AncientMesoamerica (2022),1–40 doi:10.1017/S0956536122000244
LiDARanalysesinthecontiguousMirador-CalakmulKarstBasin, Guatemala:anintroductiontonewperspectivesonregionalearly Mayasocioeconomicandpoliticalorganization
RichardD.Hansena ,CarlosMorales-Aguilarb ,JosephineThompsonc ,RossEnsleyd,EnriqueHernándeze , ThomasSchreinerf,EdgarSuyuc-Leyf andGustavoMartíneze,f
aDepartmentofAnthropology,IdahoStateUniversity,Pocatello,Idaho,andFoundationforAnthropologicalResearchandEnvironmentalStudies(FARES), Idaho,UnitedStates; bDepartmentofGeographyandtheEnvironment,UniversityofTexas,Austin,UnitedStates,andLaboratoireArchAm,UMR8096CNRS,Paris,France; cMiradorConservationFund,RedwoodCity,California,UnitedStates; dTerraGeoSolutions,Houston,Texas,UnitedStates; eEscueladeHistoria,UniversidaddeSanCarlos,GuatemalaCity,andProyectoCuencaMirador,GuatemalaCity,Guatemalaand fFARESFoundation/ MiradorBasinProject,GuatemalaCity,Guatemala
Abstract
LiDARcoverageofalargecontiguousareawithintheMirador-CalakmulKarstBasin(MCKB)ofnorthernGuatemalahasidentifieda concentrationofPreclassicMayasites(ca.1000 B.C.–A.D.150)connectedbycauseways,formingawebofimpliedsocial,political,and economicinteractions.Thisarticleisanintroductiontooneofthelargest,contiguous,regionalLiDARstudiespublishedtodatein theMayaLowlands.Morethan775ancientMayasettlementsareidentifiedwithintheMCKB,and189moreinthesurrounding karsticridge,whichwecondensedinto417ancientcities,towns,andvillagesofatleastsixpreliminarytiersbasedonsurface area,volumetrics,andarchitecturalconfigurations.ManytieredsitesdatetotheMiddleandLatePreclassicperiods,asdetermined byarchaeologicaltesting,andvolumetricsofcontemporaneouslyconstructedand/oroccupiedarchitecturewithsimilarmorphologicalcharacteristics.Monumentalarchitecture,consistentarchitecturalformats,specificsiteboundaries,watermanagement/ collectionfacilities,and177kmofelevatedPreclassiccausewayssuggestlaborinvestmentsthatdefyorganizationalcapabilities oflesserpolitiesandpotentiallyportraythestrategiesofgovernanceinthePreclassicperiod.Settlementdistributions,architectural continuities,chronologicalcontemporaneity,andvolumetricconsiderationsofsitesprovideevidenceforearlycentralizedadministrativeandsocio-economicstrategieswithinadefinedgeographicalregion.
Resumen
LacoberturaLiDARdeunagranáreacontiguadentrodelaCuencaKársticaMirador-Calakmul(CKMC)delnortedeGuatemala, hapermitidolaidentificacióndeunaconcentracióndeantiguossitiosmayaspreclásicos(ca.1000a.C.–150d.C.)conectadospor calzadaselevadas,formandounareddeimplicacionessociales,políticasyeconómicas.Hastalafecha,sehanidentificado775asentamientosmayasantiguosdentrodelCKMC,asícomocientosmásenelsistemageomorfológicocircundante,quecomprendeal menos417sitiosqueformabanciudades,pueblosyaldeasantiguas.Seproponeunajerarquíadesitiosdeasentamientosdealmenos seisnivelesdedistintostamaños,áreadesuperficie,configuracionesarquitectónicasyvolúmenesderelleno,conunamayoríaquedata delosperíodospreclásicomedioytardío.Laarquitecturamonumental,losformatosarquitectónicosconsistentes,loslímitesyunificacionesdesitiosespecíficos,lasinstalacionesdegestiónyrecoleccióndeaguaymásde177kmdecalzadaselevadaspreclásicassugiereninversioneslaboralesquedesafíanlascapacidadesorganizativasdeentidadespolíticasmenoresyrepresentanlasestrategiasde gobiernoenlosperíodospreclásicos.Lasdistribucionesdelosasentamientos,lascontinuidadesarquitectónicas,lacontemporaneidad cronológicaylaorganizaciónjerárquicadelossitios,brindanevidenciadeunaadministracióncentralizadatempranayestrategias socioeconómicas,dentrodeunaregióngeográficadefinidaenlastierrasbajasmayas.
Correspondingauthor:RichardD.Hansen,email: hansric2@isu.edu
Citethisarticle: Hansen,RichardD.,CarlosMorales-Aguilar,Josephine Thompson,RossEnsley,EnriqueHernández,ThomasSchreiner,EdgarSuyucLey,andGustavoMartínez(2022).LiDARanalysesinthecontiguousMiradorCalakmulKarstBasin,Guatemala:anintroductiontonewperspectivesonregional earlyMayasocioeconomicandpoliticalorganization. AncientMesoamerica 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0956536122000244
“Stateswereoriginallydefinedbyanthropologistsandpoliticalscientists,butarchaeologistscannowidentifytheskeletonsoftheirinstitutions” (Flannery 1998:16).
“Becausetheearlystatemusthavebeen aregionalphenomenon,methodologicalcontroloverregionalanalysismustbeemphasizedinthestudyofthetransitionphenomenon” (Jonesand Kautz 1981:34).
©TheAuthor(s),2022.PublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress.ThisisanOpenAccessarticle,distributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionlicence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),whichpermitsunrestrictedre-use,distributionandreproduction,providedtheoriginalarticleisproperlycited.
Introduction
Thisarticlepresentsoneofthelargest,contiguous,regional LiDARstudiespublishedtodateintheMayaLowlands, revealingmorethan775ancientMayasettlementswithin theMirador-CalakmulKarstBasin(MCKB),and189more inthesurroundingkarsticridgethatcomprisethegeomorphologicalbordersofthegeographicalarea,togetherforming 964archaeologicalsettlements.A “settlement” isdefinedasa groupingorindependentclusterofarchitecture,butwhena groupofsettlementscanbedemonstratedasrelatedvia intrasitecausewaysorotherarchitecturalaffiliations,such assharedlogisticsfacilitieslikereservoirsormarshes,we suggesttheycanbedefinedasa “site” or “polity.” Asingle settlementcanalsobeasite,dependingonthequantityof publicorresidentialarchitecture,asdeterminedbythevolumetricsofcontemporaryconstructionfill.Thesettlements thatdemonstrateastrongpolitical/social/geographicalrelationshipwithothersettlementswithinthebasinviaintrasite causewayshaveallowedustosuggestacondensationof “settlements” intoatleast417centralizedsitehierarchies formingancientcities,towns,andvillages(definedbelowin SettlementDistribution)withspecificboundaries,suchas bajo or arroyo edgesorlargeareasofuninhabitedterrain.A preliminarysettlementandadministrativehierarchyofat leastsixtiersisproposedforsitesbasedonsurfacearea, numbers,anddensitiesofmonumentalarchitecture,and volumetriccalculationsofarchitectureextractedfrom surface-mappingmeasurementsandLiDARdata.The approximatevolumetricassessmentswereconductedin eachsiteofwhatappearedtobetheciviccenterofan area1km2,withmonumentalarchitectureandspecific architecturalconfigurationsdatingtotheMiddleandLate Preclassicperiods,asdeterminedbyextensiveregional archaeologicaltestingbytheMiradorBasinProjectin56 sites,consistingoftestpits,archaeologicalsalvageoflooters ’ trenches,andbroadhorizontalarchitecturalexposure ofstructures,aswellasmorphologicalcharacteristicsof architecture(e.g.,Mejía 2008, 2012;Mejíaetal. 2007, 2010).Monumentalarchitecture,consistentarchitectural formats,specificsiteboundaries,watermanagementand collectionfacilities,andmorethan177kmofelevated Preclassiccausewayssuggestlaborinvestmentsthatdefy organizationalcapabilitiesoflesserpolitiesandportray thestrategiesofgovernancebyunitingmajorsitesinanetworkintheMiddleandLatePreclassicperiods.
Mesoamericaisoneoftheidealareasoftheworld wheretheprocessofcultural,political,andeconomiccomplexitycanbecriticallyevaluated(Clark 2016;Loveand Guernsey 2022;Rosenswig 2021a;TraxlerandSharer 2016). Thewiderangeofnaturalresourcesandvariantcultures withinalimitedgeographicalframeworkpermittedsocial, political,andeconomicinteractionsviaemulation, adaptation,and/orindependentinnovation.Datarelevant tositeformationandcomplexityaremorereadilyavailable, duetothedurationandconsistencyofarchaeological researchandnewtechnologiessuchasLiDAR(light detectionandranging),whichhavebeenconductedinthe Mirador-CalakmulKarstBasin(MCKB;Ensleyetal. 2021;
ForceandDohrenwend 2008, 2021)ofnorthernGuatemala andsouthernCampeche,Mexico(Figures1 and 2; Table1; seealsoSupplementaryFigure1).Multidisciplinaryresearch overthepastfourdecadesintheareaoftheMCKB bytheFoundationforAnthropologicalResearchand EnvironmentalStudies(FARES)andtheMiradorBasin Projecthasresultedinthefieldmappingandexcavations in56separatearchaeologicalsitesofvaryingsizes,providingaground-truthingofLiDARandGISanalyses.Many ofthesestudieshavebeenpublishedinannualsymposium volumesintheNationalMuseumofAnthropologyand EthnologyofGuatemala(https://www.asociaciontikal.com), inscientificpapers(e.g., https://www.researchgate.net/ profile/Richard-Hansen-3),andintechnicalreportsprovidedtotheGovernmentofGuatemala.LiDARstudiesofa contiguousareaofthesouthernMCKBhaveprovidednew informationthat,whencombinedwithsystematicarchaeologicalresearch,suggeststhatamoreadequateand improvedinterpretationoftheculturalprocesscanbe obtainedviaimprovedarchaeologicalmethodologies,a greaterutilizationofmultidisciplinaryapproaches,applicationofmoreadvancedtechnologies,improvedchronometricmethods,andarchaeologicalinvestigationsconducted onaregionalscale(Hansen 2016b:333).Long-term,comprehensiveregionalinvestigationshavetheadvantageof broader,multidisciplinaryperspectivesbasedonmultiple linesofevidenceandallowtestingofhypotheses,identificationofmulti-causalfactors,andalternativemodelsforthe riseofcomplexitywithinspecificregions(Clark 2016; Rosenswig 2021a;SharerandSedat 1987;Shareretal. 2006).ThisstudyusesairborneLiDARdatatodemonstrate howcomplexsocietiesorganizedtheirinfrastructureto reflecttheirsocio-economicorganizationandpolitical power,conformingtoaproposedincipientkingdom/state duringthePreclassicperiodintheMayaLowlands.
