flood-awareness-for-kids.

31. Paul G. Fitchett et al., “Examining Elementary Social Studies Marginalization: A Multilevel Model,” Educational Policy 28, no. 1 (2014): 40–68; Fisher and Frey, “Lessons From Pandemic Teaching for Content Area Learning”; Bauml, “‘Fitting It In.’”

Joy N. Stapleton is a Professor of Elementary Education in the Department of Curriculum & Pedagogy at Winthrop University. She can be reached at stapletonj@winthrop.edu.

Koti L. Hubbard is a Lecturer of Early Childhood Education in the Department of Teaching and Learning at Clemson University. She can be reached at kotih@clemson.edu.

Crystal P. Glover is an Associate Professor of Early Childhood Education in the Department of Curriculum & Pedagogy at Winthrop University. She can be reached at gloverc@winthrop.edu.

Margaret Wilson Gillikin is an Associate Professor and Director of Social Studies Education in the Department of History at Winthrop University.

She can be reached at gillikinm@winthrop.edu.

Miranda L. Sigmon is an Associate Professor of Literacy in the Department of Curriculum & Pedagogy at Winthrop University. She can be reached at sigmonm@winthrop.edu.

Tenisha L. Powell is a Professor of Early Childhood Education in the Department of Curriculum & Pedagogy at Winthrop University. She can be reached at powelltl@winthrop.edu.

What’s Happening in Your State Council?

Did you know that most states have an NCSS Affiliate Council?

These councils give social studies educators a local space to:

� Connect with colleagues in your area � Engage in professional development and community events � Recognize and celebrate outstanding teaching and scholarship � Participate in awards and programs at the state level

Find your state’s affiliate council and get connected today!

Visit www.socialstudies.org/affiliates and click on your state to connect.

Join your local council — and bring the power of NCSS to your community.

January/February 2026 9

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) pp. 10–15 ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

Pyramid Discussions and Primary Sources and the OPTIC Strategy, Oh My! Dalton Savage and Amy Allen Helping students construct meaning and develop their understanding of core content and multiple perspectives is an essential part of instruction in elementary social studies.1 Teaching with primary sources creates classroom experiences that bring history to life while building historical thinking skills that draw on core content and multiple perspectives.

Pairing primary sources with visual thinking strategies provides students with an avenue to interpret and investigate history, and connecting primary sources to state standards gives teachers the confidence to integrate this strategy into their classrooms.

Using Primary Sources in the Elementary Classroom

When engaging in historical research and developing historical narratives, historians use evidence from the past. This instructional approach, inquiry supported with artifacts like primary sources, is widely accepted as “good history instruction.”2 Primary sources are sometimes described as the raw materials of history,3 directly connected with a topic and related time.4 These items often include original artifacts or firsthand accounts, such as photographs, interviews, journal entries, maps, and newspaper articles.5 Using these sources as a starting place, students can engage in inquiry by both developing their own questions and uncovering the information necessary to answer them.

In contrast, textbooks present a predigested interpretation of primary sources, reflecting and protecting the publisher’s or author’s identity and self-interest.6 These dominant narratives are often embedded and normalized as part of history instruction.7 As a direct consequence, textbooks often silence the voices of those on the margins.8 The integration of primary sources works against this, breathing life into history and allowing students to not just study the past but 10 Social Studies and the Young Learner

genuinely engage with diverse tellings of historical accounts.9 Primary sources can help students uncover different perspectives and consider the origins of prejudice and stereotypes.10 Unfortunately, at the elementary level, teachers may avoid engaging with primary sources because of decreased instructional time in the social studies,11 difficulty finding the “right” source, or concerns that students will be unable to interpret or understand them. However, studies show that students as young as first grade demonstrate the ability to utilize primary sources.12 Students who are asked to engage with primary sources also show increases in more profound classroom inquiry13 and the development of deep critical thinking skills.14 Because of this, primary sources serve as entry points into challenging subjects that start conversations and enable students to draw important conclusions.15

The OPTIC Strategy

One way to get students engaged with primary sources is by pairing them with visual thinking strategies, such as OPTIC, which scaffolds the process of analyzing primary sources by asking students to take time looking closely at each part of an image following specific steps (see Table 1).16 Through engagement in this structured process, students can better understand the meaning behind figures, colors, groupings, and other visual features of an image. Furthermore, taking time to discuss each element of OPTIC allows students to engage in meaningful discussion and make connections in relation to the source.

Pyramid Discussion

In inquiry-based social studies lessons, discussions are part of the lesson activities, whether explicitly or implicitly through the use of compelling and supporting questions.17 Research

Table 1. OPTIC Strategy

OPTIC Strategy Step

Description

Overview

Write a brief overview of the image.

Parts

List all the parts that seem important (e.g., colors, figures, textures, groupings, shadings, patterns, numbers, repetitions).

Title/Text

How does the title or text contribute to the meaning?

Interrelationships

Explain the interrelationships (i.e., connections) in the image. Consider how the parts come together to create a mood or convey an idea or an argument.

Conclusion

Come to a conclusion that interprets the meaning of the image as a whole.

shows that young students can engage in classroom discussion and critical dialogue,18 and, though rare, these conversations are taking place in elementary classrooms with thoughtful and well-equipped teachers.19 However, if students are not introduced to effective discussion strategies from a young age, it is unrealistic to expect them to know how to engage during middle and high school, and further, as future citizens.20 One strategy for effectively scaffolding discussion skills in elementary classrooms is the pyramid discussion strategy. Students begin conversations in pairs, responding to a single discussion question. After both students have shared responses, for the second question, groups of two combine to form groups of four. For the third question, groups of four combine to form groups of eight, and so on until the entire class is engaged in whole group instruction.21 The size of each group and the number of questions can be modified to meet the needs of your classroom, and The OPTIC Buddy: Custom GPT for Upper Elementary Students To support teachers and students in using the OPTIC strategy independently, Amy Allen and David Hicks developed The OPTIC Buddy, a custom GPT designed to guide upper elementary learners through the process of visual primary source analysis. The mentor prompts students to observe, predict, and interpret details in images while encouraging reflection on perspective and representation.

Teachers can use this tool alongside classroom discussion or as part of independent inquiry projects to scaffold critical visual literacy. The OPTIC Buddy models historical thinking in student-friendly language and helps learners surface diverse perspectives and counternarratives within visual sources.

Explore The OPTIC Buddy: • Launch The OPTIC Buddy: https://chatgpt.com/g/g693b2a83ae888191b6b4978a3007b07e-optic-buddy • Watch a brief video demonstration: “Chatty Geeps Demo: Using OPTIC with a Custom GPT,” www.youtube. com/watch?v=19OgcAbDL-g

groups can be self-selected or predetermined depending on the individual classroom setting. In a traditional pyramid discussion, the teacher facilitates discussion by developing a set of questions that progress in difficulty. 22 The time needed for discussion may vary significantly based on the age and ability of students. For third-grade students, a fifteen-minute discussion can be very successful and appropriate, while fifth-grade students may discuss the same topic for twice as long. Ultimately, the success of a discussion does not depend on the length but rather on whether the goal of the discussion was reached. Elementary teachers who have engaged students in pyramid discussions find that this strategy draws out students who do not often share and gives all students a chance to talk.23

OPTIC Paired with Pyramid Discussions

Over the past decade, we have implemented the pyramid discussion and OPTIC strategies in our own classrooms in elementary, middle, and high school settings. As a secondary teacher, Dalton found the OPTIC strategy was helpful for middle and high school students because it provided detailed steps for analyzing a primary source. Because the questions are open-ended, they are applicable to many different contexts, and the strategy can be incorporated into any lesson that uses primary source images to cover a variety of content. As an elementary teacher, Amy found the pyramid discussion strategy helpful for elementary students who are often unsure how to participate in academic conversation constructively. While working with elementary classroom teachers, we found that the steps of these two strategies worked well together and, when paired, make the OPTIC strategy accessible to younger students.

