Progressive Crop Consultant - September/October 2021 by JCS Marketing, Inc.

September / October 2021 Don’t Let Phosphorus Erode Away

VINEYARD REVIEW Activator Spray Adjuvant Selection in Trees and Vines LODI RULES for Sustainable Winegrowing: A Quality Winegrape Program Nitrogen Fertilization Alters Phosphorus Status of Grapevines

September 16-17, 2021 - Visalia, California Register at progressivecrop.com/conference SEE PAGE 38-39 FOR MORE INFORMATION

Volume 6: Issue 5

PUBLISHER: Jason Scott Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com EDITOR: Marni Katz ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com Phone: 559.352.4456 Fax: 559.472.3113 Web: www.progressivecrop.com

IN THIS ISSUE

Nitrogen Regulations in California and the Certified Crop Adviser’s Role

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS & INDUSTRY SUPPORT

New Knowledge-Based Information Developed to Enhance Water and Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Desert Fresh Market Carrots

Don’t Let Phosphorus Erode Away

Ongoing University of California Hemp Research to Address Water, N issues

Mark Cady Senior Environmental Scientist, California Department of Food and Agriculture, Fertilizer Research and Education Program

VINEYARD REVIEW

Activator Spray Adjuvant Selection in Trees and Vines

LODI RULES for Sustainable Winegrowing: A Quality Winegrape Program

Nitrogen Fertilization Alters Phosphorus Status of Grapevines and Their Association with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

Clifford P. Ohmart, Ph.D. Ohmart Consulting Services Jerome Pier Chair, Western Region Certified Crop Advisers Association

Michael Cahn Rhonda Smith UCCE Irrigation and Water UCCE Farm Advisor, Sonoma Resources Advisor, Monterey County County Tian Tian Daniel Geisseler UCCE Area Viticulture Farm Nutrient Management Advisor, Kern County Specialist, UC Davis Jeannette E. Warnert Ali Montazar Communications Specialist, UCCE Irrigation and Water UC ANR Management Advisor, Imperial County Eryn Wingate Agronomist, Tri-Tech Ag Franz Niederholzer Products, Inc. UCCE Farm Advisor, Colusa and Sutter/Yuba Counties

UC COOPERATIVE EXTENSION ADVISORY BOARD

Surendra Dara

UCCE Entomology and Biologicals Advisor, San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties

Kevin Day

Steven Koike Tri-Cal Diagnostics

Jhalendra Rijal

UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Stanislaus County

UCCE Pomology Farm Advisor, Tulare and Kings Counties Kris Tollerup UCCE Integrated Pest Management Advisor, Fresno, CA Elizabeth Fichtner UCCE Farm Advisor, Mohammad Yaghmour Kings and Tulare Counties UCCE Area Orchard Systems Advisor, Kern County Katherine Jarvis-Shean UCCE Orchard Systems Advisor, Sacramento, Solano and Yolo Counties

The articles, research, industry updates, company profiles, and advertisements in this publication are the professional opinions of writers and advertisers. Progressive Crop Consultant does not assume any responsibility for the opinions given in the publication.

September / October 2021

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Nitrogen Regulations in California and the Certified Crop Adviser’s Role By MARK CADY | Senior Environmental Scientist, California Department of Food and Agriculture, Fertilizer Research and Education Program and JEROME PIER | Chair, Western Region Certified Crop Advisers Association

California Certified Crop Advisers (CCAs) are an integral part of the nitrogen management compliance picture (all photos by Vicky Boyd.)

n the last 10 or more years, water quality regulations that address nitrate in groundwater have expanded dramatically. Starting in 2012, the regulatory agencies charged with protecting California’s water quality have increased their scrutiny of and demands on agriculture. So, it is essential for crop consultants to understand the regulations and how regulations affect their customers.

Regulatory History

The challenges associated with nitrate in groundwater and its sources have been recognized for at least a generation. In 1987, the California State Legislature directed the State Water Resources Control Board to prepare a report on nitrate contamination in drinking water. The convened expert panel reported that agriculture was likely an important contributor to nitrate in groundwater. In 2012, however, the regulatory 4

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landscape changed dramatically. First, a major study of nitrate in California drinking water was published by UC Davis. This sprawling effort, titled Addressing Nitrate in California’s Drinking Water, focused on the Tulare Lake Basin and the Salinas Valley. The multi-volume report was produced by the UC Davis Center for Watershed Sciences. It showed that nitrate problems would likely worsen for the next several decades and that most nitrate currently in drinking water wells was applied to the surface decades earlier. An important conclusion of the report was that agricultural fertilizers and animal wastes applied to cropland are by far the largest regional sources of nitrate in groundwater. Thus, in the last decade, the State and Regional Water Boards have been more assertive in regulating agricultural contributions to groundwater nitrate. The Central Valley Irrigated Lands Regulatory Program (ILRP) started in the September / October 2021

first part of this century with a focus on pesticides in surface water. That focus expanded in 2012 when the ‘Waste Discharge Requirements for the Eastern San Joaquin River Watershed (ESJ) General Order’ was first adopted by the Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board (CVRWQCB). This order required grower reporting of nitrogen fertilizer applied to cropland and estimates of the nitrogen removed with harvested crops, so the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer use could be calculated. Growers record this information in their Nitrogen Management Plans (NMPs) as specified by the CVRWQCB. The reporting of NMP data was carried out through the ESJ Water Quality Coalition, a grower-led intermediary that anonymized the data and provided statistical analysis on a township basis. A component of the statistical analysis is identification of outlier values (i.e., parcels where the nitrogen efficiency

Continued on Page 6

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Continued from Page 4

use both A/R and A-R (the nitrogen efficiency ratio and the total excess nitrogen, respectively) to evaluate compliance. All regional boards are required to adopt these precedents into orders by February 2023. The CVRWQCB updated its ILRP orders in 2019.

is low relative to others in township.) These outlier growers are then targeted for outreach and increasing reporting requirements. Growers in all regions of the Central Valley are represented by coalitions. Nitrogen reporting requirements are now in place for all Central Valley regions and crops with the exception of rice.

Another major nitrate-related regulatory effort in the Central Valley is the Central Valley Salinity Alternatives for Long-Term Sustainability (CV-SALTS). This is a multi-stakeholder effort that seeks to manage the long-term loading of salts in the Central Valley. Of interest here is the focus on nitrate. The CVRWQCB adopted the regulations proposed by the CV-SALTS stakeholders in 2018. The goals of CV-SALTS regulations are “1) to ensure a safe drinking water supply; 2) to achieve balanced salt and nitrate loadings; and 3) to implement long-term and managed aquifer restoration programs where reasonable, feasible and practicable.”

In 2018, the State Water Board stepped into the picture and revised the ESJ Order to include new provisions to be precedential to all regional boards. The precedents adopted include reporting of nitrogen application (A) to and removal (R) from cropland, reporting of irrigation water used, testing on-farm domestic wells for nitrate and reporting nitrate exceedances to the well users. With these new requirements, the NMPs became the Irrigation and Nitrogen Management Plans (INMPs). The regional boards were directed to

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While the CVSALTS process affects all discharges in the Central Valley, each of the above goals represent challenges to growers in terms of costs of compliance and improving nitrogen fertilizer management. Fortunately for growers, the administration of regulatory requirements is handled by the coalitions that were established for the ILRP. Looking again at 2012, the Central Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board (CCRWQCB) adopted its first order to require reporting of nitrogen applications. This information was

September / October 2021

reported directly to the Regional Water Board. Just this year, the CCRWQCB adopted the updated “Ag Order 4.0,” incorporating the ESJ precedents and setting long-term limits on excess nitrogen applied to crops. Farming operations must now submit information on nitrogen applied to and removed from cropland. The order includes a schedule of targets for excess nitrogen fertilizer roughly defined as A-R. After 2026, specific excess nitrogen targets are in place for all crops. Those targets rachet down from 300 lbs/ac in 2026 to just 50 lbs/ac in 2050. For reference, the CCRWQCB estimates that currently only approximately 6% of the acres of high-value crops meet the 2050 benchmark. The situation in the Central Valley is different than in the Central Coast. The Central Valley coalitions have developed a methodology to determine what those targets should be on a township basis. The methodology, a sophisticated modelling effort for the entire Central Valley, has been approved by the CVRWQCB Executive Officer and is scheduled to produce target excess nitrogen values in 2023.