Thesedataarerelevanttotheculturaldevelopment withintheMirador-Calakmulregion,akarstbasindefined byhydrologicalandgeomorphologicalfeatures,groundwaterflow,andnaturalboundaries(Ensleyetal. 2021;Force andDohrenwend 2008, 2021).Overrecentyears,LiDAR datahavebeenacquiredthatcover85.8percentofthe southern,orGuatemalan,MCKB.Thesedatahaveunveiled aremarkabledensityofMayasites(Table2),manyof themlinkedbyanetworkofelevatedcauseways.Usinga GISandremote-sensingmethodology,wehaveidentified andareproposingasix-tieredsettlementandadministrativehierarchyofsites,withmonumentalceremonialarchitecture,thatwerepresentduringthePreclassicperiod, basedonarchaeologicaldata,densityofarchitecture,superficialareas,calculatedvolumetricsofarchitecturalfillof contemporaneouslyconstructedoroccupiedarchitecture, consistentorsimilararchitecturalorartistictraits,andgeographicalcharacteristics.Asimilarstudywassuggestedfor theregionbetweenYaxunaandCobabyStantonandcolleagues(Stantonetal. 2020),witharchitecturaldensities, surfaceareas,andarchitecturalvolumestobeconsidered insettlementpatternresearch.Extensivemonumental architectureintheMCKBhasbeenmapped,including E-Groups,triadiccomplexes,ballcourts,causeways,and
ModifiedafterEnsleyetal.(2021).
reservoirsthroughoutthebasin.Collectively,wearguethat thedevelopmentofinfrastructuredemonstratesthepresenceofcomplexsocietieswithstronglevelsofsocioeconomicorganizationandpoliticalpowerduringthe MiddleandLatePreclassicperiods.
TheMirador-CalakmulKarstBasin
TheMirador-CalakmulareaisaNeogenefluviokarstlandscape(Gates 1992, 1999),locatedonthesouthernPeten Plateauanddefinedbyitsgeomorphologicalfeatures (Ensley 2018;Ensleyetal. 2021:Figure1;Folanetal. 2001;
politicalcohesionofthearea.Thebackgroundnear-infraredimageindicatesthevegetationtypeswithlowland,orbajo,vegetationinbluegreenanduplandvegetationinred.Causewaysdonotextendbeyondthenaturalbordersofthebasin,suggestinganenclosedcentralization associatedwithsettlementnucleationintheMiddleandLatePreclassicperiods.Sentinel-2multispectraldata:
ForceandDohrenwend 2008;GunnandFolan 1992;seealso Figure1).Theareaisdominatedbylow-lyingseasonal swamps,knownas bajos,wherewatercollectsfromthesurroundingkarsticuplandhillsthatformthenaturalborders (Ensley 2018;EnsleyandHansen 2020;Ensleyetal. 2021:20; GunnandFolan 1992;Hansen 2012a, 2012b, 2016a, 2016b, 2017;Hansenetal. 2002).Theareaisparticularlyvisible oninfraredsatelliteimages,firstpublishedin1992 (SupplementaryFigure1),duetothedominant,stunted bajo vegetation(blueininfraredcolor)thatvariesfrom tropicalforestsinmoreelevatedareas(redininfrared color;Stuart 1992;seealsoHansen 2016b:340, 2017:308).
TheMCKBexhibitshydrologicalfeaturescommonto drainagebasins,inadditiontoinferredgroundwaterflow routesanddefinedboundaries(Ensleyetal. 2021:20; QuinlanandEwers 1989:66;Ray 2001:236;Taylorand Greene 2008:81;White 1988:112–113,153–155).Regional visualizationandhydrogeologicalinterpretationofthe basinanditssurroundinglandscapesusedsatellite-derived elevationdatarecordedbytheJapanAerospace
https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov
ExplorationAgency(Takakuetal. 2014, 2016),andwasconfirmedbyLiDARdatacoveringmuchofthesouthernportionofthebasin.BordersoftheMCKBdrainagebasinare delineatedbytheMiradorAnticlineonthesoutheast,the CalakmulAnticlinetothenortheast,anorthernlineof karsthillsthatdenotesthedividebetweentheCalakmul andDesempeñodrainages,andthelineoflow,residual hillsinterruptedbykarstvalleysalongthewest.Likethe westernflankoftheMiradorAnticline,theeasternflank ispartoftheuplandkarstlandscape(Ensleyetal. 2021:19–20)andhasasimilarkarstgeomorphology,dominatedbynumerousperennialmarshesknownas civales Karstlandscapesformaperipherysurroundingthe MCKB.Tothesoutheast,thebasinisboundedbyarugged polygonalkarstlandscape(e.g.,Ensleyetal. 2021:17–19,Figure3)thatisageomorphologicallydefinedbuffer zone(Adams 1999:Figures1and2;AdamsandJones 1981: Figure2;Gunnetal. 2019:Figure11.5)flankedbythe BuenavistaEscarpment.Onthewestside,akarstmargin plainisaseasonallyfloodedalluvialplainwithresidual
Figure2. SitemapofthesouthernMCKB.TheconcentrationofsitesandcausewaysintheMCKBdemonstratesthelikelyeconomicandhills(Figure1)whichconstrainsthebasin.Northof Calakmul,thebasinisboundedbyarangeofhillsthatseparatestwofluviokarstdrainages,theDesempeñotothe northwestandtheEscondidotothenortheast.Theareais believedtobeanimportantwatersourceformuchofthe Yucatecanshelf(Baueretal. 2011).
MaterialsandmethodsofLiDARexplorationofthe MCKB
TheMCKBcontainssomeofthelargestancientMayacities, andtheantiquityofmany,ifnotmost,ofthesitesdatesto theMiddleandLatePreclassicperiods(ca.1000 B.C.–A.D.150), withamoremodestoccupationoftheareaduringtheLate Classicperiod(A.D.600–900;ClarkandHansen 2001;Clark etal. 2000;Hansen 1998, 2001, 2005, 2012a, 2012b, 2016a, 2016b, 2017;HansenandSuyuc-Ley 2016;Hansenetal. 2008;Morales-Aguilar 2010, 2021).Previousarchaeological mappinginthesouthernMCKBsurveyedthesitesof Nakbe,LaFlorida,ElMirador,andTintalwithTotal Stationlasertechnology,allowing3-Dcapability.ThesuccessofLiDARinthearchaeologyoftropicalforestsinthe MayaLowlandsofBelize(Chaseetal. 2011,2014;Ford etal. 2014;Pruferetal. 2015;Weishampeletal. 2011), Mexico(Fernandez-Diazetal. 2014;Hareetal. 2014; HutsonandWelch 2014;Rosenswigetal. 2013),and Angkor,Cambodia(Evansetal. 2013)promptedthepioneeringuseofLiDARinthenorthernPetenofGuatemalabythe MiradorBasinProject.Startingin2015,theprojectrecorded twolarge-scaleaerialLiDARsurveyswithinthesouthern halfoftheMCKB,coveringanareaof1703km2 (Figure2), makingitoneofthelargestcontiguousLiDARsurveys recordedforarchaeologicalresearchintheMayaLowlands todate.Ourreviewofover150publicationsandunpublishedreports,whichdetailtheuseofLiDARdatainMaya Lowlands,hasdocumented26individualsurveysdesigned forarchaeologicalresearchthatconstitute18contiguous regionsof100km2 orgreater(Table1;seealsoCanuto etal. 2018;Inomataetal. 2021),demonstratingtheimportanceofregional-scalesurveysinMayaarchaeology.In theseregionalstudies,LiDARhasfacilitatedmappingofsettlementobservationsandculturalfeatures,andenabled detailedenvironmental,geological,geomorphological,and hydrologicalinterpretation.
EagleMappingconductedtheLiDARsurveyofthesouthernMCKB,undercontractwithFARES,intwophases(Phase I:2015;PhaseII:2018),usingtheRieglLMS-Q1560system andaRieglLMSQ780scanneratnominalaltitudesof 550mand650m.TheRieglsystemsusedascanangleof 58degrees.Thelight-beamdivergencewas0.25mradsand thenominalpulsedensitywas20pulses/m2.Becauseof weatherconditions,thePhaseIIsurveywasrecordedat lowerlevels,requiringmoreflightlines,atalowerpulse densityof15pulses/m2.Theswathwidthwas513–741m, withanoverlapof55–70percent.Theaveragedensityof totalreturns(includingvegetation)was48.39points/m2 in PhaseIand39.64points/m2 inPhaseII,whiletheground returndensity(Grtn)was2.18points/m2 inPhaseIand 2.95Grtn/m2 inPhaseII.TheLiDARpointdatawere
deliveredtoFARESinLAS1.2in500m2 tiles.Postprocessing ofthePhaseIsurveywithRapidlasso’sLASToolssoftware providedagrounddensityreturnof5.2Grtn/m2.Theoverallaccuracyofbothsurveysis+/ 15cmhorizontaland+/ 30cmvertical.QuickTerrainModelerwasusedtocreate bare-earthdigitalelevationmodel(DEM)anddigitalterrain models(DTM)witha0.5mresolution.Oncethe LiDAR-derivedDEMwasgenerated,weproduceddifferent surfaceandvisualizationmodelstointerpretarchaeological features,includinghillshadewithdifferentlightpositions. Hillshademodelshavebeenwidelyappliedinarchaeology intropicalenvironmentstoenhance,detect,anddefineculturalremains(A.S.Z.Chaseetal. 2017;Chaseetal.2014; Dunningetal. 2019;Evansetal. 2013;Goldenetal. 2021; HornandFord 2019;RosenswigandLópez-Torrijos 2018; Šprajcetal. 2021;Thompson 2020).Togeneratevisualizationsandinterpretarchaeologicalfeatures,weusedseveral softwareprograms,includingRVT,ArcMap,GlobalMapper, QuickTerrainModeler,andQGIS.
