Getview vol3 no6 by Pixie Studio

Committee of the Global Engineers & Technologists Review Chief Editor Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad Zaidi, MALAYSIA Managing Editor Mohd Zulkifli Ibrahim, MALAYSIA Editorial Board Dr. Arsen Adamyan Yerevan State University ARMENIA

Prof. Dr. Ravindra S. Goonetilleke The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology HONG KONG

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gasham Zeynalov Khazar University AZERBAIJAN

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Youngwon Park Waseda University JAPAN

Assistant Prof. Dr. Tatjana Konjić University of Tuzla Bosnia and Herzegovina BOSNIA and HERZEGOVINA

Prof. Dr. Qeethara Kadhim Abdulrahman Al-Shayea Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan JORDAN

Assistant Prof. Dr. Muriel de Oliveira Gavira State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) BRAZIL

Prof. Yousef S.H. Najjar Jordan University of Science and Technology JORDAN

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Plamen Mateev Sofia University of St. Kliment Ohridsky BULGARIA

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Al-Tahat D. Mohammad University of Jordan JORDAN

Dr. Zainab Fatimah Syed The University of Calgary CANADA

Assoc. Prof. Dr. John Ndichu Nder Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology(JKUAT) KENYA

Assistant Prof. Dr. Jennifer Percival University of Ontario Institute of Technology CANADA Prof. Dr. Sc. Igor Kuzle University of Zagreb CROATIA Assoc. Prof. Dr. Milan Hutyra VŠB - Technical University of Ostrava CZECH

Prof. Dr. Megat Mohamad Hamdan Megat Ahmad The National Defence University of Malaysia MALAYSIA Prof. Dr. Rachid Touzani Université Mohammed 1er MOROCCO Prof. Dr. José Luis López-Bonilla Instituto Politécnico Nacional MEXICO

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abas Kotb Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport EGYPT

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ramsés Rodríguez-Rocha IPN Avenida Juan de Dios Batiz MEXICO

Prof. Dr. Laurent Vercouter INSA de Rouen FRANCE

Dr. Bharat Raj Pahari Tribhuvan University NEPAL

Prof. Dr. Abdullah Saand Quaid-e-Awam University College of Eng. Sc. & Tech. PAKISTAN Prof. Dr. Naji Qatanani An-Najah National University PALESTINE Prof. Dr. Anita Grozdanov University Ss Cyril and Methodius REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA Prof. Dr. Vladimir A. Katić University of Novi Sad SERBIA Prof. Dr. Aleksandar M. Jovović Belgrade University SERBIA Prof. Dr. A.K.W. Jayawardane University of Moratuwa SRI LANKA Prof. Dr. Gunnar Bolmsjö University West SWEDEN Prof. Dr. Peng S. Wei National Sun Yat-sen University at Kaohsiung. TAIWAN

Prof. Dr. Ing. Alfonse M. Dubi The Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and Technology TANZANIA Assoc. Prof. Chotchai Charoenngam Asian Institute of Technology THAILAND Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Çimenoğlu Instanbul Technical University (İTÜ) TURKEY Assistant Prof. Dr. Zeynep Eren Ataturk University TURKEY Dr. Mahmoud Chizari The University of Manchester UNITED KINGDOM Prof. Dr. David Hui University of New Orleans USA Prof. Dr. Pham Hung Viet Hanoi University of Science VIETNAM Prof. Dr. Raphael Muzondiwa Jingura Chinhoyi University of Technology ZIMBABWE

Dear the Seeker of Truth and Knowledge To bring a new journal into the world class literature is a great challenge, especially when the aim of the journal is to publish the high quality manuscripts. This is as shown in the right-path progress of The Getview to going to the excellent position. Certainly, the relentless work and vision of editorial board inspires The Getview track, beside their helpful reviews given to assist authors in improving the manuscripts. The mission of the journal will not change: We seek to publish the best work that bridges the interests of two or more communities in engineering and technology. Due to become a great journal recognized is not only where the authors choose to send their most exciting findings, but also on the application and practicable approaches by many ways in which a study can fulfill this criterion, then some work bridges different literatures to transform a question and its importance to the field related with value interdisciplinary research constructed is also the reasons to value the best research of any kind. Hence, by emphasizing on the developing of knowledge, The Getview would like to invite you to participate in the next volume publication by submitting your most important research and encouraging your colleagues to submit the quality manuscripts to us. Regardless the manuscript is accepted or not, one of the great benefits The Getview can provide to the prospective author(s) is mentoring nature of our review process.

Prof. Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad Zaidi, PhD. Chief Editor The Global Engineers and Technologists Review

ÂŠPUBLISHED 2013 Global Engineers and Technologists Review GETview ISSN: 2231-9700 (ONLINE) Volume 3 Number 6 November 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Publisher.

Printed and Published in Malaysia

CONTENTS Vol.3, No.6, 2013 1.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF DC-DC CONVERTER FOR MAXIMUM VOLTAGE AND MAXIMUM POWER APPLICATIONS RAVI, S., IBRAHIM, A.M., MUKHTAR, M.A.F.M. and MUSA, M.A.

THE ENGINEERING STUDENTS SATISFACTION MEASUREMENT USING MIXED KANO MODEL-LIKERT’S SCALE MYIA YUZRINA, Z.A., HAERYIP SIHOMBING and AINUL AZNIZA, A.Z.

16.

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR SUSTAINABILITY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE: A GLIMPSE OF DRB-HICOM INITIATIVES RAO, T.S., ZAIDI, A.M.A, HASIM, M.H. and SUHAIDAH, H.

23.

THE TRIGGER SIGNAL FOR LEAN PRODUCTION PRACTICES : A REVIEW YUSUP, M.Z., MAHMOOD, W.H.W., SALLEH, M.R. and ROSDI, M.M.N.H.

ISSN 2231-9700 (online)

GLOBAL ENGINEERS & TECHNOLOGISTS REVIEW www.getview.org

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF DC-DC CONVERTER FOR MAXIMUM VOLTAGE AND MAXIMUM POWER APPLICATIONS RAVI1, S., IBRAHIM2, A.M., MUKHTAR3, M.A.F.M. and MUSA4, M.A. 1, 2, 3, 4 International College of Automotive DRB-HICOM Automotive Complex, Peramu Jaya Industrial Area P.O. Box 8, 26607 Pekan, Pahang, MALAYSIA 1 s.ravi@icam.edu.my 2 azalan@icam.edu.my 3 fatah@icam.edu.my 4 azam@icam.edu.my

ABSTRACT In the areas of power electronic converter system there is a general trend to high power densities that is driven by cost reduction and an increased functionality. The demand for DC-DC converters and related semiconductor components is nowadays an emerging expectation to meet the pursuit of energy efficiency and to reduce the power demand. This paper deals with the multiphase DC-DC converters based topology applied for high-voltage applications. The proposed converter is configured such that the Boost Half Bridge (BHB) cells and voltage doublers are connected in parallel and in series to increase the output voltage and the output power. In the proposed multiphase converter the device with increased number of parallel connection reduces current rating and with increased number of series connection reduces the device voltage rating. Keywords: Multiphase DC-DC Converter, Boost Half Bridge Cell, Soft Switch, Voltage Rating. Article History: Received 15 August 2013, Accepted 12 November 2013.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The step-up DC-DC converter has been increasingly needed in high power applications, such as fuel cell systems, photovoltaic systems, hybrid electric vehicles, and uninterruptible power system (UPS), where high-step-up ratio and the use of high-frequency transformers for galvanic isolation and safety purpose are required. The multiphase DC-DC converter could be a choice of topology for high-power applications. In order to reduce the volume of a system, the most appropriate topology for the intended application must be chosen. Applying DC-DC converters can help to reduce the switching losses and/or to raise the switching frequency of the power switches. DC-DC power converters are employed in a variety of applications, including power supplies for personal computers, office equipment, spacecraft power systems, laptop computers and telecommunications equipment, as well as dc motor drives (Cha et al., 2008). The input to a DC-DC converter is an unregulated DC voltage Vg. The converter produces a regulated output voltage V, having a magnitude (and possibly polarity) that differs from Vg. For example, in a computer off-line power supply, the 120 V or 240 V AC utility voltages is rectified, producing a dc voltage of approximately 170 V or 340 V, respectively. A DC-DC converter then reduces the voltage to the regulated 5 V or 3.3 V required by the processor ICs. High efficiency is invariably required, since cooling of inefficient power converters is difficult and expensive. The ideal DC-DC converter exhibits 100 % efficiency; in practice, efficiencies of 70 % to 95 % are typically obtained. This is achieved using switchedmode, or chopper, circuits whose elements dissipate negligible power (Oliveira and Barbi, 2005). The multiphase converter has reduced volume of input and output filters resulting from the interleaved switching. Another advantage provided by the multiphase converter is output ripple cancellation, which results in increasing the effective output frequency without sacrificing the switching losses (Cha and Han, 2008). The increasing effective frequency reduces component size. A full-bridge-based current-fed converter with active clamp also achieve ZVS of main switches, but the single-active clamp branch suffers from high-current rating and high switching frequency, which is three times the switching frequency of the main switch. The passive and active clamping versions of the L type half-bridge-based current-fed converter were proposed with similar advantages and disadvantages discussed in the aforementioned schemes. Meanwhile, the boost-half-bridge (BHB) converter has been presented. It demonstrates the following features: small input filter due to continuous input current, low electromagnetic interference (EMI) due to ZVS turn on of all power switches, wide-input voltage range application due to wide-duty cycle range. The BHB converter with a voltage doubler rectifier at the secondary has further advantages, which are no DC magnetizing current of the transformer, reduced voltage -

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surge associated with diode reverse recovery, and no circulating current due to absence of output filter inductor (Fathy et al., 2006). In this paper, multiphase DC-DC converters using a BHB converter as a basic building block are proposed for high-voltage and high-power applications. A generalized multiphase dc–dc converter is configured in such a way that the BHB cell and the voltage-doublers rectifier are connected in series, in parallel, or by combination of them at the primary and secondary, respectively, to increase the output voltage and/or the output power (Zeng et al., 2002). Therefore, the device current rating of the proposed multiphase converter is reduced by increasing the number of parallel connection, and the device voltage rating is reduced by increasing the number of series connection (Kim et al., 2007). In summary, in addition to the advantages of the conventional multiphase converter, which include reduced current rating and reduced volume of input and output filters resulting from the interleaved switching, the proposed multiphase converter has the following features. i) ii) iii) iv) v)

2.0

Significantly reduced turn ratio of the transformer and voltage rating of the diodes and capacitors and therefore, especially suitable to high-step-up applications. Natural ZVS turn-on of main switches using energy stored in transformer leakage inductor and Zero-Current Switching (ZCS) turn-off of rectifier diodes, which results in greatly reduced voltage surge associated with the diode reverse recovery. No additional clamping and start-up circuits required due to the proposed interleaved asymmetrical PWM switching. High component availability, easy thermal distribution, and low profile due to the use of multiple small components instead of single large component. Flexibility in device selection by proper choice of topology resulting in optimized design under harsh design specification. The interleaving effect of the multiphase configuration is examined.

PROPOSED MULTIPHASE DC-DC CONVERTER

Figure 1 shows the proposed multiphase converter with BHB Cell. Meanwhile the Figure 2 show the generalized circuit of the proposed multiphase DC-DC converter for high voltage and high-power applications. The generalized converter has “N” groups of converters, where each group of switch legs is connected in parallel at the low-voltage high current side, while each group of voltage doubler is connected in series at the high voltage low-current side, i.e., “N” is the number of voltage doublers connected in series to build the output voltage. Each of N groups also has “P” parallel connected legs, where “P” is the number of switch or diode legs connected in parallel to increase the output power (Watanabe and Matsuo, 2002).

Figure 1: Proposed multiphase converter with BHP cell. Su

Su C

L L

L T

C Ro

L T L Vs

T SL

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2.1 Operating Principles The key waveforms of the generalized multiphase DC–DC converter are shown in Figure 3. The interleaved asymmetrical PWM switching is applied to the multiphase converter, i.e., D and 1– D are the duty cycles of lower and upper switches of a leg, respectively, and each leg is interleaved with a phase difference of 2π/(N・P).

Figure 3: Multiphase inverter generalised waveforms.

