Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

PHENOMENON OF STREET MORPHOLOGY AND MATERIALISATION Matthew Nicholl 1 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

ABSTRACT “The world is not to be put in order. The world is order. It is for us to put ourselves in unison with this order.” ― Henry Miller

Surface treatment and street furniture plays a major part in shaping place and influencing the usability and quality of the built environment. Pavements, kerbstones, bollards, trees, traffic barriers and lamp posts amongst others are not only physical manifestations that are arguably required for a modern street to function, but elements that Architects and Engineers can manipulate to influence aesthetic, safety and character as well as subtly control street activity and behaviour.

of our streetscapes and pushing pedestrians and cyclists further to the periphery. This has led to the emergence of large, lifeless ‘auto sewers’ Dover, V. and Massengale, J. (2014), that over time have had a significant and detrimental impact on positive engagement with our urban streetscapes.1

The concept of ‘shared space’ first conceived by Hans Monderman, a Traffic Engineer from the Netherlands, in the late 1970’s is starting to gain traction across the world with developed countries showing a renewed interest in Precedent, budget, maintenance, evolving systems that recognise lifespan and replacement are the ability of people to resolve major factors that affect the choice potential movement conflicts and deployment of such street if treated as intelligent, selfelements and unless private, organising citizens.2 normally fall under the remit of Monderman argues that whilst under resourced councils, often traditional tools of separation are prompting the use of quick, easy necessary in certain scenarios and relatively straight-forward such as heavily trafficked elements. motorways, where the single purpose is the movement of Ever since the Buchanan Report traffic, in the complex world of the Traffic in Towns (1963), Planners public realm with its multitude of have worked to create a clear functions, they become redundant segregation between various on inner-city streets. In fact, it is traffic flows. Overpasses, argued that the less street clutter underpasses, signalled road you experience, the more you crossings, barriers and warning can influence behaviour. This, he signs have become the common says, is because environmental vocabulary of the street - giving motorised traffic clear domination context has a stronger influence 1 2

on behaviour than legislation and formal rules. He concedes that draft manuals for streets are now beginning to recognise that solutions should not be based on universal standards but a more nuanced approach which considers the desired outcomes surrounding each individual context.

My research will focus on how pattern, colour, texture and materialisation can influence street behaviour, rather than the use of pertinent physical signs and barriers. Referencing Nudge Theory and aspects of behaviour science, I will investigate common streetscapes and consider material as a form of positive reinforcement and indirect suggestion to achieve non-forced compliance in influencing motive, incentive and decision making.

Dover, V. and Massengale, J. (2014). Street Design, the secret to great cities and towns. New Jersey: Wiley.

Clarke, E. (2006). The Evolution of Shared Space; the alternative approach to calming traffic. Traffic engineering and control. vol. 47, no. 8, London: Hemming. pp. 290-292.

Key words: streetscape, materialisation, nudge theory, shared space, pattern, texture Author: Matthew Nicholl Student number: 40057659

2 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

4-6

STREET MORPHOLOGY STREET MATERIALISATION PSYCHOLOGY OF THE STREET

7 - 13 14 - 19 20 - 27

INNOVATION 28 CONCLUSION

29 - 31

REFERENCES

32 - 34

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Agustina Martire for her discussion, direction and dedication throughout the project

3 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

INTRODUCTION The Ramblas in Barcelona, Herengracht in Amsterdam and Champs-Élysées in Paris are locations that have become clichéd references for Architects, Engineers and Urban Planners.

Representative of well-designed and functioning places, each with a strong public significance, they are often viewed as a panacea for how attractive, accessible and well-thought-out streetscapes can have a affirmative influence within our cities. Each scenario has become somewhat of an established order for good street design, hardened references which novel schemes often seek to replicate. Despite each example’s perceived successes, it remains unclear how each constituent element defines the strength of each layout.

scale tree lined mixed-use avenues and low density residential streets amongst other typologies are each considered a ‘street’. Pre-planned and predestined for a multiplicity of urban engagement, these are veins of activity that stimulate interaction, frame opportunity, provide space for movement and in themselves create viable and vibrant locations for citizens. In each example above, we can start to decouple constituent components such as surface material/treatment (including pattern, texture and colour), planned user flows and street furnitures and begin to understand how these interrelations play a major part in not only forming the physicality of the street, but in shaping metaphysical states of emotion, behaviour and expectation.

“We must work on the society in which we find ourselves, tracking the flows of matter and energy, destratifying hardened institutions, setting into flux human practices that have sedimented - in short, we must find the right viscosity for our fluxes, the exact consistency that would allow humanity to selforganise without the need for coercion and war.”

What psychological modus operandi informs the formation of streets? Daniel Kahneman (2011) argues that all primary cognitive process are divided into two systems.3 The first is commonly known as the empirical way of thinking, limited to the study of physical phenomena. This form of thought concentrates on separate elements and detached facts deriving from ― Manuel de Landa, Non-organic direct practical experience. In life, Incorporations (1992) the case of the street, various constituent components such Public Realm can be defined as as the kerbstone, phonebox, “the parts of a village, town or lamppost, road, pavement etc city (whether publicly or privately owned) that are available, without are each considered on their own merits purely within the framework charge, for everyone to see, use of technical specification, such as and enjoy, including streets, squares and parks. (Robert Cowan, the height of the kerbstone or the The dictionary of urbanism, 2005). illumination of the bulb. This form of thinking is strictly limited to Grand thoroughfares, medium3 4

Kahneman, D. (2014). Thinking Fast and Slow. London: Penguin.

Ungers, M. (2011). Morphologie. Köln: Walther König.

4 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

technical and practical processes routed in methodologies of pragmatism.

The second strain of thinking seeks out phenomena and experiences which describe more than just a sum of parts, paying almost no attention to separate elements. Cognitive, emotional and physical aspects draw on a shared pool of mental energy.

The principal concern is not the reality as it is but a search for a holistic idea. Elements in the case of the street combine to create successful functioning.

Textures are considered, street elements are chosen to reflect a continuous aesthetic, each aspect is contemplated for its ability to combine to create a successful situation - principally this can be considered through the lens of city marketing and brand creation.

The metaphor between body, city and machine drawn by O.M. Ungers is explicit about valorisation of formal metaphor, scale and the reciprocation between body, city and machine.4 Ungers felt that the urban planning of his time was based too much on measurable data, and lacked the conceptual sophistication, instinct and depth that analogical moves could alternatively foster.

Rather than simply imposing a system of movement and forcing users to adhere and learn the rules. He argues that it is more effective to draw on inspirations of inherent nature. Systems that are fundamentally embedded within the human psyche and form will facilitate the adoption of systems that come with an in-built ease and

TITLE intuitive understanding.

Ungers’ images (fig. 1) posit that form is function in so far as it becomes the organisational logic of a system that constitutes performance. As we consider the relationship between white line (figure) and black fill (ground)

of the individual images, it becomes clear that there is a shared metaphor between each component: structure, digestive, circulatory and nervous systems linking the organism, city and mechanism. Despite these shared formologies and systematic orders, a formal gap between the body

Figure 1: ‘City Metaphors’ Source: O.M. Ungers Morphologie.

5 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

and the systems that sustain its function has become evident in the trends of today’s built environment.

Belfast, Northern Ireland has developed a unique and inseparable relationship with mechanised transport. Statistics show that the entire country is heavily reliant on this mode of travel, with the average person making 81.5% of all their journeys by car.5 Following the thoughts of Ungers, it is clear that urban planning decisions over the last half-century have been based too much on measurable data. With its expression in the built form primarily aligned to automotive transport. Examples of these huge, inhuman infrastructures can be observed in projects such as the West Link (fig. 2) and the York Street Interchange where these realms primarily accommodate the machine.