Settlementdistribution
TheLiDARsurveyrevealedanextraordinarydensityand distributionofMayasitesconcentratedintheMCKB, manyofthemlinkeddirectlyorindirectlybyavastcausewaynetwork(Figure2).Usinghillshademodelsderivedfrom aLiDARDEM,atpresent775ancientMayasettlements (definedasanarchitecturalcluster)havebeenidentified withinthesouthernlowlandMCKB,ofwhich581are unnamed(Figure3, Table2).Anadditional189ancient Mayasettlementsofvaryingsizeswereidentifiedwithin thegeomorphologicalbordersofthesouthernMCKB, includingtheuplandkarstlandscapealongtheMirador Anticline,foratotalof964settlements(ofallperiods),of which645areunnamedasyet.Anadditional52known sitesarelocatedontheCampecheside,butwithoutthebenefitofcontiguousLiDAR,withtheexceptionofdispersed areasinCampeche,Mexico(seeBreweretal. 2017; Reese-Taylor 2017;Schroderetal. 2020; Šprajc 2020; Šprajc etal. 2021).Varyingscalesandstructuraldensitiesaredependentpartiallyonthe bajo landscapes(seealsoCanuto 2021).A settlementthatwasthoughttoberelativelysmall,onasmall elevationsurroundedbylarge bajos,hasproventobemuch largerinsizewhendirectlinks,suchasintrasitecauseways, dams,dikes,canals,commonreservoirs,andcommon bajo utilizations,weredetectedbetweenthesitecenterandits dependentperipheries.Whensettlementsaredetermined tobedependentperipheriesoflargerpolities,anddefined by bajo bordersor arroyos withcontemporaryoccupation andarchitecture,thenatotalofatleast417centers,consistingofcities,towns,andvillageswithdemarcatedboundaries, havebeenidentifiedtodatewithintheMCKBpolygon (Figure3;SupplementaryFigure2).Thedefinitionofthese termsisathornyissue,andscholarshaveattemptedto definethemforyears(e.g.,Smith 2016, 2020),withwildly variantresultsforpopulationandsettlementdistributions basedondefinitionandnumbersofresidences,thecontemporaneityofstructures,andfamilysizesperresidence(Rice andPuleston 1981:144).AMesoamerican “city” hasbeen
previouslydefinedas “asemi-urbancenterofatleast4000–5000people” (Clark 2016:124).A “town” couldbeconsidered asaconglomerateofresidencesandpublicstructuresthat wouldhavehad1000–3000inhabitants,whilea “village” wouldbelessthan1000inhabitants.Architecturally,a “city” wouldberepresentedbylargegroupsofresidential andpublicarchitecture,whilea “town” wouldbeamuch sparsercollectionofresidencesandreducedpublic/ceremonialarchitecture,anda “village” isdefinedasasocialgroupingofresidenceswithatleastoneorlessceremonial/public structure.
Tofurthercomplicateissues,theMiradorBasinProject hasidentifiedanastonishingpresenceof “invisible” house mounds,withpackedearthenfloors,postholes,and Preclassicpotteryinsitu,butwithnosurfaceindications ofarchitecture(Johnstonetal. 2015;Paine 2019, 2020; PaineandHansen 2018;Paineetal. 2018a, 2021;seealso Chase 1990;Pyburn 1990).Weareunpreparedtotackle thisissueuntilenoughsamplinghasbeenconductedtoprovideastatisticallyvalidalgorithmthatwouldallowarefinementofPreclassicpopulationestimatesintheMCKB.Inthis
article,wehavepreferredtodefinesitesizesas “tiers” with specificspatialqualities,numbersofmonumentalstructures,andvolumetricsofcontemporarybuildingsand/or platforms.Largersites,mostofwhicharecontemporaneous basedontestexcavations,arelinkedbyanextensivecausewaynetworkthatestablishesapremiseforearlysophisticationofsocio-economicprocessesthatgaverisetocultural complexity(Hansen 2016a, 2016b, 2017;Hansenetal. 2020;Hernández-Salazar 2021;Hernándezetal. 2013, 2016; Morales-AguilarandCastanet 2017).Allthecausewayspreviouslydetectedwithsurfaceexplorationmapping,testing andtrenchingexcavations,and,later,withLiDARwere plottedindifferentbare-earthmodelstobetterunderstand howtheMayabuilttheircausewaysystemtoconsolidatea powerfulstate-levelsocietyduringtheMiddleandLate Preclassicperiods(seeCauseways,below).
Yearsoffieldmapping,combinedwithLiDARdataand decadesofarchaeologicalresearch,haverevealedahierarchyofcontemporaneousPreclassicsettlementsinsites withceremonialcharacteristics,large,monumentalarchitecture,andresidentialdensitieswithintheMCKB
Table1. Selectedlarge-scaleLiDARsurveysintheMayaLowlands.Includedarecontiguoussurveysgreaterthan100km2 insize,designedforMaya archaeologicalresearch.Notincludedinthislistareverylarge,butlow-resolutionsurveysrecordedinMexico,primarilyforterrainanalysis, environmentalstudies,andemergencyplanning(Inomataetal. 2021;InstitutoNacionaldeEstadística,GeografíaeInformática 2022).Alsonot includedistheG-LiHTsurvey,asetofdiscontinuousprofilesacrosstheYucatanPeninsulaandChiapasrecordedbyNASAanddesignedforthe analysisofterrestrialecosystems(Cooketal. 2013;Hutsonetal. 2021;Inomataetal. 2021;Schroderetal. 2020).
(Figures4 and 5; Table3).Othershaveattemptedtheidentificationofatieredsitehierarchybasedonplazacounts, housestyles,palaces,platforms,andsurfacearea(e.g., Adams 1990;AdamsandJones 1981;WrightandJohnson 1975:270,281).Additionaltiersofsites,notnotedinthis article,includeresidentialgroupswithnoceremonialor “public” architecture,suchasthatnotedpreviouslyby HammondinhisidentificationoftheninetiersofLate ClassicBelize(Hammond 1975).Thevarioussettlement tiersintheMCKBwereidentifiedbyvariationsin(1)the surfaceareaofsiteswithmonumentalarchitecturelarger than12mhigh;(2)thepresence,consistentsizes,andnumbersofceremonial/publicarchitecture,suchaspyramids, E-Groupsandtriadgroups;(3)thevolumeofartificialcontemporaneousconstructionswithina1km2 areaidentifiedas asiteorciviccenterwithvolumetrics,aconceptpreviously
suggested(AdamsandJacksonAdams 2003),butnotapplied (butseeStantonetal. 2020);(4)thepresenceofintrasite andintersitecauseways;(5)thenumberofPreclassicresidenceplatforms;(6)thepresenceofballcourts;(7)logistics facilities,includingreservoirsandterracesystems;and(8) thepresenceofdefensiveconstructions.
Thediachronicchangesinsiterankandstatusreveal changesofthepolitical,economic,andsocialstatusofsites throughtime.Thelargestsitesvariedchronologically:Nakbe, Wakna,ElPesquero,Xulnal,ElMirador,Kunal,Yaxnohcah, andBalamnalhaveastrongpresenceintheMiddlePreclassic period(ca.900–400 B.C.).SitessuchasElMirador,Tintal, Nakbe,andBalamnalbecameevenmoredominantbythe earlyLatePreclassicperiod(ca.300 B.C.),indicatingfluctuating fortunesofvariouscentersthroughtime(Hansenetal. 2020; Morales-Aguilar 2021;Reese-Tayloretal.
(https://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/en/aw3d30/),andFARESLiDAR.
BythelateMiddlePreclassicandearlyLatePreclassic periods,ElMiradorbecamethedominantsite,withmonumentalplatforms,pyramids,agriculturalterraces,watercollectionmechanisms,raisedfields,E-Groupandtriadic architecturalconstructions,massivecauseways,andahigh demographicdensityaspartofanetworkofalliedsites withanucleatedpowerstructurethroughoutthegeographicalconfinesoftheMCKB(seeHansenandGuenter 2005). Theciviccenterofthesite,togetherwithitssubordinate suburbs,populatedaffiliated bajos,residentialarchitecture, andmonumentalarchitecture,covers132km2,makingit thelargestcenterinthebasin,comparabletothe post-LiDARareaofsitessuchasCaracol,at177–317km2 (e.g.,ChaseandCesaretti 2018;ChaseandChase 2017; Chaseetal. 2014a:214–216, 2016)orpre-LiDARdataat Tikal,at120km2 (Culbertetal. 1990)to165km2 (Lentz etal. 2015:287).Thesurroundingterracesystems, bajo fieldsystems,andoutlyingresidentialcompoundswould makeElMiradorevenlarger,butthenaturalbordersof bajos,plusthestructuralformatofsitesinthebasin,suggestsacertainautonomyundertheoverallhegemonyof ElMirador.
Partofthisareaincludesseveraladjacent bajos,which wereincorporatedspecificallyinthesitesizebecauseof extensiveancientmodifications,includingthepresenceof residentialarchitecture(Dahlinetal. 1980),raisedfields, “chinampa-like” structures,canals,andotherartificialmodificationswithinthe bajo areasdirectlyaffiliatedwiththecivic center(seebelow).LiDARrevealedsimilarmodificationsin the bajos ofadjacentareas(e.g.,Beachetal. 2019).
