‘The brain does not recognize individual muscles; rather it recognizes patterns of movement’. - Vern Gambetta ‘Motor learning is the process through which we internalise and then utilise new information which allow mastery over our motor functions’. - Nugent, Pam M.S.,"MOTOR LEARNING," in PsychologyDictionary.org, April 7, 2013
Motor learning and development Motor learning is a field of study aimed at understanding the ways in which people learn, develop and perform motor/movement skills [1]. Although no single theory has been able to explain the process in its entirety [2], research focussing on the learning of motor skills has been greatly influenced by two different but complementary points-of-view. The first perspective - ‘information processing’, suggests motor skills are acquired at a conscious level and developed through a process of sensory error detection and correction [3,4]. The second point-of-view involves a non-linear ‘dynamical systems’ approach that proposes motor learning occurs subconsciously and is the result of interactions between the person, task and environment [5-7]. Both models have made important contributions to the current body of knowledge, which is reflected in the following theories: Adams’ closed-loop theory – Information processing Adams [3] suggests that two different types of memory are necessary for the successful completion of a skilled movement - memory trace and perceptual trace. Memory trace is involved with the initiation of the movement and regulates the earlier stages of the action, while perceptual trace is used to guide the action to the correct end position. Successful completion of the movement is achieved by a constant comparison of (afferent/incoming and efferent outgoing information) and prior knowledge obtained through previous experiences. In the event an error does occur, adjustments are made until the movement is able to achieve its’ intended purpose. The closed-loop theory [3] implies that repeated practice of the same movement results in an improvement of that particular action. However, research [8] has since shown that skill development is possible without sensory feedback and that variety in practice may be superior for the promotion of motor learning [9]. Schmidt’s schema theory – motor programming Schmidt [10] argued that the closed-loop theory of Adams [3] did not adequately explain how motor programs are stored and that existing research [3,11,12] was limited to the explanation of slow movements. In an attempt to address these concerns, Schmidt proposed the schema theory [4]. This concept allows for a variety of movements to be produced by the same motor program, and for successful completion of additional tasks that are similar to those of the original action.
According to Schmidt [4], when an attempt is made to perform a task, a recall schema containing the information required to initiate the action engages a Generalised Motor Program (GMP). The GMP uses this information and prepares a ‘blueprint’ for the completion of the task. Once the action is initiated, the recognition schema then evaluates the movement and relays any errors back to the recall schema, where any necessary adjustments are made. When the action is completed the new information is stored in an area of the memory Schmidt refers to as the ‘motor memory schema’ and is used by the recall schema to generate a revised GMP containing the new parameters for the completion of the task [4]. Dynamical systems theory – A non-linear pedagogy Unlike the theories of Adams [3] and Schmidt [4] that emphasise the use of the nervous system for motor learning, the concept of the dynamical systems model proposes that motor/movement skills are developed through the interactions of three major systems; the individual; the conditions/environment; and the task [13-15]. These major systems consist of a number of subsystems that come together to produce the most efficient movement solution for the completion of the task. With practice and experience the efficient movement patterns, known as ‘attractor states’ are formed and used for the completion of future tasks [5,13]. Motor learning is an internal process
Motor learning is a set of processes
Motor learning is relatively permanent
Motor learning forms motor habits
Motor learning is not a value that can be negative
The Five Characteristics of Motor Learning
Figure adapted from Schmidt, R. A., & Wrisberg, C. A. (2008). Motor learning and performance: a situation-based learning approach. Champaign, Human Kinetics.
Applying theory to practice The three theories summarised above have dominated the literature on motor learning and are useful for helping coaches understand the various ways in which motor skills are aquired and developed. The information below provides suggestions for the use of each approach and demonstrates how all three theories could be successfully applied to ModBox training/learning environments. Adams’ closed-loop theory The concept of sensory feedback and constant comparison proposed in Adams’ closed-loop theory [3] could be applied to ModBox training situations when the tasks are self-paced, follow set patterns of movement and have a clear beginning and end-point. For example, the approach could be used in the coaching of strength and conditioning exercises such as stepping and striking, dipping or shoulder pressing through the repeated teaching of the individual movements required for the successful completion of the task. Schmidt’s schema theory Schmidt’s schema theory [4] could be used as a basis for introducing sport-specific training drills that encourage high degrees of movement variability and entail learning situations that require multi-tasking. For example, athletes might be asked to respond to an external cue such as a whistle blast by making an attacking action of their choice, whilst practicing movement patterns before and after the cueing. Skill development within this context can be thought of as a practicedependent process aimed at reducing errors through the use of external cueing, guided direction from the coach and athlete self-correction. Dynamical systems approach Applying a non-linear dynamical systems approach to a ModBox training setting could be achieved through the use of realistic training situations that encourage athletes to explore and discover the most appropriate actions to use [16]. Within this framework, skill development can be thought of an adaptive and emerging process that occurs through dynamic interactions involving the constraints of the task, environment, and performer [17].
References and further reading 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
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