2.2 ZVS Characteristics of Main Switch The soft switching PWM DC-DC converter is defined here as the combination of converter topologies and switching strategies that result in Zero–Voltage and Zero–Current Switching. Soft switching techniques are used in PWM DC-DC converters to reduce switching losses and electromagnetic interference (EMI). The technique of zero voltage switching in modern power conversion is explored. Zero voltage switching can best be defined as conventional square wave power conversion during the switch's on-time with "resonant" switching transitions. For the most part, it can be considered as square wave power utilizing a constant off-time control which varies the conversion frequency, or on-time to maintain regulation of the output voltage. ZVS benefits are as follows: zero power, lossless switching transitions, reduced EMI / RFI at transitions, No power loss due to discharging current, no higher peak currents, square wave systems, High efficiency with high voltage inputs at any frequency, reduced gate drive requirements. 2.3 Interleaving Effect The interleaved power conversion refers to the strategic interconnection of multiple switching cells for which the conversion frequency is identical, but for which the internal switching instants are sequentially phased over equal fractions of a switching period. This arrangement lowers the net ripple amplitude and raises the effective ripple frequency of the overall converter without increasing switching losses or device stresses. An interleaved system can therefore realize a savings in filtration and energy storage requirements, resulting in greatly improved power conversion densities without sacrificing efficiency. The leg of the multiphase converter is switched with a phase difference of 2π/ (N·P). The ripple frequency of the input and input capacitor currents becomes N·P times the switching frequency of the main switch. The RMS current of the input and input capacitor also decrease as N and P increases. The ripple frequency of the output capacitor current becomes P times the switching frequency © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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of the main switch. The rms current of the output capacitor decreases as P increases. Due to the interleaved operation, the weight and volume of input capacitors, output capacitor, and input inductors are significantly reduced. Thus the interleaving effect on the input capacitors CIU and CIL differs from that of the input inductor and output capacitor. The interleaving effect on the input inductor and output capacitor of the proposed converter is obvious and has been mentioned in many literatures. The interleaving effect on the input capacitors CIU and CIL differs from that of the input inductor and output capacitor. The capacitor rms currents are calculated and plotted in Figure 4 as a function of input voltage and N. It tends to decrease as N increases in general. The capacitor current as a function of P is not shown in this paper and it also tends to decrease as P increases.

Figure 4: RMS current of input capacitor as a function of input voltage and N when P=1.

2.4 Voltage Conversion Ratio The ideal voltage conversion ratio of the proposed converter can be obtained by Vo/Vs= (N/(1D)(Ns/Np)). Basically, as N increases the voltage conversion ratio linearly increases. Considering the effect of voltage drop across the leakage inductance of the transformer, the actual voltage conversion ratio can be obtained. The Figure 5 shows the actual voltage conversion ratio is plotted as a function of duty ratio D with different N and P. It can be seen that as P increases the voltage conversion ratio also slightly increases (theoretically, it converges to the ideal voltage conversion ratio as P increases to infinity), since the effect of the voltage drop across the leakage inductance on the voltage conversion ratio becomes smaller. In general, the duty cycles of the conventional voltage-fed and current-fed converters based on pushâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;pull, half-bridge, or full-bridge topologies are restricted to smaller than 0.5 or larger than 0.5, respectively. However, the duty cycle of the proposed converter based on the BHB cell ranges from 0 to 1, resulting in no use of an additional clamping circuit as well as improved dynamic characteristics. It should be noted that no additional start-up circuits is also required for the proposed converter, since there is no restriction on the duty cycle surge voltage associated with the diode reverse recovery is trivial, and therefore, the snubber circuit does not necessitate.

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DESIGN DETAILS

In this section, a design example of the proposed converter is presented, considering the following specifications: PO= 5 KW, VO= 400 V, VS : 35–55 V,LK = 4 μH, fS = 50 kHz, ΔIS = 5%, ΔVO =3% The duty cycle of each switch of the proposed converter, theoretically, ranges from 0 to 1 due to the switching method based on symmetrical PWM. However, the operating duty cycle should be limited, say 0.3 < D < 0.7, since too small or large duty cycles cause large peak current rating of the components. Table 1 lists the usable range of the transformer turn ratio for several cases of N for a specified duty cycle range of 0.3 < D <0.7. A proper transformer turn ratio is chosen within the usable range, considering the actual duty cycle range, which also affects the voltage and current rating of the switch and diode. It should be noted that the peak voltage rating of the main switch is calculated to be VS, min/(1 −Dmax), where Dmax depends on the output voltage, N, and P. In this example, N is chosen to be 3 so that the switch voltage rating is 89 V, and therefore, the MOSFETs with lower Rds (ON) can be chosen for the proposed converter, resulting in reduced conduction losses. The peak diode voltage rating is 133 V, a third of output voltage, due to the series connection of the three voltage doublers. Table 1: Transformer turns ratio and voltage rating of the switch and diode. N

Range of NS/NP

NS/NP

Range of D

Switch VPK

Diode VPK

3.0~7.0

0.32~0.72

125

400

1.6~3.5

0.41 ~0.68

107.7

200

1.1~2.3

0.38~ 0.61

133

0.8~1.8

1.5

0.35 ~0.57

81.3

100

A Schottky diode of voltage rating of 170V with lower reverse recovery loss and forward voltage drop can be used, and the losses associated with rectifier diodes can be significantly reduced. With N = 3 and several cases of P, the current rating of the main switch and rectifier diode can also be calculated using the current waveform in Figure 5. Table 2 lists the current rating of the switch and diode for several cases of P when N = 3. The circuit diagram of the proposed multiphase converter with N=3 and P=1 is shown in Figure 6. Table 2: Current Rating of the Switch and Diode with N=3. List

Lower Switch

Upper Switch

Upper Diode

Lower Diode

67.8

29.7

14.0

7.0

16.5

4.7

8.2

3.5

Figure 6: Circuit diagram of the proposed converter with N=3 and P=1.

The proposed converter with N = 3 and P = 1 consists of three filter inductors, six MOSFET switches, two input capacitors at the low-voltage side and three series-connected voltage-doubler rectifiers at the high-voltage side. Three high frequency transformers are employed for step-up and isolation. Three voltage-doubler rectifiers are connected in series at the output so that the diode voltage rating becomes one-third of the output voltage. The proposed converter also employs six output capacitors, but total energy volumes of the capacitors are smaller, since the capacitor peak voltage is much smaller. The ratings of the passive components, such as the input inductor, the input capacitor, and the output capacitor according to the design specification are calculated and listed in Table 3. Meanwhile Figure 7 shows the predicted efficiency.

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Table 3: Ratings of Passive Components with N=3, P=1. Design Item

Value

Input filter Inductor L1, L2, L3

Inductance

Irms(Ipk)

48.45A (64.65A)

Input Capacitor CIU, CIL

Capacitance

20 µF

Irms(Ipk)

56.19A (122.69A)

Output Capacitor COU, COL

Capacitance

6.8 µF

Irms(Ipk)

17.7 A (39.1A)

Figure 7: Predicted efficiency.

6.0

CONCLUSION

This paper proposes the multiphase DC-DC converter with multiphase structures allow the current sharing among phases to reduce device current stresses and interleaving control schemes reduce the ripple currents in passive components. The soft switching mechanism allows the reduction of switching losses and is significant to achieve high efficiency power conversions. Simulation and experiments were performed to show the proposed method. The proposed converter will be implemented in the future which will show the better performance. REFERENCES [1] Cha, H., Choi, J. and Enjeti, P. (2008): A Three-phase Current-Fed DC/DC Converter with Active Clamp for Low-DC Renewable Energy Sources, IEEE Transaction on Power Electronics, Vol.23, No.6, pp.2784-2793. [2] Oliveira, S.V.G. and Barbi, I. (2005): A Three-phase Step-Up DC-DC Converter with a Three phase high Frequency Transformer, Industrial Electronics, Vol.2, pp.571-576. [3] Cha, H., Choi, J. and Han, B. (2008): A New Three Phase Interleaved Isolated Boost Converter with Active Clamp for Fuel Cells, Proceedings of the Power Electronics Specialists Conference, IEEE PESC, pp.12711276. [4] Fathy, K., Lee, H., Mishima, T. and Nakaoka, M. (2006): Boost-Half Bridge Single Power Stage PWM DC-DC Converter, Proceedings of the Power and Energy Conference, IEEE PECon, pp.426-431. [5] Zeng, J., Ying, J. and Zhang, Q. (2002): A Novel DC/DC ZVS Converter for Battery Input Application, Proceedings of the Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, IEEE APEC, pp.892-896. [6] Kim, C., Moon, G. and Han, S. (2007): Voltage Doubler Rectified Boost-Integrated Half Bridge (VDRBHB) Converter for Digital Car Audio Amplifiers, IEEE Transaction on Power Electronics, Vol.22, Iss.6, pp.23212330. [7] Watanabe, H. and Matsuo, H. (2002): A Novel High Efficient DC-DC Converter with 1V/20A DC output, Proceedings of the Telecommunications Energy Conference, IEEE INTELEC, pp.34-39.

GLOBAL ENGINEERS & TECHNOLOGISTS REVIEW www.getview.org

THE ENGINEERING STUDENTS SATISFACTION MEASUREMENT USING MIXED KANO MODEL-LIKERT’S SCALE MYIA YUZRINA1, Z.A., HAERYIP SIHOMBING2 and AINUL AZNIZA3, A.Z. 1, 3

Department of Mechanical Engineering Politeknik Merlimau Melaka Jalan Jasin, 77300 Merlimau, Melaka, MALAYSIA 1 myia@pmm.edu.my 3 ainul@pmm.edu.my 2

Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, MALAYSIA 2 iphaery@utem.edu.my ABSTRACT Traditionally, one of basic things on how the higher education institution (HEI) is to improve their abilities in delivering an engineering education relevant to the labour market is on how they are able to mediate and assign the lecturer in the teaching and learning in front of the class and what method they are use. This study examines the students’ satisfaction in higher education in Malaysia which focuses on the factors such as lecturer's expertise, courses delivered, learning environment, and classroom facilities. Specifically, on the dimensions of satisfaction model related to the student’s learning experience of the students who taking the course of mechanical engineering. The measurement used are on the qualitative and quantitative value of satisfaction attribute based on Kano model criteria and the 5-point Likerts’ scale toward 260 students took courses of Fluid Mechanic, Material Strength and Mechanic of Machine. Both of such measurement approaches are used to explore the mechanical students’ expectations and perceptions, as well as their latent needs as the priorities for the improvements of teaching and learning. In this study, what are the correlations between the students’ satisfaction and academic system related to the lecturers’ expertise about the topic and courses delivered need to be taken into account, especially to the academic assessment that requires special attention of policy maker. Keywords: Student Satisfaction, Academic Achievement, Course Delivered, Teaching Method. Article History: Received 5 August 2013, Accepted 25 November 2013.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

On the realities, the evaluation of service quality is more difficult than the product quality due to they are mostly related to the characteristics stood on the customers' feelings basis (Pasuraman et al., 1985; Grigoroudis and Sisko, 2009). For an instance, in the higher education institutions where they lead and bring the students, directly or indirectly, to change the personal level, cognitive, professional, emotional, and social. The literature shown that in the years of the students attend in higher education, they are accompanied by an extensively and integrated sets of changes from a diversity of experiences which make the educational process as an academic and non-academic activities, mandatory or not mandatory (Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005). In this perspective, the studies to investigate the academic satisfaction emerge as an important element in assessing the effectiveness of institutional and educational settings in order to enable the education institutions to make the effective restructuration of their sources to adapt to the needs of students. Here, for an instance, the measurement of academic satisfaction is used to assist the organization in the planning and improving the programs and services for students, as well as to increase the effectiveness of the educational process (Betz et al., 1971; Elliott and Shin, 2002; Knox et al., 1992). Considering on the importance to assess of as mentioned above, first, it will constructs the effort to coverage the instruments used in order to measure the academic satisfaction through the student satisfaction methodology that contribute to educational services quality improvement. This is means that by knowing the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the students will helps to raise the understanding of the impact of higher education in their full development. In the other hand, this will also promotes educational institutions, internal reorganization, strengthening the image of higher education institution (HEI), and social acceptability. In this sense, the services of higher education institution should be, anyhow, focused on and oriented to meet what -

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students want when they are considered as the most important customers. By focusing on quality as a defined mantra of student satisfaction, HEI should believe that the education qualities are strongly related to the objective reviewed of the student output and experiences related with existence of educational institution. This is means that the influence to the students' satisfaction not only by the quality of teaching and learning, but also by a number of other benefits received by the institution. Second, the customers of HEI are, in facts, not only the students, but also the academic community, family, society, labor market, companies. Thus, those with expectations and their actions affect the functioning of the HEI will, certainly, requires the wide participation of the entire academic community for the evaluation process as an important form; whether in planning, survey, organization or analysis of the data. By the involvement of all, through the participation and cooperation, it will legitimizes the evaluation process, bringing the benefits that contribute to continuous improvement, to the knowledge of the capabilities and limitations, and other actions that result in changes and improvements lead to the development of the institution. On this perspective, Vikas (2012) stated that the quality requirements come as a result of continuous improvement of educational process across the spectrum of socio-economic action of technological institution. Third, the requirements for proven quality educational services by ensuring the mission and role of HEI in which the satisfaction will be one of academic important dimensions in the process of interaction between the institution and the individual. On this perspective, the satisfaction and the academic institution should be viewed in a multidimensional way which contains of several dimensions. From the different points of view and given the need to quantify the measurement results of the data associated with academic achievement. This is due to the institutions and forms of organization and management as well as educational policies and ideologies that frame the whole process of educational system will influence the paths of their student. According to Darling-Hammond and Sykes (2003), one of the sources of failure from the very individuality of Higher Education is "Selective and aimed at education highly qualified", besides institutional factors such as infrastructure, resources or services provided to students which is associated towards academic success (Zhang et al., 2011). Hence, this study conduct the analysis of subject evaluation carried out by several lecturer based on their gender and experiences, besides what the basic aspects in delivering the course subjects and the measurements method used for assessing the students' performances. On what the students’ satisfaction, the analysis also considers the language factor used by lecturer to deliver the course in front of class, besides the students’ perceptions if they are failure in the test.