LiDARsitedefinitionsandboundaryidentifications
LiDARremotesensingintropicalforestshasbecomeausefultoolfordetectionofarchaeologicalremainsthroughthe applicationofaGIS-basedapproach(Canutoetal. 2018; Chaseetal. 2011, 2014b;Evansetal. 2013;Fordetal. 2014;Garrisonetal. 2019;Inomataetal. 2019, 2020, 2021; RosenswigandLopez-Torrijos 2018;Rosenswigetal. 2013).
Ourextensivepreviousarchaeologicalsurveyscarriedout beforeLiDARacquisitionwereusedtosupportourinterpretationofarchaeologicalfeaturesobservedonLiDARdata. OneofthecommonproblemsinLowlandMayaarchaeology
eratedensityinshadesofgreen,andhigharchitecturaldensityinblue.Digitalelevation:ALOSWorld3D(AW3D30),JapanAerospace ExplorationAgency(https://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/en/aw3d30/),andFARESLiDAR.
hasbeentheidentificationofsiteboundariesandborders (AdamsandJones 1981:301;Culbertetal. 1990;Drápela etal. 2016).LiDARdatacoveringthecontiguousareain thesouthernMCKBhaveofferedtheopportunitytorefine thesedetails.Forexample,ourcriteriaforsitedefinitions
consistedofindividualsettlementsthatwerefoundto haveintrasitecauseways,contemporaneousarchitectureof consistentforms,and/orsharedsubsistencefacilitiesor constructionswhicharticulatedwithasitehomogeneity thatwasabsentwithothersites.Inthisstudy,remote-
sensingmethodshavebeenappliedtodeterminesitelimits usinggeographicalcharacteristics.Thiswascombinedwith thenaturaltopographyoftheareatoprovideidentifiable circumscribedborders,suchas bajos, civales,or arroyos,to settlementswhichappearnowtohavebeenpartofthe samesite.Thisallowedsurfaceareadeterminationsofspecifiedsiteswithchronologicalsimilarities,andmanyhave beenconfirmedbymappingsurvey,salvageoflooters’ trenchesandtestpits,andhorizontalarchitecturalexcavationsat56separatesitesconductedonaregionalscaleby theMiradorBasinProject.
UsingLiDARdataandanalyses,combinedwithsurface mappingandarchaeologicalexcavations,weproposeasixtieredsettlementhierarchyforsiteswithmonumental architectureestablishedbytheMiddlePreclassicandLate Preclassicperiods(Figure6).Thissix-tieredsettlementhierarchyisconsistentwiththeuseoffour-tieredsettlement dataelsewhereintheworldtosuggesttheexistenceofa morecomplexor “state-level” governance(Wrightand Johnson 1975).Thishierarchywasderivedbythesurface areaofthesiteepicenters,theassociatednumberof majorbuildings,platforms,plazas,andagriculturaland hydraulicfeatures,asdeterminedbyarchaeologicaldata andcalculationsofthevolumeofthebuiltenvironment ofcontemporaneousarchitecture(constructionand/orutilization).Theselectedexamplesarenotcomprehensive, butindicativeofsitesizes(Figure4).Thepresenceof densesettlementsandcentersofvaryingsizeswithinthe MCKBanditssurroundingnaturalframeindicatesaprodigiousgrowthanddevelopmentintheMiddleandLate PreclassicperiodsofMayaoccupation(Figures2 and 3). Thetieredlayersofsiteswereestablishedthroughtheanalysisoftopographyfornaturalsiteboundaries,aswellasthe concentrationanddistributionofPreclassicstructures, numbersandsizesofplazas,publicandresidentialstructures,platforms,intrasitecauseways,E-Groups,ballcourts, thenumberofdominanttriadicstructures,chronological contemporaneity,andarchitecturalvolumetrics(Figures 5a
5f; Tables3 and 4).Inaddition,theuniformityofthe testingstrategyfortieridentificationwhichcouldbe appliedtoanyMayasitewouldbetoidentifyanareaof 1km2 anddeterminethevolumetricsofconstructionfill ofcontemporaneousarchitecturewithinthearea.Based onthosecriteria,wesuggestthatthelargestsiteinthe MCKBisElMirador,whichrepresentsTier1,coveringan areaof132km2,withmonumentalarchitecturegreater than15mhigh.Thisareaincludedseveralsurrounding bajos becauseofthepresenceoflowresidentialarchitecture throughoutthem(e.g.,Dahlinetal. 1980;Hernándezetal. 2019),andtheextensiveraisedfieldsimmediatelyassociatedwiththeciviccenterintheBajoLaJarilla(Hansen etal. 2018a, 2018b; Figure7).Itisevenpossiblethatthe civales/bajos withintheciviccenterofElMiradorwere denselypopulatedwith “stilt” communities,orelevated woodenresidentialplatforms,judgingbythepresenceof Preclassicslippedandutilitarianceramicsfoundinnumeroustestpitsthroughoutthe bajos (e.g.,Dahlinetal. 1980; Hernándezetal. 2019;Jacob 1994;Johnstonetal. 2015; Paineetal. 2018a, 2018b).Evenexcludingthe bajos within
Table4. Sampleofvolumetricevaluationsofa1km2 areaforselected sites.GlobalMapperwastheprogramusedforthemajorityof volumetricsinthisarticle.
ElMirador14,306,86755
Nakbe2922,39348
Tintal2776,62150
Balamnal2905,73822
Wakna3207,06324
Kunal3203,14521
ElLimon4*194,18917
Noholnal4156,60118
Hospital4137,46916
ElPesquero5*85,09316
Cantetul568,62510
LaCeibita6*94,99722
Hunal633,26620
Total8,092,066
theconfinesofthesite(37.93km2,or28.64percent),the uplandareawithPreclassicmonumentalandresidential architectureis94.51km2,or71.36percentofthesuggested sitearea.ElMiradorisalsocomposedofaperipherywith largeareasofresidentialstructuresconnectedbyacausewaynetwork.Theassociated bajos werehighlyexploited bytheMayaduringthePreclassicperiod.Raisedfields, largereservoirs,andcanalswereconstructedinthewetland systemandwerekeyelementsinPreclassicagrarianand watermanagementstrategies.LargenumbersofE-Groups, triadicpyramids,andothercomplexesatElMirador,in additiontothepresenceofcarvedmonumentsdepicting rulers(see Table3;e.g.,Hansen 2012a:155, 2016b:382,386, 394–397,409;HansenandGuenter 2005;Hansenetal. 2018a:160;JustesonandMathews 1983),representahigh concentrationofpoliticalpowerintheMayaLowlandsduringPreclassictimes.Combinedarchitecturalmassina1km2 sampleofourTier1siteciviccenterwascalculatedintwo ways:(1)computergenerationsofvolume,usingprograms ofArcGISPro,GlobalMapper,andQGIS;(2)geometrical mathematicalcalculationsusingtotalstationcontourmeasurementsforplatformvolumes,andtruncatedandpointed pyramidalsuperstructureswhichamountedtoacalculated minimumof4,809,310m3 ofconstructionfillforcontemporaneousstructuresforthe1km2 oftheWestGroupofEl Mirador.Calculationsofthemassofarchitectureusing threeseparateprogramsprovidedanapproximatevolumetricestimateofapproximately4,306,867m3 (GlobalMapper), intheselected1km2 atthesite.
TheTier2sites,suchasTintal,Balamnal,andNakbe,have asurfacearearangingbetween13and19km2 (Figure8),but someofthefeaturesdescribedabovearelessfrequentor absent.Thepresenceoffewerlargereservoirsandcarved monumentssuggestsadifferentlevelofpoliticalorganization.Nevertheless,alloftheTier2sitesshowmonumental architectureupto50minheightandcausewaynetworks. Tier2siteshavea1km2 massofcontemporaneousartificial construction,rangingfrom922,392m3(GlobalMapper)to 945,678m3 (QGIS)atNakbe,776,620m3 (GlobalMapper)to 781,645m3 (QGIS)atTintal,and905,737m3 (GlobalMapper) to941,633m3 (QGIS)atBalamnal.
Tier3sitesincludecenterssuchasElPesquero,Wakna, Porvenir,Uaymil,Xulnal,andotherswithciviccenters withsurfaceareasrangingbetween2.7and8.0km2 (Figure9).Tier3sitesaresmallerinsurfaceareathanTier 2sites,butdifferfromTier4sitesbecauseofthelarger sizeandgreaterabundanceofmonumentalarchitecture, withatleastfivestructuresrangingfrom8to20minheight withintheciviccenters.AllTier3siteshaveE-Groups,but thesizesandscalesoftheeasternplatformsare150–200m inlength.AllTier3siteshaveintrasitecausewayswhich linkarchitecturalcomplexeswithintheciviccenters,indicatinganadministrativeandsettlementdistributionhierarchy. ComputervolumetricsofTier3sitesrangebetween200,000 and300,000m3/km2,basedonGlobalMappercalculations.
Tier4sitesincludecenterssuchasNoholnal,ElCivalon, LaUnion,andElHospital,withanaveragesurfacearea between1.01and4km2 (Figure10).Thesesitesdiffer fromTier5sitesinthattheygenerallyhavemoretriadic structures(2+),usuallyatleastoneballcourt,andintrasite causewaystolinkvariousarchitecturalgroupswiththe
civiccenters.Computer-generatedvolumetricsestimated thesetiersatbetween137,000m3 (Hospital),156,000m3 (Noholnal),andsitesuptoapproximately200,000m3 of contemporaneousconstructionswithinthe1km2 selected.
Tier5sitesincludeLaTortuga,Naranjito,LosTorres, Cantetul,andLaPailona,withasurfaceareaof1.2–3.04km2 (Figure11).AllTier5siteshaveE-Groups,inspite ofthediminishedsurfaceareaoftheciviccentersofthe sitesandcomputer-generatedvolumetrics(GlobalMapper) of68,000m3 (Cantetul)toabout100,000m3 (ElPesquero).