How is it that such a system has trumped an ability for people to interact with the city using their own biology rather than placing this ability within the realm of machined transport?

5 6

Jacobs (1961) reflects on this sentiment in The Death and Life of Great American Cities where she creates a strong argument that goes against the modernist planning dogma of the era, and proposes a newfound appreciation for organic urban vibrancy in the United States.6 Using nature as a teacher is carried in the writings of Henry Thoreau and John Muir who say “…sensitive observation of nature is a source of wisdom” (Norton 1994). Aldo Leopold said: “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community.

It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise”. Christensen et al.

(1996) characterised Leopold’s perspective as that in which wilderness provides a “base-datum of normality”. Bateson (1979) indicated that we should follow the examples of nature. The use of nature as a source of guidance has been revisited numerous times (e.g., Chiras, 1992, Willis, 1995) and is embodied in the process of

biomimicry (Benyus, 2002).

Exploring the potential of swarm mentality and flocking is it possible for naturalistic urges to be retrofitted within the urban grain to revise existing machineled patterns of development?

Citing concepts such as shared space, is it possible to bring pedestrians, cyclists and motorists together using pattern, texture and imbedded material meaning, underpinned by a series of nudge tactics? Reflecting on other facets such as the deployment of street furnitures and vegetation, is it possible to create future scenarios where inner-city streetscapes encourage more sustainable modes of travel by way of enhanced movement patterns drawing on a holistic atmosphere to enhance the symbiotic relationship between the performance of pedestrian activity and motorised transport systems?

(NISRA) Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (2008) “ Travel Survey for Northern Ireland 2006 - 2008 ”. (DRD) Department for Regional Development: Belfast Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House.

Figure 2: ‘West Link’ Source: Apple Maps.

6 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE MORPHOLOGY STREET The process of formation and transformation of streets is important when considering the nature in which various flows have developed. Patterns and component parts of the city denote a sense of ownership, control and occupation. The physical form of street pattern, plot pattern and building pattern - collectively referred to as the urban grain, has developed synthetically across a multitude of urban contexts in response to certain activities, observed behaviours and technological advancements.

This discipline has been covered in-depth by commentators such as Vernez Moudon, Conzen, Whitehand and Larkham amongst others.

public realm. These spaces need to function successfully and achieve a series of technical requirements that usher in attractive, wellmaintained streets. Gehl (2010) argues that such spaces must allow for the complex needs of a range of stakeholders to balance and successfully function through the five human senses.7 Public realm is a shared environment rather than a series of separate functional areas.

and around the built form and are free space in which people can go about their daily activity, can see and be seen.8 In the representations of Giambattista Nolli, (fig. 2) it is clear that an importance must be given to how these function, as they give space to the built form. Finally space theory operates upon structured systems of human needs and usage.

A good city network relies on coIt is widely accepted therefore that ordinated resources: streets, parks urban morphology is not generally and squares to formally create a an object-centered activity, in that rhythm to which architecture can it emphasises the strengthening of evolve. Identity and character of a relationships between component place is becoming more important when branding cities and using parts of the city in a holistic way. initiatives to compel residents and At this scale, it is inconceivable tourists to use certain functional that an insular approach is taken.

Urban morphology approaches in Roger Trancik (1986) outlines three areas within the city. Areas such response to human settlement are major theories of urban spatial as the Titanic Quarter or Linen generally unconscious products design and morphology which Quarter in Belfast, are referred that emerge over long periods to in a range of literatures as serve to guide analysis. of time through the accrual of a mechanism of signposting.

This arguably at a large scale is successive generations of city As encountered previously in the influencing the wider movement building activity. Despite traces diagrams of Ungers, figure and patterns of people. Rather than of existing structures, it has ground theory is founded on the study of the relationship between referring to a specific street, a been the case that systematic wider postcode can be targeted. the land coverage of buildings as development has taken place in an impermeable mass (figure) with both proactive and reactionary ways in response to certain trends, open voids (ground). Each urban context has an existing pattern lobbies and desires to contain derived from the interplay of both or change behaviour. This eversolid and void. The spatial design changing paradigm provides approach attempts to manipulate opportunities and constraints for future city-building processes such these relationships by adding to or as land subdivision, infrastructure subtracting form. development and building Linkage theory focuses on striation construction. formed by streets, pedestrian ways, linear open spaces and URBAN SPATIAL DESIGN other physical linking elements The successful planning of that anatomically connect parts new communities and the of the city. Constituent veins, redevelopment of existing communities relies on good quality these provide circulation to, from 7 8

Gehl, J. (2010). Cities for People. Washington DC: Island Press.

Jacobs, A. (1995). Great Streets. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

7 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

Figure 2: ‘Map of Rome’ Source: Giambattista, Nolli.

Details within the urban streetscape can further reflect the above sentiment, with specific street furnitures used, from bins to lampposts, manhole covers to phoneboxes. These elements can be utilised to give an increased sense of identity. Globally these take ever greater

divergence with materials, colours and forms deployed in a variety of ways that express wider geographical divergence.

Figure 3: Manhole Japan

Figure 4: Manhole Spitalfields

The images below describe the divergence that exists across many countries. These are pieces of art in

8 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

their own right and normally come at a higher premium compared with standard off the shelf solution. Increasingly various jurisdictions are deploying street furniture in different ways using them to signpost.

Figure 5: Manhole Munich

TITLE SHARED SPACE As much as physical manifestations can affect our perception of place and how to flow through it, the concept of ‘shared space’ seeks to break away from determinism and embrace an open system where us as actors take responsibility for our movements and directions.

The concept of ‘shared space’ was first conceived over forty years ago by Hans Monderman, a traffic engineer from the Netherlands.

Monderman argues that whilst traditional tools of separation are necessary on motorways and busy highways where the single purpose is the movement of traffic, in the complex world of the public realm with its multitude of functions, they become redundant on inner-city streets. In fact, the less clutter you experience, the more you can influence behaviour.

This, he says, is because environmental context has a stronger influence on behaviour than legislation and formal rules.

If you compared two intersections, one with traffic lights, signs and boundaries and the other with no markings at all, which would be more safe? The core driving principle behind shared space design strategies seeks to eliminate the vast majority of street signs and barriers with the goal of making streets safer, more walkable places. In this form of street design, pavements and roads blur into one to create an instance where all forms of traffic share space. As a result, usual city demarcations are stripped back.

These design moves are primarily based on the concept of absence of separation which in turn makes all flows more cautious of other users in the vicinity. This causes commuters slow down, make eye contact and negotiate. Given that in this renewed system, cars do not spend time at traffic lights, it takes less time on average for them to get through the crossing, thus improving general traffic flow.10

Ben Hamilton-Baillie argues that streets and spaces that constitute the majority of our public realm play an increasingly important role in the economic and social foundations of towns and cities.

New approaches however represent a significant challenge to long-standing assumptions that underpin the conventional segregation of traffic from civic space. Such ‘shared space’ schemes raise important questions not only about utilisation but their associated risk and safety.9

A large part of the successful functioning of shared space schemes relies on the concept of edge friction.11 This is where nearby vertical elements in a drivers peripheral view provide a visual cue for how fast they are going. In a highway scenario these elements are largely nonexistent, enabling the driver to subconsciously move faster. In inner-city scenarios these vertical elements such as street trees and lamp posts play an important mental trick to slow down drivers, with spacing and separation of these elements playing an

9

10

11

distinct role. The further away these elements are spaced, the quicker drivers travel, when closer together they travel on average more slowly.