Generally, pyramid discussions follow the outline included in the left column of Table 2. When paired with the OPTIC strategy, students can engage in one of OPTIC’s specific tasks during each step of the pyramid. Because pyramid discussions can be structured to move from fact-based questions to questions requiring deeper thought, they are often used to help students transition from concrete observations to more January/February 2026 11

Table 2. Pairing a traditional pyramid discussion with the OPTIC Strategy.

Traditional Steps in a Pyramid Discussion

Equivalent Task/Step in OPTIC Strategy

No step for individual work.

O: On your own, write a brief overview of the image. In one sentence, what is this image about?

Begin with groups of 2 students for the first question.

P: With your partner, list all the parts that seem important (e.g., colors, figures, textures, groupings, shadings, patterns, numbers, repetitions).

For the second question, groups of 2 combine to form groups of 4.

T: Partners combine to form groups of 4, then answer the question, How does the title or text contribute to the meaning?

For the third question, groups of 4 combine to form groups of 8.

I: Groups of 4 combine to form groups of 8. Explain the interrelationships (i.e., connections) in the image. How do the separate parts of this image come together to create a mood or convey an idea or an argument?

For the last question, groups of 8 combine for a whole class discussion.

C: As a whole group, come to a conclusion that interprets the meaning of the image as a whole. What is this image about?

Note: These numbers can be modified depending on the number of students in the class. For example, for 30 students, a teacher may decide to have groups work on a specific part of the strategy across two groups. Alternatively, consider starting with the total number of students in the class and working backward to determine group sizes. For example, if there are 28 students who will be part of the whole group discussion, you may decide to have group sizes of 3 or 4 to start, followed by 7, 14, and then 28.

abstract ideas.24 Similarly, the OPTIC strategy moves from noticing specific details about an image toward making judgments about what those details mean. By allowing students to begin a discussion in pairs, students who are typically reluctant to participate in a large group setting can share their observations with a single classmate. As the paired discussions slowly progress to whole group discussion, students who may be unprepared for the tasks required as part of the OPTIC strategy are able to engage in scaffolded historical thinking as part of the group.

As part of a summer professional development workshop about teaching with primary sources in the elementary classroom, we modeled these combined strategies with inservice and preservice teachers using two primary sources (see Figures 3 and 4). Teachers who participated in this model lesson felt that being provided with specific steps for engaging in primary source analysis and having the opportunity to talk about their understanding with a peer enhanced their understanding of the content. After the model lesson, unprompted, more than half of the teachers suggested they planned to integrate this strategy into their social studies instruction in the following school year, and many integrated the strategies into lesson plans available for teachers online through the Virginia Tech Center for Rural Education Teacher Collaboratory (https://rural. vt.edu/teacher-collaboratory).

their classroom. We highlight three ways to pair the OPTIC strategy with a pyramid discussion and primary sources to meet upper elementary state social studies standards across the country.

Oklahoma third-grade standard 3.2.2 asks students to “examine the interaction of the environment and the peoples

Integrating Primary Sources and State Standards

While teachers can implement the OPTIC strategy using photographs, posters, or other forms of visual art at any grade level, teachers can pair existing resource sets, like the Library of Congress Primary Source Sets, with the OPTIC strategy to increase the integration of primary sources in 12 Social Studies and the Young Learner

Figure 1. More Oklahomans reach Calif. via the cotton fields of Ariz. ; “We got blowed out in Oklahoma.” Share-croppers family near Bakersfield, Apr. 7, 1935, by Dorothea Lange, 1935, Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/ item/2007683524.

of Oklahoma” specifically as it relates to how “the weather and the environment have impacted the economy of Oklahoma in events such as the Dust Bowl, floods, and tornadoes.”25 A primary source image from the Library of Congress’s Dust Bowl Migration Primary Source Set (see Figure 1) shows a car loaded with people, their belongings, and supplies, visually articulating the emigration of Oklahomans during the Dust Bowl. More specifically, the sharecropper family pictured provides students with an example of the intersection of weather, economy, and the impact of the Dust Bowl on Oklahoma families. When paired with the OPTIC strategy and pyramid discussions, this primary source provides an avenue to begin discussions of the economic impacts of the Dust Bowl.

Florida fourth-grade standard SS.4.A.3.7 asks students to “identify nations (Spain, France, England) that controlled Florida before it became a United States territory.”26 While the political cartoon in Figure 2 may be a heavy lift for upper elementary students, the components help students visualize the nations involved in the history of Florida before it was added as a U.S. territory, introducing students to the purchase of West Florida from Spain in 1804.

part of this standard, students are asked to describe “major developments in the abolitionist and women’s suffrage movements” and explain “how the expansion of U.S. territory led to increased momentum for the abolitionist and women’s suffrage movements.”29 Using the primary source illustrated map of the United States, The Awakening (see Figure 3), teachers can introduce students to variations in women’s suffrage across the nation. In this image, in particular, a woman bearing a torch and the label “Votes for Women” symbolizes the desire for suffrage across the nation. The woman purposefully strides across the western states (where women had already received the right to vote). On the eastern side, women are reaching out, signifying their desire to join enfranchised women in the West. Participation in observation and discussion of this primary source helps students gain a deeper understanding of the varied perspectives present in the suffrage movement.

Figure 3. The Awakening, by Henry Mayer, 1915, Library of Congress, www. loc.gov/item/98502844.

Integrating Diverse Perspectives Figure 2. The prairie dog sickened at the sting of the hornet or a diplomatic puppet exhibiting his deceptions, by James Akin, 1804, Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/2002708977.

Further, James Akin’s earliest known signed cartoon uses the literary device of satire to present the political perspectives of the nations involved. Using the OPTIC strategy, teachers can engage in analysis of this primary source to also meet Florida’s language arts standard ELA.4.R.1.3: “Identify the narrator’s point of view and explain the difference between a narrator’s point of view and character perspective in a literary text.”27 In this case, the artist may be considered the narrator, and the nations in the cartoon represent the characters.

In Virginia, fifth-grade standard USI.8 asks students to “apply history and social science skills to explain westward expansion and reform in America from 1801 to 1861.”28 As

By examining letters, photographs, speeches, and other firsthand accounts, students can use primary sources to engage with diverse perspectives and uncover counternarratives that challenge dominant historical stories like expanding the story of women’s suffrage to include the often-overlooked activism of women of color. Figure 4 shows Nannie Burroughs and eight African American women standing together and holding a banner for the Woman’s National Baptist Convention.

The image portrays a prominent suffragist leader known for championing both racial and gender equality and eight other women who were on the forefront of Black women’s suffrage.

Integrating this source when discussing women’s suffrage provides students with a diverse perspective to help better understand how suffrage impacted different communities.

Connections to the C3 Framework

In addition to addressing specific state standards, the pyramid discussion and OPTIC strategies align with skills emphasized January/February 2026 13

Figure 4. Nine Afro-American [sic] women posed, standing, full length, with Nannie Burroughs holding banner reading, “Banner State Woman’s National Baptist Convention,” ca. 1905–1915, Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/93505051.

in the C3 Framework.30 For example, Dimension 2 of the C3 Framework, Applying Disciplinary Concepts and Tools, asks students in grades 3–5 to engage in historical thinking by “explain[ing] connections among historical contexts and people’s perspectives at the time” (D2.His.5.3–5), “compar[ing] information provided by different historical sources about the past” (D2.His.10.3–5), and “us[ing] evidence to develop a claim about the past” (D2.His.16.3–5), among other things.

In addition to covering content outlined in state standards and the C3 Framework, using the OPTIC strategy paired with pyramid discussions can also help students develop the necessary history skills for middle and high school. Our experiences with preservice and classroom teachers found pairing the OPTIC strategy with pyramid discussions to be an effective tool for investigating primary sources. Incorporating primary sources into instruction enriches classroom experiences, bringing history to life while fostering essential historical thinking skills rooted in core content and diverse perspectives. When paired with visual thinking strategies, primary sources offer students a meaningful way to analyze and engage with the past. By aligning these sources with 14 Social Studies and the Young Learner

state and national standards, educators gain the confidence to integrate them effectively into their teaching, ensuring a dynamic and inquiry-driven approach to history education.