The Crop Adviser’s Role

California Certified Crop Advisers (CCAs) are an integral part of the nitrogen management compliance picture. The CVRWQCB determined that CCAs who received special training in nitrogen management are qualified to certify growers’ INMPs. There are now nearly 900 CCAs eligible to certify INMPs. For several years, CCAs became eligible to certify Central Valley growers’ NMPs through training received via a day-and-a-half in-person conference given once a year and presented by UC faculty. Funded by the CDFA Fertilizer Research and Education Program (FREP), this successfully certified nearly 1,000 CCAs. On October 1, 2020, the certification program changed to a Nitrogen Management Specialty category managed by the International Certified Crop Adviser organization. All CCAs who had the nitrogen management certification were “grandfathered” into the

new Nitrogen Management Specialty category. CCAs who had not yet been certified now must take the Nitrogen Specialty category exam to be qualified to sign INMPs. UC staff developed online training modules to assist CCAs in passing the specialty exam. The training is available to any CCA and provides 16 continuing education units (CEUs) for a cost of $120. More information regarding the online training and the specialty exam can be found at certifiedcropadvisor.org/ca-nsp/. CCAs who have the California Nitrogen Management Specialty (CA-NSP) category must obtain eight CEUs in nutrient management and seven CEUs in soil and water management over two years but are still only required to obtain 40 total CEUs to maintain their certification. There is an additional fee required to maintain the CA-NSP. CCAs may find that certifying INMPs, especially the irrigation portions of the forms, moves them out of the nutrient management comfort zones. Because

we all recognize the importance of irrigation management in nitrogen management, we can also realize that it’s a crucial area for CCAs to step into. Information regarding anticipated crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and irrigation water to be applied is required in the INMPs. Instructions provided with the plans suggest that the UC or coalition may provide the information to complete the ETc question, but the data are not readily available. To resolve the conflicts involving ETc determination, a statewide project was funded to create an accepted clearinghouse of coefficient values for the major crops in California. The project is nearing completion and should go a long way to helping CCAs provide accurate answers for the ETc questions in the INMP. Alternatively, this year, a project involving the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Environmental Defense Fund and a host of other partners will make ETc data available through interactive maps on the web. The project is

called OpenET and is set to be released by the end of the year. FREP is holding its annual conference this year in San Luis Obispo from October 26-28. There will be sessions on OpenET, ILRP water quality coalitions and other nutrient and irrigation management topics. For more information, see cdfa.ca.gov/is/ffldrs/frep/FREPConference.html. Mark Cady is currently supervisor of the CDFA FREP. His understanding of water quality regulation comes from four years as an environmental scientist with the CVRWQCB. FREP’s role is to fund and facilitate research and education to advance the environmentally safe and agronomically sound use and handling of fertilizing materials. Please visit cdfa.ca.gov/is/ffldrs/frep for more information. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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New Knowledge-Based Information Developed to Enhance Water and Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Desert Fresh Market Carrots By ALI MONTAZAR | UCCE Irrigation and Water Management Advisor, Imperial County DANIEL GEISSELER | Nutrient Management Specialist, UC Davis and MICHAEL CAHN | UCCE Irrigation and Water Resources Advisor, Monterey County Carrot field under furrow irrigation system in the Imperial Valley (all photos by A. Montazar.)

arrots are one of the 10 major optimize irrigation and N management, limitations, the measurements were commodities in Imperial County, enhance water and nitrogen use efficarried out from five sub-areas selected with an average acreage of nearly ciency and achieve full economic gains (50 feet x 50 feet) in an experimental 16,000 over the past decade. The farm in a sustainable soil and water quality assigned plot (400 feet x 400 feet) with gate value of fresh market and proapproach. a homogeneous soil type, which was cessing carrots was about $66 million the dominant soil at the site. These in 2019. In the low desert region, fresh This study aimed to quantify optimal areas represented common irrigation market and processing carrots are plant- N and water applications under curand N fertilizer management practices ed from September to December for rent management practices and to fill followed by growers. harvest from January to May. Most carknowledge gaps for N and water manrots are typically sprinkler irrigated for agement in carrots through conducting The actual consumptive water use stand establishment and subsequently experimental trials in the low desert of (actual crop evapotranspiration (ET)) furrow irrigated for the remainder of California. This article presents some was measured using the residual of the the growing season. However, there of the information developed for desert energy balance method with a comare fields that are irrigated by solid set fresh market carrots. bination of surface renewal and eddy sprinkler systems the entire crop season. covariance equipment (fully automated Field Trials and Measurements ET tower, Fig. 3, see page 10). As an Carrot is a cool-season crop that deField trials were conducted on fresh affordable tool to estimate actual crop mands specific growing conditions and market carrot cultivars at the UC ET, Tule Technology sensors were also effective use of nitrogen (N) and water Desert Research and Extension Center set up at all experimental sites. The applications for successful commercial (DREC) and four commercial fields in Tule ET data were verified using the production. N and water management the low desert region during the 2019ET estimates from the fully automated in carrot is crucial for increasing crop 20 and 2020-21 seasons (Table 1, see ET tower. Canopy images were taken productivity and decreasing costs and page 10). The sites represent various on weekly to a 15-day basis utilizing an nitrate leaching losses. The N needs of aspects of nitrogen applied (N applicainfrared camera (NDVI digital camera) carrots for optimum storage root yield tions ranged between 176 and 272 lbs to quantify crop canopy coverage over depends on the climate, soil texture ac-1), irrigation water applied (varied the crop season. Actual soil nitrate conand conditions, residual soil N from from 1.6 to 2.9 ac-feet/ac), irrigation tent (NO3-N) at the crop root zone (one the previous season and irrigation systems (three fields under sprinkler to five feet) and the total N percentage management. There is not enough irrigation and two fields under furrow in tops and roots were determined research on N management to free irrigation) and soil types (sandy loam pre-seeding, post-harvest and monthly local growers of the worry associatto silty clay loam). over the season. Plant measurements ed with being short on the amounts were carried out on 40-plant samples applied, which may cause a loss in The DREC trials consisted of two collected randomly per replication of yield and profitability. The industry irrigation regimes and three nitrogen each treatment/sub-area, and deterneeds reliable information on N and scenarios (Fig. 2, see page 10). At the consumptive water use of carrots to commercial sites, due to logistical Continued on Page 10 8

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Experimental Site

Seeding (first irrigation) Date

Harvest Date

Irrigation Practices

DREC-1

Oct 11, 2019

Mar 18, 2020

Sprinker

DREC-2

Oct 14, 2020

Mar 21, 2021

Sprinker

Oct 24, 2019

Mar 30, 2020

Sprinker

Oct 2, 2019

Mar 19, 2020

Furrow

Oct 4, 2019

Mar 17, 2020

Furrow

Oct 2, 2020

Apr 12, 2021

Sprinker

Table 1: General information for the experimental sites. Plants were established using sprinkler irrigation at all sites.

Continued from Page 8 minations were made on marketable yield and biomass accumulation. Fresh weight and dry weight of roots and foliage were measured on a regular basis.

Findings and Recommendations

Irrigation Management

The common irrigation practice in carrot stand establishment in the low desert is to irrigate the field every other day using sprinkler systems during the first two weeks after seeding. Carrots germinate slowly, and hence, the beds need to be kept moist to prevent crusting. A comparison between the averages of applied water and actual consumptive water use for a 30-day period after seeding suggested that carrots are typically over-irrigated during plant establishment. An average of 3.8 inches was measured as actual consumptive water use for this period across the experimental sites (Fig. 4, see page 12), while the applied water varied from two to three times of this amount.

The results clearly demonstrated that the carrot sites had variable actual consumptive water uses depending upon early/late planting, irrigation practice, length of crop season, soil type and weather conditions. For instance, site C-4 was a sprinkler irrigated field with a dominant soil texture of sandy clay loam where the carrots were harvested very late 193 days after seeding (DAS). The seasonal consumptive water use was 19.2 inches at this site (Fig. 4, see page 12). Our results show that the seasonal crop water use of fresh market carrots is nearly 16.0 inches for a typical crop season of 160 days with planting in October. Approximately 50% of crop water needs occurred during the first 100 days after seeding and the other 50% during the last 60 days before harvest. Crop canopy model developed in this study demonstrated that fresh market carrots reach 85% canopy coverage by 100 days after seeding. The amount of water that needs to be applied in an individual field depends on crop water requirements and the efficiency of the irrigation system.