2.0

LITERATURE REVIEW

Despite a lot of discussions in the literature regarding the best methodology used for evaluation processes, the qualitative and quantitative methods are complementary and should be used together. This is due to the linkage between the qualitative and quantitative methods contribute to a deeper understanding of the object of evaluation. In addition, the combination of qualitative with quantitative methods will bring a more holistic view of the problems and seek for filling the gaps resulting from any one of them. Therefore, by using the method of integrated of quality attributes based on KANO method and the performance attributes (IPA), the calculation to the satisfaction of students are able to carry out against the specific criteria of the importance of each criterion in the formulation of total satisfaction. In this sense, Sihombing et al., (2012) shows about how they are depicted through the correlation between the types of questions refers to qualitative and quantitative; linear and non-linear forms of data, as simple mapping to the existing of satisfaction condition. The priorities for the improvement can be applied using the simple model of mathematical logic as follows: {Priorities} = {Gap Analysis} ∩ {Class of Ranking} 2.1 Kano Method Toward Quality Attributes The Kano model offers some insight into the product attributes perceived to be important to customers. There are three distinct categories which affect to the customers in a different way identified through the product characteristic in Kano Model, i.e. Must-be (M), One-dimensional (O), and Attractive (A). Must-be (M) attribute is also known as dissatisfies. If these requirements are not fulfilled, the customer will be extremely dissatisfied. However, when the must-be requirements is fulfilled, this will only lead to a state of “not dissatisfied”. While the O, is also known as satisfiers. With regard to these requirements, customer satisfaction is proportional to the level of fulfillment. The higher level of fulfillment, the higher the customer’s satisfaction and vice versa. One-dimensional requirements are usually explicitly demanded by the customer. Another criterion is A that also known as delighters. These requirements are the product criteria which have the greatest influence on how satisfied a customer will be with a given product. Attractive requirements are neither explicitly expressed nor expected by the customer. Fulfilling these requirements leads to more than proportional satisfaction. If they are not met, however, there is no feeling of dissatisfaction. Above requirements are the product criteria which have the greatest influence on how © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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satisfied a customer with a service provided and/ or given product. Attractive requirements are neither explicitly expressed nor expected by the customer. The additional three attributes are Indifferent (I), Questionable (Q) and Reverse (R) (19). By formulating the questions, the expectation of what customer need is a prime importance as their expectation is a description of the problem to be solved from the customer’s viewpoint. Table 1 shows the quality attributes of Kano method based on functional and dysfunctional aspects. Table 1: Kano’s evaluation table.

FUNCTIONAL

DYSFUNCTIONAL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Like Must-be Neutral Live with Dislike 1. Like Q A A A O 2. Must-be R I I I M 3. Neutral R I I I M 4. Live with R I I I M 5. Dislike R R R R Q A = Attractive; M = Must-be; R = Reverse; O = One- dimensional; I = Indifferent; Q = Questionable

Based on this Kano method, the most frequent observations of the sample set of responses are considered as the final Kano category for CR (customer requirements) (Kano et al., 1984) as follows: i)

Quantitative analysis of customer satisfaction into Kano’s model is carried out by calculating two values which are “better” and “worse” in order to reflect the average impact of a CR on customer satisfaction (CS) or dissatisfaction (DS) of all customers as follows (Berger et al., 1993): a) b)

ii)

Coefficient of cause of satisfaction (CS): (O+A)/(M+O+A+I)

(1)

Coefficient of cause of dissatisfaction (DS): -[(O+M)/(M+O+A+I)]

(2)

In making decisions about product developments, the features that have to be taken into consideration for improvement are the features that has the greatest influence on the perceived product quality, where their evaluation rule as follows : M > O> A >I

(3)

While for Category Strength (CAT), they consider the value of A, M, and O towards total. iii)

In order to find the priorities for improvement made, the evaluation rule use Kano Manipulating Graph (Sihombing et al., 2012; 2013) based on formulas as follows : F = ~ DF or DF = ~ F

(4)

F = DF’ or DF = F’ While for ranking decision, the consideration to the functional and dysfunctional responses is based on as follows:

 ( FxDF' ) 2 ( FxDF' ) 2 ( FxDF' ) 2 ( FxDF' ) 2     ( F  F' ) ( DF  DF' )  K  Ln 2      

(5)

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METHODOLOGY

This study is carried out for a 3rd year students of mechanical engineering class related to how their satisfaction in teaching and learning as a case. The response of survey distributed to them is related to the academic factors categorized into the important level based on ranking level. The ranking level used is to generate the importance level to meet their needs, while Kano model is to determine what the factors that needs to be improved in course delivery. In this study, the primary data research gathered through questionnaires where the correlation between types of functional and dysfunctional against Kano quality attributes will be used as follows:

i) ii) iii)

What the priorities required for the improvement. How satisfy the students towards the HEI performance of the service given related to teaching and learning. What are the elements of functional that students’ view as the importance to them in teaching and learning.

Figure 1 shows the step of how the questionnaire developed using Kano method and Likert scale. Each of factors generated regards the basic delivery in the courses; related to hygiene and motivator factors, developed based on Kano pairwise of questions. In this study, the survey questionnaire distributed is to 260 students as the respondent. Basic Aspect of Course Delivery:  Lecturer Background  Lecturing Delivery  Students’ Course Performance Measurement

Quality Attributes (Kano Method)

Performance (Likert Scale)

Process for finding the priorities for improvement Justification by using Kano Manipulating Graph[K] Improvement priorities Figure 1: Flow to find the priorities improvements in using Kano & Likert Scale. (Adapted from Sihombing et al., .2013)

Based on the quality attributes refer to Kano model, the questionnaire developed for the survey consist of twelve questions for each of pair Functional and Dysfunctional forms as shown in Table 2. While to the level of importance/performance, the questionnaires developed refer to 1 to 5 of Likert scale as to represent ‘strongly disagree’ till ‘strongly agree’ against the questions given. On this approach, the satisfaction questions as the basic part of the questionnaire that specifically concentrated to ask the respondents to express the degree of satisfaction for the three criteria, such as teaching staff (TS), material and course delivery (MCD), and course assessment method (CAM). Table 2: Factors in questionnaire developed in Likert Scale (Importance) and Kano Method (Satisfaction). No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

KANO QUESTIONS Lecturer vs. Experience vs. Knowledge [TS] Lectures vs. Material & Notes [TS] Industrial Visit [MCD] Industrial Talk [MCD] Tutorial vs. Exercise [MCD] Tutorial vs. Lecturing [Duration] [MCD] Lecturing language [MCD] Test Content [CAM] Test Characteristics [CAM] Lectures vs. Example [MCD] Assignment vs. Real Application [CAM] Report time [CAM]

LIKERT QUESTIONS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Competence of lecturer [TS] Course delivered [MCD] Importance of course for student Enjoyable [MCD] Failure vs. Lecturing Methods [MCD] Failure vs. Difficulties [CAM] Failure vs. Lecturer competences [TS] Relevancy [CAM] Confident [CAM] Real World Relationship

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The wording of the alternatives in the questionnaire developed, that is as the most critical choice, refers to the Kano methodology such as “I like it that way,” “It must be that way,” “I am neutral,” “I can live with it that way, and ” “I dislike it that way”. While to Likert scale, the questionnaires developed are by using 5 scaling interval such as “Strongly Like”, “Like”, “Nor Like or Dislike”, “Dislike”, and “Strongly Dislike”. Table 2 shows the elements or factors included in the questionnaires developed.

4.0

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1

Based On Quality Attributes Using Kano Method Approaches i)

Table 3 shows as following: a) Almost of respondents answer that what the requirement related to satisfaction is ‘Indifferent’. This is means what the existed given and the alternative proposed do not trigger them to see it as ‘Attractive’ and/or ‘Must- Be ‘requirement. Only question no.5 (K5) that related to the using of language in teaching and learning, the respondents felt that the using of English only in teaching and learning is as the opposite or reverse to their needs. b) Based on the gap analysis of Kano (we use CS-DS as were suggested by Matzler et al., 1996), it can be seen that negative values are found on no. 1, 5, and 11 respectively. However, based on the ranking represented the degree of the weight and prioritize the attributes that are experienced as being the most important within a quality category (Matzler et al., 1996) in this case is in reverse direction. The priorities level use ranking towards Gap (CS-DS) is -0.11, -0.05 and -0.01 (Rank 12, 11, and10). Table 3: Data of quality attributes based on Kano. No

KANO QUESTIONS

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 K12

Lecturer vs. Experience vs. Knowledge [TS] Lectures vs. Material & Notes [TS] Industrial Visit [MCD] Industrial Talk [MCD] Tutorial vs. Exercise [MCD] Tutorial vs. Lecturing [Duration] [MCD] Lecturing language [MCD] Test Content [CAM] Test Characteristics [CAM] Lectures vs. Example [MCD] Assignment vs. Real Application [CAM] Report time [CAM]

14 42 64 65 20 30 17 59 40 53 38 22

32 26 12 20 31 17 4 17 23 14 41 22

10 58 38 21 27 4 3 19 12 7 18 29

105 96 106 113 134 127 101 111 132 122 133 113

53 8 19 27 33 40 105 31 22 23 11 36

46 30 21 14 15 42 30 23 31 41 19 38

0.15 0.45 0.46 0.39 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.38 0.25 0.31 0.24 0.27

0.26 0.38 0.23 0.19 0.27 0.12 0.06 0.17 0.17 0.11 0.26 0.27

Gap MAX MAX RANK [CS-DS] 1 2 -0.11 0.07 0.24 0.21 -0.05 0.07 0.10 0.20 0.08 0.20 -0.01 0.00

I I I I I I R I I I I I

R O A A R R I A A A M Q

12 8 1 2 11 7 5 3 6 4 10 9

ii)

Since Kano no. 1, 5 and 11 (K1, K5, and K11) for 2 nd maximum are ‘Reverse’ (R) and ‘Must-Be’ (M) attributes refers to weight of priorities based on Berger et al., (1993) (attributes M>O>A>I), then the priorities is on M. According to Crostack et al. (2010), M>O>A>I rule makes up an easy applying the measurement for prioritization where they are used for recommending the first of product requirements into consideration, which is this case is allocated to the requirement Kano’s method category M. In facts, this approach is, actually, to make decision maker a little bit confuse since the consideration only focus on M attributes, especially in the case for 2nd maximum. Therefore, the approaches using Functional, Dysfunctional, and Kano Manipulating Graph (K) are needed to verify the priorities required (Sihombing et al., 2012).

iii)

Table 4 shows that ranking levels of using the approach of using Functional, Dysfunctional, and Kano Manipulating Graph. a) Based on CAT (category of strength), we found that Kano no1, 6, and 7 (K1, K6, K7) are the lowest ranking. This is consistent to the rank levels between Functional and Dysfunctional in reverse (negation of Functional and Dysfunctional) in which the attributes A, M, O are less than attributes of I, R, and Q (A+M+O < I+R+Q) (Matzler et al., 1996). In this table, the rank level of K also shows as the lowest, except for Kano no.7 (K7), that is rank 10 and 12. Based on this table, we can conclude that the values of functional factors are less than the dysfunctional factors. This is means that the respondents tend to judge such factional factors to Kano scale with ‘Like’ and ‘Must-Be’ rather than ‘Neutral’, ‘I can live with it’, and ‘Dislike’. © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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Table 4: Data of quality attributes based on ranking levels. No

KANO QUESTIONS

(1) F

(2) DF

(3) F’

(4) DF’

K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 K12

3.22 2.03 1.95 2.16 2.40 2.50 3.13 2.27 2.25 1.97 2.19 2.23

3.30 3.53 3.20 3.08 3.07 2.60 2.12 2.96 2.82 2.62 3.19 2.87

2.78 3.97 4.03 3.83 3.59 3.48 2.84 3.72 3.73 4.02 3.80 3.75

2.70 2.47 2.80 2.92 2.93 3.41 3.88 3.04 3.18 3.38 2.81 3.13

(5) (6) RANK RANK RANK RANK RANK CAT ({F + DF'}/F) ({DF+F'}/DF) (1)-(2) (3)-(4) (5)-(6) K CAT 1.84 2.22 2.43 2.35 2.22 2.36 2.24 2.34 2.41 2.72 2.28 2.40

1.84 2.12 2.26 2.24 2.17 2.34 2.34 2.26 2.32 2.54 2.19 2.31

21.5% 48.5% 43.8% 40.8% 30.0% 19.6% 9.2% 36.5% 28.8% 28.5% 37.3% 28.1%

2 12 11 9 7 3 1 8 4 6 10 5

11 5 2 3 9 10 12 8 7 1 6 4

10 1 2 5 6 12 4 7 9 11 3 8

10 1 2 3 6 11 12 5 7 8 4 9

Based on K approach (Table 4), we can see that the 3 of highest ranks are on K2, K3, and K11. This is means that the factors on K2, K3, and K11 should be prioritized for improvements rather than others. They will become ‘One Dimensional’ and ‘Attractive’, while to K11 (where the 2nd maximum is ‘Must-Be’), it will reduce the dissatisfaction of students (41 respondents) (see Table 3).