Notes 1. National Council for the Social Studies, “Powerful, Purposeful Pedagogy in Elementary School Social Studies: A Position Statement of the National Council for the Social Studies,” Social Education 81, no. 3 (2017): 186–189.

2. Stephanie van Hover et al., “From Source to Evidence? Teachers’ Use of Historical Sources in Their Classrooms,” The Social Studies 107, no. 6 (2016): 209–217, https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2016.1214903.

3. Scott M. Waring, The Educator’s Handbook for Teaching with Primary Sources (Teachers College Press, 2023).

4. Tom Bober, Elementary Educator’s Guide to Primary Sources: Strategies for Teaching (Libraries Unlimited, 2019).

5. Bober, Elementary Educator’s Guide to Primary Sources; Waring, The Educator’s Handbook for Teaching with Primary Sources.

6. David R. Vishanoff, “Sacrificial Listening: An Epistemology and Pedagogy for Intellectual Humility in the Humanities,” Working Paper 1.0, October 9, 2019, https://david.vishanoff.com/epistemology-and-pedagogy/.

7. Justin Krueger, “To Challenge the Settler Colonial Narrative of Native Americans in Social Studies Curriculum: A New Way Forward for Teachers,” The History Teacher 52, no. 2 (2019): 291–318.

8. Amy Allen et al., “Disrupting Single Narratives Through the Power of Story,” in Beyond Single Stories: Changing Narratives for a Changing World, ed. Amy Allen, Anne Marie Kavanagh, and Caitriona Ni Cassaithe (Information Age Publishing, 2024).

9. Noreen Naseem Rodríguez et al., “Reading Beyond the Book with Primary Sources,” The Reading Teacher 75, no. 6 (2022): 749–754.

10. Lee Ann Potter, “Teaching Difficult Topics with Primary Sources,” Social Education 75, no. 6 (2011): 284–290.

11. Paul G. Fitchett and Tina L. Heafner, “A National Perspective on the Effects of High-stakes Testing and Standardization on Elementary Social Studies Marginalization,” Theory and Research in Social Education 38, no. 1 (2010): 114–130; Rodriguez et al., “Reading Beyond the Book with Primary Sources.”

12. Denise N. Morgan and Timothy V. Rasinski, “The Power and Potential of Primary Sources,” Reading Teacher 65, no. 8 (2012): 584–594.

13. Avishag Reisman, “Reading Like a Historian: A Document-Based History Curriculum Intervention in Urban High Schools,” Cognition and Instruction 30, no. 1 (2012): 86–112.

14. Peter Seixas, “Assessment of Historical Thinking,” in New Possibilities for the Past: Shaping History Education in Canada, ed. Penney Clark (University of British Columbia Press, 2011), 139–153; Bruce A. VanSledright, The Challenge of Rethinking History Education: On Practices, Theory, and Policy (Routledge, 2011).

15. Potter, “Teaching Difficult Topics with Primary Sources.”

16. Curtis Newbold, “OPTIC Strategy for Visual Analysis,” The Visual Communication Guy, May 15, 2023, https://thevisualcommunicationguy. com/2023/05/15/optic-strategy-for-visual-analysis; Amy Allen, “From Lupines to Water Protectors: Using C-OPTIC to Teach Critical Visual Literacy with NCSS Notable Trade Books.” Social Studies Research and Practice (2025), https://doi.org/10.1108/SSRP-06-2025-0028.

17. John H. Bickford, “First Graders’ Inquiry into the Myths and History of Colonists and Wampanoags at Plimoth,” The Social Studies 112, no. 2 (2021): 63–75; Jennifer Hauver, “Attending to Children’s Civic Learning… In the In-Between,” Social Education 81, no. 6 (2017): 376–379; Elyse Ledford et al., “Mrs. Mink Goes to Washington: The First Japanese American Member of Congress,” Social Studies and the Young Learner 32, no. 2 (2019): 10–15.

18. Diana Hess, Controversy in the Classroom: The Democratic Power of Discussion (Routledge, 2009); Vivian Gussin Paley, You Can’t Say You Can’t Play (Harvard University Press, 1992).

19. Bickford, “First Graders’ Inquiry”; Mary McGriff and Shalise Clemons, “Reflective Discussion Circles: A Method for Promoting Civic Engagement,” Social Studies and the Young Learner 31, no. 4 (2019): 3–8; Katherina A. Payne and Erin Green, “Inquiry Through the Lens of Identity: An Exploration and Inquiry in the Fifth Grade,” Social Studies and the Young Learner 30, no. 3 (2018): 4–8; Stephanie C. Serriere et al., “Kindergartners and ‘Philosophical Dialogue’: Supporting Child Agency in the Classroom,” Social Studies and the Young Learner 29, no. 4 (2017): 8–12.

20. Dana Mitra et al., “Critical Dialogue: A Key Skill for Citizenship,” Educational Leadership 75, no. 3 (2017).

21. Jennifer Gonzalez, “The Big List of Class Discussion Strategies,” Cult of Pedagogy, October 15, 2015, www.cultofpedagogy.com/speaking-listeningtechniques.

22. Amy Allen, “Should Kids Be Allowed to Have a Job?” in Teaching with Primary Sources to Prepare Students for College, Career, and Civic Life, ed.

Scott M. Waring, vol. 2 (National Council for the Social Studies; Library of Congress, 2024).

23. Allen, “Should Kids Be Allowed to Have a Job?” 24. Allen, “Should Kids Be Allowed to Have a Job?” 25. Oklahoma Social Studies Academic Standards, 3.2.2, https://oklahoma. gov/education/services/standards-learning/social-studies.html.

26. Florida Department of Education, CPALMS, SS.4.A.3.7, www.cpalms.org/ public/search/Standard.

27. Florida Department of Education, CPALMS, ELA.4.R.1.3, www.cpalms. org/public/search/Standard.

28. Virginia Department of Education, 2023 Standards of Learning for History & Social Science, USI.8, www.doe.virginia.gov/teaching-learningassessment/k-12-standards-instruction/history-and-social-science/ standards-of-learning.

29. USI.8.

30. National Council for the Social Studies. Social Studies for the Next Generation: Purposes, Practices, and Implications of the College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards (2013).

Dalton Savage serves as an Education Coordinator with the National Council for History Education (NCHE), where he designs and facilitates professional learning for K–12 social studies teachers nationwide. He can be reached at dalton@nche.org.

Amy Allen is an Assistant Professor of Social Studies in the Elementary Education program at Virginia Tech. She can be reached at allenamy@ vt.edu.

January/February 2026 15

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) pp. 16–19 ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

Should Children Work?: Teaching About the Past and Present of Child Labor in the United States Erin V. Piedmont and Kathryn M. Obenchain Child labor is a human rights issue that elementary students should explore. We use the Inquiry Design Model (IDM) to share an inquiry on child labor for upper elementary students.

Teaching about child labor is rare in elementary social studies. Using a historical approach disconnects the topic from children’s lives, presenting child labor as a uniquely historical problem. Unfortunately, child labor is a current and enduring issue. Teaching about child labor may seem controversial in U.S. contexts and irrelevant in global contexts; however, teaching about child labor in both its historical and current contexts engages students in inquiry, connecting the past to the present as they examine an enduring social issue.1 Since 2021, more than 260,000 vulnerable minors escaping violence and poor economic conditions in Central America immigrated to the U.S. looking for work.2 As weakened child labor laws are considered across the United States, these children, along with domestic families in poverty and other BIPOC children, “stand to suffer the most harm from such changes.”3 In an inquiry approach, students explore perspectives about child labor, including the exploitation of children for profit and children’s autonomy in deciding whether and how they wish to earn an income for themselves or to supplement a household income. Child labor as a human rights issue includes the protection of children and children’s rights to have some control over their own lives.

C3 Framework Connections

This inquiry is aligned with grades 3–5 C3 Framework indicators4 and specifically designed for grades 4 or 5, dependent upon relevant state standards, and is rooted in the question, “Should children be part of the United States’ labor force?”