Figure 2: The DREC trials consisted of two irrigation regimes and three nitrogen scenarios.

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September / October 2021

Assuming an average irrigation efficiency of 70%, the approximate gross irrigation water needs of carrot fields in the low desert would be 2.0 ac-feet/ ac (pre-irrigation is not included) for a 160-day crop season. Pre-irrigation along with proper irrigation scheduling over the season may effectively maintain crop water needs and salinity in carrots. Water stress should be avoided throughout the carrot growing cycle. The critical period for irrigation is between fruit set and harvest. Sprinkler irrigation may be considered as a more effective irrigation tool when compared with furrow irrigation. More frequent and light irrigation events are possible by sprinkler irrigation. Over-irrigation of carrot fields increases the incidence of hairy roots, and severe drying and wetting cycles result in significant splitting of roots. Sprinklers also reduce salinity issues which is important since carrots are very sensitive to salt accumulation.

Continued on Page 12

Figure 3: Monitoring stations in one of the commercial experimental sites.

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Figure 5: Canopy development curve for the low desert fresh market carrots over the growing season. Figure 4: Cumulative actual crop water consumption (actual ET) at each of the experimental sites. Surface renewal actual daily ET is reported here.

of 193 days, including 202.9 and 110.0 lbs N ac-1 in roots and tops, respectively. The total N accumulated in plants (roots + tops) was less than 265 lbs ac-1 in the other sites.

A linear regression model was found for the total N uptake in roots after 60 to 73 DAS without declining near harvest (Fig. 6). Small, gradual increases in N contents of roots were observed until about 65 DAS. This suggested that N begins to accumulate at a rapid rate between 65 and 80 DAS; however, the period of rapid increase could vary depending on early (September) or late (November) plantings. N uptake in tops increased gradually following a quadratic regression, and in most sites levelled off or declined slightly late in the season. Although the N accumulated in tops appeared Figure 6: N accumulation trends in storage roots, to drop down or level off in most tops and total (plants) over the growing season at the sites beyond 120 to 145 DAS, the experimental sites. N content decline occurred after DAS 155 at site C-4 with a longer growing season. Continued from Page 10 Nitrogen Management The results demonstrated that a wide range of N accumulated both in roots and tops at harvest (Fig. 6). For instance, a total N content of 312.9 lbs ac-1 was observed in a fresh market carrot field with a long growing season 12

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These findings suggest that a total N accumulation of 260 lbs ac-1 occurred by 160 DAS, with 145 lbs ac-1 in roots and 115 lbs ac-1 in tops. Across all sites, nearly 28% of seasonal N accumulation occurred by 80 DAS (Fig. 6) when the canopy cover reached an average of 67% (Fig. 5). The large proportion of this N content was taken up during September / October 2021

a 30-day period (50 to 80 DAS). The results also suggest that nearly 50% of the total N was taken up during a 50day period (80 to 130 DAS). This 50-day period appears to be the most critical period for N uptake, particularly in the storage roots, when carrots developed the large canopy and the extensive rooting system. The majority of N is taken up during the months of December to February, and, hence, proper N fertility in the effective crop root zone is essential during this period. For a 160-day crop season, 22% of N uptake could be accomplished over the last 30 days before harvest. Carrots have a deep rooting system that allows for improved capture of N from deep in the soil profile. The fibrous roots were present at the depth of five feet below the soil surface at site DREC2 (Fig. 7). There is a risk of leaching soil residual N due to heavy pre-irrigation (a common practice for salinity management in the low desert) in late summer prior to land preparation. N is likely accumulated at the deeper depths by the beginning of the growing season, and consequently, there is a potential N contribution from the soil for carrots when the roots are fully developed. Since residual soil N contribution can be considerable in carrots, pre-plant soil nitrate-N assessment down to 60 cm depth could be a tool enabling farmers to improve N management and maximize yield and quality while minimizing economic and environmental costs.

Careful management of N applications in the low desert carrots is crucial because fertilizers are the main source of N, particularly due to low organic matter content of the soils and very low nitrate level of the Colorado River water. Knowing this fact, the soil NO3-N contents pre-seeding and over the growing season at different sites revealed that none of the sites had N deficiency during the crop season, and consequently, the practice of splitting N applications, as done by the farmers (applying 9% to 15% of total seasonal N as pre-plant and the remainders through irrigation events over the season), was likely effective in most cases. It appears that the practice of 15% to 30% seasonal N applications though irrigation events 45 to 70 DAS has similar effectiveness to sidedress N applications. Within the range of N application rates examined at the experimental sites, there were no significant relationships between carrot fresh root yield and N application rate, although the results suggested a positive effect of N ap-

plication on carrot yield. Sufficient N availability in the crop root zone over the growing season and the lack of significant yield response to N applications demonstrate that N optimal rates could be likely less than the applied amounts in most sites. Adequate nitrogen and water applications reduce costs and help prevent leaching, while excess N may lead to excessive N storage in the roots, which may be a concern for processing carrots. Integrated optimal N and water management needs to be approached to accomplish greater N

and water efficiency, and consequently keep lower rates beneficial to overall profitability. Funding for this study was provided by California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) Fertilizer Research and Education Program (FREP) and California Fresh Carrots Advisory Board. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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Don’t Let Phosphorus Erode Away

How to Improve P Use Efficiency While Protecting Environmental Resources

By ERYN WINGATE | Agronomist, Tri-Tech Ag Products, Inc.

hosphorus (P) availability limited food production and human population until the Green Revolution. After the second World War, mineral fertilizers and powerful new pesticides drove record yields and exponential world population growth. While nitrogen fertilizer usually takes all the credit, phosphorus is a close second, and even the major limiting element under some conditions. Mining P-rich

ore introduced more P to the biosphere than ever before. Instead of relying on biological P cycling, mineral fertilizer now keeps our fields productive through years of back-to-back planting. P fertilizer provides undeniable improvements to yield and crop quality, but leaks in the system destabilize surrounding ecology, causing a cascade of effects that shift global P cycling. With fertilizer prices on the rise and environ-

mental impact mounting, everyone can benefit from improving P management. All living organisms require P. It constitutes about 9% of our DNA, it is the backbone of the phospholipid fatty acids giving our cells their structure, and P is a critical component of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), the powerhouse of the cell. Plants take up most of their P via the roots as the anion phosphate

Runoff and wind erosion from agricultural fields introduces excess phosphorus and nitrogen to freshwater and marine environments. Nutrient loading causes algal blooms and eutrophication, killing off fish and destabilizing the entire ecosystem.

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September / October 2021

PL ANT HEALTH & PEST MANAGEMENT

(P2O43-). Crops require lots of P early in development to support rapidly growing cells. P is required at every stage of growth, first to support DNA transcription and translation, then to build the cellular structure and to supply energy needed to carry out all the activity. Ensuring early access to enough plant-available P drives vigorous root growth and sets the crop up for success.

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P bioavailability limits many natural ecosystems, and plants have evolved several ways to gain access to the essential element. P is immobile in soil, and most of it is tied up in mineral pools with very little available as phosphate in soil solution. Some P minerals are very stable and resist dissolution. Others readily dissolve with slight adjustments in pH or enzyme activity. Plants and fungi take advantage of the labile mineral pool by excreting phosphatase and lowering the pH in their direct vicinity. Mycorrhizal fungi bond with plant roots, extending their hyphae far past where the plant can reach to bring back phosphorus and water in exchange for photosynthate. Soil organic matter also

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available P2O5 in the upper six inches. Celery takes up about 100 lbs of P2O5 per acre, and about 70% of the P is removed from the field with the harvested crop. Soils with 100 ppm P have 460 lbs P2O5 per acre down to six inches, providing more than five times the P demand of most vegetable crops. Most crops send roots below six inches, gaining access to even more P. Phosphorus fertilizer gives crops immediate access to P, circumventing the slower biological cycling. Phosphoric acid, monoammonium phosphate and other sources initially spike soil solution phosphate, but the effect does not last. In calcareous and high-pH soils, P eventually disappears from the plant available pool as it binds with calcium to form the mineral apatite. Under acidic conditions, phosphate precipitates with iron and aluminum hydroxides. The P fixation rate depends on many factors, including pH, temperature, moisture and the concentration of other compounds in soil solution. Growers apply more P fertilizer every year to meet immediate crop needs, even though total soil P levels continue rising.