FREE FLOW In theory, shared spaces work well for pedestrians by allowing them to move around freely and follow their desired path to a location instead of being funnelled through a limited path, they can walk exactly in the direction they want to go, opening up more possibilities and improving the walkability of a city. If a city’s streets are more pleasurable to walk around, this may further encourage drivers out of their cars and walk the streets, improving overall functioning and enhancing the symbiotic relationship between the performance of pedestrian activity and motorised transport systems.

Architecture Norway. (2011). Shared Space – the Next Step in Urban Development? An Interview with Ben Hamilton-Baillie. [online] Available at http://www.architecturenorway.no/ stories/people-stories/hamiltonbaillie-11/ [Accessed 20 Mar. 2018].

Dizikes, P. (2018). When slower is faster. [online] MIT News. Available at: http://news.mit.edu/2016/no-traffic-lights-communicating- vehicles-intersections-more-efficiently-0317 [Accessed 9 Mar. 2018].

Urban Design International. (2008). Vol. 13, Issue 2, pp. 130–138.

9 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

Figure 6: Shared Space, New Road, Brighton

Figure 7: Fountain Place, Poynton, England

Figure 8: Exhibition Road, London

10 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 9: Oud-Beijerland, The Netherlands

Figure 10: Graz, Austria

11 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

Figure 11: Traffic in Noida, India

In many city streets, including those in developing nations, shared space typologies exist by default without any intentional urban planning (fig.

6). The question is whether these deliberately stripped-down designs actually make people safer. It seems in many cases they do with surveys and gathered statistics largely pointing out that the number of accidents drop after shared space schemes are installed.

In Ipswich, rates of accidents fell from 23 incidents per year over three years to one incident per year on average. In London’s Kensington High Street, the 12 13 14

number of injuries caused by collision fell by 60%. We also know that streets are quantifiably more free-flowing based on the analysis of traffic conflicts largely measured by changes in speed and course of direction of participants.12 These findings however do not mean that shared space designs work for everyone. Lord Holmes of Richmond questions the efficacy of such shared space design strategies when considering blind people and young children. In July 2015 he published a report entitled ‘Accidents by Design’ where Holmes himself called for the temporary ban on shared space design projects.13 Later in

August 2016, the Women’s and Equalities Select Committee, Building for Equality: Disability and the Built Environment, called for an enquiry into the accessibility of such environments. In April 2017 the final report called for all shared space schemes to be put on hold until the process of consulting disabled communities on such development improved.

John Dales argues however that the term ‘shared space’ should be phased out.14 As this term often suggests an open system when slight separation occurs.

EVOLUTION In the case of Elwick Square in

Kaparisas, I., Bell, M., Dong, W., Sastrawinata, A., Wang, X. and Mount, B. (2013). Analysis of Pedestrian-Vehicle Traffic Conflicts in Street Designs with Elements of Shared Space. Transportation Research Record, 21-30. doi: 10.3141/2393-03, pp. 41-42.

Lord Holmes of Richmond. (July 2015). Accidents by design: The Holmes report on “shared space” in the United Kingdom. London: pp. 20.

As Easy As Riding A Bike. (2018). Removing isn’t always better – the problem with the ‘shared space’ term. [online] Available at: https://aseasyasrid 12 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE Ashford, UK, Moody and Melia (2014) carried out a study which showed that pedestrians mainly stuck to crossing where cross walks would normally be perceived to be. 15This is largely because these open layouts can often be stressful. In the survey they conducted, people were largely anxious given the lack of signage and said that they preferred things the way they used to be.

However, ‘the way things used to be’ is a relative term. If you observe old footage of streets in the early 1900’s, cars mixed freely with pedestrians, cyclists and street cars. Vehicles couldn’t go very fast back then so there was not a huge concern about separating various flows of traffic.

This phenomenon can be observed in footage linked to a lecture given

by Dover and Massingale.16

Figure 12: T.S. Lowry, Piccadilly Circus

This phenomenon can also be observed in the work of painter T.S Lowry who creates scenes that depict shared space, many of these recorded in the early half of the 20th century. This may be down to the fact that cars where relatively new pieces of equipment and as society has aged, the adoption and use of motorised transport has increased substantially, opening up new perceptions of how interactions with streets should occur.

ingabike.wordpress.com/2016/03/09/ removing-isnt-always-better-the-problem-with-theshared-space-concept/ [Accessed 6 Feb. 2018].

15 Moody, S. and Melia, S. (2014). Shared space: Research, policy and problems.

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Transport, 167 (6). pp. 384-392.

16 YouTube. (2018). CNU 22: Street Design: The Secret to Great Cities and Towns. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ZBPmv9363-4&t=3903s [Accessed 5 Jan. 2018].

Figure 13: T.S. Lowry, Station Approach

13 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

STREET MATERIALISATION The role of surface treatments and overall street materialisation plays a defining part in shaping the quality of our streetscapes.

The plethora of materials currently available in the marketplace enables Architects and Engineers to innovate and generate spaces that serve a hierarchy of needs. With material innovation ever-present, the continual evolution of material choices opens up dialogue in how we should reimagine our urban infrastructures, targeting sustainability aspirations, safety, tourism, high-tech economies etc.

Universities play an important part in driving forward the discourse.

The University of Nebraska-Lincoln is developing a de-icing concrete to improve road safety through the creation of bridges made out of this conductive material.17 Amit Goel from the Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani presents emerging road materials and innovative application concepts to consider for rapidly expanding infrastructure networks in India.18

their method of laying need to be assessed for their suitability for occasional vehicle traffic and, in most cases, footways will need to be designed to resist axle loads of commercial servicing vehicles (approx. 8200 kg = 1 standard axle). Different surface materials can be used to subdivide large areas of hard surfacing to create different spatial effects and define routes or areas of different use.19 STREET FURNITURES Street furniture is a collective term for objects and pieces of equipment installed along streets and roads for various purposes.

It includes traffic barriers, post boxes, phone boxes, street lamps, traffic lights, memorials, benches, bollards, public lavatories, waste receptacles and traffic signs amongst others. The design and placement of furniture largely takes into account aesthetics, visual identity, function, pedestrian mobility and road safety.20

developed a certain perception, or set of intrinsic characteristics.

Long-lasting, valuable, rigid, cold, hygienic it has long been used as a material for street finish for decades.

Arabe (2004) states that Metal on the other had has connotations of machine precision and high-level engineering.21 Given its physical properties, maintenance and cost it is unlikely that this material would be suitable for street covering, however its deployment in street furnishing has merit.

Alternatively wood, which is considered a warm, organic material is heavily associated with craftsmanship, and similar to metal has more viable uses in street furnitures.

MATERIAL MEANING Whether the material covering of streets or the materialisation Ultimately, for streetscapes of street elements, examples to work successfully across can be given of physical medium communities their design requires having an embedded meaning substantial research into different and generating thoughts of how a aspects of what all people sharing material should act even before an streets require. Texture, surface interaction takes place. This has run-off, pattern and resilience are informed the choice of materials areas that are considered as well that designers have used to as maintenance and replacement. specify objects. Stone for instance It is therefore essential that, within has been used given its inherent footways, surface materials and set of properties, thus it has 17

18 19

20

21

Tuan, C. (2016). De-icing concrete could improve roadway safety. [online] news.unl.edu. Available at: https://news.unl.edu/newsrooms/today/article/de- icing-concrete-could-improve-roadway-safety/ [Accessed 4 Apr. 2018].

Goel, A. and Das, A. (2004). Emerging road materials and innovative applications. 10.13140/2.1.2757.3283.