Students engage with historical thinking concepts, such as cause and consequence, historical significance, and continuity and 16 Social Studies and the Young Learner

change,5 through analyzing sources, synthesizing information, and completing formative performance tasks. Students also examine how citizens engage in advocacy to affect policy and legislation. See the IDM blueprint in the pullout.

Defining Child Labor

Children have always been a part of the nation’s workforce.

Many children deliver newspapers, work on family farms, or babysit. These experiences help youth learn responsibility.

Child labor is different. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines child labor as “work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development.”6 Specifically, It refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and/ or interferes with their schooling by depriving them of the opportunity to attend school; … or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long and heavy work.7 Given this, child labor is less about children working and more about the impact of that work on children’s lives. For example, mowing lawns is a common job for older children to make money. That is not considered child labor by the ILO definition. However, when mowing lawns involves forced labor with long hours, dangerous temperatures, unsafe equipment, and/or insufficient protective gear, it is considered child labor.

Child Labor: Past and Present

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, industrialization led to increased labor needs, and children as young as five worked in factories, agriculture, mining, newspaper delivery, and piecework in their homes. Child labor peaked near the continued on page 17

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

PULLOUT Materials for Grades 4–5 Inquiry “Should Children Work?”

See “Should Children Work?: Teaching About the Past and Present of Child Labor in the United States” by Erin V. Piedmont and Kathryn M. Obenchain on pp. 16–19 in this issue.

Should children be part of the United States’ labor force?

D3.3.3–5. Identify evidence that draws information from multiple sources in response to compelling questions.

D3.4.3–5. Use evidence to develop claims responding to compelling questions.

Standards

D2.Civ.6.3–5. Describe ways people benefit from and are challenged by working together, including through government, workplaces, voluntary organizations, and families.

D2.His.3.3–5. Generate questions about individuals and groups who have shaped significant historical changes and continuities.

Staging the Compelling Question

Analyze the political cartoon An Awful Blot, www.loc.gov/item/2018673951

Supporting Question 1

Supporting Question 2

Supporting Question 3

Supporting Question 4

Supporting Question 5

Why was there a labor movement during the early 20th century?

What were the experiences of children who worked during the early 20th century?

How did people engage in civic action to support or oppose child labor during the early 20th century?

How did policy and legislation changes affect working children during the early 20th century?

How does U.S. child labor today look similar and different from the past?

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Determine historically significant events contributing to the labor movement to include on the timeline.

Add examples of events and experiences of child labor to the timeline.

Add examples of civic action related to child labor (e.g., protests, union meetings, speeches) to the timeline.

Add examples of policy and legislation affecting child labor to the timeline.

Add examples of current child labor laws and/or bills to the timeline.

Sources

Sources

Sources

Sources

Sources

A: “Industrialization, Labor, and Life” (article), National Geographic Kids education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ industrialization-laborand-life/5th-grade

A: Brave Girl: Clara and the Shirtwaist Makers’ Strike of 1909 (book)

A: Women Demonstrating Against Child Labor (photograph) www.docsteach.org/ documents/document/ demonstrating-againstchild-labor

A: Breaker Boys: How a Photograph Helped End Child Labor (book)

A: “How Does Child Labor Still Exist in America?” (video), NBC News www.nbcnews.com/ video/how-does-childlabor-still-exist-in-america-189345349579

B: “The Labor Movement in the United States” (video), History.com www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ewu-v36szlE

B: 9 P.M. in an Indiana Glass Works (photograph), DocsTeach www.docsteach.org/ documents/document/9pm-in-an-indiana-glassworks-indiana C: 5-Year-Old Rosie Passeralla of Philadelphia (photograph), DocsTeach https://docsteach.org/ documents/document/ rosie-whites-bog

B: Petition Against the Proposed Child Labor Amendment (document) www.docsteach.org/documents/document/petitionagainst-the-proposedchild-labor-amendment C: Stop Wearing Out Two Million Children, by Alice Park (document) www.docsteach.org/documents/document/wearingout-two-million-children

B: “Tyson Foods Workers, Activists Protest Child Labor in US Meat Sector” (article), Reuters www.reuters.com/world/ us/tyson-foods-workersactivists-protest-childlabor-us-meat-sector-2023-10-16

D: Child Labor Standards (poster) www.docsteach.org/documents/document/childlabor-standards Summative Performance Task

Answer the compelling question, Should children be part of the labor force in the United States? by writing a letter to relevant legislators—to support or not support proposed/passed legislation. Arguments must be supported by multiple sources of evidence reflecting the history and current context of child labor.

January/February 2026 P1

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

Analyze a Written Document Meet the document.

Are there any special markings on the document? Circle all that apply.

❑

stamp

postmark

handwritten note

official seal

special letterhead

other

Who wrote this document?

Try to make sense of it.

Is it handwritten or typed?

❑

What is the main idea of the document?

❑ both

Write down any words that you don’t know.Then look up the definitions.

List two quotes (words from the document) that help support the main idea.

Observe its parts.

What is the date of the document?

Who read or received this document?

Use it as historical evidence.

Where do you think you could find out more information about the persons who wrote or received this document?

Where do you think you could find out more information about this event?

Materials created by the National Archives and Records Administration are in the public domain.

Graphic Organizer for Supporting Question 1 Why was there a labor movement in the early 20th century?

Jot your ideas in the graphic organizer. You can include important vocabulary words, bullet points of your ideas, or sketches of your thoughts.

Source A: National Geographic article Question #1: What caused a “boom” in industrialization?

Question #2: Why did children join the workforce?

Question #3: Why did people form labor unions?

P2 Social Studies and the Young Learner

Source B: History.com video

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

Graphic Organizer for Supporting Question 4 How did policy and legislation changes affect working children during the early 20th century?

Examples of attempts to change policies or laws

Year

Page #

How did the policy or legislation impact kids?

40

43

46

48

50

52

Venn Diagram for Supporting Question 5 How does child labor look similar and different today?

Child labor in the past

Child labor today

January/February 2026 P3

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

Sample Timeline 1800–1830 Industrialization and Immigration Many people immigrate to the U.S. because of the opening of factories and the development of new technology. There are so many jobs to fill so children start working.

1900: Civic Action

Women protesting child labor in NYC. 1908: Experiences of Children Working

Children are working in dangerous factories.

1924: Civic Action

Businesses protest against ending child labor.

1938: Legislation Changes The Fair Labor Standards Act sets minimum ages, limits hours, and bans dangerous work for children under 18 2022: Child Labor Today People are still protesting against child labor today.

P4 Social Studies and the Young Learner

SHOULD CHILDREN WORK? from page 16 end of the 19th century as demand decreased in favor of hiring adult immigrants who were physically stronger and willing to work for low wages in unsafe conditions. Child labor largely ended during the New Deal with the passage of the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act. Child labor is an enduring issue, as numerous U.S. states have introduced or passed legislation weakening child protections.8 While much of the current legislation rejects a specific child labor designation, some new laws weaken protections related to working hours, wages, and types of employment.

Current increased labor needs, combined with immigrant youth seeking employment, make it easier for employers to exploit vulnerable children and youth.

Launching the Inquiry

To stage the compelling question, students analyze the 1914 political cartoon, An Awful Blot.9 Teachers introduce the inquiry using the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) “Analyze a Cartoon” document analysis sheet (see Pullout).10 An Awful Blot presents an embarrassed-looking Uncle Sam standing before a U.S. map with a large blot, or stain, covering much of the eastern states.

Students begin to build an understanding of the geographical region where child labor was most prevalent and the cartoonist’s intent—that Americans should be ashamed about how the country was treating its children.

