‘My purpose in performing is to communicate the joy I experience in living’. - John Denver
‘True leadership lies in guiding others to success. In ensuring that everyone is performing at their best, doing the work they are pledged to do and doing it well’. - Bill Owens
Information processing during the performance of skill Presented below is an overview of the different cognitive functions that are involved with the performance of a skilled movement. Coaches may find this information useful for developing a deeper understanding of this complex process. Sensory input As highlighted in the previous section, sensory input refers to the receiving of information through the 5 sensory systems [1]. In a ModBox context, this process would generally be limited to observing demonstrations (sight), listening to instruction (hearing) and participating in training activities and public performances (touch). Perception Perception occurs in the short-term memory and is the process by which sensory input is given meaning. This process involves the correct interpretation of the presented information through the use of the following sequence [2].
Dectection The brain identifies a stimulus
Comparison The brain processes the information by comparing it to a previous experience
Recognition A match is found within the memory of a similar stimulus/experience
Sensor identification The information is now percieved
The above illustration provides a simple but effective representation of the complex, action-specific perceptual system [2]. This process helps to explain how an individual's perception of a task will change as their abilities develop.
Attention Attention is the amount of information that can be processed and utilised by the brain at any one time. Since most people have an attention capacity, athletes must develop the ability to distinguish between essential and non-essential information [3]. Known as selective attention, this trait can be accommodated by limiting the amount of information beginners have to process when developing their skills [4]. In a ModBox training setting this could be achieved by placing constraints on some of the training drills. For example, coaches could limit the numbers of attacking and defensive actions athletes can use when playing a game. Memory Memory can be broken down into the following three stages. •
Sensory memory: The area of the brain that filters the in-coming information through selective attention [3].
•
Short-term/working memory: The section of the brain where perceived useful information is primarily used for problem solving and decision making activities [5].
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Long-term memory: The part of the brain where the learnt information is stored and used to effect permanent change [5].
Decision-making Decision-making explains why certain choices are made [6]. For example the greater the perceptual ability of an athlete, the greater the probability that the presented information will be correctly interpreted and the most appropriate decision will be made [7]. Reaction time Reaction time is the period between a stimulus and the first movement initiated in response to that stimulus [6]. However, in a ModBox setting, coaches would be more concerned with the development of choice reaction time - reacting to a number of stimuli that each require a different response, than simple reaction time - a known stimulus that requires only one response [8,9].
Movement time Movement time refers to the amount of time it takes to complete a physical action [8,9]. For example, an athlete making a ModBox attacking or defensive action. Response time Response time is the time it takes an athlete to complete the entire action once presented with a stimulus [8,9]. A ModBox example would be an athlete reacting to an opponent’s attack with an appropriate defensive action, and then recovering back to a balanced on-guard position.
Reaction time An athlete reacting to an incoming strike.
Movement time An athlete making the most appropriate defensive action and then recovering back to the on-guard position.
Response time The total time taken for the athlete to respond to a stimulus.
Reaction time + movement time = Response time Anticipation An athlete’s ability to correctly predict their opponent’s next action is known as anticipation [10]. Therefore, ModBox athletes who are able to correctly interpret cues provided by the kinematics of their opponents will have a distinct time advantage. Factors that can influence reaction time and decision-making A list of factors that can influence an athlete’s reaction time and their decision-making ability are highlighted below. •
Choices: The more choices that have to be made, the more information to be processed, which results in a slow-down of information-processing ability and leads to an increase in reaction time [11].
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Psychological Refractory Period (PRP): This is the time taken once an athlete has realised that he/she has made an incorrect decision and wants to change the response [12].
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Age: Reaction times tend to slow down with age [13].
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Gender: Males generally have quicker reaction times than females [13].
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Experience: Athletes who are more experienced at a particular skill tend to be quicker than less experienced athletes [14].
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Errors: Accusing athletes of making an error slows down their ability to process information [15].
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Stress: Punishing or simply making an athlete feel anxious about a performance increases reaction time [16].
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Fitness: Fitter athletes generally react quicker than unfit athletes [17,18].
Improving response time The illustration below provides an overview of the factors that have been shown to improve response times [17,18]. Coaches will need to consider how these factors can be developed when planning their own training sessions. Detecting cues Attentional focus
Experience
Warming up (mentally and physically)
Concentration
Controlling anxiety
Coaching tip: Make sessions as exciting as possible as this makes them more memorable which may increase the probability that the information will make it to the long-term memory where it can be recalled and used to enhance the decision-making process.
A model for the conversion of sensor information Developed by Welford [19], who was one of the first researchers to apply the information processing approach to skill acquisition, the model below is useful for demonstrating how information received from external sources can be converted into muscular activity.
Display
DISPLAY
External stimuli
Extrinsic feedback
Intrinsic feedback
Sensory information
Perceptual mechanism
Decision mechanism
Muscular system Effector mechanism Responses
Movement (Output)
Display – The actions that occur in the environment of the performer. Perceptual mechanism – The perception of the situation (via sight, sound and touch). Decision mechanism - Makes the decisions. The effector mechanism - Sends messages to the parts of the body that carry out the required task. Intrinsic feedback - Occurs via the proprioceptors that informs the brain about balance, muscle tensions, limb positions, etc. Extrinsic feedback - Is the response of the actions that provides feedback as part of the on-going display.
References and further reading 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
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