4.2 Based On Performance Attributes Using Likert Scale Based on the 3 of highest rank, Table 5 shows as follows: i)

The students tend to ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’ to answer that the lectures who gives the courses of fluid mechanic, material strength, and mechanic of machine are having enough competencies (L1). This is consistent to the condition if they are failure in academic assessment (i.e., test, quiz, labs, case study or assignment) of the courses due to lecturing methods (L5) and lecturer competencies (L7), where the ranking levels are the lowest one (Rank no.11 and 10 respectively). Table 5: Data of performances attributes using Likert scale. No L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11

ii)

4.3

LIKERT QUESTIONS Competence of lecturer [TS] Course delivered [MCD] Importance of course for student Enjoyable [MCD] Failure vs. Lecturing Methods [MCD] Failure vs. Difficulties [CAM] Failure vs. Lecturer competences [TS] Relevancy [CAM] Confident [CAM] Real World Relationship

Average 3.80 3.74 3.69 3.58 3.06 3.33 3.08 3.70 3.51 3.55 3.52

RANK 1 2 4 5 11 9 10 3 8 6 7

The students also tend to ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree‘ that the course delivery has already in best manner (L2) and the academic assessment (i.e., test, quiz, labs, case study or assignment) is relevant to the course subjects (L8).

Based On Quality and Performance Attributes i)

Since the students feels that the lecturers who give the course subject are competence enough (L1) (Table 5), the students are, however, more accept to the lecturers who having experiences about the knowledge of lecturing methods (even though does not have suitable background about the course subject) rather than the lecturers who having the experiences about the course subjects but he/she does not have the knowledge about the lecturing methods. This why the ranking of importance for this factor (K1) is less (Table 3 & 4). This is shown to the condition where they are more want the lecturers who deliver the course subjects through lecturers presentations and notes rather than not in teaching learning session (K2) (Table 4). Table 4 shows that the functional factor tends to ‘Must-Be’ (2.03), while dysfunctional factors tend to ‘I Can live with it’ (3.53)).

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Based on the correlation factors between quality and performance attributes (Table 6, 7, and 8), as follows: a) There is significant correlation (-0.224) between ‘the lecturer is competence enough to give the lecturing of course subject’ (L1) to ‘the type of assignment whether it discuss or not about the real world’ (K11) (p<0.01) (Table 6). Although most of the students feel that if the lecturers give such kind of assignment is ‘Indifferent’, the students tend to express themselves to this requirement as ‘Must-Be’ (Table 4, where the score is 2.19). This is consequent to how the correlation based on Table 7 and Table 8, where the correlations are also negative (for functional; KFunctional-11) and positive (for dysfunctional; KdisFunctional-11), that are 0.137 and 0.199 respectively. Table 6: Correlation between quality attributes (Kano) vs. performance attributes (Likert). Likert-1 Likert-2 Likert-3 Likert-4 Likert-5 Likert-6 Likert-7 Likert-8 Likert-9 Likert-10 Likert-11

Kano-1 -.131(*) Kano -2 -.200(**) -.155(*) -.178(**) -.133(*) -.210(**) -.278(**) Kano -3 .159(**) -.148(*) Kano -4 -.187(**) -.190(**) -.170(**) -.154(*) -.257(**) -.173(**) -.154(*) Kano -5 -.124(*) .195(**) Kano -6 .135(*) Kano -7 -.131(*) Kano -8 -.221(**) -.232(**) -.197(**) -.250(**) .132(*) -.316(**) -.184(**) -.180(**) Kano -9 -.196(**) Kano -10 -.200(**) -.145(*) -.125(*) -.136(*) Kano -11 -.224(**) -.250(**) -.158(*) -.155(*) Kano -12 -.144(*) -.187(**) **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

There are significant correlations (p<0.01) between ‘the course subject (lecturing) has delivered in best manner’ (L2) to ‘for lecturing, the materials are given and delivered through the lectures presentation and notes’ (K2) (-0.200) and to ‘the type of assignment whether it discuss or not about the real world’ (K11) (-0.250) (Table 6). This is consequent to how the correlation based on Table 7 and Table 8, where the correlation is also negative (for functional; KFunctional-2 & KFunctional-11 ) and positive (for dysfunctional; KdisFunctional-2 & KdisFunctional-11), that are -0.148 & 0.154 and 0.327 & 0.197 respectively. In the case of ‘the lecturing whether the materials are given and delivered through the lectures presentation and notes’ (KFunctional-2 and KdisFunctional-2), this is having correlation to ‘the course subject is important to get the jobs’ (L3) (-0.155, p<0.05). Table 7: Correlation between quality attributes (Functional) vs. performance attributes (Likert).

KFunctional-1 KFunctional-2 KFunctional-3 KFunctional-4 KFunctional-5 KFunctional-6 KFunctional-7 KFunctional-8 KFunctional-9 KFunctional-10 KFunctional-11 KFunctional-12

Likert-1 Likert-2 Likert-3 Likert-4 Likert-5 Likert-6 Likert-7 Likert-8 Likert-9

Likert-10 Likert-11

.123(*) -.128(*) -.143(*) -.143(*) -.148(*) -.208(**) -.194(**) -.211(**) -.157(*) -.191(**)

-.313(**) -.196(**) -.193(**)

-.149(*) -.149(*) -.247(**) -.160(**) -.192(**) -.138(*) -.133(*) -.158(*) -.196(**)

-.200(**) -.167(**) -.150(*) -.131(*)

.129(*) -.126(*) .152(*) -.141(*) -.256(**) -.160(**) -.145(*) -.230(**) -.129(*) -.241(**) -.250(**) -.144(*) -.177(**) -.215(**) -.175(**) -.137(*) -.154(*) -.202(**) -.154(*) -.165(**) -.168(**) **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). .125(*)

The students feels that ‘the course subject is important in their future jobs’ (L4) having correlation to whether ‘in lecturing they need or not the industrial talk by expert person’ (K4) (-0.154, p<0.05), ‘the test and quiz includes or not the multiple objective and true/false questions’ (K8) (-0.250, p<0.01), and ‘the reports (assignments, labs, etc.) must be submitted in less two weeks or based on the class agreement’ (K12), p<0.01). © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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Based on whether ‘the quiz, test, labs, case studies, and assignment are relevant to the course of subject’ (L8), the students feels that this is having correlation to whether ‘for lecturing, the materials are given and delivered or not through the lectures presentation and notes’ (K2) (-0.133, p<0.05), ‘there are industrial visit or not for lecturing session’ (K3) (-0.148 , p<0.05), ‘there are in lecturing they need or not the industrial talk by expert person’ (K4) (-0.257, p<0.01), and ‘the test and quiz includes or not the multiple objective and true/false questions’ (K8) (-0.316, p<0.01). Based on ‘the quiz, test, case study, and assignment given are relevant to the real world’ (L10) and ‘the course of subject is important for their knowledge and to get the job and their futures’ (L11), the students feels these requirements significant having correlation to whether ‘for lecturing, the materials are or not given and delivered through the lectures presentation and notes’ (K2) (-0.210 and -0.278, p<0.01). Table 8: Correlation between quality attributes (Dysfunctional) vs. performance attributes (Likert). Likert-1 Likert-2 Likert-3 Likert-4 Likert-5 Likert-6 Likert-7 Likert-8 Likert-9 Likert-10 Likert-11

KDisFunctional-1 .334(**) .258(**) .187(**) -.127(*) .236(**) .124(*) .150(*) .155(*) KDisFunctional-2 .338(**) .327(**) .175(**) -.153(*) .286(**) .148(*) .195(**) KDisFunctional-3 .203(**) -.228(**) -.146(*) .148(*) KDisFunctional-4 .128(*) .147(*) .126(*) -.150(*) -.188(**) .134(*) KDisFunctional-5 .141(*) -.157(*) .240(**) KDisFunctional-6 -.132(*) KDisFunctional-7 -.153(*) -.286(**) -.258(**) -.140(*) .130(*) -.255(**) -.246(**) -.219(**) -.173(**) KDisFunctional-8 .137(*) .155(*) .179(**) .166(**) KDisFunctional-9 -.135(*) KDisFunctional-10 -.126(*) KDisFunctional-11 .199(**) .197(**) .127(*) .123(*) -.129(*) .125(*) KDisFunctional-12 .134(*) .131(*) .213(**) .211(**) .139(*) **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed), * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

5.0

iii)

Refers to the numbers of correlations existed, specifically in Table 6, the most correlations are existed on K2 and L8, that are 5 and 4 values respectively. This is means that the students most concern to whether ‘in lecturing, the materials are or not given and delivered through the lectures presentation and notes’ and ‘the quiz, test, labs, case study, and assignment have been given are relevant to the course subject’. Although for K2 the students feels as ‘Indifferent’, however the students will feels satisfaction if the lectures can improve this requirements. This is shown through the value of 2 nd Maximum where the attribute is ‘OneDimensional’ (O). In table 3 shows that the students who judge this requirements as ‘OneDimensional’ (O) is 52 students, while 42 students feels as ‘Attractive’ (A).

iv)

Based on Table 7 and Table 8, we found that the correlations are mostly found on ‘Functional type’ of quality attributes rather than ‘Dysfunctional’ types, which are 61 and 56 values respectively. However, based on this 2 type questions, we found that the correlations are existed on L1 (competence of lecturer), L4 (the course subject is important for jobs in future), L8 (the quiz, test, labs, case studies, and assignment are relevant to the course of subject), and K2 (for lecturing, the materials are given and delivered through the lectures presentation and notes), that are 4, 4, 5, and 6 values. This is means that ‘for lecturing, the materials are given and delivered through the lectures presentation and notes’ (K2) will determine ‘the lecturer is competence enough to give the lecturing of course subject’ (L1) and ‘the quiz, test, labs, case studies, and assignment are relevant to the course of subject’ (L8). In this case, for K2 is the first priority for improvement refers to Table 4 since the rank for K and CAT is no.1. This is supported to the average value of F and DF where the score is 2.03 (it must-be that way, if the materials are delivered and give in the lecturing though presentation and notes) and 3.53 (‘I’m neutral’ to ‘I can live with it that way’, if they are not).

CONCLUSION

In this study, the mechanical engineering students’ feels that ‘materials given and delivered in teaching and learning through lecturers’ presentations and notes’ (L2) are having correlation to whether ‘the lecturing has delivered in best manner’ (K2). This is the first requirement by them to the lecturers’ service. Based on this perspectives, they will decide how relevant ‘the quiz, test, labs, case studies, and assignment to the course of © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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subject’ (L8). By improving the factors of lecturers’ presentations and notes will automatically shift the students to satisfaction (One-Dimensional), especially if they provide industrial visit (K3). While for the assignment whether they are related or not to the real application (K4) will influence to the students satisfaction related to their decision whether the lecturers is competence enough of giving the course subject (L1) and the course subject has delivered in best manner (L2). The using of K approach to find the priority for improvement made in teaching and learning has proven more accurate rather than only using gap analysis based on CS-DS and attributes of 2nd maximum. In order to find the priority for improvement required, this study using the alternative questions based on performance or importance attributes to justify the importance of factors of improvement need. In this study, the correlations between the performance attributes to quality attributes are required as a justification for decision made. This correlation should consider between the performance attribute to functional and dysfunctional types of quality attributes, besides the quality attributes itself that represent Kano method. Since this study apply the concept of satisfaction using Kano method in academic case, further study required to cases of satisfaction improvement required, especially by using Kano Manipulating Graph or K. REFERENCES [1] Berger, C., Blauth, R., Boger, D., Bolster, C., Burchill, G., DuMouchel, W., Pouliot, F., Richter, R., Rubinoff, A., Shen, D., Timko, M. and Walden, D. (1993): Kano’s Methods for Understanding Customer-Defined Quality, Center for Quality Management Journal, Vol.2, No.4, pp.3-35. [2] Betz, E.L., Menne, J.W., Starr, A.M. and Klingensmith, J.E.A. (1971): Dimensional Analysis of College Student Satisfaction, Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance, Vol.4, No.2, pp.99-106. [3] Crostack, H.A., Kern, C. and Refflinghaus, R. (2010): The suitability of Kano’s Method for the Requirements of the Cutlery Industry: Results of a Case Study Associated with an Approach to Widen Kano’s Theory, International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, Vol.2, No.3, pp.352-368. [4] Darling-Hammond, L. and Sykes, G. (2003): Wanted, A National Teacher Supply Policy for Education: The Right Way to Meet the Highly Qualified Teacher Challenge, Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol.11, No.33, pp.1-55. [5] Elliott, K. and Shin, D. (2002): Student Satisfaction: an Alternative Approach to Assessing this Important Concept, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, Vol.24, No.2, pp.198-209. [6] Grigoroudis, E. and Sisko, Y. (2009): Customer Satisfaction Evaluation: Methods for Measuring and Implementing, Springer, New York. [7] Knox, W.E., Lindsay, P. and Kolb, M.N. (1992): Higher Education, College Characteristic and Student Experiences, Journal of Higher Education, Vol.63, No.3, pp.303-328. [8] Matzler, K., Hinterhuber, H.H., Bailom, F. and Sauerwein, E. (1996): How to Delight Your Customer, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol.5, No.2, pp.6-18. [9] Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1995): A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Implications for Future Research, Journal of Marketing, Vol.49, No.4, pp.41-50. [10] Sihombing, H., Yuhazri, M.Y., Yahaya, S.H., Yuzrina, M.Z.A. and Azniza, A.Z.A. (2012): Revisited the Importance and Performance Analysis (IPA) and Kano Model for Customer Satisfaction Measurement, Global Engineers and Technologists Review, Vol.2, No.1, pp.22-38. [11] Sihombing, H., Yuhazri, M.Y., Yahaya, S.H., Kamely, M.A. and Rahimah, A.H. (2013): The Measurement of Herzberg’ Employees Satisfaction using Kano Method, Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol.7, No.1, pp.27-43. [12] Vikas, O. (2012): Innovation-Centric Teaching and Learning Processes in Technical Education, Journal of Modern Education Review, Vol.2, No.2, pp.116-131. [13] Zhang, N., Williams, I.D., Kemp, S. and Smith, N.F. (2011): Greening Academia: Developing Sustainable Waste Management at Higher Education Institutions, Waste Management, Vol.31, Iss.7, pp.1606-1616.