Essex County Council. (2012). Street Materials Guide: Design and Good Practice. [online] Available at: http://www.essexhighways.org/uploads/files/ DM_Street_Materials_Guide.pdf [Accessed 5 Feb. 2018].

City of Sydney. (2018). Street Furniture. [online] Available at: http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/142588/B7-Street-furni ture.pdf [Accessed 12 Mar. 2018].

Arabe, K. (2004). Materials’ Central Role in Product Personality. [online] news.thomasnet.com. Available at: https://news.thomasnet.com/ imt/2004/03/02/materials_centr [Accessed 8 Mar. 2018].

14 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 14: 3D scan, Phonebooth

Figure 15: Parking meter

Figure 16: Bollard

Figure 17: Barrier

15 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

Figure 18: 3D polygon net, meterbox

Figure 19: deconstruction of meterbox

Figure 20: 3D polygon net, barrier

Figure 21: deconstruction of barrier

Figure 22: 3D polygon net, phonebox

Figure 23: deconstruction of phonebox

16 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE Gillian Rose (2001) suggests that the compositional interpretation of elements, or the ‘good eye’ is a type of analysis that concentrates principally on the compositional modality of the overall ‘image’ and its required attention.22 According to her string of thought, key components in an image are its content, colour, spatial organisation, light and expressive content. The German Gestalt School bolsters this observation stating that visual perception aids in relating the visual object to the visualised one. These lines of inquiry tackle the study of human visual perception less as a speculative undertaking and more as a crucial demonstrative experiment.

Materials in their own right have a long and varied history of use, this history helps us to further assign unconscious meaning to them even when certain qualities are not naturally embedded. Moreover the material, the productisation of materiality helps in shaping this conscious awareness and often refers to a layer of craftsmanship, or work added to the material.

Visual trickery can be deployed to change fundamental properties such as perceived weight, strength and shape. An example of this phenomenon can be derived from stone. In its natural state it is often perceived as rough, cumbersome and hard. However when worked a total reversal of these properties can be achieved. Cutting and sculpting stone, in the case of the Parthenon results in the material 22 23 24

acquiring a new meaning.

This has further developed over time alongside advancements in manufacturing technologies that have subsequently developed.

Improvements in technologies and material science have stimulated new material forms, properties and perceptions. As a result of this, Ashby and Johnson (2002) argue that a material is ‘like an actor, it can take on many different personalities, depending on the role it is asked to play’.23

within a single domain become engendered.24 Product designers select, work and project material meaning different to Architects and Engineers this is due to intended uses and desired material effect.

INTERACTION Fundamentally materials do not absorb a full meaning unless we interact with them. Context becomes important in this. Key to our understanding of meaning is the recognition that people distinguish materials in everyday experiences not only by technical functions but also according to what the materials mean to them. In other words, we attribute meanings to materials around us: a material may look modern or traditional, feminine or masculine.

Meanings of materials consist of expressive semantics and specific associative characteristics, both of which are used for defining the qualities of materials.

There are many definitions of meaning stemming from different disciplines, each dealing with language, psychology, behaviour and experience. Osgood et al (1957) states that the proponents within disciplines do not always agree with each other, with the result that many more definitions

Rose, G. (2001). Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials. London: SAGE Publications.

Ashby, M. and Johnson, K. (2002). Materials and Design - The Art and Science of Material Selection in Product Design. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Osgood, C., Suci, G. And Tannenbaum, P. (1957). The Measurement of Meaning. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.

17 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

Figure 24: Gate track meets cobble

Figure 25: Coloured stone clash, manhole cover

Figure 26: Step, strip and pave

Figure 27: Platform, layers of threshold

18 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 28: Texture, contrast and crossing

Figure 29: Angular friction

Figure 30: Cobble meet kerbstone

Figure 31: Colour crossing

19 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

PSYCHOLOGY OF THE STREET Fritz Strack and Roland Deutsch’s ‘Dual Process Theory’ posits that human behaviour is driven by two distinct systems, the impulsive system and reflective system.25 The impulsive system is quick to process and respond to visual cues and can be explained as our ability read human emotion. From the almost instantaneous analysis of facial expression we are able to deduce feeling. Pursed lips and dipped eyebrows enable us to quickly ascertain that someone may be feeling angry. Similarly, within the streetscape, a large ‘noentry’ or ‘slow’ sign gives us quick visual cues as to how we are to interact.

save as much energy as possible, therefore our ability to carry out multiple reflective thoughts has a toll on the body. Supermarkets often play on this when they lay out their stores. After the draining task of processing thoughts, supermarkets often see this as a prime opportunity to sell us items with high levels of sugar at the checkout.

The same principle occurs with our street interactions. If we have to think more reflectively about our overall decisions it is argued that our other thoughts become reduced. Shared surface operates on the principle of reducing the amount of visual clutter and The second system is the reflective blending the entire surface so each system and this requires our individual user must become more biological capacities to carry out cognisant of other interactions. a little more work. An example of Removing high level thought this is a mathematical equation, arguably makes it easier for us to depending on its complexity, this simply walk and cross, move and can take a fair amount of time to direct. solve and requires a heightened use of our cognitive faculties.

SELF ORGANISATION Within the realm of the street Self organisation which is also this could be manifested as a referred to as ‘spontaneous metal barrier. We understand its order’ in the social sciences is construction and purpose however a process where a degree of we often question its implicit social order arises from local effect. Does it signal no-entry, or interactions between parts of does it simply suggest that the what is considered an initially area is accessible, however not disordered system. Formulated from this angle. by cybernetician William Ross Usually slow, the biological Ashby in 1947.27 The process is largely spontaneous and does processes associated with not require any form of control reflective thought causes our 26 by an external agent. It Is often bodies blood sugar levels to drop. triggered by a series of random Biologically we are coded to

fluctuations further amplified by positive feedback. The resulting organisation of the system is wholly decentralised and distributed over all component parts. Chaos theory addresses the idea of self-organisation in terms of islands of predictability in a sea of chaotic unpredictability.28 Across a multiplicity of form including physical, biological, robotic, chemical and cognitive systems. Examples can be found in processes such as heat convection, crystallisation, chemical oscillation, animal swarming and artificial and biological neural networks.

Dictyostelium discoideum popularly known as slime mould can take the form of a strangely malleable slug-like creature that roams about in ways that are not always easy to understand (Ballantyne, 2012).

Slime mould shows signs of primitive intelligence. It can find its way through mazes and sort out the quickest route amongst alternatives despite not having an organ that resembles a brain.29

25 Strack, F. and Deutsch, R. (2004). Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 8 (3): 220–247. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1.

26 Harvard Medical School. (2018). Sugar and the Brain | Department of Neurobiology. [online] Available at: http://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/harvard-ma

honey-neuroscience-institute/brain-newsletter/and-brain-series/sugar-and-brain [Accessed 13 Mar. 2018].

27 Ashby, W. (1947). Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System. The Journal of General Psychology. 37 (2): 125–28. doi:10.1080/00221309.1947.991 8144.

28 Richards, R. (2001). A New Aesthetic for Environmental Awareness: Chaos Theory, the Beauty of Nature and Our Broader Humanistic Identity. Volume:

41 issue: 2, page(s): 59-95 doi:10.1177/0022167801412006.

29 Ballantyne, A. (2012). Architecture in the space of flows. Abingdon: Routledge.

20 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 32: Birds Flocking

Figure 33: Physarum polycephalum sample

Figure 34: Physarum polycephalum dried out

21 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

Self-organisation can further be witnessed in other natural examples such as the flocking of birds, the swarming of insects and the shoaling of fish. In these instances, individuals have a sense of self determination.