ExamplesofTier6sitesincludeLasIlusiones,LaCeibita, Hunal,ElKarstico,LaFlorida,Hunbe,andNoholtun,with surfaceareasbetween0.16and1.5km2 (Figure12).Only oneoftheTier6siteshasanE-Group,butallofthese siteshaveatleastonemonumentalstructurethatexceeds 12–22minheight.SitessuchasOxkinal,locatedonthe westernmarginoftheMCKBconsistssolelyofan E-Group.SitessuchasLaCeibitaandHunalhaveamassive singlepyramid,withavolumeofabout33,000–95,000m3, butnoothermonumentalbuildings.Randomlyselected examplesofsitehierarchiesarelistedin Table3,witha sampleofvolumetricslistedin Table4
WeappliedaKerneldensitymethodinArcGISProto analyzethespatialpatternsofE-Groups,triadiccomplexes, intersitecauseways,intrasitecauseways,ballcourts,and largereservoirs(Figure5).Asaresult,sixdifferent modelsshowhotspotsofconcentrationofthesefeatures. ThemainhotspotislocatedatElMirador,representing thelargestcityscapeinthesouthernMCKB.AnotherimportanthotspotisrepresentedatBalamnal,demonstratingits sociopoliticalinfluenceintheregionduringthePreclassic period.
NewperceptionsoftheMCKBsettlementsviaLiDAR
Ourdocumentationofhundredsofarchaeologicalsitesin theMCKBofnorthernGuatemalachallengestheoldnotion ofsparseearlyhumanoccupationintheMayaLowlands, particularlyinthePreclassicperiod(Fox 1977:40;Fry 1969; Haviland 1965:19;SandersandWebster 1988;Thompson
1954:50).ThepresenceofdensesettlementswithinthenaturalconfinesoftheMCKBindicatesprodigiousgrowthand unusualculturaldynamicsintheMiddleandLate PreclassicperiodsofMayaoccupation.Ourpreliminarysixtieredsettlementandadministrativehierarchyofceremonial sitesinthePreclassicperiod,asidentifiedbyexcavations
conductedoverseveraldecadesintheMCKB(Figure5)is indicativeofageneraluniformityofsitemorphologyin thisregion.WhiletheLateClassic(A.D.600–900)presence inthesouthernMCKBislimitedtosmallerresidentialsettlements,withtheexceptionofthesitesofNaachtun,Porvenir, Tamazul,LaPailona,andLechugal(ontheGuatemalanside), andUxul,Calakmul,andPareddelosReyesontheMexican side,awiderrangeoftieredhierarchyseemstobefoundin thePreclassicsites.Theconsistencyofarchitecturalforms andpatterns,ceramics,sculpturalart,architecturalpatterns, andunifyingcausewayconstructionswithinaspecified geographicalterritorysuggestsacentralizedpolitical,social,
andeconomicorganicsolidarityamongtheoccupants (HansenandSuyuc-Ley 2011).Thisisnottoimplyeither thereducedorenhancedpoliticalimportanceofthecenters, however,sincesiteslikeXulnalarelocatedinTier3dueto therestrictedareaoftheciviccentersurroundedby large bajos.Clearly,itwasanimportantsocialandeconomic hub,basedonthenumberofE-Groups(three),withat leastthreeintrasitecauseways,largeearlyarchitecture, anddefensiveorrestrictedaccessmoats.Itisalso oneofthefewsitesinthebasinwithanorth–southorientation,whilemostotherearlysiteshaveaneast–west orientation.
Themagnitudeofthelaborintheconstructionofmassiveplatforms,palaces,dams,causeways,andpyramidsdatingtotheMiddleandLatePreclassicperiodsthroughoutthe MCKBsuggestsapowertoorganizethousandsofworkers andspecialists,rangingfromlimeproducers,mortarand quarryspecialists,lithictechnicians,architects,logistics andagriculturalprocurementspecialists,andlegalenforcementandreligiousofficials,alloperatingunderapolitical andideologicalhomogeneity.Thesocial,economic,and ideologicalbranchesofculturalcomplexitywithinademarcatedgeographicterritoryaresuggestedbydifferential
causewayaccessibility.ThevariedsiteswithintheMCKB areatestamenttoregionalpublicprograms,suchas E-Groups,monumentalceremonialarchitecture,including triadiccomplexes,intersitecauseways,intrasitecauseways, ballcourts,reservoirs,dams,canals,terraces,andraised fields(Figures4–6).Residentialarchitecturewithinlarge sitesdemonstratesamarkedinequalityofsizeandsophisticationofarchitectureandthepresence,orlack,ofimported commodities(e.g.,Hansen 2016b:362–369).
Theconsistentarchitecturalconstructiontechniques (stone,mortar,stucco,andarchitecturalart),andboth
utilitarianandceremonialartifactsintheMiddlePreclassic period,plustheinnovationoflargetriadicarchitecture throughouttheareabythebeginningoftheLatePreclassic period,implyaformationandinstitutionalizationofaunified religiousideology(Coe 1981;Durkheim 1915;Keatinge 1981; Weber 1956).Wehaveyettoidentifygriddedsites,suchas theMiddlePreclassicsiteofNixtunCh’ich’ (PughandRice 2017;Pughetal. 2019),whichsuggeststheindependent natureoftheformationofsociopoliticalcomplexitybythis earlyperiod.Agriculturalterracinghasbeenidentifiedby LiDARandsurfaceexcavationsinnearlyallareasofthe southernMCKB,similartotheClassicperiodterracing
identifiedatCaracol,Belize(ChaseandChase 1998;Chase etal. 2014a:214ff.)andNaachtun(Morales-Aguilar,personal communication2021),aswellasthePreclassicterracesat NakbeandElMirador(Hansen 2012a, 2016b, 2017;Hansen etal. 2002, 2018a, 2018b;MartínezHidalgoetal. 1999). Terracesandsitesappeartodecreasenearthenaturalbordersofthebasin,butitmaybepossibletodeterminethe effectsofsuchextensivepopulationsinthePreclassiconsubsequentpopulationsandcontemporaryrainforestcanopy (Hightoweretal. 2014).Theagriculturalandlogisticalcapacity toaccommodatelargePreclassicpopulationsrequiredamarshallingoflabor,onanindustrialscaleperhaps,forthe
architecturalconstruction,planting,weeding,watering,and harvestingoftheterracecrops.
Themonumentalarchitecture,majorplatforms,complexesknownasE-Groups(seebelow),andassociatedcauseways(seebelow)wereformedbythelateMiddlePreclassic period,andsubsequentconstructionswerebuiltwithupto 1.5million–2.8millionm3 offillinasinglestructureinthe LatePreclassicperiod(Hansen 2012a, 2016b;Hansenetal. 2018a;Suyuc-LeyandHansen 2013).Massivetriadicpyramidalstructures,suchasthepyramidofTigreatElMirador, measuring145×150×55mhassimilarcounterpartsinat
least12majorsitesinthesouthernMCKB,andsimilarconstructionsarenotedatYaxnohcah,Calakmul,andprobably BalakbalinCampeche,indicatingthemagnitudeofthecontemporaneouslaborconscription.EstimatesfortheconstructionofDantaarebetween6and10millionperson-daysof labor,dependingonthevolumethatmightbeaffectedby anundulatingbedrocksurface(Hansenetal. 2018a:185). Thequantityanddensityofcontemporaneousconstructions intheMCKBallowanunderstandingofthelabor,ideological consistency,anduniformityofconstructionmaterials investedin,andon,themonumentalarchitecture
Figure12. LiDARimagesofexamplesofTier6sites:(a)LaCeibita,whichcoversanareaof1.0km2,buthasvolumetricsof94,997m3, whichcouldplacethesiteinaTier5category,pendingfurtherinvestigation.Severalresidentialgroupsatthesitewerenotincludedincalculationsbecauseofinconsistentcontemporaneitywiththelargerarchitecture;(b)Hunal,whichcovers0.7km2 andhasvolumetricsof 33,265m3/km2.Notethesinglemonumentalstructuresateachsite,of22mand20mhigh,respectively,withlittleadditionalassociatedarchitecture.Colorcodesfortheshadedimageareprovidedinthelegendshownin Figures6 and 7b
(E.Hansenetal. 1995, 1996, 1997;Hansenetal. 2020; Schreiner 2001, 2002, 2009, 2021).
Theevidenceforcomplexsocial,economic,andpolitical organizationsandtheemergenceofahierarchicalsociopoliticalstructurewithinstitutionsofkingshipallowthetestingofmodelsandhypotheses(Hansen 2016b, 2017).The formationofsuchhierarchicalpowerstructureshasanthropologicalimplicationsthatarebestobservedviadiachronic andsynchronicperspectivesonaregionalbasis(Haas 1982:216).
Monumentalityofritualandreligiousarchitecture, ballcourts,causeways,andwatercollectionsystems E-Groups
PrimarysitesoftheMCKBhavestructuresbuiltforceremonialorreligiousideology(e.g.,DemarestandConrad 1992).