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CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR SUSTAINABILITY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE: A GLIMPSE OF DRB-HICOM INITIATIVES RAO1, T.S., ZAIDI2, A.M.A, HASIM3, M.H. and SUHAIDAH4, H. 1, 2, 3, 4

International College of Automotive DRB-HICOM Automotive Complex, Peramu Jaya Industrial Area P.O. Box 8, 26607 Pekan, Pahang, MALAYSIA 1 rao@icam.edu.my 2 mujahid@icam.edu.my 3 hizam@icam.edu.my 4 suhaidah@icam.edu.my ABSTRACT This paper presents an exploratory review of the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) issue currently being publicly addressed by the companies to make themselves identified by the community. The fundamental idea of CSR is that business corporations have an obligation to contribute to the welfare of the society and to work for social betterment in return for the benefits it receives from the society. More generally the paper offers some reflections on the current corporate responsibility (CR) initiatives being pursued by DRB-HICOM group of companies. DRB-HICOM’s commitment to CR focuses on the sustainability and good governance. The group‘s CR framework is built on four strategic dimensions namely workplace, community, marketplace and environment. The study concludes that group mainly focuses upon three strategic core themes, youth development and education, socio-economic development and quality of life. The group’s system is so geared that it moves towards the goal of having a positive impact on society while achieving success. Keywords: Corporate Social Responsibility, Social Betterment, Sustainability, Strategic Core. Article History: Received 7 August 2013, Accepted 21 November 2013.

1.0

INTRODUCTION

2.0

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Business in addition to making a profit, it should help to solve social problems whether or not business helps to create those problems, even if there is probably no short-run or long-run profit potential. Therefore, the basic idea of corporate social responsibility is that business and society are interwoven rather than distinct entities. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in its most basic form can be understood as what business puts back and can show it puts back in return for the benefits it receives from the society. The fundamental idea of CSR is that business corporations have an obligation to contribute to the welfare of the society (Godfrey and Hatch, 2007), and to work for social betterment (Frederick, 1994). CSR is a policy in which the firm goes beyond compliance and engages in “actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by the law” (McWilliams and Siegel, 2001), or at least knowingly does not do anything to harm its stakeholders (Campbell, 2006). A company’s social responsibilities reflect its ethics as well as its attitude towards life and the public. On the other hand, under the premise of the sustainable development, the interests of employees and consumers will be guaranteed better, investors and creditors will acquire much more earnings, and communities will achieve more benefits. Only a company that experiences sustainable development will perform its social responsibilities more preferably. The objectives of this paper is to presents an exploratory review of the CSR issue currently being publicly addressed by the companies and to focus upon the current CR initiatives being pursued by DRB-HICOM group of companies.

There are as many definitions of CSR as there are writers, leaving the construct fuzzy (Johnson et al., 2010; Amaeshi and Adi, 2007) and open to conflicting interpretations (Windsor, 2001). Some authors have equated CSR to morality, corporate responsibility, corporate citizenship, environmental responsibility, corporate greening, green marketing, responsible buying, stakeholder engagement, corporate accountability, business -

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ethics, social responsible investment, human rights, genuine stakeholder engagement, sustainability, corporate giving and philanthropy. All these render CSR a multi‐purpose construct. The area defined by advocates of CSR increasingly covers a wide range of issues such as plant closures, employee relations, human rights, corporate ethics, community relations and the environment. Indeed, CSR Europe, a membership organisation of large companies across Europe, in its reporting guidelines looks at the following areas such as workplace (employees), marketplace (customers, suppliers), environment, community, ethics, and human rights. Whether or not business should undertake CSR, and the forms that responsibility should take, depends upon the economic perspective of the firm that is adopted. 2.1 Components of CSR Carroll (2004) argued that CSR is made up of the following components in a bottom‐up order: i) ii) iii) iv)

Economic responsibility – ‘be profitable’. Legal responsibility – ‘obey the law’. Ethical responsibility – ‘be ethical’. Philanthropic responsibility – ‘be a good global corporate citizen’.

Burke and Logsdon (1996), for instance, argued that the probable contributions of CSR activities to value creation could be assessed from the following dimensions. i) ii) iii) iv) v)

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Centrality – a measure of the closeness of fit between a CSR policy or programme and the firm’s mission and objectives. Specificity – the firm’s ability to capture or internalize the benefits of a CSR programme, rather than simply creating collective goods which can be shared by others in the industry, community or society at large. Proactivity – the degree to which CSR activities are planned in anticipation of emerging economic, technological, social or political trends and in the absence of crisis conditions. Voluntarism – the scope of discretionary decision‐making by the firm and the absence of externally imposed compliance requirements. Visibility – the observability of a business activity and the firm’s ability to gain recognition from internal and external stakeholders.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Within the literature on CSR, we can identify developments in our understanding as well as in business practice. Frederick (1994) identifies the development in the understanding of CSR up to 1970 as an examination of ‘‘corporations’ obligation to work for social betterment’’ and refers to this as CSR1. However, around 1970 he notes a move to ‘‘corporate social responsiveness’’, which he calls CSR2. He identifies corporate social responsiveness as ‘‘the capacity of a corporation to respond to social pressures’’. In effect the move from CSR1 to CSR2 reflects a move from a philosophical approach to one that focuses on managerial action – that is, will the firm respond and how. Latterly, Frederick (1986) has developed this analysis to include a more ethical base to managerial decision taking in the form of corporate social rectitude and terms this CSR3. In this development, Frederick claims that the study of business and society needs an ethical anchor to ‘‘permit a systematic critique of business’s impact upon human consciousness, human community and human continuity’’. The need for companies to undertake activity that might be regarded as socially responsible has been discussed in many research studies and has been a topic of academic importance for decades. Joyner and Payne (2002) discusses the development of CSR to an interdependence of relationship between business, society and government for a stable environment. Wartick and Cochran (1985) underlines that business only contributes to a society, if it is efficient, profitable and socially responsible. Foster and Jonker (2003) discusses the feasibility of the concept of a ‘stakeholder society’ to replace the traditional corporate governance framework and a set of governance mechanisms. Weissbrodt and Kruger (2003), argued for new laws to make businesses responsible for protecting human rights and the environment wherever they work. Quazi and O’Brien (2000) built a two-dimensional model of CSR that distinguishes between narrow and wide responsibilities and costs and benefits from CSR action; Matten and Crane (2005) conceptualized corporate citizenship by separating between social rights, civil rights and political rights; Meehan et al., (2006) built a CSR model that focused on social and ethical commitments, connections with important partners and behavioural consistency, and the world economic forum (2003) structured a model of key corporate citizenship issues around people, environment, contribution to development and corporate governance and ethics. Heal (2005) views CSR from economic fundamentals and interprets it as having an important resource allocation role.

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THE DRB-HICOM

The DRB-HICOM is an investment holding company with investments in the automotive (including defence), services and property and construction segments. DRB-HICOM Berhad (DRB-HICOM) is one of Malaysia’s leading companies listed on the main market of Bursa Malaysia Securities Berhad, playing an integral role in the nation’s road to industrialisation. DRB-HICOM is a fully integrated automotive company involved in every link of the automotive chain: from the manufacture of automotive components and assembly to distribution and after sales support for a wide range of vehicles - motorcycles to passenger, commercial, defence and customised vehicles such as buses, ambulances, police vehicles, fire trucks and garbage compactors. The property business of DRB-HICOM is in development, engineering, infrastructure and building construction, and manufacture. 4.1 Corporate Responsibility of DRB-HICOM At DRB-HICOM, Corporate Responsibility (CR) is a key area of focus in creating value that goes beyond philanthropic commitments. DRB-HICOM takes pride in creating a business environment that is sustainable to our stakeholders and society at large. In keeping with the principles of good governance, DRB-HICOM’s CR initiatives are structured to include workplace, community, market place and environment initiatives as shown in Table 1. Table 1: The DRB-HICOM philanthropic commitments of corporate responsibility Commitment in/to workplace

Community Engagement

Marketplace

Environment

Women empowerment

Youth development & education

Sustainable procurement

Green & climate change

Exciting workplace

School adoption programme

Marketing responsibility

Biodiversity & conservation

Training and development

Socio-economic development

Customer satisfaction survey

Green procurement

Performance management system

Quality of life

Compliance of products & services

Sustainable product

Standards and best practices

Green technology

Process Innovations

3R & gerak tumpu

Technological enhancements

River conservation

Operational excellence

Tree planting

Health & safety guidelines at work Early detection, prevention, and treatment of illnesses

Learning & employment for disabled Contribution to the Humanitarian relief mission Donations to disadvantaged and senior citizens

Sporting activities

Rewarding employees children

Employee suggestion scheme

Employee education & career development

Customer relationship management

4.2 Commitment in the Workplace DRB-HICOM provides fair and equitable treatment to its employees while at the same time maintains a workplace free from discrimination, harassment and retaliation. There are no disparities in pay between men and women. Although there is no minimum wage law in Malaysia, its base salary is competitive and includes performance –based incentives and rewards. i)

Women empowerment. DRB-HICOM supports the UN Millennium Development Goals, which include the empowerment of women. Its historic step was in accelerating the company’s goal on gender equality and development. There is a significant increase in the number of female senior managers in the company in the recent periods. The group contributed RM 10,000 to EWomen which is a one-stop centre portal on current affairs, business ideas, events and business trends and other enterprise issues.

ii)

Providing an exciting workplace. The DRB-HICOM through ICAM organised first DRB-HICOM Karting Championship Series in 2010. The Championship aims to bring everyone closer together as a big corporate company while enjoying an exciting motorsport experience.

iii)

Training and development. The new concept of e-training and e-learning was introduced to compliment traditional classroom instructor-led training programmes. It is primarily intended to knowledge gained from attending classroom training can be retained and enhanced through this approach. © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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iv)

Performance management system. The DRB-HICOM implements a fair and effective performance review process where both employee and immediate superiors are responsible for completing the appraisal process. Its main objective is to ensure that all employees lower or higher level are aligned towards common goals.

Employee suggestion scheme (ESS). This scheme of employee suggestion is implemented to suggest ideas which will improve the company. The company benefited from this scheme by receiving innovative, creative, and effective improvement ideas. In the previous year, about 60 % of suggestions received were successfully implemented and has successfully contributed in boosting employee’s morale.

vi)

Health and safety at work. DRB-HICOM is committed to ensure that all employees work in a safe and healthy environment. The Group is accredited with the ISO 14001 EMS certification and Occupational Health and Safety Assessment (OHSAS) to ensure a safe and conducive working environment for all employees. In line with the Health Ministry’s directive, all offices and factories in the Group are smoke-free zones. Regular fire drills are conducted to better prepare employees for speedy evacuation in cases of fire emergencies. The Group is also working together with various medical institution, local hospitals and the National Blood Bank to organise periodic health screening and blood donation drive to raise awareness on the importance of healthy living.

vii)

Fair and equitable treatment. The Group is committed to provide fair and equitable treatment to our employees while at the same time maintain a workplace free from discrimination, harassment and retaliation. Although there is no minimum wage law in Malaysia, its base salary is competitive and includes performance-based incentives and rewards.