Supporting Question 1

Introduce students to factors contributing to the rise of the U.S. labor movement, which set the stage for child labor, by

considering the first supporting question, “Why was there a labor movement during the early 20th century?” Students examine the global rise of industrialization and urbanization occurring before increased immigration to the United States, contributing to one of the largest world economies by the 1830s. Students should understand how a rapid increase in immigration, industry, and technological developments led to workforce demand, including children working in unsafe conditions. No laws existed regulating the number of hours or days people worked, and no safety regulations protected those working in unhealthy (e.g., coal mines) or unsafe (e.g., dangerous machinery) conditions. A History.com video introduces the role of unions in advocating for legislation safeguarding the workplace, including shorter workdays and a minimum working age for children.11 Use a graphic organizer (see Pullout) to scaffold the analysis and synthesis of the sources. We recommend starting with a read-aloud of the National Geographic article, “Industrialization, Labor, and Life,”12 stopping after each section, and guiding the students in Think-Pair-Share discussions focused on the graphic organizer questions rooted in the historical thinking concepts of cause and effect. For the video, review the questions, play the short video, and gather responses from the students. Play the video a second time to help students refine their responses. As appropriate, students can work in small groups to determine what information from their graphic organizers were causes (e.g., industrialization) or effects (e.g., children working) of the labor movement. For the formative task, students determine historically significant dates or time bands for each cause and effect, adding them to the class timeline using words and/or visuals. Time bands are necessary because not every

Figure 1.

9pm in an Indiana Glass Works, by Lewis Hine, 1908 (DocsTeach / NARA)

January/February 2026 17

the efforts to change laws and policies to protect working children. Depending on your classroom, determine if the graphic organizer will be completed individually, in small groups, or as a whole class. When completed, have small groups think and discuss the following questions: 1. Did policies and laws change quickly? What evidence do you have to support your thoughts?

2. When policies and laws did change, was every problem with child labor fixed? Why or why not?

3. What policy changes and laws are the most important and historically significant enough to be added to our class timeline?

Answering this last question leads to the formative performance task, during which students add examples of policy and legislation to the timeline.

Supporting Question 5

For the final supporting question, “How does U.S. child labor today look similar to and different from the past?,” students explore child labor in the present. Students examine two sources illuminating child labor as an ongoing human rights issue.

Introduce the NBC News video and explain that the first five minutes review much of what students have learned, followed by two minutes that bring child labor into the present.16 Stop the video at 2:04 and ask, “What facts about child labor do you already know, and what new facts have you learned?”

Unpack what “children as economic assets” means, supporting students in contextualizing attitudes toward children into its historical period. Continue the video, stopping at 5:12, again asking for two facts they have already learned and two new facts. Finish the video and then have students work in small groups to complete a Venn diagram (see Pullout) comparing and contrasting how child labor in the United States today looks similar to and different from the past. The second source, a Reuters article,17 could be presented as a read-aloud or run through AI software (e.g., Brisk) to adjust the text to your students’ reading levels. After reading the article, have students update their group Venn diagram. Students then add new information to the timeline regarding past child labor and current examples during the formative performance task.

Summative Performance Task and Taking Informed Action

For the final task, students synthesize their understanding to answer the compelling question, “Should children be part of the United States’ labor force?” Students compose a letter to a legislator to support or oppose legislation regarding child labor. We encourage teachers to research timely legislation to make the assessment relevant to students’ contexts. If this does not apply, focus on current legislation within the same geographic region or federal level. Students’ arguments must be supported by multiple sources of evidence reflecting the history and current context of U.S. child labor.

Conclusion Child labor is an important part of the United States’ history. It is also a current and enduring social issue. Engaging elementary students in inquiry about historical and presentday contexts of child labor enables them to think historically about the cause and consequences of enlisting young children into the workforce, analyze continuity and change as they make connections between past and present, develop an informed stance of the issue, and engage in civic action.

Notes 1. It is important to recognize that some students who are currently or have been a part of the labor workforce will find the topic relevant, but they may find it triggering. Support affected students just as with any child with post-traumatic stress or trauma. Resources including school counselors and The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (www.nctsn.org) should be consulted.

2. Jennifer Sherer and Nina Mast, “Child Labor Laws Are Under Attack in States Across the Country,” Economic Policy Institute, March 14, 2023, www.epi.org/publication/child-labor-laws-under-attack.

3. Sherer and Mast, “Child Labor Laws Are Under Attack,” para. 4.

4. National Council for the Social Studies, The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K–12 Civics, Economics, Geography, and History (2013).

5. Peter Seixas, “A Model of Historical Thinking,” Educational Philosophy and Theory 49, no. 6 (2015): 1–13, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2015.

1101363.

6. International Labour Organization, “What is Child Labour,” www.ilo.org/ topics/child-labour/what-child-labour, para. 2.

7. International Labour Organization, “What is Child Labour,” para. 2.

8. Jeff Nilsson, “The History of Child Labor in America,” The Saturday Evening Post, June 13, 2023, www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2023/06/the-historyof-child-labor-in-america.

9. An Awful Blot, 1914, cartoon, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/ item/2018673951/.

10. National Archives and Records Administration, “Analyze a Cartoon— Novice,” www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/analyze-acartoon-novice.

11. History Channel, “The Labor Movement in the United States,” September 26, 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewu-v36szlE. 12. Freddie Wilkerson, “Industrialization, Labor, and Life,” National Geographic Kids, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/industrializationlabor-and-life/5th-grade.

13. Michelle Markel, Brave Girl: Clara and the Shirtwaist Makers’ Strike of 1909 (HarperCollins, 2013); Lewis Hine, 9 P.M. in an Indiana Glass Works, 1908, photograph, DocsTeach, www.docsteach.org/documents/document/9-pmin-an-indiana-glass-works-indiana; Lewis Hine, 5 Year Old Rosie Passeralla of Philadelphia, 1910, photograph, DocsTeach, https://docsteach.org/ documents/document/rosie-whites-bog.

14. National Archives and Records Administration, “Analyze a Photograph— Novice,” www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/analyze-aphotograph-novice.

15. Michael Burgan, Breaker Boys: How a Photograph Helped End Child Labor (Compass Point Books, 2011).

16. “How Does Child Labor Still Exist in America?” NBC News, www.nbcnews. com/video/how-does-child-labor-still-exist-in-america-189345349579 17. Tom Polansek, “Tyson Foods Workers, Activists Protest Child Labor in US Meat Sector,” Reuters, October 17, 2023, www.reuters.com/world/us/tysonfoods-workers-activists-protest-child-labor-us-meat-sector-2023-10-16.

Erin V. Piedmont, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Elementary Social Studies at Georgia Southern University.

Kathryn M. Obenchain, PhD, is Professor of Social Studies Education at Purdue University.

January/February 2026 19

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) pp. 20–26 ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

From Storytime to Civic Action: Preschoolers Exploring Civil Rights at School and Home So Jung Kim Young children show a natural interest in the world around them as they engage in daily activities and interact with others. Through interaction, negotiation, and collaboration, children develop their emergent understanding of the roles they enact as citizens of a democratic society.1 When a scaffolded learning environment is provided, young children, even preschoolers, can be engaged in active learning that requires critical thinking.2 Social interactions with community members are integral components in social studies education because children’s ability to engage in discussions about social issues can be reinforced when they are allowed to learn from each other and contribute to their communities.3 Through social participation, children develop a sense of inclusion in their community and learn the principles of citizenship.

in society as equal members. Similarly, civil responsibility is defined as the duties and obligations individuals have toward their society to promote the well-being of the community.

Other key principles are defined in Table 1.

Table 1. Principles of Citizenship for Young Children

Principle Belonging

Understanding they are part of a community (family, school, etc.)

Respect for Others

Learning to listen, share, take turns, and appreciate differences

Fairness and Justice Developing an early sense of fairness and recognizing when things are unfair Responsibility

Engaging in group discussions and decisions; knowing their voice matters

Empathy and Compassion

Recognizing and responding to others’ feelings with kindness and care

Early Childhood Social Studies Curriculum

Children learn how to explore real-world problems from the very early stages of development.4 In this sense, “children are born into social studies.”5 As a foundation for all content areas, social studies offers valuable components in supporting early learners’ development,6 providing them with multiple and varied opportunities to cultivate their critical thinking skills and learn about diverse social values and principles of democracy.7 Yet, social studies curriculum remains marginalized in early childhood classrooms8 and often stays within the boundaries of the school context, as family practices tend to focus on reading or math skills.