When applied to the city scale it is imperative to understand the consequence of pre-destined movement and how alternative street design schemes can open up the potential for human beings to interact with the city in numerous uncontrolled ways.

30 31

Physarum polycephalum is a plasmodial, single-celled organism which grows outward from a single point, searching for food sources. Once these have been located, the many branches it has sent out die back, leaving only the most efficient route between food source nodes. By arranging pieces of oatmeal on a Petri dish to represent railway stations, researchers at the University of Hokkaido in Japan successfully grew a slime mould model of the Tokyo rail system in 2010.30

Since then, slime has mapped the optimum transport networks of numerous cities, as well as the Silk Road and a full global trade route.31

Yong, E. (2018). Slime mould attacks simulates Tokyo rail network - Not Exactly Rocket Science. [online] Available at: http://blogs.discovermagazine. com/notrocketscience/2010/01/21/slime-mould-attacks-simulates-tokyo-rail-network/#.WspxDmaZN24 [Accessed 20 Feb. 2018].

Parr, D. (2018). Cities in motion: how slime mould can redraw our rail and road maps. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ cities/2014/feb/18/slime-mould-rail-road-transport-routes [Accessed 9 Apr. 2018].

Figure 35: Growth experiment 1

22 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 36: Growth experiment 2

Figure 37: Growth experiment 3

Figure 38: Growth experiment 4 23 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

FLOCKING Flocking occurs throughout many species on this planet from humans, to tiny organisms.32 The basic flocking model could be considered as a mathematical curve of probability. This wave consists of three overriding steering behaviours which describe how individual manoeuvres based on positions and velocities affect the overall flocking behaviour.33 Pack mentality is one of the primary human responses when we consider movement, what others are doing, what information is available for us to aid in our navigation.

ACM SIGGRAPH conference.34 The name “boid” corresponds to a shortened version of “bird-oid object”, which refers to a bird-like object.35

user and circumstances in mind.

Negative feedback provided by the behavioural controllers keep the group dynamics ordered. The result is life-like group behaviour.

Each member of the flock ‘boid’ has direct access to the entire scene, such as what is argued by the Gestalt school, but flocking requires mates within a more localised neighbourhood. This neighbourhood is qualified through a measured distance drawn from the centre of the boid.

This could be considered a model of limited perception when taking into consideration other external events such as foggy weather or muddy water.

Unpredictability over moderate time scales is a significant aspect of organic behaviour. For one moment elements of the flock with be primarily moving in one direction. Over a period of time it is difficult to assume the future direction the flock will take.

Similarly, a pedestrian on a street.

Crossings are currently mapped out in order to assume where the major crossings take place. The placement of various types of road crossings do not necessarily Separation is considered a account for the true direction that steering behaviour in how species Seemingly simple behaviours in a self-organising unit may wish to move. This is done to avoid overall a flocking model render some take. Road crossings such as the crowding over local flock mates complex group organisational Shibyua Crossing in Tokyo (fig. and provide enough space for behaviours. Non-linear, these 39), works to uphold this principle. movement to continue. Alignment organic dynamics have an overall Street-crossers are able to set is used as a device to steer the chaotic and unpredictable aspect, their own trajectory and take the overall average heading of local therefore a degree of pre-planning most effective route for them. flock mates in that each is on cannot be realised. In street design Conventional street crossings do average moving towards a certain this degree of unpredictability not normally allow this to occur in goal or specific area for a limited has warranted the creation of a such a scale. universal vocabulary in which time. Time in these instances are also difficult to predict. Cohesion all senses are drawn upon. This This property is unique to complex is further used to steer movements materialisation and further textural systems and contrasts with toward the average position of and colour elements have enabled both chaotic behaviour (which local flockmates. rules to be imbedded within has neither short nor long term the fundamental architecture of predictability) and ordered (static Boids is an artificial life our street networks rather than or periodic) behaviour. This fits programme, developed by Craig the use of more cruder means. with Langton’s 1990 observation Reynolds in 1986, which simulates Means of separation, demarcation that life-like phenomena exist the flocking behaviour of birds. His and other influencers of street poised at the edge of chaos. paper on this topic was published behaviours have become more in 1987 in the proceedings of the subtle and designed with the

32 O’Loan, O. and Evans, M. (1999). Altering steady state in one-dimensional flocking. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General. IOP Publishing.

32(8): L99, doi:10.1088/0305-4470/32/8/002.

33 Reynolds, C. (2001). Boids (Flocks, Herds, and Schools: a Distributed Behavioral Model). [online] Available at: http://www.red3d.com/cwr/boids/ [Ac

cessed 24 Mar. 2018].

34 Reynolds, C. (1987). Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model. SIGGRAPH ‘87: Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Com

puter graphics and interactive techniques. Association for Computing Machinery: 25–34. doi:10.1145/37401.37406. ISBN 0-89791-227-6.

35 Banks, A., Vincent, J. and Anyakoha, C. (2007). A review of particle swarm optimization. Part I: background and development. Natural Computing. doi:10.1007/s11047-007-9049-5.

24 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 39: Shibuya Crossing, Tokyo

NUDGE THEORY When considering the lack of demarcations required for a shared space to ultimately function and their perceived drawbacks is it possible to deploy a series of ‘Nudges’ to further enhance this form of streetscape?

Nudges are liberty-preserving approaches that steer people in particular directions. A concept in behavioural science it proposes positive reinforcement and indirect suggestion to try to achieve nonforced compliance in influencing motive, incentive and decision making of groups and individuals.

The use of nudges is seen to be a 36 37 38

low cost alternative to mandates, law and bans and is arguably better at promoting goals in comparison to more expensive and coercive tools.36 Seen to make life more simpler, safer and easier for people to navigate, the concept has often been described as a form of ‘soft paternalism’.

White lines on a road is an example of how nudge theory first made an impact within our public network of infrastructures. When motorised transport first came about the enforcement of which side of the road you must drive on was not legislated for and this

became an etiquette and later an advisory. In the United States, the first documented use of a painted line was in 1911 along the Trenton’s River Road in Wayne County, Michigan.37 According to the State of Michigan, the idea of using the painted centre lines was conceived in 1911 by Edward N. Hines, the chairman of the Wayne County, Michigan, Board of Roads after watching a leaky milk wagon leave a white trail along a road.38

Sunstein, C. (2014). Nudging: A Very Short Guide. Journal of Consumer Policy, Volume 37(4), pp. 583-588.

Cranson, J. (2011). Inventor of Highway Centerline Receives International Honor (Press release). Michigan Department of Transportation.

Staff. (2006). Edward N. Hines (1870-1938); Michigan Transportation Hall of Fame. Michigan Department of Transportation. [online] Available at: http:// www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,4616,7-151-9623_11154_41535-126420--,00.html [Accessed 24 Mar. 2018]

25 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

Figure 40: First example of white line on road

Later the idea of a white centre line was first experimented with in 1921 in Sutton Coldfied in Birmingham. The Sutton Coldfield Corporation decided to paint the line on Maney Corner in the Area of Maney.39 In 1971, a correspondent for the Sutton Coldfield News wrote an article in the newspaper recalling the event.

The line was put down as an experiment as there were a lot of accidents there, even in the early days of the motor car. The experiment proved to be so successful that the whole country adopted it as a standard road safety device, and later foreign countries paint lines on their roads, as well.

A later example of how this has impacted the network is Global Positioning Software (GPS), this prompts the user to take a certain direction (quickest, most scenic, least congested) but the driver remains free to choose another route.