4.3 Community Engagement DRB-HICOM recognises its responsibility to manage the impact of its business in the community. Many programmes are determined according to community needs and there are three strategic core themes on which its focus, youth development and education, socio-economic development and quality of life. i)

Youth development and education through ICAM. International College of Automotive (ICAM) was established to generate the rising needs of highly skilled workforce in automotive industry. ICAM is taking the advantage of group’s 20 years of experience as leading automotive industry to create knowledgeable and skilled workforce to meet the future business challenges. ICAM started in 2010 initially with diplomas in automotive service technology, automotive retail management, automotive parts management and vehicle inspection is moving ahead with a massive expansion in its programmes and for a new campus with advanced facilities to achieve its vision of becoming a leader in automotive education.

ii)

School adoption programme. The HICOM Power Sdn. Bhd. has taken up ‘Projek sekolah Angkat” whereby the schools are adopted for granting funds for educational development activities and motivational briefings. This project has resulted in achieving social value to its investment and achieved 5A‘s in the UPSR’s examination. Under the staff development, the group provides financial assistance to eligible employees to pursue higher education in their chosen field to gain new competencies. It also rewards their children to continuously strive for academic excellence for their outstanding achievements in the national school examinations.

iii)

Socio-economic development. ICAM to boost nation building: under the 10th Malaysian Plan, the government is targeting the technical and vocational education opportunities to reach a level of at least 37 % of highly skilled workers by 2015, it is currently 23 %. ICAM approaches are directly complementing the New Economic Policy (NEP) deliverables which include; a) b)

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Enhancing the second source of growth and its sustainability. ICAM’s motives are also aligned with the Economic transformation Programme (ETP). The ETP introduced by the Malaysian Government has prioritised the investments in the 12 National Key Economic Areas (NKEA’S), one of which is education. Through ICAM, creating additional work opportunities is expected.

Quality of life. The DRB-HICOM acknowledges that corporate responsibility is about doing business responsibly and ethically, with integrity and strong governance. The Group believes this and extends beyond just philosophical and philanthropic commitment. The group believes on delivering high impact CR through various key initiatives including: a) b) c) d)

Sponsorship to the Star-Newspaper–in–Education (NiE) programme by adopting 20 schools in Klang Valley, Pahang and Kedah to provide the weekly NiE pullout. For the third consecutive year, DRB-HICOM sponsored the “Program Sahabat Korporat Tabung Haji 1431 H “organised by Lembaga Tabung haji (LTH). KLAS Food distribution catered to 300 stranded passengers in KLIA due to Iceland volcanic ash incident which closed European airports in April 2010. DEFTECH donated RM1 million to the Majlis Rayuan Hari Pahlawan, as a way of showing its appreciation to former military personnel for their services and sacrifices in maintaining peace in the country.

4.4 Commitment in the Market Place DRB-HICOM and its subsidiaries are committed to delivering high quality products and services with excellent level of effectiveness and efficiency. Its best practices or initiatives are guided by the 9HMS principles. Commitment in ensuring quality products and services is also manifested by subsidiaries having certified to ISO 9001 and ISO TS 16949. Various quality monitoring initiatives are also introduced such as Poka Yoke (mistake proofing), six sigma and value stream mapping. i)

Sustainable procurement. DRB-HICOM is proactively involved in developing and managing its vendors. It runs a vendor development programme to meet certain standards. The vendors are assessed on parameters including their quality management and respect for the environment. Vendors undergo audits, and top performers are honoured with appreciation and performance awards.

ii)

Marketing responsibility. Employees are encouraged to accept responsibility for the quality of communication with its customers. Each contact with a customer is regarded as an opportunity to improve the quality of communication between the group and the people whose needs it serve.

iii)

Customer satisfaction survey. DRB-HICOM continues to ensure the high level of customer satisfaction levels. IT implemented a few mechanisms for the automotive division to gauge customer satisfaction levels. These include market surveys, service campaigns, service centres and on-line satisfaction pools.

iv)

Compliance of products and services. The group continues to adhere to all relevant laws and regulations to ensure compliance with relevant governmental authorities.

4.5 Commitment to the Environment The group’s environmental policy upholds the Environmental Management System (EMS) which is externally benchmarked against international certifications including the ISO 14001. The DRB-HICOM emerged as champion for environment category under the market capitalisation above RM 1 billion category in the star Biz Corporate Responsibility Awards 2010. Apart from the group’s continuous efforts to uphold the integrated environmental policies, it is continuously organising initiatives such as nature’s trail to inculcate appreciation towards the need to protect undisturbed heritage; 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) programmes; rivers and mangroves conservations; and tree planting to enhance environmental awareness and bio-diversity.

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Green and climate change. The DRB-HICOM supports the action of United Nations, governments and the world at large by implementing steps to minimise climate change risks. Holiday inn Kuala Lumpur Glenmaire achieved the earth check certifications which is the world’s leading environmental practices monitoring programme used by the travel and tourism industry.

ii)

Biodiversity and conservation. The group works with World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Terengganu Wildlife department in upgrading its lakes and spa in a bid to position it on the international tourism map. The results of conservation efforts are positive. Several projects are taken up to educate the future generations and the Malaysian public on environmental and conservation issues through various activities.

iii)

Green procurement. The procurement department introduced the element of green purchasing in its invitation to bid. Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) often referred to as “green purchasing” is the affirmative selection and acquisition of products and services that most effectively minimise negative environmental impacts over their life cycle of manufacturing, transportation, use and recycling or disposal.

iv)

Sustainable product–green technology. DRB-HICOM is successful to introduce the first electric bike by MODENAS in Southeast Asia. Recent research and development shows that this electric bike will result in 30 % of savings through its eagle glide system. CTric uses a nano gel battery concept which prevents spillage during accidents. DRB-HICOM introduced green technology vehicles to cater for exceptional fuel economy. They also introduced Ecological Drive Assist System (eco assist) which further improved vehicle fuel efficiency and performance. Maintaining safety as its key focus, the Honda all-new insight has obtained a 6-star JNCAP safety rating for driver and 5-Star JNCAP safety rating for passengers.

CONCLUSION

The DRB-HICOM acknowledges that corporate responsibility is about doing business responsibly and ethically, with integrity and strong governance. The group believes this and extends beyond just philosophical and philanthropic commitment. The group believes on delivering high impact CR through various key initiatives. Embracing to the group’s shared values of excellence, decorum, teamwork, integrity, innovation, quality and transparency, DRB-HICOM continuously aligns its operations and business to its CR initiatives thus incorporating the benefits to its stakeholders. DRB-HICM recognises its responsibility to manage the impact of its business in the community. Many programmes are determined according to community needs and on issues of social welfare. The Group focuses mainly on three strategic core themes, youth development and education, socio-economic development and quality of life. The group’s system is so geared that it moves towards the goal of having a positive impact on society while achieving success. REFERENCES [1] Amaeshi, K.M. and Adi, B. (2007): Reconstructing the Corporate Social Responsibility Construct in Utlish, Business Ethics: A European Review, Vol.16, Iss.1, pp.3-18. [2] Burke, L. and Logsdon, J.M. (1996): How Corporate Social Responsibility Pays Off, Long Range Planning, Vol.29, Iss.4, pp.495-502. [3] Campbell, J.L. (2006): Institutional Analysis and the Paradox of Corporate Social Responsibility, American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.49, No.7, pp.925-938. [4] Carroll, A.B. (2004): Managing Ethically with Global Stakeholders: A Present and Future Challenge, Academy of Management, Vol.18, No.2, pp.114-120. [5] Foster, D. and Jonker, J. (2003): Third Generation Quality Management: The Role of Stakeholders in Integrating Business into Society, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol.18, Iss.4, pp.323-328. [6] Frederick, W.C. (1994): From CSR1 to CSR2 – The Maturing of Business and Society Thought, Business and Society, Vol.33, No.2, pp.150-66. [7] Frederick, W.C. (1986): Toward CSR – Why Ethical Analysis in Indispensable and Unavoidable in Corporate Affairs, California Management Review, Vol.28, Iss.2, pp.126-141. [8] Godfrey, P.C. and Hatch, N.W. (2007): Researching Corporate Social Responsibility – an Agenda for 21st Century, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol.70, Iss.1, pp.89-98. © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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[9] Heal, G. (2005): Corporate Social Responsibility- an Economic and Financial Framework, The Geneva Papers, Vol.30, No.3, pp.387-409. [10] Johnson, B.R., Connolly, E. and Carter, T.S. (2010): Corporate Social Responsibility: The Role of Fortune 100 Companies in Domestic and International Natural Disasters, Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, Vol.18, Iss.6, pp.352-369. [11] Joyner, B.E. and Payne, D. (2002): Evolution and Implementation – A Study of Values, Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol.41, Iss.4, pp.297-311. [12] Matten, D. and Crane, A. (2005): Corporate Citizenship - Towards an Extended Theoretical Conceptualization, Academy of Management Review, Vol.30, pp.166-179. [13] McWilliams, A. and Siegel, D. (2001): Corporate Social Responsibility - A Theory of the Firm Perspective, Academy of Management Review, Vol.26, No.1, pp.117-127. [14] Meehan, K., Meehan, K. and Richards, A. (2006): Corporate Social Responsibility: the 3C-SR Model, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol.33, Iss.5/6, pp.386-398. [15] Quazi, A. and O’Brien, D. (2000): An Empirical Test of a Cross-National Model of Corporate Social Responsibility, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol.25, No.1, pp.33-51. [16] World Economic Forum (2003): Responding to the Leadership Challenge: Findings of a CEO Survey on Global Corporate Citizenship, Geneva. [17] Weissbrodt, D. and Kruger, M. (2003): Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights, The American Journal of International Law, Vol.97, No.4, pp.901-922. [18] Wartick, S.L. and Cochran, P.L. (1985): The Evolution of the Corporate Social Performance Model, Academy of Management Review, Vol.10, No.4, pp.758-769. [19] Windsor, D. (2001): The Future of Corporate Social Responsibility, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, Vol.9, Iss.3, pp.225-256.

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THE TRIGGER SIGNAL FOR LEAN PRODUCTION PRACTICES : A REVIEW YUSUP1, M.Z., MAHMOOD2, W.H.W., SALLEH3, M.R. and ROSDI4, M.M.N.H. 1, 2, 3, 4

Sustainable and Responsive Manufacturing Group Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, MALAYSIA 2 hasrulnizzam@utem.edu.my 3 rizal@utem.edu.my 1, 4

Department of Quality and Productivity Kolej Kemahiran Tinggi Mara Kuantan KM8, Jalan Gambang, 25150 Kuantan, Pahang, MALAYSIA 1 muhamad.zaki@kktmkuantan.edu.my 4 hanif@kktmkuantan.edu.my ABSTRACT Lean production is a social-technical management philosophy that focuses on eliminating waste, while improving the quality of product. It further makes manufacturers remain efficient, responsive and competitive in fulfilling various demands. However, failure to trigger the signal to begin familiarise the lean production will make the adaptation process unsuccessful or doomed to productivity hindrance. A literature review has classified that shorten the processing time, optimising the workspace, better inventory and storage control and efficient man-machine use are the significant trigger signal for manufacturers to start adapt the lean production practices. Discussion and exploration from the review have been discovered that the trigger signals identified is mainly affected by two dominant elements which is time and costs. This consequently influences how manufacturers should respond to the changes and variations in demand and how they use the available workspace in a manufacturing plant. It’s eventually led the way how manufacturers can manage the inventory and storage level and exploit the use of the workforce and machines in a manufacturing plant. These trigger signals closely related and influence on one another and affect the manufacturer performance. Besides, it will be able to provide valuable information for manufacturers to identify the proper action in adapting the lean production. Keywords: Lean Production, Trigger Signal, Manufacturing System. Article History: Received 7 September 2013, Accepted 22 November 2013.