Environmental Impacts

Likelihood of crop response to phosphorus fertilizer (adapted from Geisseler, Daniel. (2015). California Fertilization Guidelines. Fertilizer Research and Education Program. http://geisseler.ucdavis.edu/Guidelines/Home.html.) Continued from Page 15 stores P, and microbial activity releases phosphate into solution according to population dynamics and access to carbon and nutrients. Most P fertilizer recommendations are

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based on observed crop response to fertilization at different soil P concentrations. Many studies in the western region show that crop yield and quality increases when fertilizer is applied to soil with less than 40 ppm P measured by the Olsen test. Soil containing 40 ppm P holds roughly 180 lbs plant

September / October 2021

While adsorbed P might not be accessible to the crop, the extra nutrition disproportionately impacts freshwater and marine environments when it escapes the farm via runoff or wind erosion. Relatively small increases in P concentration in lakes, streams and ocean water cause major ecological shifts. High N and P levels induce eutrophication by triggering algal blooms that block sunlight from penetrating the water’s surface layer. Unable to photosynthesize, aquatic plants die and sink to the bottom, introducing an overabundant food supply to microorganisms. Aerobic metabolism depletes the water’s oxygen concentration as microbes decompose the plant material. Oxygen diffusion down to lower depths can’t keep pace with the consumption rate. Hypoxic zones drive away or kill off fish, and the aquatic ecosystem unravels, leading to permanent dead

zones under the worst conditions. Researchers point to organic matter as the solution to almost every soil quality challenge, and phosphorus is no exception. Increasing soil organic matter and microbial activity helps prevent erosion and increases the bioavailability of P already in the soil. Microbial metabolism releases carbon dioxide, dissolving calcium phosphate minerals. Enzymes and organic acids also liberate phosphate, while mycorrhizal networks mine phosphorus from parts of the soil profile that plant roots cannot reach. Meanwhile, microbial activity and organic matter build soil structure, forming stable aggregates that resist erosion from water and wind. One major windstorm can blow away an inch of topsoil carrying away valuable phosphate fertilizer. Soil with 100 ppm P concentration holds almost 80 pounds of plant-available phosphate in the upper inch of soil. Many fields have accumulated P to well over 200 ppm, doubling or tripling the cost of eroded P. Phosphorus fertilizer is a valuable

‘While a heavy P application may have significantly increased yield the first couple of years, continued applications at the same rate may have little effect.’

tool and a mainstay of almost every fertilizer regimen. Increased yields and reasonably priced fertilizer keep growers applying mineral P every season. While a heavy P application may have significantly increased yield the first couple of years, continued applications at the same rate may have little effect. Soil tests can help determine baseline P content and the soil’s adsorption capacity. Water quality, soil pH and calcium content affect how quickly P fertilizer precipitates out of the plant-available pool. Management practices like splitting P into several applications or applying it with an organic amendment can help keep a steady supply of P in plant-available form. Like most agricultural challenges, the best solutions are multipronged, with many little adjustments adding up to dramatically improve the big picture. Better P management will protect our freshwater and marine environments, enhance crop quality and even save growers some money.

Healthier roots, efficient carbohydrate storage, increased yield

Improves phosphorus efficiency and lateral root branching.

Stimulates root growth and metabolism.

References Brady, Nile C. and Weil, Ray R. (2008). The Nature and Properties of Soils. Fourteenth Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. Filippelli, Gabriel. (2008). The Global Phosphorus Cycle: Past, Present, and Future. Elements. 4. 89-95. 10.2113/ GSELEMENTS.4.2.89.

Promotes soil microbial diversity, improving soil structure and plant nutrient availability.

Geisseler, Daniel. (2015). California Fertilization Guidelines. Fertilizer Research and Education Program. http://geisseler. ucdavis.edu/Guidelines/Home.html Liu, Guodong, Li, yuncong, & Gazula, Aparna. (2019). Conversion of Parts Per Million on Soil Test Reports to Pounds Per Acre. University of Florida Extension. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/hs1229 Wyant, Karl A., Corman, Jessica R., & Elser, James J. (Eds.). (2013). Phosphorus, Food, and our Future. Oxford University Press. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

September / October 2021

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Ongoing University of California Hemp Research to Address Water, N issues By JEANNETTE E. WARNERT | Communications Specialist, UC ANR

CCE and UC Davis research efforts to understand the opportunities and challenges for industrial hemp production in California are growing.

As a crop relatively new to California growers and researchers, there is still much to learn about variety choices, how varieties and crop responses differ across regions with different soils and climates, best practices for nutrient management, and pest and disease issues.

Industrial hemp field research efforts began at the University in 2019 after the previous year’s Farm Bill declared the crop should no longer be considered a controlled substance, but rather an agricultural commodity. Hemp is valued for its fiber and edible seeds; however, in California, producing hemp primarily for essential oils, including medicinal cannabidiol (CBD), is thought to offer the best economic outlook. U.S. and California hemp acreage surged in 2019, but fell in 2020.

Hemp Water-Use Study Expands

In a study coordinated by Jeff Steiner of Oregon State University’s (OSU) Global Hemp Innovation Center, drip irrigation trials are underway in California, Oregon and Colorado. Research was conducted in 2020 at the UC West Side Research and Extension Center in Five Points and at the UC Davis campus in addition to three sites in Oregon, with an additional site in Colorado added in 2021. These studies were set up to determine water use of industrial hemp for CBD production under irrigation regimes ranging from about 40% to 100% of estimated crop water requirements, with comparisons of responses observed across the five sites with different soils, climate and other environmental conditions. The study, funded by USDA and OSU, includes photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, where the flowering response is triggered by shortening day lengths in mid- to late summer in central California, and auto-flower varieties that do not require shortening day length to flower. Some of the irrigation treatments impose moderate to more severe deficit irrigation to help assess the crop responses to water stress. Deficit irrigation is a method of conserving water by applying less than what might be considered optimum for maintaining rapid growth. Researchers found that hemp appears to be tough under deficit irrigation, a method of conserving water by applying less than what might be considered optimum for maintaining rapid growth (all photos courtesy B. Hutmacher.)

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“This plant appears to be quite tough under deficit irrigation,” said UCCE Specialist Bob Hutmacher at the UC WSREC. “We need to learn more about benefits and drawbacks to stressing the plants,” Hutmacher said.

Continued on Page 20 September / October 2021

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September / October 2021

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Continued from Page 18 The auto-flower cultivars tested tend to use less water than the photoperiod-sensitive cultivars because they can be grown in a shorter season. In the San Joaquin Valley, auto-flower cultivars in these studies were ready for harvest in 75 to 90 days after seeding. “Water use is very variety-specific” Hutmacher said. “Auto-flower varieties may have potential to be grown in the spring and harvested by early summer, or planted in late summer and harvested before winter. With a short-season crop, and with a decent water supply, farmers could consider double-cropping with such varieties, potentially increasing profits.” Yields were variable, but showed promise for auto-flower varieties. “In our studies, the highest-yielding auto-flower cultivars have produced 80% to 90% of yields of the much larger

full-season, photoperiod-sensitive marijuana, a related plant. According to plants, and some varieties may be equal,” CDFA, an industrial hemp crop grown he said. in the state may have no more than 0.3% THC when plant samples are analyzed.

Hemp Planting Density Studies

In cooperation with Kayagene Company of Salinas, Dan Putnam, UCCE forage crops specialist at UC Davis, and Hutmacher have conducted studies in 2019 and 2020 with two auto-flower varieties to determine the effect of plant density on crop growth, yield and chemical concentrations. Since some of the auto-flower varieties are smaller and earlier maturing than many photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, data in these studies will help determine the tradeoff between higher densities needed to increase yields versus increases in the cost of higher seeding rates. A key concern for growers is producing a crop with economic levels of CBD or other compounds of commercial interest, while staying within regulatory limits for THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), the psychoactive compound found in

“This is a challenge for growers. You don’t want to risk too high a THC level,” Hutmacher said. “Farmers must test to make sure THC is at a level to meet regulations. If it’s too high, CDFA regulations would require the crop be destroyed.” The studies provide opportunities for the scientists to assess plant-to-plant variation and impacts of flower bud position on THC and CBD concentrations. The data collected across a range of cultivars differing in plant growth habit may help better inform both researchers and regulatory groups in decisions regarding how to monitor plant chemical composition. Hutmacher and Putnam are also working with commercial companies to test lines in the field, including Arcadia

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macher said.