Not all cases of nudge theory 39

principles can be deployed in the physical structure of streetscapes and often requires further supplementary action to be taken at a governmental level to subtilly manipulate the thoughts choices and actions of citizens. Ad campaigns, education and other tools can be used to supplement awareness and guide action. Sunstein a prominent researcher in the area of Nudge theory and posits that there are ten core nudges that are active in todays society, each targeted at achieving a specific outcome through a nuanced circumstance.

These nudges have important consequences when considering their potential impacts on an ability to influence street behaviour.

Simplification is another nudge which seeks to take often convoluted systems and reduce them to basic information.

Simplification works on the principle of reducing confusion to create intuitive and easily navigable scenarios, these are best deployed to promote take up of existing infrastructures.

When a system becomes simple it becomes second nature, when a degree of familiarity is established people become more confident in their ability to navigate a certain scenario. In the case of street design the reduction of visual clutter enables the Driver to focus solely on what is happening on the streetscape.

Default rules, such as automatic enrolment may be the most effective nudge. Default rules such as speed limits promote safety. This is because default rules are less burdensome and

time consuming to require people to judge or gauge their actions.

They remove judgement and force people to adhere to tested methodologies, such as the investigation into which street speeds are best for a certain area.

Simplification is another nudge which seeks to take often convoluted systems and reduce them to basic information.

Simplification works on the principle of reducing confusion to create intuitive and easily navigable scenarios, these are best deployed to promote take up of existing infrastructures.

When a system becomes simple it becomes second nature, when a degree of familiarity is established people become more confident in their ability to navigate a certain scenario. In the case of street design the reduction of visual clutter enables users to focus solely on what is happening on the streetscape.

Use of Social Norms is a nudge which emphasises what most people do, e.g. “most people wait for the green light before crossing�. This information is most powerful when specific, to say most people in your area.

Furthermore the use of social norms i.e. what most people do, who is engaged on this behaviour?

Makes people more cognisant of their own actions. If it is widely accepted that people slow down in a certain area, people are more likely to uphold this behaviour.

All social norms become more powerful in instances where they are more local and specific.

Increase in ease and convenience, making low-cost, pragmatic

Jones, D. (1994). The Royal Town of Sutton Coldfield: A Commemorative History. Sutton Coldfield: Westwood Press. ISBNÂ 0-9502636-7-2.

26 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE this fun and easy is more likely to increase adoption and adherence.

Warnings, graphics or otherwise including signposts are commonly used to trigger attention to certain issues. This is seen as another

popular nudge tactic. However research suggests that people may respond to this form of knowledge by simply discounting it.

Cost / benefit (Is it worth it?)

- Probabilities

- Gains vs loss

- Temporal distance

- Motivational Bias Self-efficacy during implementation (Can I do this?)

- Familiarity

- Training

- Self-esteem Social norms (What are others doing?)

- Informative influence

- Normative influence

Accessibility (Ease of implementation)

- Info about concrete behaviour

- Ensuring availability

- Info about availability Defaults (Behavioural defaults and status quo)

- Info about norms

- Implicating responsibility Implementation Intentions (Planning )

- If-then-rules

- Situations as reminders

Figure 41: Street Barriers, Kensington High Street, London

27 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

BEHAVIOUR

Attention (Awareness of own behaviour)

- Situational feedback

- Self-monitoring

- Mirrors

INTENTION

INFORMATION

options more visible or useful.

Reducing various barriers (such as the time it takes to understand what to do) is often helpful.

Resistance to change is often not a product of disagreement, but perceived difficulty. Making

INNOVATION “Learning and innovation go hand in hand. The arrogance of success is to think that what you did yesterday will be sufficient for tomorrow. ” ― William Pollard Continuous innovation in both material and precesses are being to impact upon the urban fabric. These innovations enable creatives to create even more layered and responsive projects.

Supplemented by material science and innovation it is possible for a road to be more than simple a road.

Brick roads have been around for centuries. They are durable and pleasing to the eye, with a technical specification conducive to good street performance including friction coefficients, axial loading capacities and low porosities. Brick pavers are also easy to repair and replace and come at a relatively low cost in

comparison to other materials.

The ‘Tiger Stone’ was invented

by Henk van Kuijk. This machine is as wide as a road and lays bricks down as it slowly moves along. The tread-tracked machine is powered by electricity and has very few moving parts. The secrete behind the invention lies in a cleverly designed gravity-feed system. As the electric crawler inches forward along a sand base layer, the bricks are automatically packed together by gravity.

The Tiger-Stone can lay out an impressive 400 square meters of road a day. All the worker has to do is load the bricks by band from a hopper into the Tiger-Stone in the desired pattern.

Illumination, information and street art innovation comes from Studio Dan Roosegaarde. ‘Smart Highway’ is an interactive and sustainable road for tomorrow developed in collaboration with Heijmans Infrastructure. Its goal is to make smart roads by using

Figure 42: Van Gogh Pathway

28 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

light, energy and information that interact with the traffic situation.

Smart Highway consists of glowing lines that are charged during the day-time and glow at night. New designs include Dynamic Paint, Interactive Light, Induction Priority Lane, smart coatings, energy harvesting, sensors and other media.

The Pavegen technology makes use of the piezoelectric effect which uses crystals places under pressure to produce and electric charge. Manufacturing processes of today has made it possible to place these devices in unlikely places. Pavegen has developed power-generating systems for pavements, football fields and workplace corridors.

If we imagine the potential of technologies out there it is not inconceivable to think that our streetscapes can serve more functions other than accommodating flow.

TITLE CONCLUSION When considering the potential of our streetscapes it is clear that there is a considerable degree of under-utilised potential. Pattern, colour, texture and other aspects derived from explorations in form and materialisation has a strong ability to positively influence street behaviour for the benefit of society. Considering each aspect of the streetscape insularly results in poor design and outcomes. An accomplished solution should seek to consider the manifestation of the ‘street’ in its totality. A firm balance must be struck between physical design moves and wider institutional reform to create future resilient infrastructures as well as influencing the ‘hearts and minds’ of each citizen to ensure adoption and effective use. This can truly open up new potentials in reimagining our streetscapes to fashion new aesthetics and uses.

It is clear that a successful street is one that responds to and serves a diverse hierarchy of needs. A street is so much more than a corridor, it is a destination it its own right. We must craft and manipulate materials if we are to enhance place and character as well as develop new programmes.

Material innovation is a space for architects, urban planners and engineers to move into together so that options and ideas are well explored across a multi-disciplinary framework.

As streets further take on new meanings it is inevitable that this will challenge the established paradigm of internal and external spaces and how this boundary

is defined. As inner-city space becomes more valuable and less abundant, it is therefor paramount that we consider novel street requirements. We should preserve the public realm, and maintain spaces that are free and open for all to use. However how we can truly use these areas remains an open and ever changing discussion. For too long, space within cities are disproportionally dedicated to car transport, this must change. Tactics to support this development in my belief strongly aligns with the potential of shared space design strategies.

Shared space as a concept is garnering increasing interest globally and rightly so. This could be the answer to how we begin to reimagine our streetscapes and inner city spaces, no longer segregating flow, but opening up space for a variety of new uses. Unlocking free flow has the potential to further movement within the city and link people, communities and various products faster and more directly. As users begin to move in different patterns, facilitated by nondeterministic avenues, new relationships have the potential to form. Within the framework of shared space, the potential exists to re-imagine these spaces and forge new directions supported by material innovation.

To achieve this in a meaningful way infrastructures must exist and be developed to eliminate the necessity of taking motorised transport into the city. This can be achieved through increased

29 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

and more effective bus, train, tram, cycle hubs and other transportation networks. This can ensure that there is a clear hierarchy of transportation needs that serves to facilitate movement across a wide range of scales, not purely city, or suburb, but continents also.