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INTRODUCTION

The Lean Production (LP) was a management philosophy that drawn from Toyota production system (Holweg, 2007; Wilson, 2010). Before the term ‘Lean’ began, there are various similar term and ideas used to describe this philosophy such as continuous flow manufacturing, world-class manufacturing, just-in-time and zero inventory production (King, 2009). However, the main focus all of the term includes LP classified seeks the same goal which is to reduce the costs and increase the productivity by eliminating non-value added activities (Yang et al., 2011; Hosseini et al., 2012). This will stimulate the initiative to the manufacturers to remain competitive in global market environments. Efficient implementation of LP has brought room for continual improvement for manufacturers to remain competitive in the markets. Through the concentration on major production waste such as overproduction, waiting, transportation, over processing, inventory, movement, defective parts, human creativity and time in production stages, the LP principles and tools significantly can improve the manufacturers performance (Abdulmalek and Rajgopal, 2007; Aguado et al., 2013). Its then allows manufacturers to set the new standards of practice and eventually reduce the production of defective products (Womack and Jones, 2003). This further increase the manufacturers ability to shorten their production time in assembly, testing and packaging for faster delivery (Cuatrecasas-Arbos et al., 2011; Sundin et al., 2011). As a result, the manufacturers will be more responsive and eventually increase their performance (Yang, 2013). Implementation of LP is guided by five simple principles: (1) identify value of the process, (2) identify process value stream, (3) determine process flow, (4) categorise pull factor and (5) process perfection (Doolen -

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and Hacker, 2005; Wilson, 2010; Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). Through this principle, manufacturers can effective manage the manufacturing activities and ameliorate the effects of variability in supply, processing time or demand (Shah and Ward, 2007). In addition, the LP also proved valuable for developing continuous improvement programmes (Aguado et al., 2013; Powell et al., 2013). It has encouraged workers to participate proactively in improving the manufacturing processes and performance (McKone et al., 1999). This consequently can increase the ownership of the work, strengthen the team work and thus increase worker motivation (Linderman et al., 2006; Holweg, 2007; Holden, 2011). However, the implementation of LP remains poor although has long been practiced especially in the small and medium industry sectors (Demeter and Matyusz, 2011). Some manufacturer also fail or neglect LP approach because they are not really know what was the situation that requires them to switch to this management philosophy. Proper identification of non-value added, waste and signal for improvement will help manufacturer to select and implement the proper LP tools, techniques, methods and strategies that consequently can enhance their operational performance (Vais et al., 2006; Yang, 2013). Knowing the impact that be offer by the LP, this paper will attempt to discover, explore and identify the trigger signal that can be used by manufacturers to start adapt LP techniques and practices in their production. The findings will allow manufacturers to take proper action to respond to the current changes in the manufacturing climate. The organisation of this paper was as follows. Section 2 will explain on the research method. Section 3 will discuss and explore the trigger signals that can provide a sign to the manufacturer to adapt LP and finally a conclusion in section 4. Some suggestion for future research also included at the end of the paper.

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RESEARCH METHOD

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TRIGGER SIGNALS FOR LEAN PRODUCTION

Research in this paper was divided into two phases. In the first phase, research begins with a qualitative literature review. Several previous research papers published from various manufacturing sectors ranging from 2003 - 2013 was used as the main source in this review process. The exploration was carried out by focus on the limitations and issue arise. This is to ensure that main trigger signal can correctly identify and classify under the control condition (Kitchenham, 2004). Identification of correct trigger signal will allow well-organised integration in developing high-impact innovation towards LP (Houshmand and Jamshidnezhad, 2006; Demeter and Matyusz, 2011; Aguado et al., 2013). In the second phase, each trigger element is then classified and group according to the trigger signal based on its dominant effect. This will help to discover under what circumstances LP techniques and practises can be adopts. If the trigger signal classification cannot be decided, the review will be repeats. Each trigger signal then classifies and group again based on its influences. Next each trigger signal is analyse and explore in detail. Investigation on each trigger signal is then carried out to examine whether each trigger signal has connected or influence with one another. The data gain from the analysis is used as the main essence for further discussion. The finding will offer a platform and guidelines for manufacturers in their continual improvement programme that can bring an optimistic impact on their manufacturing performance.

The implementation of LP philosophy can be adapted in the entire manufacturing stages to improve the productivity and increase the overall performance (Shah and Ward, 2007; Saurin and Ferreira, 2009). The ability to control and manage all the activity involves in every stage will ensure the manufacturing activities can be carried out in a more efficient manner. Melton, (2005) claimed that 35 percentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s of the activities undertaken was a non-value added activities while 60 percent of the activities add no value at all. This makes only 5 percentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities add have value added to the activities undertaken. Recognising this, a proactive action is needed to ensure the activities carried out will be more productive and thus improve the performance of manufacturers. This will eventually allow the manufacturing costs to be reduced and increase return on investment (ROI) and profitability (Linderman et al., 2006; Hofer et al., 2012). In a competitive market environments, LP proven beneficial especially in developing a sustainable manufacturing systems (Nyaga et al., 2010; Dombrowski et al., 2012). It then allows manufacturers to develop a dynamic managerial and response with any changes in the market in order to fulfil customer needs (Houshmand and Jamshidnezhad, 2006; Schrettle et al., 2013; Tseng et al., 2013; Yang 2013). This will eventually produce long term profitability to manufacturers by increase in sales instead of suffering from excessive loss of sales and obsolete inventory (Wong et al., 2006; You and Grossmann, 2008). Even so, there are still a few manufacturers unable to execute LP because they are incompetent to identify the trigger signals that stimulate them to adopt LP in their manufacturing practices. From literature, shorten the processing time (SPT), optimisation of workspace (OpW), better inventory and storage control (BISC) and man-machine use (MMU) are the four categories of trigger signals identified that influence on the adaptation of the LP as shown in Figure 1. Manufacturer that plans to execute LP can use this trigger signal to assist them self in identifying the room for improvement in their manufacturing systems. A finding also shows that these trigger signals not only direct ÂŠ 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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influence on the adaptation of LP, but also connected to one another and eventually drive the effective transition to LP. Figure 1 shows the four classifications of trigger signals identified that affect the manufacturer to begin adopting the LP philosophy in managing manufacturing systems. Time and cost are recognised as the dominant elements that influence the trigger signals identified which consequently affect the adaptation of the LP philosophy in operation management (Holweg, 2007; Bhasin, 2012; Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). Explorations of internal and external factors show that these trigger signals have an important role for manufacturers to manage their manufacturing system in an efficient, sustainable and responsive at higher levels. This further allows them to develop proactive actions to implement LP for optimal result. Efficient Space Utilization Effective Layout Configuration

Minimise Number of Workstation

Simplified Operation Procedure Optimisation of Workspace (OpW)

Effective Material Flow

Decrease Customer Lead Time Adaptation of New Technology

Enhanced Product Variety

Optimise Poka-Yoke

Shorten the Processing Time (SPT) High Capacity of Innovation

Increasing Kaizen Activities

Man and Machine Use

Minimise Machine Configuration

(MMU)

LEAN PRODUCTION (LP)

Minimise Setup Time

Speed Up Changeover Time

Proactive TPM Practice

Better Inventory and Storage Control (BISC)

Effective Machine Optimization

Efficient Production Levelling (Finished Goods)

Organized Kanban System (WIP)

Effective Pace of Organized JIT Production (Raw Material) (Takt Time)

Decrease Throughput Time Figure 1: Trigger signals to lean production.