LiDARanalyseshavefacilitatedtheidentificationofmore structuralcomplexesknownasE-Groups.Thesearchitectural complexesareofaconsistentform,withadominantpyramid onthewestandanelongatednorth–southplatformonthe
eastofaplazagroup,andwerepurportedtobeassociated withsolsticeandequinoxalignments,asfirstidentifiedin GroupEatUaxactuninthe1920s(Blom 1924:218;Doyle 2012;Freidel 1981;Freideletal. 2017;Hansen 1998:63–70; Ruppert 1940:222).However,theseassessmentsarenotreliable(seeAveniandHartung 1989; Šprajc 2021a, 2021b). Theyhadimportantritualandceremonialfunctionsin earlyMayaandMixe-ZoquesitesandaretheearliestconsistentarchitecturalgroupformatintheMayaLowlands(Chase andChase 1995, 2017:32;Hansen 1998:63–64;Inomata 2017; Inomataetal. 2013, 2020).WhilethereisdebateovertheoriginsofE-Groups(seeClarkandHansen 2001;Hansen 2005:55; Inomata 2017),thereisnodoubtthatthisarchitecturalformat wasdevelopedandutilizedintheMiddlePreclassicperiod throughouttheMayaLowlands(Doyle 2012, 2013; Estrada-Belli 2017;Estrada-Bellietal. 2003a, 2003b;Hansen 1992, 1998, 2000;Morales-Aguilar 2021).E-GroupsarecommonthroughouttheMCKB(e.g.,Hansen 1998:69–70;and Figures4 and 13),butvaryinquantityandsize.Analysisof LiDARimageryhaslocatedatleast30centersinthesouthern MCKB,whichaltogetherhave42E-Groupcomplexes (Figure13).ATier1sitesuchasMiradorhaseight E-Groups,whileTier2siteslikeBalamnalhaveatleasttwo E-groups,and “endoftheroad” tertiarysitessuchas NoholnalandNoholtun,locatedtothesouthandsouthwest ofBalamnal,havetwoandoneE-Groupcomplexes,respectively.Thesizeofthesite,though,seemstobeirrelevant, sinceE-Groupsarefoundinallidentifiedtiersofsitesize. SomeTier6siteslikeOxkinalconsistoflittleotherthan thestructuresofanEGroup.WhileElMiradorhasperhaps thelargestwesternstructureofanyE-GroupintheBasin, withtheLeonstructureat33minheight(Figure13a), theelongatedeasternstructureatWaknaisprobablythe largest,at210minlength(Figure13f ).TheE-GroupcomplexintheEastGroupatNakbe(Figure13b)isamongthe earliestintheMCKB,withconstructionandoccupationdatingfrom900
600 B C.(Figure14).Ceramicsfromexcavations atElPesquero,Balamnal,Wakná,Kunal,Xulnal,andEl MiradorsuggestthatthoseE-Groupsarecontemporaneous.
Triadicarchitecture
Thevastmajorityofthelargestarchitecturethroughout theMCKBisatriadicconfiguration,a “dominantstructure flankedbytwo,inward-facingsmallermounds” (Figures15a–15f;seeFreidel 1979;Graham 1967:45–46; Hansen 1990:171ff., 1998:77
78, 2000, 2016a, 2016b, 2017). Whilenotriadicstructuresareyetknownfromthe MiddlePreclassicperiod,theformatappearssuddenlyand ubiquitouslythroughouttheentiretyoftheMCKBbythe earlyLatePreclassicperiod(ca.350–300 B C.).Thetriadic patternispossiblyrelatedtoanearlycosmologyof “three hearthstonesofMayacreation” (Tedlock 1996:236,n72). TheLatePreclassicTigrepyramidintheWestGroupatEl Mirador(Figure16a)wasestimated,basedonreplication experimentsbytheMiradorBasinProjectandothers,to havebeenconstructedataminimumof2,803,595 –5,000,000persondaysoflabor(Erasmus 1965;Hansen 1982, 1984, 1990:215;Hansenetal. 2018a;Sidrys 1978:159).
ThepyramidofDanta(Figure16b)locatedontheeastside oftheciviccenterofElMiradorconsistsofthreecontinuous elevatedplatforms,withamajortriadicgrouponthesummit ofthethirdplatformandmeasures600×320×72minheight, andapossiblevolumeof2,816,016m3 offill,pendingadditionalexcavationsintheprimaryplatformofthestructure (HansenandSuyuc-Ley 2011;Hansenetal. 2018a:184; Suyuc-LeyandHansen 2013).Basedonourcalculations,the buildinghasasurfacecoveringof205,508limestoneblocks atanaveragesizeof1.30×0.45×0.40m,requiring158workers continuallyforfiveyearstoquarrythestones,basedonour detailedexperimentsinthefield(Hansenetal. 2018a:182–186;WoodsandTitmus 1994, 1996).Dependingonthenatural configurationsofthebedrockbelowthestructure,theentire buildingcouldhavehadasmuchas6,000,000to10,000,000 person-daysoflabor,exceedingthecapacityofpolitiesof lowerhierarchicalpoliticalandeconomicstatus,andsuggestingahighleveloforganizationasthesociopoliticalandeconomicpatronofsuchprodigiousgrowth(Hansenetal. 2018a:185).ThisisconsistentwiththepatternsofPreclassic platformsandmonumentalconstructions,asidentifiedin otherareasoftheMayaLowlands(Inomataetal. 2013, 2020, 2021).Inomataandcolleagues(2013, 2020, 2021)haveargued thatsuchmonumentalconstructionsatAguadaFenixand CarmelitainTabasco,Mexicomayhavebeenconstructedby societieswithlesscomplexitycomparedwiththeOlmecneighborsofSanLorenzoandLaVenta.Wesuggestthatsuchobservationsmaybepremature.Therearereasonstosuspectthat theearlysitesofTabascomaynotbeMaya,andtheymay bemorealignedpoliticallyandeconomicallywiththeOlmec (seealsoRosenswig 2021b).ExtensiveexperimentaldataconductedbytheMiradorBasinProjectsuggeststhatthelabor requirementsfortheconstructionofPreclassicMayamonumentalarchitecturewerealsohigh,requiringagreaterdiversityandspecialization,especiallyinconstructionswith quarriedlimestoneblocks,limecement,sascabquarries,mortarpreparation,watercollectionandutilization,andquarried limestonefill(Hansen 2016b;Hansenetal. 2018a;Schreiner 2001, 2002, 2009, 2021;WoodsandTitmus 1994, 1996).
Ballcourts
ThesitesintheMCKBhaveacombinedtotalofatleast30ballcourtsthatarescatteredthroughoutthesystem(Figure4), with26associatedwithMiddleandLatePreclassicarchitecture.Severalexcavatedexamples,suchastheoneatTintal, isoneofthelargerballcourtsintheMCKB,butthefinalversiondatestotheLateClassicperiod(Balcárceletal. 2021).The ballcourtslocatedintheMCKBshowtwoparallelstructures,ofteninanorth – southaxis,andareapproximately 10 – 20mlong.ThesiteofElMiradorhassevenpresumed ballcourts,consistingoffoursmallonesandthreepossible largercourtsintheGreatCentralAcropolisatthesite.The presenceofaroyalthrone,specializedceremonialsunken plazas,elaboratecosmologicaliconography,reservoirsand hydraulicsystems,andmassiveplatformsandconstructionssuggeststhattheGreatCentralAcropolismayhave beentheseatofpowerofPreclassicrulersatthesite (Hansen 2016b :397 – 400).
Causeways
OneofthecrowningachievementsoftheMiddleandLate PreclassicMayawastheconstructionofadendriticsystem
ofcausewaysthroughouttheentiretyoftheMCKB(Hansen etal. 2020;Hernández 2008;Hernández-Salazar 2021; HernándezandSchreiner 2006;Hernándezetal. 2007, 2013, 2016, 2019;and Figures17 and 18).Whilecausewayswere
withaheavyclusterofdatesbetweenca.1200and500 B C .ina2-sigmarange.Theearliestdatesarefromburnedpostsinpostholesinthebedrockinfrontofthestructureandareconsistentwithearlydatesfrom thecoresextractedfromlakesonthewesternedgeoftheMCKB(OxCalv.4.4.2,BronkRamseyetal. 2020;atmosphericdata:Reimeretal. 2020).
knowntohaveexistedthroughouttheMayaarea(e.g., Benavides-Castillo 1981;Bennett 1930;ChaseandChase 2001;CobosandWinemiller 2001;Folan 1991;Gómez 1996; HutsonandWelch 2021;Kurjack 1977;Maldonado-Cárdenas
1979;Shaw 2001, 2008;Villa 1934)andtheMCKB(e.g., Graham 1967:41–47),thescopeandscaleofthefeaturesare nowfullyevidentwiththeairborneLiDAR,supportedby satelliteimageryandGISsoftware.
DigitalelevationmapofElMiradorwithcausewaysandreservoirs.MajorcausewaysfromtheciviccenterofElMiradorshowthe extentandnatureofthevastintrasiteandintersitenetworks.PrimarycausewaysextendfromDantapyramidnortheastintoCampeche, Mexico(Yaxnohcah?),andsoutheasttoNakbe.OtherintersitecausewaysextendfromtheCentralAcropolissouthtoTintal,andfrom theLasCrucesGroupnorthwesttoElLimónandPaxbán.Intrasitecausewaysconnecttheciviccentertoneighboringsuburbsof Sacalero,LosFaisanes,Chacté,LosPericos,LaMuerta,Yaxché,LasArdillas,andothers.Backgroundcolorrepresentsterrainelevation withlowestelevationsinlightblueandgraduallyincreasingtohighestelevationsinbrownsandwhite.
LiDARmappinginthesouthernMCKBhasrevealeda networkofatleast133.22kmofintersiteand38.23kmof intrasitePreclassic nohbe (“bigroad”)or chibalbe (“large lineageroad”)causeways(BollesandFolan 2001).An additional3.89kmcouldbeaddedifthesitedestination platformsareincluded.ThemappedPreclassicintrasite causewaysindicateintracommunityconnectivityandintegration.Preclassiccausewaysareeasilydistinguishedfrom Classicperiodcausewaysbythewidthofthefeaturesand thelackoflowstonewallsorparapetsalongtheedges. AllLateClassiccausewaysaredefinedbythepresenceof lowparapetsoneachsideofthecauseway.Only12.13km ofClassicperiodcausewaysarefoundthroughoutthe entiretyoftheSouthernBasin,andnoneofthemareintersite,indicatingthevastdifferencesindemographicdensity andadministrativeprocessbetweenthetwoperiods.The majorityofPreclassiccausewayshavealocusatElMirador, with12intrasitecausewaysandfivemajorintersite
causeways.Theintrasitecausewaysmeasure9–40mwide, whiletheintersitecausewaysrangefrom28to40mwide. Thereareatleast11suburbanresidentialareas(densegroups intheperipheralregions),directlylinkedbyintrasitecausewaystotheciviccenterofElMirador(Hansenetal. 2020; Hernández-Salazar 2021:23;Morales-Aguilaretal. 2015;and Figure17).LargeintersitecausewaysincludethePaixban causeway,whichextendstothenorthwestofMiradorto thesitesofElLimonandPaixban.Thiscausewayis30–40m wideand2–4mhigh,andextends21kmbeforereaching thelimitsofourLiDARsurvey.Anotherpreviouslyundetected causeway(Campechecauseway)extendsfromDantapyramidtothenortheastformorethan12km,andcrosses intothestateofCampeche,Mexico.Thisfeatureis30–40mwideand2–4mhigh,andextends7.4kmtoasemirectangularapertureintheterrainofthenaturaltopographybeforecontinuingonanother2.3kmtothenortheast Mexicanborder.Thereisalikelypossibilitythatthis
causewayextendstowardsYaxnohcahorChicanticanalin Campeche,andnotCalakmul,aspurportedearlier(Folan etal. 2001:296–297).Atpresent,thereisnoindicationon LiDARdataofacausewaybetweenElMiradorand Calakmul,whichislogicalconsideringthedifferencesin contemporaneityofthesites,eventhoughCalakmuldoes havesomePreclassicoccupationandatleastonemonumentalsubstructure.
Animportantcauseway(Mirador–Nakbecauseway) extendsfromthesoutheastcornerofthesecondplatform ofDantapyramid,13kmtothesiteofNakbe.Thiscauseway variesbetween0.5mand5minheight(Figure18a)andis
35–40minwidth.Another,theTintal–Miradorcauseway, extendstothesouthwestofElMiradorandis40mwide, 1.0–4.5minheight,and24kmlongtoTintal(Figures18b and 18c).ItunitestheCentralAcropolisatMiradorwith theHenequenandManodeLeonGroupsatTintal. Furthermore,ithasamid-coursedirectionalchangeto thewestfromtheoriginallineofsightonthelargepyramid atthesiteofLaCeibita,suggestingthattheconstruction originofthecausewaywasfromElMirador.Excavations onthiscausewayrevealedaseriesofC-14dates(Table5), ceramics,andaconsistentsequencethatplacestheinitial constructionpossiblyasearlyasthelateMiddlePreclassic
Figure18. PhotographsofseveralMCKBintersitecauseways:(a)edgeoftheMirador–Nakbecauseway;(b)theMirador–Tintalcauseway, showingtherelativeheightsnormalfortheelevatedintersitecauseways;(c)theJadecausewayinTintalis40mwide,typicalofthePreclassic causewaysintheMCKB.Figure19. DetailedLIDARimageoftheMirador–Tintalcauseway:(a)profileofOp.500-A,excavationoftheMirador–Tintalcauseway, showingthestratigraphicsequencesoftheconstructionphaseswithfourfloors(afterHernández-Salazar 2021:129;Hernándezetal. 2013:950);(b)LiDARimageofGavilan “ElParaiso” IslandintheBajoCarrizal,locatedsouthofElMirador,showingthelargePreclassiccauseway.Backgroundcolorrepresentsterrainelevationwithlowestelevationsinlightblueandgraduallyincreasingtohighestelevationsinbrowns andwhite.
period,butcertainlybythebeginningoftheLatePreclassic period(Figure19;Hernández-Salazar 2021:152–154,60ff.; Hernándezetal. 2016;SchreinerandHernández 2009; Schreineretal. 2015).
CalculationsofthevolumeoftheTintal–Miradorcauseway,basedonexcavations,determinedthatthePreclassic Mayausedasmuchas10,000m3/kmoflimeplasterand limereinforcedfillforelevatedsectionsofthecauseway. SchreinerandHernándezalsodeterminedthatupto 40,000m3/kmof tzaal stone(asoft,porouslimestoneof
nearlypurecalciumcarbonate,with2percentmontmorilloniteclay)wasusedonthecombinedvolumeofthefour sequentialrenovationsofthecauseway(Hansen 2012b:263–264;Hansenetal. 2018a;Schreiner 2001, 2002, 2021; SchreinerandHernández 2008 , 2009 ;Schreineretal. 2015 ).Suchconsumptionrequiredtheburningofgreat amountsoflimestoneandwood,withlargelaborrequirementstomakethequicklimeforthelimeplasterofthe surfacesandsubstratematerials(Hansen 2012b ;Hansen etal. 2018a , 2020 ;Hernándezetal. 2013 , 2016 ;Schreiner
2001 , 2002 , 2021 ).Onwetlandstretches,thecausewaylime usewascloserto5000m 3 /km,withthetechnicalinnovationoflimeandclaymixturesthatcontrolled moisture-inducedheavingofavailableexpansiveclay basesubstrates(Schreiner 2021 ).
TheTintal–Miradorcausewaydivergedatthesiteof Tintaltoformanotherimportantcauseway(Tintal–Ceibita causeway),25
30mwide,whichextended5kmtothe southeastfromthesite,connectingdirectlytothemonumentalpyramidatthesiteofLaCeibita(HernándezSalazar 2021:72).Theprimarycauseway(Tintal–Balamnal causeway)continuedfromTintalinasoutherlydirection forapproximately3kmbeforecurvingtothesoutheast andrunningparallelwiththenaturalkarstborderofthe MCKBfor17km,tothesiteofBalamnal(Figure20).Itis clearfromthesize,distribution,andquantityofmajor structuresthatBalamnalwasoneofthemostimportant centersintheMCKB,withdominantE-Groupsinthecenter ofthesite,andaseriesofelevatedintrasiteandintersite causeways,15
20meterswide,thatextendedtolowertiered sitesinadendriticformat(Hansenetal. 2020;seeChaseand Chase 2001:276
280forasimilarClassicperiodsystemat Caracol).Theprimarycauseway(Tintal–Balamnalcauseway) comesfromTintaltothenorthwest.Anotherelevated causeway,theNoholtuncauseway,extends5kmtothe
southwesttothesiteofNoholtun.TheNoholnalcauseway extends5.5kmfromBalamnaltothesouthtothesiteof Noholnal.ThePesquerocausewayextends7.5kmtothe eastandsoutheasttothesiteofElPesquero,andyet another,theUnioncauseway,extends9.5kmtothenortheasttothesiteofLaUnion.Thesmalleroutliersitesmay haveservedasfrontierstationsfortheMCKB,andnocausewayshaveyetbeenobservedthatextendbeyondthe MiradorAnticlineonthenorth,eastorsoutheastorthe low,residualkarsthillsonthewestthatformthenatural bordersofthebasin.
ExcavationsatbothBalamnalandElPesquerohavelocated uptosevensequentialfloorsintheplazasoftheE-Group complexes,withthelowerlevelsdatingtotheMiddle Preclassicperiod(Mejía 2008, 2012;Mejíaetal. 2007, 2010). Theunificationofthesesites,directlyandindirectly,with theTier1siteofElMiradorviathecausewaynetworksuggestsanadministrativecentralizationandanautochthonous developmentofeconomicandpoliticalpowerindicativeofa complexauthorityatkingdom(andstate)level.
Watermanagement:Reservoirs
TheLiDARsurveyintheMCKBsystemhasprovidednew insightsintothecontrolofwater.TheMCKBhasno
Noholtún;(f)intersitecausewaytothesiteofNoholnal.
perennialriversorlakes,asidefrommaturemarshesona smallscale(civales ),requiringtheancientMayatoconstruct largereservoirsystemsforwatercollectionandrainwater management(seeChaseandCesaretti 2018 forsimilar observationsinCaracolandTikal,aswellasNakum; ŹrałkaandKoszkul 2015).LiDARdatalocated195artificial waterreservoirs(termed aguadas bylocals,althoughnaturallyoccurring aguadas arerarelyfoundinthebasin)and aseriesofmonumentalreservoirsystemsdesignedfor largewatercaptureandcontrolinthesouthernhalfof theMCKB.OtherscholarshavecontributedtounderstandingwatermanagementstrategieswithintheMCKB (Brewer 2017;Breweretal. 2017;Parry 2007;Seefeld 2013, 2017)andsuchstudiescanbesubstantiallyrefinedwith LiDAR.StrategiesatElMiradorbetween300and100 B.C. includedtheconversionofsunkenceremonialplazasinto watercollectionreservoirs,suchasthoseintheGreat CentralAcropolisatElMiradorandtheconstructionof limecementpoolsforwatercapture(Argyle 2008, 2009, 2010;ArgyleandHansen 2010, 2015, 2016:135–140). Subsistencestrategiesincludedtheconstructionofavariety ofreservoirsandtheconstructionofdamsandcanalsbythe MiddleandLatePreclassicperiods(Hansenetal. 2002; Hernándezetal. 2013, 2019:462–463;Morales-Aguilaretal. 2015;Schreineretal. 2015),allofwhichexceededthecapacitiesofloweradministrativelevels.ThePreclassicreservoir systematthebaseoftheescarpmentintheWestGroupatEl Miradorheldanestimated336,653m3 ofwaterinadefined areaof224,435.41m2.Fourothermajorreservoirsatthesite (excluding aguadas )hadacombinedestimatedcapacity(via HydrologyToolset)ofanadditional374,490.53m3 (Table6). ThevolumeofreservoirswascalculatedwithArcGISPro Hydrotool.StorageCapacity,Fill,andPixelEditortools wereperformedusingLiDARDEMwithanarbitrarydepth of1m(basedonpriorexcavations)toobtainthevolumetricsofthereservoirs.