“There are a lot of challenges when it comes to estimating maturity with these varieties,” Putnam said. “Each variety will mature at different times, and deciding when is the best time is a key decision. We’re still learning about this issue”

As a new crop in California, little is known about crop nitrogen needs and application optimization to prevent environmental problems related to overuse. In 2021, a team of UC Davis researchers are launching a three-year nitrogen management trial supported by the CDFA Fertilizer Research Education Program (FREP). An important part of the project is THC and CBD analysis, a costly enterprise.

In 2021, in variety trials also coordinated by OSU’s Global Hemp Initiative Center, data will be collected from studies at up to 12 locations ranging from Oregon, Washington and California in the West to New York, Vermont and Kentucky in the eastern U.S. to compare varieties grown for CBD and other essential oils. “Our participation in these multi-site trials is important in efforts to identify across very diverse environments and latitudes the plant response in terms of attained levels of CBD and THC,” Hut-

Launch of Hemp Fertilizer Project in 2021

Another study is using data from 2019 and 2020 to help determine the tradeoff between higher densities needed to increase yields versus increases in the cost of higher seeding rates.

Three companies are providing seeds or clones for the project: Cultivaris Hemp of Encinitas, Kayagene of Salinas and Phylos Biosciences of Portland. Alkemist Labs of Garden Grove is donating services for analyzing crop samples. “These are incredibly valuable donations to assist with this project, certainly in excess of $50,000 in donated materials

September / October 2021

and services from each of those companies,” Hutmacher said. The collaboration with the donors makes the development of environmentally sound nitrogen optimization information for growers possible together with the money provided by CDFA-FREP for the trials. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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VINEYARD REVIEW

Activator Spray Adjuvant Selection in Trees and Vines By FRANZ NIEDERHOLZER | UCCE Farm Advisor, Colusa and Sutter/Yuba Counties and RHONDA SMITH | UCCE Farm Advisor, Sonoma County

If the label includes phrases such as “use of an adjuvant may improve results” or “complete coverage is needed for best results,” then you may want to look into selecting and using an appropriate activator adjuvant (photo courtesy F. Niederholzer.)

gricultural spray adjuvants are materials added to the spray tank when loading the sprayer. They include products classified as activator adjuvants and marketed as wetters/ spreaders, stickers, humectants and/ or penetrators. Activator adjuvants are marketed to improve the performance of pesticides and foliar fertilizers.

Activator adjuvants can have a place in tree and vine crop sprays, but matching the material to the job can be tricky. A bad match can lead to minor or major losses to the grower. Minor losses can result from excess spreading and pesticide runoff from the target plant. Phytotoxicity can cause major damage. This article describes ingredients and functions of activator adjuvants commonly sprayed on tree and vine crops. Suggestions regarding activator adjuvant selection are offered. Growers must make their own activator adju22

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vant use decisions based on experience, particular needs and risk tolerance.

already doing the best spray job you can? Good spray coverage begins with proper sprayer calibration and setup. When to Use an Activator Adjuvant Is your sprayer calibration dialed in Read and follow the specific instrucfor different stages of canopy developtions on the label. If the pesticide ment? Optimum sprayer setup (gallons or foliar fertilizer label indicates the of spray per acre, ground speed, fan product should be used with a certain output and nozzle selection/arrangetype or brand of adjuvant(s), that’s what ment) changes from dormant to bloom you need to use. For example, the Bravo to early growing season to preharvest Weather stik® label cautions against sprays. Adjusting your sprayer to best using specific adjuvants and puts the match orchard and vineyard condiresponsibility on PCA or grower court tions at each general stage in canopy regarding adjuvant use. development is the foundation of an effective, efficient spray program. An If the label includes phrases such as activator adjuvant will not make up for “use of an adjuvant may improve results” excessive tractor speed, poor nozzle or “complete coverage is needed for arrangement and/or worn nozzles. Your best results,” then you may want to look money is best spent first dialing in your into selecting and using an appropriate sprayer(s) for the whole season before activator adjuvant. considering an extra material in the tank that is not required on the label. Before proceeding with use of an activator adjuvant, first look at your If you have your sprayer(s) dialed in for existing spray program. Are you each orchard and stage of growth, now September / October 2021

VINEYARD REVIEW

is the time to say, “OK, I want to think about a little extra boost to my spray job.”

Which Activator Adjuvant to Use

First, know the properties of the pesticide you will use. Does it work on the plant surface or inside the plant? This is a key point in selecting adjuvants. Here is a quick review of the main classifications and characteristics of activator adjuvants as they currently appear in the field. Note: Certain products can provide more than one adjuvant property; that can be beneficial in the field. For example, non-ionic surfactants can work as surfactants and penetrators, depending on use rate.

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Wetters/Spreaders These materials contain surfactants that decrease the contact angle and increase the spreading of the spray droplet on the target. High rates of wetters/spreaders may also increase penetration of pesticides into the target tissue (leaves or fruit), potentially causing phytotoxicity. Excessive spreading of pesticide spray solution and runoff from the target may result when using a new or higher rate of spreader, especially when using silicon “super-spreaders”. Test new combinations of spreader material(s) and spray volume before regular use. Spray volume per acre or adjuvant use rate will probably have to be reduced if a labeled rate of adjuvant provides excessive spreading. To check for excessive spreading, place a length of black plastic sheeting under several trees or vines in a row. Secure the plastic with spikes, wire staples and/or weights. Spray the new adjuvant and pesticide combination using your current sprayer setup. Reenter the field right after spraying, wearing appropriate

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Continued on Page 24 September / October 2021

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VINEYARD REVIEW

Continued from Page 23 PPE, and evaluate coverage. If material is pooling at the lower portion of leaves and/or fruit, excessive spreading is occurring. Check to see if pooling is occurring only in a certain area(s) of the canopy or throughout the canopy. If more spray solution is landing on the black plastic tarp under the trees/vines than between them, then runoff is occurring. Some ground deposit should be expected from standard airblast sprayer use. Compare the results of your adjuvant test with a similar application of your current pesticide/adjuvant combination on another portion of the row. If there is no pooling or runoff with the new adjuvant in the tank, you can use the adjuvant with confidence. A lack of pooling or run off with the new adjuvant also might mean that your old sprayer setup and tank mix didn’t

'Products that are advertised for use with plant growth regulators should have a higher chance of crop safety compared with those that don’t.’ deliver adequate coverage. If the test with the new adjuvant showed pooling on leaves and/or runoff on the ground, you have several choices: 1) You can reduce spray volume per acre by replacing some or all nozzles with smaller nozzle sizes on the sprayer in an effort to reduce overspreading. If you saw overspreading on some portions of the canopy but not others, reduce nozzle size only on the part of the spray boom that targets the oversprayed part of the canopy. Recheck spray coverage if nozzling changes were made. 2) Reduce the adjuvant rate and recheck coverage/spreading. 3) You can

go back to your established program without the new adjuvant. What’s the “best” course of action? That depends on your farming operation. Reducing spray volume per acre means more ground covered per full spray tank, a potential time and cost savings. If spraying is done during the heat of the day in hot, dry climate, spray water evaporation is a major issue, and it may be best to keep the higher spray volume and reduce the spreader rate or eliminate it entirely. Checking coverage and overspreading allows you to make the best decision possible; avoid damage and, hopefully, save money. All farm-

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VINEYARD REVIEW

ing operations are different. Make the choice that best fits your farm. Stickers These adjuvants can increase the retention time of the pesticide on the leaf and reduce rain wash-off. They may limit movement of systemic pesticides into the plant and are probably most beneficial when used with protectant materials (cover sprays). Do you overhead irrigate? Is there rain on the horizon? If you answer yes to either one of these questions, you may benefit from using a sticker. Humectants

etc.) are used in the summer under high temperature and low relative humidity conditions. Penetrators Frequently used with herbicides, these products include oils (petroleum, vegetable or modified vegetable oils) and non-ionic surfactants used at higher rates. In crop sprays, penetrators can be used to increase absorption of systemic pesticides (e.g., oil with Agri-Mek) as well as translaminar materials. Penetrator adjuvants should be used with caution or avoided entirely with surface active pesticides such as cover sprays or else phytotoxicity may result. Finally, some penetrators can increase the rain-fastness of some pesticides.

Under low humidity conditions, humectants can help reduce spray droplet evaporation before and after deposition Do Your Homework on the plant. This is especially valuable Use a product intended for crop spraywhen small droplets and/or materials ing. Many activator adjuvants were that must be absorbed into the plant developed and intended for use with Progressive CropPGRs, Consultant nutrients, Ads With CCC Banners 08132021 RRR.pdf 2 Products 8/13/2021 9:11:19 AM are advertised (systemic pesticides, herbicides. that

for use with plant growth regulators should have a higher chance of crop safety compared with those that don’t. This is still no guarantee of a phytotoxicity-free application. If you choose to use an adjuvant that is not specifically listed on the pesticide or foliar fertilizer label, jar test the planned spray solution first. Use the same spray water source. Include all leaf feeds, other adjuvants and pesticide(s) that you plan to put in the spray tank. Do this before tank mixing these materials. A lot of time and money rides on effective pesticide application. Do your homework before the spray tank is filled and you will be well on your way to solid results. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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VINEYARD REVIEW

LODI RULES for Sustainable Winegrowing: A Quality Winegrape Program By CLIFFORD P. OHMART, PH.D. | Ohmart Consulting Services

The LODI RULES is organized into six chapters: Business Management, Human Resources Management, Ecosystem Management, Soil Management, Water Management and Pest Management.

No tillage and maintenance of a cover crop every vine row gets the most practice points because these practices promote soil health through better drainage, increased organic matter content, increased soil moisture holding capacity and better soil microbial activity (all photos courtesy Lodi Winegrowers Workbook 2nd edition 2008. Ohmart, C. P., Storm C. P. and Matthiasson, S. K. eds. 345pp.)

hat are the Lodi Rules for Sustainable Winegrowing (LODI RULES), which entered its 16th year in 2021? It is a set of farming practices that result in higher quality winegrapes and wine according to grower and winemaker panelists on a recent webinar entitled ‘Boots on the Ground – A masterclass in sustainable viticulture & LODI RULES,’ a collaboration of the SommFoundation and the Lodi Winegrape Commission and hosted by Elaine Chukan Brown. On a technical level, LODI RULES is California’s first third-party certified sustainable winegrape-growing program. It was initially developed for growers in Lodi’s Crush District #11 but made available to any California winegrape grower in 2008, expanded to Israel (Golan Heights Winery) in 2017 and Washington State winegrape growers in 2020. LODI RULES encompasses more than 120 farming practices, some of which will be discussed in this article, and is certified by Protected Harvest, a non-profit third-party certifier of sustainable farming programs.

Origins of LODI RULES

To achieve certification, a vineyard must be farmed using practices that score 50% or more of the total possible points in each LODI RULES chapter and 70% of the points in the six chapters combined.

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From 2003 to 2004, I led the team of 22 winegrape growers, Lodi Winegrape Commission staff, crop consultants, PCAs, UC Farm Advisors, a wildlife biologist and a winemaker to create the first edition of the LODI RULES farming standards. They were based on what the team considered to be the most sustainable farming practices in the Lodi Winegrowers Workbook (Ohmart and Matthiasson 2000.) They were then submitted to Protected Harvest for scientific peer review and endorsed in 2005. The LODI RULES farming standards have been updated twice since then. The program has grown from six growers and 1200 vineyard acres in 2005 to more than 130

September / October 2021

Continued on Page 28

VINEYARD REVIEW

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Continued from Page 26 growers and 68,000 acres participating in 2021. In 2008, one winery started paying bonuses for LODI RULES certified grapes, and since then, many others have followed suit. One estimate has the annual bonuses exceeding $2 million. The LODI RULES is organized into six chapters: Business Management, Human Resources Management, Ecosystem Management, Soil Management, Water Management and Pest Management. Each farming practice standard is assigned a number of points based on its assessed level of importance in sustainable winegrowing. To achieve certification, a vineyard must be farmed using practices that score 50% or more of the total possible points in each chapter and 70% of the points in the six chapters combined. The purpose of this scoring is so that a vineyard does not obtain certification while performing poorly in one chapter but very high in all the others. Furthermore, pesticides used in the vineyard are run through a pesticide risk model that calculates risk points for each application. To achieve

ensures all growers are up to date with their records and practices. The auditors submit their reports to Protected Harvest near harvest for final certification decisions. I will now highlight a few of the practices in each of the LODI RULES chapters. I will remind you that The farming practice standards for ecosystem management focus there are more primarily on parts of the farm that are outside the vineyard, such than 120 practice as riparian areas like the one seen here. standards, so I am only able to touch on a few of them. For a complete copy One might ask, ‘Why is having a susof the LODI RULES farming standards, tainable management vision plan for go to lodigrowers.com in the grower the farm so important?’ I will answer resources section. A farming practice this question by quoting one of my standard is a description of a practice favorite Yogi Berra statements: “If you that is required to be done in order don’t know where you are going, you to qualify for the points awarded for may end up some place else!” Sustaindoing the practice. It is very specific able winegrowing is a long-term comand is described in a way that enables mitment and needs long-term goals so an auditor to clearly verify the practice one has a target to aim for.

“If you don’t know where you are going, you may end up some place else!” -Yogi Berra certification, the risk points from the year’s pesticide applications cannot exceed a rigorous risk points threshold.

is being done during the onsite audit of the vineyard being certified.

Independent professional auditors are contracted by Protected Harvest to audit annually the practices being used in each participating vineyard. An onsite audit is done on any vineyard new to the program and at least every three years after that. A desk audit is done each year for every vineyard not visited on-site. And finally, a grower is chosen at random each year for an audit to be done with a 48-hour notice. This

The very first farming practice standard in LODI RULES is the requirement that a grower attend a LODI RULES workshop sponsored by the Lodi Winegrape Commission where they learn how to develop a sustainable management vision plan for their farm. They then need to draft the plan that contains elements that they were introduced to in the workshop.

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Business Management

September / October 2021

Other important practices in the chapter are developing plans for leadership succession within the farming enterprise and business risk management as well as tracking fuel and electricity use following the adage if you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it.

Human Resources Management

The first practice standard in the chapter is to develop a human resources management plan for the farm. Other practice standards relate to team building, employee training and development, employee performance evaluation, employee orientation, providing health care and benefits, safety training and a safety rewards program.

Ecosystem Management

The farming practice standards for ecosystem management focus primarily on parts of the farm that are outside the vineyard. They start with an environ-

VINEYARD REVIEW

Many wineries now require sustainability certification of their growers.

mental survey to identify and document important environmental features such as swales, riparian areas, trees, woodlands or vernal pools whose presence would impact how the farming is done in the vineyard.

This is followed by the development of an Ecosystem Management plan for the farm. Then there is a series of detailed farming practice standards for managing important ecosystem elements from cover crops in the vineyard, vegetation adjacent to the vineyard, and, if present, managing woodlands, individual trees, seasonal wetlands or riparian habitat.

There are other practice standards focused on biodiversity and providing nesting boxes for owls, birds and bats. And finally, if a grower has grazing ani-

mals on the farming, a grazing management plan needs to be developed and implemented.

Soil Management

The soil management chapter starts with farming practice standards for developing and implementing a nutrient management plan based on vine needs over the season, a soil conservation plan to minimize erosion due to wind and water and a soil map confirmed by soil coring or a soil pit. No tillage and maintenance of a cover crop every vine row gets the most practice points because these practices promote soil health through better drainage, increased organic matter content, increased soil moisture holding capacity and better soil microbial activity. Soil and vine tissue sampling is

Continued on Page 30

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VINEYARD REVIEW

Continued from Page 29 required to be done to monitor the nutrient availability and status in vine tissue so as to guide nutrient additions if they are determined to be necessary. Several farming practice standards address nitrogen management due to its importance in vine performance as well as its mobility in the soil, making it prone to leaching into the ground water during winter rains.

Water Management

Water management is a critical element of sustainable winegrowing because it is a precious resource in California as well as the recognized fact that irrigation management is one of the most important ways to influence winegrape quality and therefore wine quality. The chapter starts with a practice standard for the development and implementation of a water management plan that

states goals and strategies, followed by a focus on soil water holding capacity, water intake rate and permeability, and irrigation system design and performance measuring and monitoring.

control action. Many of these preventative practices are captured in farming practice standards in other LODI RULES chapters such as Water, Soil and Ecosystem Management.

Due to the importance of a properly performing irrigation system, several standards focus on amount of water used, maintenance, distribution uniformity and pump efficiency, with practices specific to micro, sprinkler or flood systems. There are also practice standards for irrigation scheduling based on monitoring vine water demand, level of soil moisture and avoidance of offsite movement of irrigation water.

The Pest Management chapter begins with a standard for development and implementation of an insect and mite management plan. It is followed by one for insect and mite population monitoring and data recording and another specifying economic thresholds for management actions against leafhoppers and mites.

Pest Management

I have long felt that pest management is one of the most challenging areas of sustainable winegrowing to capture in a set of farming practice standards. That is because, ideally, pest problems in the vineyard are minimal due to the grower having implemented a Beat the Heat & Care whole range of prefor Your Crops with: ventative practices that preclude the development of pest ® problems. In other words, much is done to minimize Frost & Freeze the need for a pest Additional Environmental Stress Conditions that the product is useful for:

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There are several practice standards for disease management due to its importance in developing an economically acceptable yield, quality winegrapes and ensuring the maximum length of life for the vineyard. The first is the development and implementation of a Powdery Mildew management plan given the key role this disease plays in vineyard management. There are practice standards for when to initiate mildew treatments in the early stages of the growing season, the subsequent timing of treatments as the season develops as well as one for managing fungicide resistance. There are also practice standards for managing Botrytis and canker diseases. Weed and vertebrate pest manage-

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Sustainable farming practices within and outside of the vineyard are assigned a set of points under the LODI RULES program.

VINEYARD REVIEW

ment are addressed through standards requiring the development and implementation of weed and vertebrate pest management plans followed by ones for monitoring and recording their respective populations. When a pest problem needs an action, it is often in the form of spraying, whether it is due to an insect, mite, disease or weed. We all appreciate the importance of sprayer calibration and maintenance, but it is often challenging for many growers to do them in a timely manner. Therefore, there are practice standards that thoroughly address these two critical aspects of pest management.

pilot is required to do before flying their plane. They go through a checklist of all the different systems on the plane to ensure they are in working order. Many of the things are obvious, but there are so many that it is easy to overlook some of them in day-to-day flying. The checklist assures that does not happen. As passengers on the plane, we can appreciate the importance of going through this check list! The same can be said for sustainable viticulture.

There are so many practices involved in growing winegrapes sustainably. Many are obvious and are second nature to a grower. However, it is easy to overlook some in the day-to-day frenzy involved in farming. Certifying to the LODI RULES ensures this does not happen. Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com

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Pest problems change through time and it is important that the LODI RULES keep up with them. New practice standards are periodically added when revisions to the program are made. For example, given the rapid rise in the importance of leaf roll and red blotch viruses and the vectoring of some of them by Vine Mealybug, new sustainable practice standards have been written to address this issue and will be added to the program in 2022.

Certification

I often hear growers say, ‘Of course I farm my vineyard sustainably, why do I need to be certified?’ One reason is that more and more wineries are requiring certification to obtain and maintain a winery contract. That, however, is a cost of doing business requirement, which is not something that is all that inspiring for a grower. Two primary goals for the team that created the LODI RULES was that implementing them would result in higher-quality winegrapes and help a grower improve their farming operation. Based on the feedback from growers in the program and wineries that are paying bonuses for LODI RULES certified winegrapes, I think these goals have been met. One can look at a grower farming according to the LODI RULES as doing something similar to what an airline

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VINEYARD REVIEW

Nitrogen Fertilization Alters Phosphorus Status of Grapevines and Their Association with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi By TIAN TIAN | UCCE Area Viticulture Farm Advisor, Kern County

Maintaining AMF colonization in grapevine roots is particularly important for vineyards in Oregon’s Willamette Valley where red-hill soils are most commonly found.

itrogen (N) is one of the most managed nutrients in vineyards, since it strongly affects vine growth and fruit development. Although numerous studies have been conducted to understand how N fertilization influences vine productivity and fruit composition, the impacts of N on vine nutrient status and soil microbes receive less attention.

Among a wide range of soil microbes that play vital roles in soil health and vine productivity, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are unique due to their symbiotic association with grapevines and their contribution to vine nutrient acquisition. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi obtain nutrients from the soil, especially for phosphorus (P) and other poorly mobile nutrients, and transfer those nutrients to the plant. In turn, plants provide sucrose and fatty acids to AMF to support fungal functions and growth. To sustain intensive nutrient exchange 32

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between two partners, AMF colonize individual cortical cells of fine roots and form arbuscules, which are tree-like fungal structures that greatly increase surface area contact between plants and AMF (Fig. 1, see page 34). Grapevines are considered a “super” host of AMF. The percentage of fine roots colonized by AMF is generally above 60% in field and greenhouse conditions. Such high colonization rates also reflect the great dependency of grapevines on AMF. Indeed, non-mycorrhizal vines are stunted in low P soils, while mycorrhizal vines could acquire adequate P from the soil, overcome P limitation and grow normally.

Willamette Valley Trials

Maintaining AMF colonization in grapevine roots is particularly important for vineyards in Oregon’s Willamette Valley where red-hill soils are most commonly found. Since those highly weathered acid soils have low P availability, grapevines rely on AMF for ample P acquisition. In other crops, N

September / October 2021

fertilization was shown to reduce root colonization by AMF, but it is unclear whether N applied at moderate rates would decrease mycorrhizal colonization in grapevines. If N applications would suppress AMF and impair vine P uptake, this negative effect should be accounted for when developing fertilization management plans for vineyards. This article summarizes part of my Ph.D. research conducted in Oregon, which explored how vineyard N applications affect vine nutrient status, root growth and AMF. Experiments were conducted in a Chardonnay vineyard and a Pinot noir vineyard over three years in Willamette Valley. Both vineyards are somewhat limited by N but have varying levels of soil P. At each site, we evaluated three treatments, including no N application (No N), N applied to the soil (soil N) and N applied to the foliage (foliar N).

Continued on Page 34

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Figure 1: Grapevine roots colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Red arrow indicates arbuscules, “tree-like” structures that vastly increase surface area contact between the host plant and the fungus (photo courtesy Dr. R. Paul Schreiner, USDA-ARS.)

Continued from Page 32 Each treatment was replicated four times. The soil N vines were fertilized two or three times between bud break and veraison using UAN-32 at the rate of 40 to 60 lbs N/acre/year. The foliar N vines received three urea sprays to the canopy from fruit set to two weeks post veraison at the rate of 19 to 23 lbs N/acre/year. All treatments were evaluated across three years in both vineyards with the exception that foliar N treatment was assessed only in Year 2 and 3 in Chardonnay. In each season, leaf blades and petioles were sampled at bloom and veraison for nutrient analysis. Due to the late initiation of foliar N treatment in Chardonnay, bloom leaf samples were collected only in Year 3 for this specific treatment. Soils and roots were sampled three times a year when berries were pea-size, near veraison and about a month after harvest.

Effects of Soil N Applications in Chardonnay

Figure 2: Effect of nitrogen (N) applications to the soil and the foliage (soil N and foliar N) on petiole N and phosphorus (P) concentration at bloom in Chardonnay. Vines that received no N application (no N) served as the control. Means followed by different letters indicate significant differences between treatments in each experimental year based on a t-test or Tukey HSD test at 95% confidence.

As expected, soil N applications increased vine N status starting from Year 1 (Fig. 2). For simplicity, only petiole nutrient data at bloom are presented here. Changes of nutrients in corresponding leaf blades followed a similar trend. Previous work on Pinot noir in the Willamette Valley proposed 0.7% as the critical value of petiole N concentration at bloom to ensure sufficient yield (2.5 to 3.5 U.S. ton/acre) and adequate fruit N.

tration by 15% to 30%. In response to greater vine N status, the soil N vines had 30% higher yield and about 35% more pruning mass as compared to the no N vines.

Since Chardonnay vines in this region generally carry heavier crop load (four to five U.S. ton/acre) and develop larger canopies compared to Pinot noir vines, Chardonnay vines may have a higher N requirement. With a petiole N concentration of 0.6% at bloom, Chardonnay vines that received no N applications clearly experienced some N limitation in this study. Soil N applications improved bloom petiole N concen-

Soil N applications decreased vine P status in Chardonnay in Year 2 and 3, where petiole P concentration at bloom was about 30% lower in the soil N vines than no N vines (Fig. 2). The negative effect of soil N fertilization on vine P status became more evident in late season. The concentration of petiole P at veraison decreased 50% in the soil N vines in the last two years of the experiment.

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VINEYARD REVIEW

Table 1: Effects of N applications to the soil and foliage (soil N and foliar N) on root density and colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in Chardonnay. Vines that received no N application (no N) served as the control. Means followed by different letters indicate significant difference between treatments in each experimental year based on a Tukey HSD test at 95% confidence.

Why did soil N applications reduce vine P status? The most straightforward answer would be the dilution of P in leaves due to N stimulated canopy growth. However, this is unlikely the sole reason. Soil N applications increased veraison leaf area by 10% to 19% in Year 2 and 3, while the corresponding leaf blade P decreased to a larger extent (19% to 29%). The second possible explanation for the decreased leaf P under increased soil N supply is that fertilization altered P allocation within the plant and less P was translated above ground. Indeed, because soil N fertilization increased root growth (Table 1), more P can be retained belowground to support new root development. Yet, this assumption is not supported by our observation in the greenhouse or previous studies where soil N fertilization generally increases the proportion of P allocated to aboveground tissues. Unfortunately, we did not sample roots for nutrient analysis in this study, and thus effects of soil N on root P concentration cannot be further examined. In addition to the two explanations presented above, we suspect that soil N applications might lower AMF colonization in roots and therefore decrease vine P uptake. The percentage of fine roots colonized by AMF (fungal hyphae, arbuscules, vesicles and spores) decreased with soil N supply in Year 2 and 3 (Table 1), in accordance with reduced vine P status in Chardonnay. The percentage of roots colonized by arbuscules also reduced in the soil N vines in Year 2, but not in Year 3. The greater suppression

Treatments

Total Root Length (mm/g dry soil)

% AMF

%Arbuscules

No N t

5.5 b

91.3 a

46.6 a

Soil N

8.0 a

80.8 b

35.8 b

Foliar N

5.6 b

90.8 a

45.3 a

No N

5.5 b

94.0 a

37.5

Soil N

8.7 a

90.6 b

30.8

Foliar N

6.3 ab

94.3 a

33.7

% AMF

%Arbuscules

2.5

88.5 a

55.9 a

3.2

82.0 b

47.0 b

2.6

87.3 a

55.3 a

2.7

94.5 a

48.8

3.2

90.9 b

42.7

2.9

94.9 a

45.8

No N

2.4 b

92.2

40.8

Soil N

4.0 a

88.0

40.4

3.2 ab

94.7

41.9

YEAR 2

YEAR 3 YEAR 3

Treatments YEAR 1

Total Root Length

Crop Resilience (mm/g dry soil)

No N grow best Vineyards and orchards in fungally dominant soil. Soil N Fungal networks of mycelia and Foliarthe N reach of mycorrhizae extend YEAR 2 roots to access nutrients and water. Beneficial fungi also No help N suppress disease and mitigate abiotic stresses Soil and N heat. like drought, salinity Foliar N

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Continued on Page 36 September / October 2021

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VINEYARD REVIEW

Effect of Soil N Applications in Pinot Noir

Similar to what we observed in Chardonnay, soil N applications improved vine N status in Pinot noir across three years (Fig. 3). Soil N fertilization also increased root growth and decreased mycorrhizal colonization in Pinot noir, although the effects were less evident as compared to Chardonnay (Table 2). The percentage of roots colonized by AMF was lower in the soil N vines than no N vines in two of three years, while the percentage of roots colonized by arbuscules reduced in the soil N vines only in one year. Even though soil N altered mycorrhizal colonization, it had no influence on leaf blade or petiole P concentration at bloom or veraison in any year, except petiole P concentration at bloom was lower in the soil N vines than no N vines in Year 2 (Fig. 3). Even so, P concentration of corresponding leaf blades was not affected by soil N supply, suggesting an overall small impact of N fertilization on vine P status in Pinot noir. The difference in how vine nutrition and mycorrhizal colonization responded to soil N application between Chardonnay and Pinot noir can be attributed to the difference in soil N and P availability.

Figure 3: Effect of N applications to the soil and the foliage (soil N and foliar N) on petiole N and phosphorus (P) concentration at bloom in Pinot noir. Vines that received no N application (no N) served as the control. Means followed by different letters indicate significant difference between treatments in each experimental year based on a t-test or Tukey HSD test at 95% confidence.

Continued from Page 35 of arbuscular colonization in the soil N vines in Year 2 was likely attributed to the fact that more N (20 lbs N/acre) was applied in Year 2 than Year 3. Clearly, increased root growth played a role in the decrease of AMF in the soil N vines because root colonization usually lags behind root growth. Soil N fertilization might affect AMF through other mechanisms as well. For example, N fertilization could reduce the amount of carbon translocated from vines to AMF and, in turn, decrease P delivered by the fungus. Or soil N supply reduced N translocated from AMF to vines, resulting in a decrease of mycorrhizal colonization. 36

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September / October 2021

Compared to the Pinot noir vineyard, the Chardonnay vineyard has lower soil N and higher P concentration. It seems soil N fertilization would suppress AMF colonization and decrease vine P status to a greater extent in vineyards with lower N and higher P availability. However, since the Chardonnay and Pinot noir vineyards differ in many other aspects, such as canopy size, irrigation and cropping level, the comparison between these two varieties are not straightforward. Thus, upon the completion of field experiments, we conducted a series of greenhouse experiments to further examine how N and P regulate vine nutrient status and mycorrhizal colonization under a more controlled environment. The negative effect of soil N applications on AMF was observed again in vines supplied with N at a high rate in the greenhouse.

Effect of Foliar N in Chardonnay and Pinot Noir

Foliar N applications had minor influence on vine N status, vine P status, root

Chardonnay vines postharvest show a clear N effect on leaf color (photo courtesy T. Tian.)

Foliar N

6.3 ab

94.3 a

33.7

VINEYARD REVIEW

Treatments growth, and mycorrhizal colonization in both varieties (Figs. 2 and 3, Tables 1 and 2). This is somewhat expected, since a large amount of N applied to the foliage appeared to be transferred to the fruit rather than other plant organs.

(mm/g dry soil)

% AMF

%Arbuscules

No N

2.5

88.5 a

55.9 a

Soil N

3.2

82.0 b

47.0 b

Foliar N

2.6

87.3 a

55.3 a

No N

2.7

94.5 a

48.8

Soil N

3.2

90.9 b

42.7

YEAR 1

YEAR 2

Conclusions

Total Root Length

The evidence obtained from the field Foliar N 2.9 94.9 a 45.8 experiments indicates that soil N fertil- YEAR 3 ization at moderate rates can negatively No N 2.4 b 92.2 40.8 influence mycorrhizal colonization YEAR 3 and reduces the benefits conveyed by Soil N 4.0 a 88.0 40.4 this symbiotic relationship. Foliar N Foliar N 3.2 ab 94.7 41.9 applications, on the other hand, had no impact on AMF or vine P status. The negative effect of soil N applications Table 2: Effects of nitrogen fertilization to the soil and foliage (soil N and foliar N) on root density on mycorrhizal association provides and colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in Pinot noir. Vines that received no N applicaanother justification for being judicious tion (no N) served as the control. Means followed by different letters indicate significant difference with N fertilization in vineyards. between treatments in each experimental year based on a Tukey HSD test at 95% confidence. This project was funded by Oregon Wine Board and USDA-ARS. The author would like to thank Erath winery and

Results Partner Inc. for their help and support.

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