Despite the perceived faults of shared space design strategies, the concept throughout the United Kingdom is in a relative infancy. It is therefore imperative and necessary for practitioners to champion this space and seek creative solutions that work for as broad a cross-section of the community as possible. Disabled, children or otherwise, extensive work in the area of shared space can unlock some of the negative issues surrounding this form of development. I believe that texture and colour can play a more dominant role. Good stakeholder engagement in developing these schemes is essential and with the emergence of new representation techniques and facilities such as virtual reality, 3d printing and laser technologies it is becoming easier to marry visual representations with tactile objects. This will enable iterative design to flourish and ensure that consultation, development and buy-in are obtained across all aspects of design and implementation processes.

Through research it is clear that material and form has the potential to reinforce decision making and influence compliance, motive, incentive and decision making. It

is therefore essential that balance is struck between openness and mandates, that people are able to act as self organising citizens in a safe environment where a base set of rules is still adhered to. It is clear from the research that shared space design schemes generally result in reduced road traffic accidents. With the reduction of bollards, signs and other ephemeral, money saved could be funnelled into implementing exemplar street materialisation and generating city scapes that respond fundamentally to the human psyche and emotion.

schemes in the UK, there are several examples which have proven successful. We can look to our European neighbours also to understand more the various moves and associated outcomes with their street design schemes and derive an understanding of the best course of development.

Exploring the potential of swarm and flocking it is possible for naturalistic urges to be retrofitted within the urban grain to revise existing machine-led patterns of development. Shared space schemes make it possible to bring pedestrians, cyclists and motorists together underpinned by texture and imbedded material meaning.

In all I believe that we are continuing on a fascinating discourse where as a society we are developing a crucial understanding of the potential of our streetscapes and biology and how a strong consideration and Taking our queues from nature and development of the phenomenon beginning to shift how we design of street morphology and will become ever more important materialisation will unlock our as we begin to synthesis design streets for generations to come. with research and seek to create the most effective outcomes that

Despite work being relatively slow in the development of these

Figure 43: Typical crossing

Reflecting on other facets such as the deployment of street furnitures and vegetation it is possible for these aspects all to coalesce. However more work is required to understand the exact implication of overall form making and materiality. It is imperative for designers to look beyond their own field and engage with other practitioners such as psychologists, scientists and others to further tackle problems facing us in the future.

balance inputs and outputs across a range of societal levels. I believe that the true reconciliation of this topic will involve work carried out across a range of scales and levels from kerbstone to wider city infrastructure. The time and magnitude required to make such changes across these levels will be considerable and will take decades to fully develop. Similarly to all biological processes a slow, controlled and responsive form of evolution must take place to ensure that contextually this concept evolves to fit place and character.

Figure 44: Bio crossing 30 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 45: Texture scan 31 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

REFERENCES Arabe, K. (2004). Materials’ Central Role in Product Personality. [online] news.thomasnet.com. Available at: https://news.thomasnet.com/ imt/2004/03/02/materials_centr [Accessed 8 Mar. 2018].

Architecture Norway. (2011). Shared Space – the Next Step in Urban Development? An Interview with Ben Hamilton-Baillie. [online] Available at http:// www.architecturenorway.no/ stories/people-stories/hamiltonbaillie-11/ [Accessed 20 Mar. 2018].

As Easy As Riding A Bike. (2018). Removing isn’t always better – the problem with the ‘shared space’ term. [online] Available at: https:// aseasyasridingabike.wordpress.com/2016/03/09/removing-isnt-always-better-the-problem-with-the-shared-space-concept/ [Accessed 6 Feb. 2018].

Ashby, M. and Johnson, K. (2002). Materials and Design - The Art and Science of Material Selection in Product Design. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Ashby, W. (1947). Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System. The Journal of General Psychology. 37 (2): 125–28. doi:10.1080/00221309.1947.9918 144.

Bal, R. (2015). The Road Printing Machine, Tiger-Stone - Engineer Pal. [online] Engineer Pal. Available at: http://engineerpal.com/the-road-printingmachine/ [Accessed 5 Feb. 2018].

Ballantyne, A. (2012). Architecture in the space of flows. Abingdon: Routledge.

Banks, A., Vincent, J. and Anyakoha, C. (2007). A review of particle swarm optimization. Part I: background and development. Natural Computing. doi:10.1007/s11047-007-9049-5.

Bateson, G. (1972). Conscious purpose versus nature. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing Co., pp. 426-439.

Benyus, J. (2002). Biomimicry: innovation inspired by nature. New York: Perennial Chiras, D. (1992). Lessons from nature: learning to live sustainably on the earth. Washington, D.C., Island Press.

City of Sydney. (2018). Street Furniture. [online] Available at: http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/142588/B7-Streetfurniture.pdf [Accessed 12 Mar. 2018].

Cranson, J. (2011). Inventor of Highway Centerline Receives International Honor (Press release). Michigan Department of Transportation.

Dizikes, P. (2018). When slower is faster. [online] MIT News. Available at: http://news.mit.edu/2016/no-traffic-lights-communicating-vehicles-intersectionsmore-efficiently-0317 [Accessed 9 Mar. 2018].

Dover, V. and Massengale, J. (2014). Street Design, the secret to great cities and towns. New Jersey: Wiley.

Essex County Council. (2012). Street Materials Guide: Design and Good Practice. [online] Available at: http://www.essexhighways.org/uploads/files/DM_ Street_Materials_Guide.pdf [Accessed 5 Feb. 2018] Essex Works. (2012). Street Materials Guide: Design and Good Practice. London: Essex County Council Publishers Gehl, J. (2010). Cities for People. Washington DC: Island Press.

Goel, A. and Das, A. (2004). Emerging road materials and innovative applications. 10.13140/2.1.2757.3283.

Harvard Medical School. (2018). Sugar and the Brain | Department of Neurobiology. [online] Available at: http://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/harvardmahoney-neuroscience-institute/brain-newsletter/and-brain-series/sugar-and-brain [Accessed 13 Mar. 2018].

Jacobs, A. (1995). Great Streets. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House.

Jones, D. (1994). The Royal Town of Sutton Coldfield: A Commemorative History. Sutton Coldfield: Westwood Press. ISBN 0-9502636-7-2.

Kahneman, D. (2014). Thinking Fast and Slow. London: Penguin.

Kaparisas, I., Bell, M., Dong, W., Sastrawinata, A., Wang, X. and Mount, B. (2013). Analysis of Pedestrian-Vehicle Traffic Conflicts in Street Designs with Elements of Shared Space. Transportation Research Record, 21-30. doi: 10.3141/2393-03, pp. 41-42.

Karana, E. (2010). How do Materials Obtain Their Meanings?. METU Journal of Faculty of Architecture, 27(2), pp. 271-285.

Lord Holmes of Richmond. (July 2015). Accidents by design: The Holmes report on “shared space” in the United Kingdom. London: pp. 20.

Marshall, S. (2005). Streets and Patterns. Abingdon: Routledge.

Moody, S. and Melia, S. (2014). Shared space: Research, policy and problems. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Transport, 167 (6). pp.

384-392.

32 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE Moughtin, C. and Miguel, M. (1992). Urban Design, Street and Square. Oxford: Elsevier.

Norton, B. (1994). Ecology and prophecy for the new millennium. Bioscience 44: pp. 37-39.

O’Loan, O. and Evans, M. (1999). Altering steady state in one-dimensional flocking. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General. IOP Publishing.

32(8): L99, doi:10.1088/0305-4470/32/8/002.

Osgood, C., Suci, G. And Tannenbaum, P. (1957). The Measurement of Meaning. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.