This article shares empirical examples of preschool children’s engagement with civil rights and responsibilities through literacy practices at both school and home. As the meaning of civil rights and responsibilities varies across different contexts, this article adopts citizenship theory as its theoretical foundation—specifically, critical citizenship theory,9 which emphasizes the importance of speaking out against unfairness and considering multiple perspectives. Based on this framework, civil rights in this article are defined as the rights and freedoms that allow individuals to fully participate 20 Social Studies and the Young Learner

Description

This article focuses on the stories of children of Korean descent in Ms. Choi’s preschool classroom at a Korean Language School (KLS) in a Western U.S. state. These stories illustrate the potential for teaching social themes to young children in settings where social studies is less emphasized.

Given the cultural and educational priorities in Korea that emphasize standardized academic outcomes, social studies content is often overlooked in many programs for Korean and second-generation Korean children in the United States.10 While most teachers at KLS rarely incorporated social studies themes into their literacy curriculum, Ms. Choi did because her experience as an immigrant to the United States deeply shaped her belief in the importance of teaching diversity, equality, and self-identity. Her prior experience as a social studies teacher in Korea also helped her develop context-specific social studies instruction for her Korean and Korean American students. The story of her classroom contributes to our growing understanding

Practical Strategies for Teachers and Parents

As this article demonstrates, young children construct their understanding of civil rights and responsibilities within a broad social, cultural, and historical context.

Young children’s learning is integrally connected to their families.20 To promote optimal learning of social studies content, teachers should develop comprehensive, ageappropriate activities that integrate engaging materials, such as children’s books and art. The following practical strategies enrich the social studies curriculum: • Use students’ everyday experiences to explain social studies concepts.

• Encourage students to observe their community and discuss local places to help them understand community roles.

• Establish collaborative and reciprocal partnerships with families.

• Support social studies learning at home by sharing learning goals and curriculum information with families.

The practical implications for parents include the following: • Help their children understand concepts of history, community, and culture by sharing family stories.

• Use picture books and other age-appropriate materials to help children understand the world and connect it to what they are learning in school.

• Attend local events with children and discuss community issues.

When selecting children’s books on civil rights and social justice, consider the criteria in Table 4. The portrayals of key historical figures in some books may oversimplify their work or unintentionally reinforce stereotypes, rather than celebrating diverse voices and experiences. Therefore, it is vital to choose books thoughtfully to ensure children receive meaningful and respectful introductions to civil

rights topics. It is also important to acknowledge that, despite the value of introducing civil rights and social justice topics in early childhood, not all families feel comfortable with these discussions. This discomfort is often rooted in the belief that topics related to civil rights and responsibilities may be developmentally inappropriate. To address these concerns, teachers must engage in respectful and transparent communication with families to foster trust and mutual understanding.

Conclusion

This article explored the possibilities of teaching preschool children about civil rights and responsibilities at the intersection of early social studies education and literacy practices, both in school and at home. Through the stories of children learning about civil rights and responsibilities at school and home, this article expands the horizon of early social studies learning from “pre-set curricula outcomes” to “child-initiated discovery.”21 Young children, even preschoolers, can practice their role and rights as young citizens by interacting with members of society and contributing to their communities.22 Critical conversations, both within and outside of school, about the value of helping others and the importance of understanding community needs, can enrich young children’s learning of social studies content, such as civil rights and responsibilities. By using an integrative social studies curriculum, enhanced by a partnership between teachers and families, educators can help young children develop into active and responsible citizens who make a difference in their communities and take action for social change.

Children’s Literature Brown, Laurie Krasny. Democracy for Dinosaurs: A Guide for Young Citizens.

Illustrated by Marc Brown. Little, Brown Books for Young Readers, 2020.

Eggers, Dave. What Can a Citizen Do? Illustrated by Shawn Harris. Chronicle Books, 2018.

Gillen, Lynea. Good People Everywhere. Illustrated by Kristina Swarner. Three Pebble Press, 2012.

Loewen, Nancy. We Live Here Too!: Kids Talk About Good Citizenship. Illustrated

by Omarr Wesley. Picture Window Books, 2002.

Table 5. NAEYC and NCSS Curriculum Standards.

NAEYC 2.L: Supporting children’s understanding of social roles and rules, the local community, their own contributions to the well-being of the social and physical environments in which they live, and diversity not only within their classroom but also in the larger world.

NCSS CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICES Learners will understand concepts and ideals such as: individual dignity, fairness, freedom, the common good, rule of law, civic life, rights, and responsibilities.

2D.1: Children have discussions with each other to solve problems related to the physical world.

Note: Bold text of the standards indicates areas of integration in Ms. Choi’s curriculum.

January/February 2026 25

Reynolds, Peter H. Say Something! Orchard Books, 2019.

Sotomayor, Sonia. Just Help!: How to Build a Better World. Illustrated by Angela Dominquez. Philomel Books, 2022.

Vegara, Maria Isabel Sanchez. Martin Luther King Jr. Illustrated by Mai Ly Degnan. Frances Lincoln Children’s Books, 2020.

Notes 1. National Council for the Social Studies, “Early Childhood in the Social Studies Context,” 2019, www.socialstudies.org/position-statements/earlychildhood-social-studies-context.

2. National Association for the Education of Young Children, NAEYC Early Learning Program Accreditation: Standards and Assessment Items, 2019, www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/ accreditation/early-learning/standards_assessment_2019.pdf.

3. Peng Xu, “Positioning Children Citizens: Exploring Discourses in Early Childhood Curricula in China and Aotearoa New Zealand,” New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 24 (2019): 58–74.

4. NCSS, “Early Childhood in the Social Studies Context”; Andrea Nolan, Anna Kilderry, and Roslyn O’Grady, “Children as Active Learners,” Research in Practice Series, Early Childhood Australia, 13, no. 1 (2006): 1–4.

5. Gayle Mindes, “Social Studies in Today’s Early Childhood Curricula,” Beyond the Journal (September 2005): 1.

6. NAEYC Early Learning Program Accreditation 7. Mindes, “Social Studies in Today’s Early Childhood Curricula”; National Council for the Social Studies, “Powerful, Purposeful Pedagogy in Elementary Social Studies,” 2017, https://www.socialstudies.org/socialeducation/81/3/powerful-purposeful-pedagogy-elementary-schoolsocial-studies-pdf 8. Katherina A. Payne et al., “Reconceptualizing Civic Education for Young Children: Recognizing Embodied Civic Action,” Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 15 no. 1 (2020): 35–46.

9. Joel Westheimer and Joseph Kahne, “What Kind of Citizen? The Politics of Educating for Democracy,” American Educational Research Journal, 41 no. 2 (2004): 237–269.

10. Stacey J. Lee, Resisting Asian American Invisibility: The Politics of Race and Education (Teachers College Press, 2022).

11. Maria Isabel Sanchez Vegara, Martin Luther King Jr., illus. Mai Ly Degnan

(Frances Lincoln Children’s Books, 2020).

12. Dave Eggers, What Can a Citizen Do?, illus. Shawn Harris (Chronicle Books, 2018).

13. Peter H. Reynolds, Say Something! (Orchard Books, 2019).

14. So Jung Kim, “‘We Are All Special’: Eliciting Bilingual Children’s Voices About Diversity Through Art-Based Critical Literacy,” Journal of Children’s Literature, 48, no. 1 (2022): 19–32.

15. Ruth Bartlett and Deborah O’Connor, “The Meaning and Value of Social Citizenship,” in Broadening the Dementia Debate: Towards Social Citizenship (Policy Press, 2010), 29–48. https://doi.org/10.51952/9781847428585. ch003; Dympna Devine and Tom Cockburn, “Theorizing Children’s Social Citizenship: New Welfare States and Inter-Generational Justice,” Childhood, 25, no. 2 (2018): https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568218759787.