TheprimarydamfortheBajoLaJarrillawasconstructed acrossanarrowstretchof bajo betweentheciviccenterofEl MiradorandthesuburbofLaMuerta,measuringmorethan 400mlong,3mhigh,and50mwideinitscurrentstate, formingareservoircontainingatleast166,468m3 ofwater (Figure21).TheMirador–LaMuertacausewaywasdirectly
attachedtothedamalongitswesternedge.Excavations ofthedamrecovered184ceramicsherds,97percentdating totheMiddlePreclassic(ca.600–400 B C.)period(Hernández etal. 2019:462).Acalibratedcarbonsample(woodcharcoal) fromthelowerlevelsofthecausewayassociatedwiththe damprovidedapossible2σ dateof245030B.P.(δ13C= 23.3%;775–410cal B.C.)withamedianageof580cal B.C. (Beta345791).Similarmonumentalwatercollectionsystems werelocatedatthesouthernborderofthePalmacauseway atNakbe,wherearectangularwalledenclosureallowedcaptureandaccessofwater.
Finalobservations
Theformationofaunified “kingdom ” intheMCKBmay haveemergedassmallerentitieswereabsorbedintoa largerhegemony,analternativemodeltothatproposed byClarkfortheMiddlePreclassickingdomsofthe WesternMayaHighlands(Clark 2016).AccordingtoClark, the “criticalcompetitionfacingMiddlePreclassicrulers was … nurtured … withintheboundariesoftheirown domains” (Clark 2016:223,editingHansen).Inthecaseof ElMirador,extraordinaryeconomic,political,andsocial powerwaswieldedatleastbytheMiddlePreclassicperiod toformthenetworkingofcontemporaneoussites,welded togetherbyanextraordinaryweboflarge,dendriticcausewaysystems,aunifiedandhomogeneousreligiousand politicalideology,asportrayedfirstinE-Groupcompounds datingtotheMiddlePreclassicperiod,andmodifiedby about350–300 B.C.toincludethelargerepertoireoftriadic architecturalcomplexesthroughouttheMCKB.Weconcur withChaseetal.(2009:181)thatMesoamericanpolities seemtohavebeendefinedbyrelationshipswiththeruler, butintheMCKBtheregionseemstohaveincludedaterritorialframework,sincenoneofthelargecausewaysystems extendbeyondthenaturalbordersoftheBasin.Theexpansionandcontroloflaborforsuchmassive,contemporaneousmonumentalarchitecturalgroupssuggestsaunified powerthatcoulddrawonlaborandresourcesfrom throughouttheentiretyoftheMCKB.Furthermore,the monumentalityevidentinthearchitectureoftheMCKBis alsofoundincontemporaryculturesorantecedentsocieties intheWesternMayaLowlandsorGulfCoastareas(Inomata etal. 2021;seealsoRosenswig 2021b).
Contiguous,regionalLiDARstudiesofthissouthernhalf oftheMCKBareahavepresentlyrevealed964archaeologicalsites.Manyofthesesettlementsdemonstrateapolitical/ social/geographicalrelationshipwithothernearbysettlements,whichhasresultedintheconsolidationintoat least417ancientcities,towns,andvillageswithidentifiable siteboundaries.Asettlementandadministrativehierarchy ofatleastsixtiersisproposedforsites,basedonsurface areaofthesites,numbersanddensitiesofmonumental architecture,andvolumetriccalculationsofarchitecture extractedfromgeometriccalculationsandLiDARdata.The approximatevolumetricassessmentsofconstructionfill withintheciviccenterofa1km2 areawithcontemporary monumentalarchitectureallowssimilarmethodologyto beappliedinotherareasoftheMayaLowlands,asa
meansofdeterminingthesociopoliticalandeconomic prowessofsites.Large-scalemonumentalarchitecture,consistentarchitecturalformats,specificsiteboundaries,water managementandcollectionfacilities,andmorethan177km ofelevatedPreclassiccausewayssuggestasocialandeconomiccohesionthatexceedthoseoflesserpolitiesduring theseperiodsandportraythestrategiesofgovernancein incipientkingdom-/state-likeformationintheMiddleand LatePreclassicperiodsoftheMCKB.
ThecomplexsocietiesthatemergedintheMCKBorganizedinfrastructuretopromoteandreflectsocio-economic organizationandpoliticalpowerduringthePreclassic periodofMayahistory.Thepeculiarityofdensedemographicregionsinthewetland bajos bolstersthehypothesis thatanincipientstate-levelkingdomhadbeenformedby theseperiodsinanareathattodaywouldhavebeenconsideredinhospitablefordemographicandarchitecturalexpansion.Thiswasasequentiallydefinedprocessthatevolvedto atieredhierarchyofsiteswithinaspecificterritorialarea, possiblyasanautochthonousprocess,butthatmayhave beeninspiredbycompetitiveideologies,peerpolityinteractions,orotherinfluencesbyotherHighlandorLowland societies.Theadoptionandadaptationof “importantingredientstocontemporaneousMesoamericansocialandpoliticalidentities ” providedtheculturalfoundationsforlater MayaandMesoamericanstates(Hansen 2016b:330).The contemporaryandconsistentarchitectureconnectedby thedendriticnetworkofcausewayswithinageographically
defined,congruent,natural,socio-economic,andpolitical regionissuggestiveofacentralizedpolitical,economic, and/orideologicalauthority,whichwebelievetohave emergedatElMiradorbytheMiddlePreclassicperiodand expandedbythebeginningoftheLatePreclassicperiod. Laterpatternsofdendriticnetworksofcausewayselsewhere inMesoamerica,suchasChichenItza,Caracol,andthe BasinofMexico,suggestthatthepoliticalandeconomicintegrationmayhavehadantecedentssuchasthosefoundinthe MCKB.Majornewcitieshavebeenfoundbythisresearch, suchasthegreatsiteofBalamnal,witharchaeologicalexcavationsplacedinthesite(alsoknownas “ElCedro”)bythe MiradorBasinProjectin2008and2009(Mejíaetal. 2010), whichwaspartoftheunifiedsettlementsandcausewaysin thebasin.Newsiteboundariesandarchitecturalgroupintegrations(asnotedbyintrasitecauseways)wereidentified, amplified,ormodifiedduetoLiDARanalysesaswell.
LiDARanalyseshavedemonstratedthepresenceofdense concentrationsofnewandpreviouslyunknowncontemporaneoussites,massiveplatformandpyramidconstructions, includingtriadicgroups,numerousE-Groupcomplexes, causewaynetworks,ballcourts,andreservoirsthatrequired vastamountsoflaborandresources,amassedbyapresumablycentralizedorganizationandadministration.Theskeletonoftheancientpoliticalandeconomicstructureasa kingdom-stateintheMiddleandLatePreclassicperiods hasatantalizingpresenceintheMirador-CalakmulKarst Basin.
Acknowledgments. AppreciationisextendedtotheMinisteriode CulturayDeportesofGuatemala(MICUDE,ContractDAJ270-2018), theDirecciónGeneraldelPatrimonioCulturalyNatural,andthe InstitutodeAntropologíaeHistoriadeGuatemala(IDAEH)forthe authorizationsandpermitstocarryoutthisresearch.Fieldworkin thesouthernMirador-CalakmulKarstBasinwasaccomplishedaspart oftheongoingMiradorBasinProject,directedbyRichardD.Hansen undertheauspicesoftheDepartmentofAnthropologyofthe UniversityofUtahandtheDepartmentofAnthropologyatIdaho StateUniversity,withfinancialassistancefrommanyotherprivate andpublicdonors.WearethankfultotheDirecciónGeneralde AeronáuticaCivilofGuatemala(ContractsDGAC/FA1-2009,016-2014) forthenecessaryflightpermitsandauthorizations.ALOSGlobal DigitalSurfaceModel(AW3D)digitalelevationdata,usedforinterpretationoftheterrainandlarge-scalegeologicalfeatures,wereprovided bytheJapanAerospaceExplorationAgency.Sentinel-2multi-spectral data,includingnear-infraredbands,usedforinterpretationofhydrologicalfeatures,wereprovidedbytheEuropeanSpaceAgencyand theNationalCentreforSpaceStudies(CNES).LiDARdatawereprovided byFARES,theMiradorConservationFund,theNationalGeographic Society,andEagleMapping.WeextendourappreciationtoJody Hansen,Dr.RobertRosenswigandfiveanonymousreviewersfortheir commentsandsuggestionsforimprovingthisarticle.Weextendour appreciationtothethousandsofworkersfromthecommunitieswho haveparticipatedinthecollectionofmuchofthesedataandwho havefosteredakeeninterestintheconservationoftheiruniqueculturalheritage.Weappreciateandgivethankstotheentirestaffand personneloftheMiradorBasinProject,withoutwhomnoneofthis wouldhavebeenpossible.
SupplementaryMaterial. Toviewsupplementarymaterialforthis article,pleasevisit https://doi.org/10.1017/S0956536122000244
CompetingInterests. Allauthorshavecontributedtothisarticle, andtherearenocompetingorconflictsofinterestamongtheauthors.
FundingStatement. Fundingfortheresearchnotedinthisarticle wasprovidedbytheFARESFoundation,FARES-Guatemala,Pettit Foundation,MiradorConservationFund,GlobalConservation, MammelFoundation,GlobalHeritageFund,RosalindeandArthur GilbertFoundation,NAISA,WolfCreekFoundation,MorganFamily Foundation,MoonFamilyFoundation,JayI.KislakFoundation,Peace, LoveandHappinessFoundation,SelzFoundation,APANAC-Guatemala, FundaselvaGuatemala,NationalGeographicSociety(Grant#SP08-15 andSP-Garcia18),U.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorInternational AffairsProgram,VictoriaEarl-MionTrust,HarryandRobertoSalter Foundation,RobertBerry,JohnPaulDeJoria,Dr.NancyFurlotti,Adam andChontalGreen,JohnandPatHansen,LindaPierce,JeffMorgan, JoannaMiller,DarinMoon,PitchandCathyJohnson,SpencerKirk, FrancoisandNiniBergerandfamily,FrancoisDuBoisandfamily,Jose MariaKong,BarbyPickett,andPeterSmith.
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