Parr, D. (2018). Cities in motion: how slime mould can redraw our rail and road maps. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ cities/2014/feb/18/slime-mould-rail-road-transport-routes [Accessed 9 Apr. 2018].

Ramboll Nyvig. (2007). Shared Space > Safe Space: Meeting the requirements of blind and partially sighted people (Research report). Reading, UK: The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association.

Reynolds, C. (1987). Flocks, herds and schools: A distributed behavioral model. SIGGRAPH ‘87: Proceedings of the 14th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques. Association for Computing Machinery: 25–34. doi:10.1145/37401.37406. ISBN 0-89791-227-6.

Reynolds, C. (2001). Boids (Flocks, Herds, and Schools: a Distributed Behavioral Model). [online] Available at: http://www.red3d.com/cwr/boids/ [Accessed 24 Mar. 2018].

Richards, R. (2001). A New Aesthetic for Environmental Awareness: Chaos Theory, the Beauty of Nature and Our Broader Humanistic Identity. Volume: 41 issue: 2, page(s): 59-95 https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167801412006.

Roosegaarde, D. Glowing Lines | Smart Highway | Studio Roosegaarde. [online] Studioroosegaarde.net. Available at: https://www.studioroosegaarde.net/ project/glowing-lines [Accessed 30 Mar. 2018].

Rose, G. (2001). Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials. London: SAGE Publications.

Shadbolt, P. (2015). Future cities may harvest energy from human footsteps - CNN. [online] CNN. Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/2014/12/30/tech/ innovation/tomorrow-transformed-energy-harvesting/index.html [Accessed 21 Mar. 2018].

Staff. (2006). Edward N. Hines (1870-1938); Michigan Transportation Hall of Fame. Michigan Department of Transportation. [online] Available at: http:// www.michigan.gov/mdot/0,4616,7-151-9623_11154_41535-126420--,00.html [Accessed 24 Mar. 2018] Strack, F. and Deutsch, R. (2004). Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 8 (3): 220–247. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1.

Sudjic, D. (2016). The Language of Cities. London: Allen Lane.

Sunstein, C. (2014). Nudging: A Very Short Guide. Journal of Consumer Policy, Volume 37(4), pp. 583-588.

The Chartered Institute of Highways & Transportation. (2007). Manual for Streets. 1st ed. London: ICE Publishing.

Clarke, E. (2006). The Evolution of Shared Space; the alternative approach to calming traffic. Traffic engineering and control. vol. 47, no8, London: Hemming. pp. 290-292.

The Report of the Ecological Society of America Committee on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management, Norman L. Christensen; Ann M. Bartuska; James H. Brown; Stephen Carpenter; Carla D’Antonio; Rober Francis; Jerry F. Franklin; James A. MacMahon; Reed F. Noss; David J. Parsons; Charles H. Peterson; Monica G. Turner; Robert G. Woodmansee., Ecological Applications, Vol.6, No.3. (Aug., 1996), pp. 665-691.

Trancik, R. (1986). Finding Lost Space; Theories of Urban Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.

Tuan, C. (2016). De-icing concrete could improve roadway safety. [online] news.unl.edu. Available at: https://news.unl.edu/newsrooms/today/article/deicing-concrete-could-improve-roadway-safety/ [Accessed 4 Apr. 2018].

Ungers, M. (2011). Morphologie. Köln: Walther König.

Urban Design International. (2008). Vol. 13, Issue 2, pp. 130–138.

Vernez-Mouden, A. (1987). Public Streets for Public Use. New York: Columbia University Press.

Yong, E. (2018). Slime mould attacks simulates Tokyo rail network - Not Exactly Rocket Science. [online] Available at: http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/ notrocketscience/2010/01/21/slime-mould-attacks-simulates-tokyo-rail-network/#.WspxDmaZN24 [Accessed 20 Feb. 2018].

YouTube. (2018). CNU 22: Street Design: The Secret to Great Cities and Towns. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBPmv93634&t=3903s [Accessed 5 Jan. 2018].

33 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

IMAGE REFERENCES

Figure 27: Author

Figure 1: ‘City Metaphors’ Source: O.M. Ungers Morphologie.

Figure 2: ‘Map of Rome’ Source: Giambattista, Nolli.

Figure 3: Morita, S. (n.d.). Documenting The Beautiful Designs of Manhole Covers in Japan. [image] Available at: https://laughingsquid.com/ documenting-the-beautiful-designs-of-manhole-covers-in-japan/ [Accessed 10 Feb. 2018].

Figure 28: Author Figure 29: Author Figure 30: Author Figure 31: Author

Figure 4: Spitalfields Life (2011). The Manhole Covers of Spitalfields. [image] Available at: http://spitalfieldslife.com/2011/01/05/the-manholecovers-of-spitalfields/ [Accessed 8 Mar. 2018].

Figure 32: How It Works (2015). Birds Flocking. [image] Available at: https://www.howitworksdaily.com/why-do-birds-flock-together/ [Accessed 10 Nov. 2017].

Figure 5: Travelwriticus (2016). Manhole Cover in Munich. [image] Available at: http://www.travelwriticus.com/manhole-cover-munich/ [Accessed 8 Apr. 2018].

Figure 33: Author

Figure 6: DeFacto (2017). New Road, Brighton. [image] Available at: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:New_Road,_Brighton_-_shared_space. jpg [Accessed 8 Apr. 2018].

Figure 35: Author

Figure 7: PublicRealm (n.d.). Fountain Place, Poynton, East Cheshire.. [image] Available at: https://publicrealm.org/total-design/ [Accessed 7 Apr. 2018].

Figure 37: Author

Figure 8: CNN (2015). Exhibition Road London. [image] Available at: https:// edition.cnn.com/2015/10/05/living/shared-spaces-future-cities/index.html [Accessed 7 Mar. 2018].

Figure 39: Tokyo for 91 days (2018). Shibuya Crossing. [image] Available at: http://tokyo.for91days.com/shibuya-crossing-and-hachiko/ [Accessed 10 Feb.2018].

Figure 9: Mobycon (2015). Oud-Beijerland. [image] Available at: http:// www.mobycon.com/action/news/item/1219/dick-van-veen-interviewed-bybbc-about-shared-space.html [Accessed 3 Apr. 2018].

Figure 40: Wikicommons

Figure 10: Fischer, W. (2016). Shared Space in Graz (Austria). [image] Available at: http://www.eltis.org/discover/news/shared-space-grazaustria-0 [Accessed 7 Mar. 2018].

Figure 42: Studio Roosegaarde (n.d.). Van Gogh Pathway. [image] Available at: https://www.studioroosegaarde.net/project/van-gogh-path/intro [Accessed 12 Jan. 2018].

Figure 11: Whats Up Noida (2018). Noida. [image] Available at: https:// www.whatsuplife.in/noida/blog/avoid-worst-traffic-choke-points-noidaghaziabad/[Accessed 8 Feb. 2018].

Figure 43: Author

Figure 12: Lowry, L.S (1960). Piccadilly Circus’ [Canvas, Oil paint].

Figure 45: Author

Figure 13: Lowry, L.S. (1962). Station Approach [Canvas, Oil paint].

Figure 46: Author

Figure 34: Author

Figure 36: Author

Figure 38: Author

Figure 41: Wikicommons

Figure 44: Author

Figure 14: Author Figure 15: Author Figure 16: Author Figure 17: Author Figure 18: Author Figure 19: Author Figure 20: Author Figure 21: Author Figure 22: Author Figure 23: Author Figure 24: Author Figure 25: Author Figure 26: Author

34 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation

TITLE

Figure 46: Texture scan 2 35 Phenomenon of Street Morphology and Materialisation