16. Cynthia Yael Adlerstein-Grimberg and Andrea Bralic Echeverría, “Heterotopic Place-Making in Learning Environments: Children Living as Creative Citizens,” Magis 14 (2021): 3, https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana. m14.hpml.

17. Hillary A. Libnoch and Jackie Ridley, “Using Picture Books About Refugees: Fostering Diversity and Social Justice in the Elementary School Classroom,” YC Young Children, 75, no. 5 (2020): 28–36.

18. “Early Childhood in the Social Studies Context.”

19. NAEYC Early Learning Program Accreditation; NCSS, “Early Childhood in the Social Studies Context.”

20. NAEYC Early Learning Program Accreditation 21. Andrea Nolan, Anna Kilderry, and Roslyn O’Grady, “Children as Active Learners,” Research in Practice Series, Early Childhood Australia, 13, no.

1 (2006): 1.

22. Marina Sounoglou and Aikaterini Michalopoulou, “Early Childhood Education Curricula: Human Rights and Citizenship in Early Childhood Education,” Journal of Education and Learning, 6, no. 2 (2016).

So Jung Kim is a faculty member at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa.

She can be reached at skim31@hawaii.edu.

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26 Social Studies and the Young Learner

Social Studies and the Young Learner 38 (3) pp. 27–32 ©2026 National Council for the Social Studies

The Vanishing Aral Sea: An Inquiry to Teach About Human Impact on the Environment James N. Oigara and Crystal Simmons

According to the United Nations, 75% of the earth’s land surface has been impacted by the actions of humans.1 Deforestation, agricultural practices, overpopulation, exploitation of natural resources, urbanization, and pollution are just a few examples of how we as humans impact the environment. These human-led activities create significant changes and disruptions to the earth’s ecosystems fueling changes in climate, loss in biodiversity, and water scarcity. One example that allows us to see these consequential and devastating effects of human impact and climate change is the dramatic transformation of the Aral Sea, caused by serious mismanagement of natural resources, leading to environmental disaster.

The disappearance of the Aral Sea is chilling evidence of humans’ capacity to inflict devastating harm on the natural world.

The Aral Sea, located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in central Asia, was once the fourth largest saline lake in the world, where thriving fishing communities inhabited the shoreline. The sea was a critical resource for water management and irrigation in the region. Since the 1960s, the Aral Sea has shrunk to half its size because of two major factors: (1) The rivers that flow into it were diverted for irrigation, which drastically reduced the amount of water flowing into it, and (2) the Aral Sea is surrounded by a hot, dry desert, whose heat evaporates large volumes of water every year.2 The shrinking of the Aral Sea has caused consequences to both the physical and human ecosystems, including desertification, increase in dust and salt winds, changes in regional climate, and a rise in health problems of the local population. As a result, the Aral Sea has become known as “one of the planet’s worst environmental disasters.”3 As social studies educators preparing future global citizens, it is imperative that we teach students about climate change using the example of the Aral Sea. This

catastrophe serves as a stark reminder of the impact humans have on the environment. Discussions around climate change are not uncommon in elementary social studies classrooms. In fact, such discussions can promote critical thinking, civic engagement, and global awareness. Because of its media spotlight and politicized nature, climate change is an ideal topic to engage students in social studies disciplines, including civics, current events, geography, history, economics, and government.4 As noted in the National Council for the Social Studies position statement, “Powerful, Purposeful Teaching and Learning in Elementary Social Studies,” the integration of social studies content with subjects such as science and technology enhances students’ ability to make meaningful connections to their lives and others.5 Our aim is to demonstrate an integrated and interdisciplinary lesson that utilizes science and technology in social studies. While natural scientists are busy unraveling the physical mysteries of climate change, the realm of applying this knowledge to decision-making rests firmly in the social sciences. In this article, we use the inquiry process to model how the social studies classroom is an ideal place to incorporate climate change and how teachers might use inquiry to inform students of its global impact.

Geography and Satellite Images to Understand the Shrinkage of the Aral Sea

The C3 Framework addresses climate change within the geography disciplinary subsection of Dimension 2. A key component of geography is understanding humanenvironment interactions as well as the spatial patterns and movements of the human population. Climate change impacts all these dynamics, influencing both the environment and the ways people interact with it.6 The compelling question for this inquiry (see Figure 1) asks students to investigate and answer, “Should humans January/February 2026 27

change their environments to meet their needs?” This question is designed to encourage deep analysis of the human factors behind the environmental change in the Aral Sea and to explore the implications for similar environmental issues around the world.

This inquiry was designed in alignment with the thirdgrade social studies standards for New York State but can be adapted for grades 4–6 according to state and national standards. The curriculum standards explore the relationship between human activities and the environment, emphasizing how these actions can result in unintended consequences.7

One pathway for teaching this complex environmental issue is to utilize appropriate sources, like satellite images.

Incorporating remote sensing activities (satellite images) provides teachers with an opportunity to make learning interactive and more attractive to students while establishing connections among the disciplines of science, technology, and social studies.8 The repercussions of climate change are seen today in all sectors of society, and elementary students need to understand this to contemplate possible solutions. In addition, communicating and knowing how to engage as responsible citizens to respond to the impacts of climate change are essential lifelong skills.

Figure 1. Inquiry Design Model Blueprint

Should humans change their environments to meet their needs?

Standards and Practices

New York State Social Studies Standards 3.1b. Globes, maps, photographs, and satellite images contain geographic information.

3.3b. People make adaptations and modifications to the environment. Advancements in science, technology, and industry can bring about modifications to the environment and can have unintended consequences on the environment. People have attempted to take actions to protect the environment.

C3 Framework Social Studies Disciplinary Standard(s) D2.Geo.2.3–5. Use maps, satellite images, photographs, and other representations to explain relationships between the locations of places and regions and their environmental characteristics.

D2.Geo.9.3–5. Analyze the effects of catastrophic environmental and technological events on human settlements and migration.

NCSS Themes TIME, CONTINUITY, AND CHANGE PEOPLE, PLACES, AND ENVIRONMENTS SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

Staging the Question

Teachers can draw on students' prior knowledge about the importance of water for human needs. What happens when water disappears? Are humans responsible for the disappearance of water?

Supporting Question 1

Supporting Question 2

Supporting Question 3

What is irrigation, and how did it affect the Aral Sea?

How did human action affect the Aral Sea?

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Formative Performance Task

Complete the See-Think-Wonder graphic organizer.

Make a claim about the pros and cons of irrigation.

What has happened to the Aral Sea over time?

Compare and contrast the Aral Sea from the 1960s to 2000s.

Featured Sources

Featured Sources

Featured Sources

A: Shrinking Aral Sea, NASA Scientific Visualization Studio, https://svs.gsfc.nasa. gov/10862

A: Aral Sea, Britannica Kids B: Irrigation, Britannica Kids C: Teacher-made Furrow Irrigation Cause and Effect Chart

A: Photograph of fishing in the Aral Sea in 1960s, https://earthlymission.com/aralsea-lake-evolution-depletion-recoverywater B: Photograph of abandoned fishing ships in Aral Sea, NASA Scientific Visualization Studio, https://svs.gsfc.nasa. gov/10862 C: Teacher-made Consequences Chart

Summative Performance Task

ARGUMENT Should humans change their environment to meet their needs? Students construct a written argument or visual representation addressing the compelling question using claims and relevant evidence from each step of the inquiry.

EXTENSION Students can research and explore the response of the global community in solving the Aral Sea.

Taking Informed Action

UNDERSTAND Local, regional, or state environmental issues created by human activities.

ASSESS Analyze and evaluate the causes of the local environmental issue.

ACTION Students will design and create an infographic or brochure providing solutions to how to positively impact the environment.

28 Social Studies and the Young Learner

To begin the inquiry, teachers are encouraged to build upon student’s prior knowledge of geography and science.

A review of concepts and key terminology, such as humanenvironment interaction, sea, river, desert, drought, and the purpose and necessity of water for human needs, sets the stage for the lesson. Table 1 provides a suggested list of vocabulary words for review before the lesson.