SPT and OpW are recognised as the trigger signal that influenced by the dominant elements of time. Sensitivity of manufacturers with this element is the main input to increase their ability to produce the products in a short time (Pool et al., 2011; Aguado et al., 2013). The ability to identify a signal to speed up the processing time is important to cater with any changes in demand (Pe´rez and Sa´nchez, 2000; Shah and Ward, 2003; Kojima and Kaplinsky, 2004; Scherrer-Rathje et al., 2009). It further allows manufacturers to select the suitable LP tools to properly plan and manage the time required to manufacture the products. The convergence on the meticulous action will ensure the throughput time and changeover time can be reduced and setup time can be minimised (Abdulmalek and Rajgopal, 2007; Yang et al., 2011). This consequently can decrease the customer lead time and enhanced the capability of the manufacturer to produce a variety of products (Sundin et al., 2011; Hajmohammad et al., 2013). Additionally, the ability to identify this trigger signal also can enhance the involvement in innovation as well as provide an opportunity to adapt new technology in improving the current manufacturing practices (Zarei et al., 2011; Aguado et al., 2013). The insistence to rapidly produce the products also indirectly provides the signal to boost up the manufacturer to optimise the available workspace in manufacturing plant. This has encouraged manufacturers to re-layout and optimise the usage of the available workspace to improve their production line and be more flexible to produce various types of products (Ostlin and Ekholm, 2007). This will enable them to increase the production capacity as well as diversify the production capability. Through an effective layout configuration, its consequently will help them to manage the usage of the workspace, minimise the number of workstations and thus increase the throughput time (Prince and Kay, 2003; Saurin and Ferreira, 2009; Aguado et al. 2013). This further brought the opportunities for manufacturers to balance the workload in all workstations. As a result, the operation procedure can be simplified and consequently speed up the flow of work in every stage of the production line (Yang et al., 2011; Yang, 2013). This will eventually make the production line become more productive when non-value added activities in transportation, motion, processing and time are eliminated. © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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The second dominant element identified in the adaptation of the LP was related to the manufacturing costs. The review has revealed that BISC and MMU were the trigger signals that influences with these elements. The integrated production systems currently require manufacturers to develop a more proactive framework to mitigate the rising of cost in making a useful product (Hofer et al., 2012; Marhani et al., 2012). The ability of manufacturers to have a good forecast system would affect the control of inventory and storage levels of materials (Peng, 2010; Cuatrecasas-Arbos et al., 2011). This includes the control over the requirement of raw materials, semi-finished and finished goods (Demeter and Matyusz, 2011; Aguado et al., 2013). It’s consequently allowing the cost of the inventory and storage of unused material can be reduced. Identification of this trigger signal will allow manufacturers to adapt the correct LP tools to ensure that surpluses and shortages of material can be avoided (Meade et al., 2006; Pool et al., 2011). This further enables manufacturers to properly manage the pace of production through a proper take time to suit with the fluctuation of demands (Bhasin, 2012; Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). Ability to manage and control the cost incurred will ensure manufacturers can continue to survive and compete in the open market. Incompetence to react with this trigger signal will cause them to bear the additional cause that may arise to overcome this problem. In addition, the ability to manage and control the use of workers and capability to enhance the machine and equipment availability also another trigger signal that related to the costs and affect the adaptation of the LP. The cost to hire the workers have a major impact on the total operating cost (Holweg, 2007). Failure to control the exact number of workers employed and inefficient to exploit the availability of workers to improve the manufacturing processes can caused manufacturer operates at a loss without realising it (Bhasin, 2012). Ability to identify this signal will allow them to take a proactive plan through continuous improvement activity to eliminate non-value added and avoid from producing the defective products. Additionally, the availability of machines also has an impact on total operating costs. Availability of manufacturers to implement a regular maintenance also can prolong the life of machines and prevent the machine breakdown problems (Pool et al., 2011; Hofer et al., 2012). Failure to identify this requirement will eventually force the manufacturer to bear the additional costs. Besides, the ability of manufacturer to maximise the use of a machine in an efficient manner as well as minimise the configuration will speed up the processing time (Rivera and Frank, 2007; Aguado et al., 2013). It eventually can improve the overall performance of the manufacturing systems. The following discussion will specifically discuss how each of the trigger signal identified should be stimulus manufacturers to adapt the LP philosophy in manufacturing systems. It will also disclose why the LP tools and techniques should be integrated as a new manufacturing framework in producing sustainable manufacturing practices. 3.1 Shorten Processing Time SPT is a major trigger signal that drive manufacturer to adapt LP. Through literatures, reduce changeover and handling time (Melton, 2005; Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012), reduce setup time (Abdulmalek and Rajgopal, 2007; Shah and Ward, 2007; Hosseini et al., 2012), improve production take time (CuatrecasasArbos et al., 2011) and reduce throughput time (Rivera and Frank, 2007; Losonci et al., 2011; Ab Rahman et al., 2013) had stimulus to decrease customer lead time Ability to react with these circumstances will bring the positive impact and valuable benefits for manufacturers to further compete in a competitive market environment. Constantly changing market conditions and the rising of intense competition has led to the shortened of product life cycles (Lim and Zhang, 2004; Van Bommel, 2011). This was in line with the increase of innovation and rapid development of new technology nowadays (Doolen and Hacker, 2005; Wei and Wang, 2011). Ability to absorb this market pressure only can be achieve when have high capacity of innovation (Aguado et al., 2013). Concentration to eliminate non-value added activities will speed up the new product development cycle to fulfil market demands (Peng, 2010; Wei and Wang, 2011; Ghadimi et al., 2012). The often changes of work environment to meet the demand also an important sign to reduce the setup times and speed up the processes (Sundin et al., 2011). Ability to reduce the equipment’s, tools and machine setup time will allows manufacturers to produce smaller lot quantities of the product. Its eventually can reduce the inventory levels and improve the level of responsiveness to meet with any variations in demands (Demeter and Matyusz, 2011; Yang, 2013). The capability to produce variety of products will allows manufacturers to be more competitive in meeting the needs of the customers in various communities’ levels (Salvador and Forza, 2004; Wong et al., 2006). This shows that the productions of high volume quantities with a single model are no longer suitable since the product life cycles are getting shorter. Stiff rivalry in markets also urged to diversify the production plan and fully utilise the production facilities. Increase the use of production line to produce the variety of products with similar processes will need minor changes in the production lines. The ability to minimise the changeover and setup time will expedite the processing time (Ostlin and Ekholm, 2007; Yang et al., 2011). Application of LP tools such as Single Minutes Exchange Die (SMED) (Doolen and Hacker, 2005; Melton, 2005) or One Touch Machine Setup (OTED) (Cuatrecasas-Arbos et al., 2011) technically allows efficient changeover and setup processes by eliminate unnecessary activities through standardisation of work instructions © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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(Hosseini et al., 2012; Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). This will expedite the transitional process and allows to produce the product at a faster pace (Houshmand and Jamshidnezhad, 2006). Besides, the selection of cellular manufacturing in producing product with similar processing steps and conditions also can shorter the changeover times (Crute et al., 2003; Doolen and Hacker, 2005; King, 2009) The LP principal such as just in time (JIT) (Abdulmalek and Rajgopal, 2007; Shah and Ward, 2007), value stream mapping (VSM) (Ostlin and Ekholm, 2007; Aguado et al., 2013), 5S (Vais et al., 2006; Rivera and Frank, 2007), bottleneck analysis (Sundin et al., 2011), continuous flow analysis (CFA) (Prince and Kay, 2003; Peng, 2010) and Poka Yoke or mistake proof (Doolen and Hacker, 2005; Melton, 2005) seen useful in speed up the throughput time and increasing the quality of products. The identification of waste (non-value added) will improve the processes and eventually increase the productivity. This directly influence the changes on the takt time where the production rate can be adjusted base on the rate of customer demand (Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). This suggests that SPT was the main trigger signals to begin apply LP techniques in manufacturing practices. It’s not only speed up the processing time and decrease customer waiting time, but also offer costs saving by decreasing the work in progress, cut out waste (non-value added) and increase the quality of the product. Apart from that, the changes in this trigger signal also seem to affect the OpW and BISC. This trigger signal will urge manufacturers to coordinate new work content by restructuring the workspace. This consequently decrease or eliminate unnecessary movement and subsequently expedite and smoothing the work flow (Hosseini et al., 2012). The ability of manufacturers to respond with this situation will makes manufacturing and production systems are more responsive and sustainable to deal with any variations in demand (Losonci et al., 2011; Dombrowski et al., 2012; Aguado et al., 2013; Yang, 2013). 3.2 Optimisation of Workspace OpW will ease the flow of materials and works. An adaptation of LP tools such as VSM, 5S and Kaizen will reassure that non-value added activities related to workflow and work contents can be decreased or removed (Ostlin and Ekholm, 2007). As a result it will increase the works pace and consequently increase the productivity (Peng, 2010). The need to speed up the production requires a seamless workflow. Reorganise of work layout to reduce unnecessary movement with new working procedure can speed up the processing time (Holden, 2011; Schrettle et al., 2013). This will allow manufacturers to discover the exact number of workstations needed in establishing the new standard of work. Failure to organise the workplace will cause the delays of work and thus makes the completion time becomes longer (Saurin and Ferreira, 2009; Wan Mahmood et al., 2011) The increase of competitive market nowadays has led to the shrinkage of the market monopoly (Danese et al., 2013). This situations has cause manufacturers to emphasis in producing various models of product (Yang et al., 2011; Aguado et al., 2013). The manufacturers ability to produce a variety models of products based on the target group will expand the markets in various community groups and increase their sales and profits (Wong et al., 2006). Diversify range of products and demand has call for manufacturers to reorganise and restructure work station and workspace (Kurnaz et al., 2005). The ability to respond to this trigger signal will stimulus manufacturer to increase their focus on improving the workflow in a more effective manner. Therefore any available space must be used to ensure various products can take place in production line (Holden, 2011). Through standardisation of work procedure and better organisation of workspace, manufacturers will able to remove unnecessary movement or motion. Its thus allow to reduce the waiting time, over processing and avoid the excessive inventory (Doolen and Hacker, 2005; Abdulmalek and Rajgopal, 2007). The LP tools such as Gemba has allowed to identify and understand the real issues occur (Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). By using the concept of observation in the actual workplace, the problem exists are visible to identify. This will provide better understanding with the problem encountered in the workplace and data can be gathered from the reliable and accurate source (McLachlin, 1997; Holweg, 2007; Scherrer-Rathje et al., 2009). Its finally allows manufacturers to well-planned the ideas and action before any improvement are carried out at the workspace. Besides, the applications of 5S principles that comprising “Sort” (elimination of item that not needed), “Set in Order” (reorganising the remaining items), “Shine” (always clean and inspect the work area), “Standardise” (using a standard practice) and “Sustain” (regularly applied established standards) also can help in eliminating the unnecessary motion that resulted from poorly organised work area (Hon, 2005; Rivera and Frank, 2007; Vinodh, 2010). Implementation of this practice allows workspace to be properly arranged and the ownership of the work can be transferred to workers. The organised workspace can help to eliminate the time wasted especially in finding the equipment. This consequently will expedite the processing time (Pe´rez and Sa´nchez, 2000; Shah and Ward, 2003). It will also subsequently increase the safety and focus of workers in performing the work, thus the production of defective products can be avoided or reduced (Marhani et al., 2012). The sensitivity with this trigger signal will urges manufacturers to develop more efficient production plans and efficient use of worker and equipment. As a signal that has a dominant impact on the © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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cost, the ability to manage the workspace will allow manufacturers to accurately employ the suitable number of workers required (González-Benito and González-Benito, 2008; Bhasin, 2012). This will eliminates inefficiency of hiring the workers which subsequently have a significant impact on the higher additional costs. Besides, the responsiveness to this trigger signal also will allow manufacturers to increase the production rates. Arrangement of new workspace will enhance their manufacturing flexibility and simultaneously affects the inventory and storage level in the work area (Sundin et al., 2011). This consequently allows the materials needed to be placed closer to the production line. It subsequently enable manufacturer to plan the correct volume of buffer in the production line that consequently makes the production line can run smoothly without any interruptions due to supply issues (Nyaga et al., 2010). As a result, products can be quickly produced and shipped out to customers within the stipulated time at high service levels (Houshmand and Jamshidnezhad, 2006; Váncza et al., 2011). 3.3 Better Inventory and Storage Control As a set of management techniques that well connected with the continuous improvement, the LP also proven to offer BISC practises (Meade et al., 2006; Losonci et al., 2011; Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). This involves the acquisitions of raw materials and the production of semi-finished and finished goods (Demeter and Matyusz, 2011). Most manufacturers have a problem when they are unable to deal with the changes in demand. This vulnerability has caused them unable to manage the inventory and storage level in a more effective way when have a sudden changes in demand. Sensitivity to this matter will allow to control and reduce the total costs that effect the net profit (Meade et al., 2006). Large inventories not only need to occupy a large space and increase the capital cost, but will also decrease the manufacturers’ flexibility to produce products (Sundin et al., 2011). This is because, the production flexibility is important for manufacturers to quickly response to variations in product demand in a limited market circumstances. The uncertainty of customer demand needs critical action by the manufacturers. This is an important signal for manufacturers to make sure that they able to control the BISC level effectively (Ostlin and Ekholm, 2007). Thus, allow manufacturer to increase their manufacturing efficiency on the right track without being bother by the problem of excess or shortage inventory (Wong et al., 2006). The LP techniques such as Andon, Level Scheduling, Kanban and JIT seem can manage BISC level in each production stage (Ferrer, 2003; Melton, 2005; Cuatrecasas-Arbos et al., 2011). The use of these techniques as a real-time communication tools can bring immediate action to any difficulties face in the production line (Losonci et al., 2011). This allows the inventory level and overproduction issues are in control (Aguado et al., 2013). Efficient BISC was important to ensure manufacturer remains strong in a competitive market environment. This shows that this trigger signal was important for the manufacturer to begin adopts the LP practices and techniques in their manufacturing system. Most manufacturers that using LP as their improvement tools has create a positive impact on their financial performance through mitigation measures in controlling BISC levels (Meade et al., 2006). In addition, internal factors such as changes in production time and restructuring of workspace noticed to influence how manufacturers streamline their BISC levels (Hosseini et al., 2012). This further encourage the manufacturer to have accurate demand forecasting and inventory to make them more responsiveness in meeting the global market challenge (Ostlin and Ekholm, 2007; You and Grossmann, 2008; Zhang et al., 2012). The requirement to control the total cost while meeting the variation of customer demand will force the manufacturer to have a BISC level (Zhou et al., 2000). Failure to control this trigger signal will cause manufacturers to bear the additional cost of unused material that cause from the excessive inventory (Li et al., 2006). While the failure to properly plan material requirements will result in a lack of material and eventually interrupt the production process. The use of LP tools such as Kanban and JIT seem can overcome this issue. Both tools will only allow manufacturer to control BISC level by producing what is needed and when it is needed in the exact quantity needed (King, 2009). This allows manufacturers efficiently plan the material requirement and thus reduce the cost of handling and storage of material that covering raw materials, semi-finished and finished product (Zhang et al., 2012). Moreover, this trigger signal also seems closely related to determine the number of labour, the use of machinery and equipment and restructuring the workspace. 3.4 Man and Machine Use The last trigger signal that provides the signs to adapt the LP techniques was MMU. These trigger signals also have a significant influence on overall operation cost (Vais et al., 2006). Failure to respond to this trigger signal will increase the operation and investment cost. So, the manufacturer may need to bear the large losses that cause by inefficiencies in their operations. Reduce the number of workers and optimise the use of equipment and machinery will lead to substantial cost savings in a more sustainable manner (Yang, 2013). The MMU can well-organised when actively adopts the LP philosophy in the entire processes. This further provides high opportunities and space for manufacturer to engage in innovation © 2013 GETview Limited. All rights reserved

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and continuous improvement programme (Peng, 2010; Holden, 2011; Aguado et al., 2013; Powell et al., 2013). Through LP, manufacturer can increase the machine availability and extend machine lifespan. Simultaneously, machine downtime due to machine breakdown or setup and changeover can be minimise (Meade et al., 2006; Rahani and Al-Ashraf, 2012). The use of LP principals such as total productive maintenance (TPM) will maximise machines operating time and impact on the productivity, reduction of cycle time and elimination of producing defective products (Shah and Ward, 2007; Rivera and Frank, 2007). Abdulmalek and Rajgopal (2007) claimed that in integrated steel mill sectors, TPM has reduce the total production lead time from 48 to 15 days (reduction of 70 %). This shows that he dynamic planning, scheduling and maintenance of the machine will increase the manufacturing responsiveness. The ability of manufacturer to increase machine availability and reduce the congestion of machine will provide a better platform to evaluate the each configuration of manufacturing system (Lim and Zhang, 2004). More recent, manufacturers have focused on the total cost reduction, where the ability to identify the correct number of workers is important to reduce the costs. Ability to reduce non-value added activities and the number of workstations give significant impacts on the use of direct worker in manufacturing operations. Successful manufacturers that adopts LP in their manufacturing system also prefers to invest in improving the skill of existing workers to increase their productivity rather than increase the number of worker (Ferrer, 2003; Linderman et al., 2006). This enabled them to have multi skilled and high competent workers (Kojima and Kaplinsky, 2004). This furthers increase the opportunities to manufacturer the get their workers engaged in Kaizen or continuous improvement in on going improvement of all processes (King, 2009; Yang et al., 2011). For example, the implementation of LP at tissue manufacturing plant in Romania has managed to reduce direct labour from 850 employee to 400 employees by keeping the production output (Vais et al., 2006). A willingness to adapt the automation or “Jidoka” in line with current technologies also significantly can reduce the number of workers required (Doolen and Hacker, 2005; Hajmohammad et al., 2013). By using this strategy, only a few numbers of workers are used mainly to monitor the overall function of automation systems. This directly leads to a significant reduction of costs. Automation system also allows many quality issues easily detected, thus improve the quality of products produced (Demeter and Matyusz, 2011; Dombrowski et al., 2012). Through automation, worker involvement in dangerous and critical process can be reduced and increase the safety level (Yusup et al., 2013). This will attract them to engage in the full improvement process and accept the changes made in a more sustainable manner (Losonci et al., 2011). Beside automation, current manufacturing styles and trends has urges many manufacturers to reduce the costs. Contract workers or sub-contractor have become the alternative ways in reducing the costs (Pil and MacDuffie, 2000). Through the use of LP tools such as “Standardised Work” and “Level Scheduling or Heijunka”, has allowed manufacturers to coordinate the workers required with production capacity based on current demand (Hosseini et al., 2012). Planning for the use of worker and machinery also seems affected by the amount of work to be performed and the number of material handling needs. Any changes to the workspace, work procedure and the inventory and storage levels will effect on these factors. Through the proper adoption of LP tools, techniques and practices, manufacturers can increase their productivity and reduce the investment and capital cost required (Prince and Kay, 2003).

4.0

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

The selection of appropriate LP techniques and practices to be adopted in manufacturing system is a major challenge and must be addressed to ensure that LP can be implemented effectively. Most manufacturers do not achieve the optimal levels of LP practice due to their failure to identify the correct trigger signals for them to start adapting LP techniques and practices. From the reviews, this paper has disclosed and discovered four main factors that can become the trigger signal to begin adapting LP techniques and practices. Four identified trigger signal is SPT, OpW, BISC, and MMU are significantly influencing the selection of the LP techniques and practices. The stimulus factor in each trigger signal can be used as an indication and guidance to take appropriate measures to begin adopting LP in manufacturing systems. For future research, this paper can be further expanded to determine and understand how LP techniques and practices can be adapted in a more effective manner. Identification of factors that influence the successful execution of LP to solve residual waste that arise at all stages of manufacturing activities was believed to provide a clearer picture in the adaptation and transition process of LP in manufacturing and production activities. This will provide space and opportunity for manufacturers to further increase their productivity through more comprehensive manufacturing practices and strengthen their position to be more responsive and sustainable in the competitive global market.

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