Teachers can remind students that water is necessary for survival. Water, an essential element on Earth, is responsible for the growth of plants and food and is essential for human and animal life. To engage and hook students into the lesson, teachers can ask students to think about what happens when water disappears. Who and what are impacted? Are humans responsible for the disappearance of water? Given what students know about the role of water for life, human interaction, and dependency, many may respond with answers that identify the detrimental consequences of water vanishing. Some students may display skepticism that water can disappear, especially since they see and intake water daily. After a brief discussion, teachers will explain to students that they will engage in an investigation of a sea in central Asia that has been vanishing over time and determine whether humans should change their environments to meet their needs.

Table 1. Key Terms

Key term

Definition

continental climate a climate with different seasonal temperatures desert

a very dry place with little rain and few plants

drought

a long time with little or no rain

human-environment interaction

the ways people change or use nature to live and meet their needs

river

long flowing water that moves across land and into lakes or seas

sea

a large area of salty water, smaller than an ocean

Vanishing of the Aral Sea

The first supporting question, “What has happened to the Aral Sea over time?” will help students to investigate the scientific explanations of changes to the Aral Sea. To aid students in the development of these skills, teachers will start first with a hook by displaying images from the NASA Scientific Visualization Studio (Figure 2).

The satellite images of the Aral Sea, acquired from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite, show shrinkage of the Aral Sea over time, from 2000 to 2013.9 The satellite images are like maps; they are full of useful and interesting information. To unlock the rich information in a satellite

image, teachers will encourage students to (1) look for scale or area coverage for each satellite image, (2) look for shapes or patterns, (3) define the colors in the satellite images (e.g., green represents water, gray represents sand), and (4) consider prior geographic knowledge of this region of central Asia. To guide students, teachers will utilize the See-Think-Wonder strategy and graphic organizer for students to observe, interpret, and inquire about changes of the Aral Sea:10 Figure 2. MODIS images showing the extent of the Aral Sea, 2000–2013.

NASA / Goddard Space Flight Center

Necessity of Water

1. See: Students will observe carefully and describe what they see in satellite images and hold off making interpretations or giving opinions or judgements. This first step is about gathering information without making judgments or interpretations. Teachers could ask questions like “What do you see and notice on the satellite image?”

2. Think: Students will interpret what they observed.

They are encouraged to share their thoughts on their observations of the images. Teachers could ask questions like “What do you think happened to the Aral Sea?” “What’s going on in the image?” “What makes you say that?”

3. Wonder: Students are encouraged to make a personal connection to the images. They can ask questions about what they observed and interpreted from the satellite images. Students are encouraged to express their curiosity, thus revealing what they would like to explore further or what they find confusing or intriguing. Teachers can ask questions like “How does it make you feel to see the sea disappear?” and “What motivates you to care about the environment?”

This brainstorming activity will serve as a bridge to guide the class toward exploring the second supporting question.

January/February 2026 29

The Aral Sea: Before and After

The third supporting question, “How did human action affect the Aral Sea?” builds upon student knowledge from the previous supporting questions by examining sources that illustrate and document the unintended consequences of human-environment interaction. Two of the featured sources show the Aral Sea at different time periods. Source A (see Figure 5) is a photograph of fishing activity in the Aral Sea in 1958 before it dried up, showing men in a boat and plenty of water. Source B (see Figure 6) is a photograph of abandoned fishing boats on the Aral Sea basin in 2011, showing the dried sea and the depletion of the fishing community. Teachers should direct students to identify the similarities and differences between these images. To support this analysis, teachers may guide the discussion with questions, such as “What do the pictures have in common?” and “In what ways are the images different?”

Source C (see Table 2) is a teacher-made chart comparing features of the Aral Sea from 1960 to the 2000s. This chart shows the impact of human-environment interaction in the region. Students may view the growth in population as a positive impact; however, teachers should help students to understand the stresses of this increase on the limited access to resources, like water and food sources.

Teachers can prompt students to think about the interconnectedness of the ecosystem and the threat that the loss of fertile soil and contamination of croplands has on food security and local economies.14 For example, a teacher can ask, “If water and food sources are limited or extinct, what does this mean for the millions of people living in the region?” or “What happens to the farmers and fishermen? How do they make a living?”

Student engagement with these types of questions includes a range of skills, such as observation, critical thinking, and interpretation. This activity encourages students to think deeply about visual and numerical evidence and the ways this evidence reflects environmental and geographical changes over time.

Conclusion

Drawing on evidence from a variety of sources and applying sound reasoning, students demonstrate both content understanding and critical thinking in their summative assessment. To support differentiation and choice, students can provide a written argument or a visual representation of their answer to the compelling question. As an extension to this inquiry, teachers can provide students with an opportunity to research how the global community has addressed the shrinkage of the Aral Sea. We believe that students should be made aware of the efforts to reverse and prevent future shrinkage. For example, one of the main restoration projects undertaken by the Kazakh government and the World

Table 2. Data from “The Aral Sea Crisis and Its Consequences,” by United Nations Trust Fund for Human Security and UN in Uzbekistan, www. un.org/humansecurity/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Infographics-AralSea-Crisis-Consequences.jpg.

1960s

2000s

53.4 meters

29 meters

510,101

1,791,000

Species of Fish

38

11 species have disappeared

Species of Plants

638

11 species have disappeared

Water Level

Regional Population

Bank was the construction of the 8-mile Kok-Aral Dam in 2005.15 The purpose of the dam is to control and preserve the water levels in the northern part of the sea, and scientists have recorded rises. Because of the dam, fishing is slowly returning to the Aral Sea basin. Lastly, for students to make personal connections, they can take informed action by connecting the issues of the Aral Sea to a current local environmental challenge. For example, students may be assigned to read about a local water-related environmental problem or national problem in the United States, including the shrinking of the Salton Sea and Mono Lake in California and the Great Salt Lake in Utah.

This inquiry lesson makes the awareness of human impact on the environment an interdisciplinary goal.

With the geographic knowledge and skills learned or reinforced, elementary children can be better prepared January/February 2026 31

Barbara Bromley is an elementary teacher in Edmonds, Washington. She has taught for over 30 years and is a specialist in project and problem-based learning. She was awarded the Elementary Social Studies Teacher of the Year Award at the 2025 NCSS Annual Conference in Washington, DC. Q. Why did you become a teacher?

A. I became an educator to make a lasting, positive impact by fostering a love of learning and nurturing personal growth. I believe in transforming natural curiosity into a lifelong tool for inquiry.

Q. What teaching success or career achievement are you most proud of?

A. I am most proud of receiving the Presidential Environmental Youth Award. This achievement was a powerful testament to collective strength, bringing together students, scientists, tribal members, and community leaders. As Helen Keller said, “Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much.” This project proved that by pooling diverse talents, we create a synergy where the outcome is far greater than the sum of its parts.

Q. When and why did you join NCSS? A. I joined NCSS five years ago to connect with a supportive national community. I sought a space for networking, highquality professional development, and access to research-based resources that challenge and improve my instructional skills.

Q. How has being a part of a professional association like NCSS enriched your career?

A. NCSS allows me to experience history firsthand. Attending the leadership conference in Richmond, Virginia, following the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests, was transformative. Witnessing the city’s rapid shift—from the removal of Confederate monuments to the rise of sweeping street art—deepened my understanding of racial history and civic reform. Access to the C3 Inquiry Framework and a global network of 7,000 educators continues to refine my strategies for engaging students in meaningful civic life.

Save the Date: 2026 NCSS Summer Virtual Conference From Revolution to Resilience June 23 and 24 This year’s theme is “From Revolution to Resilience: Exploring America's Past, Present, and Future.”

From the birth of the nation in 1776 to the enduring impact of 9/11, the American story is one of revolution, challenge, and resilience. Join us in celebrating 250 years of resilience and explore how pivotal events—from the founding to the present—can be taught in ways that engage students in critical thinking, civic responsibility, and historical understanding. https://www.socialstudies.org/professional-learning/2026-summer-virtual-conference

FASSE FUND for the ADVANCEMENT of SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION