Framing the American Indian Experience using Indigenous Methodologies

Pepion - 1 Millicent Pepion Dr. Patrisia Gonzales November 15, 2020

Framing the American Indian Experience using Indigenous Methodologies

INTRODUCTION Halloween is a fun time for Natives. It’s a chance for us to see how our favorite celebrities, and random idiots, think of us and portray our culture. In 2008, power Hollywood couple Chrissy Tiegen and John Legend dressed up as their version of a cowboy and Indian.

Chrissy’s Indian costume was a revealing leather-fringed dress, a choker necklace with fake bone and blue beads, and a headband securing a red and yellow feather tucked behind her two braids.

In 2014, popstar Ellie Goulding decided to dress up as a “Chief” which meant she wore a fake headdress, a man’s beaded chest plate, an oversized cloth medicine bag, and skimpy leather-fringed dress that barely covered her legs. She decided to wear the headdress despite the backlash her friend, Pharrell Williams, another pop-icon, received for wearing a similarly distasteful headdress on the cover of Elle magazine in June of that year (Nguyen, 2014). And last but not last, Hillary Duff’s now ex-husband, Jason Walsh, dressed up as an Indian man. Jason’s Indian honestly looks like your typical Kansas City Chiefs fan, but it was the most controversial because his costume choice came during the heart of the #NODAPL protests of 2016. On the opposite side of the country that year, in Mandan, North Dakota, a White couple dressed up as Water Protectors. The woman wore an orange and blue feathered headband, and carried a sign that read “#Waterislife,” and the man wore a shirt with the picture of a breast plate, a red

Pepion - 2 handkerchief over his face, a racoon hat, and while holding a bottle of wine in one hand, held a “#NODAPL,” sign in the other. This paper will attempt to uncover how the American Indian experience has been framed in the United States, specifically what methods have been incorporated in the telling of our stories, and why Native scholars ought to use Indigenous methods instead, to tell a more genuine and complete story.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM As we enter the third decade of the 21st century, while billions of people across the world enjoy new technologies and freedoms, Native peoples are still fighting for basic human rights.

Noone stated the problem better than Suzan Harjo when she took part in Outside the Lines, an ESPN talk show that allows listeners to submit questions they want answers to. Regarding the changing of the Washington Redskins’ team name, Harry asked Dr. Harjo, “Aren’t there bigger issues out there in the world today than name-calling?” To which Dr. Harjo answered, “because it is contextual, atmospheric -- it affects federal Indian law because, for one thing, policymakers don't make good policy for cartoons or for people who are used for others' sport” (ESPN, 1999).

She’s right too. Much of this paper will focus on what Professor Robin A. Williams calls “Savage anxieties,” the tendency of Ameicans to incorporate an inferior and racist image of Native peoples for monetary gains and in the process deny them basic human rights (2012). For example, how many congressional leaders in the United States took Chairman Dave Archambault (Standing Rock Sioux Tribe) seriously when he testified to the United Nations Human Rights Council, “[the] Dakota Access Pipeline wants to build an oil pipeline under the river that is the source of our nation’s drinking water” (Medina 2016). On January 24, 2017, the anniversary of the first week President Trump took office, in a memorandum for the Secretary of

Pepion - 3 the Army, President Trump ordered the Secretary of the Army to “to instruct the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Civil Works and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), including the Commanding General and Chief of Engineers, to take all actions necessary and appropriate to: review and approve in an expedited manner, to the extent permitted by law and as warranted . . . requests for approvals to construct and operate the DAPL, including easements or rights-of-way to cross Federal areas.” Dolefully, the series of events that took place during the #NODAPL protests, play out in other stories told by Native peoples.

LITERATURE REVIEW Perhaps we are being too harsh to Chrissy, Ellie, Jason, and those two idiots in Mandan.

Perhaps we ought to consider how the American Indian experience has been framed in the United States. So what is framing? To put it simply, frames, created through the process of framing, are “psychological concepts” (Bateson, 1972). Kirk Hallahan writes, “Framing is a critical element in constructing social reality because it helps shape the perceptions and provides context for processing information” (2007). In a previous article he stated, “a frame limits or defines the message’s meaning by shaping the inferences that individuals make about the message” (Hallahan, 1999). For Native peoples, an example of how we are being framed is through the issue of Native mascots, “These mascots reinforce the idea that Native Americans are anachronistically frozen in time, and promote both positive and negative stereotypes about them” (LaBouff, 2017). One of the biggest champions of framing political issues for all peoples is the media, “The mass media serve as a system for communicating messages and symbols to the general populace. It is their function to amuse, entertain, and inform, and to inculcate individuals with the values, beliefs, and codes of behavior that will integrate them into the

Pepion - 4 institutional structures of the larger society. In a world of concentrated wealth and major conflicts of class interest, to fulfil this role requires systematic propaganda” (Herman & Chomsky, 1988).

Native peoples are not framed in ways similar to other minorities in this country, such as African Americans who are framed to exploit free labor through slavery, “Rather colonists’ primary concern with respect to Indians was to obtain tribal resources and use tribes as a flattering foil for the American society and culture.” (Berger, 2009) In an interview with Bill Moyers, Professor Williams points out, “That at a very early point in American Indian law, Chief Justice John Marshall is asked to decide the status of Indian tribes and what he does is, I like to tell my students, he goes to that S-card. He calls them savages who lack the same rights as White people who came over here. The Europeans colonized their land under this” (2014). Native scholars have to understand that from the time of this country’s earliest settlers and explorers, Native peoples and communities have been framed for exploitation.

Arguably the first to frame Native peoples for the benefit of European settlers was Christopher Columbus. In 1495, when he returned to Spain with Native slaves the archdeacon reported them as being “naked as the day they were born . . . no more embarrassment than animals” (Zinn, 2015). Our Founding Fathers did not contest this image of Natives as animals either, nor were they afraid to “pull that S-card”. The Declaration of Independence warns about, “the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare, is undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions” (1776). In a letter to Senator Duane, President George Washington advised about “the propriety of purchasing [Native] Lands in preference to attempting to drive them by force of arms out of their Country; which as we have already experienced is like driving the Wild Beasts of the Forest which will return us soon as the pursuit is at an end and fall perhaps on those that are left there; when the gradual extension of our Settlements will as

Pepion - 5 certainly cause the Savage as the Wolf to retire; both being beasts of prey tho’ they differ in shape” (1783). President John Adams described a meal he had with members of the Sachem and Coknowaga tribes as “a Savage feast, carnivorous Animals devouring their Prey'' (1776). As Professor Williams stated, Justice Marshall when authorizing the use of the Doctrine of Discovery to deny Native peoples full ownership of their lands wrote, “the tribes of Indians inhabiting this country were fierce savages, whose occupation was war, and whose subsistence was drawn chiefly from the forest. To leave them in possession of their country, was to leave the country a wilderness” (Johnson v. M’Intosh, 1823) Finally, in a plea for Indian Removal, President Andrew Jackson asked Congress, “What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic . . .” (1830). These images generated of Native peoples during this time, said by those who were first to make America great, can be bought at the Spirit Halloween store for $30. However, this depiction of savagery is only one frame that’s been employed to stereotype Native peoples.

Another frame generated for Native peoples during this time is that of the “Noble Savage.” The term was first recorded in The Conquest of Granada, “I am as free as nature first made man, Ere the base laws of servitude began, When wild in the woods the noble savage ran” (Scott, 1808). It’s a play about a war between the Spanish and Moors, but for some reason resonated as an image for Natives peoples in the United States. Robert F. Berkhofer describes the Noble Savage as, “Along with handsomeness of physique and physiognomy went great stamina and endurance. Modest in attitude if not always in dress, the noble Indian exhibited great calm and dignity in bearing, conversation, and even under torture” (1978). Our Founding Fathers were guilty of promoting Noble savagery as well. Benjamin Franklin said, “Savages we call them, because their manners differ from ours, which we think the perfection of civility; they think the

Pepion - 6 same of theirs” (1784). Thomas Jefferson, who is credited for adding the “merciless Indian savages” part to the Declaration of Independence,

boggles most historians for writing,

“Comparing them by their faculties of memory, reason, and imagination, it appears to me that in memory they are equal to the whites; in reason much inferior” (1787). A century later, when then Captain Richard H. Pratt was protesting “Kill the Indian, save the man” for the creation of Indian boarding schools, he did so because he felt “It is a great mistake to think that the Indian is born an inevitable savage. He is born a blank [slate], like all the rest of us . . . Transfer the savage-born infant to the surroundings of civilization, and he will grow to possess a civilized language and habit” (1892). In 1889, Thomas J. Morgan, an ordained Baptist minister, became Indian Commissioner and followed Pratt by stating, “It is no longer doubtful that, under a wise system of education, carefully administered, the condition of the whole people can be radically improved in a single generation” (Trennert, 1988). Authors also contributed to the image of the Noble Savage. In February 1826, James Fenimore Cooper published, “The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757,” Cooper romantized the genocide that took place in Kan-Tuck-Kee. More recently, Americans can find the Noble Savage in stories such as Dee Brown’s, “Bury My Heart At Wounded Knee” (1970), Hollywood’s version of the Indian boarding school experience. Or Michael Blake’s “Dances with Wolves'' (1988), a story about a U.S. soldier stationed in the plains and the first Lakota word he learns is “Tatanka.” All of these books were made into blockbuster movies and the images of the Noble Savages displayed in their films, seared in the minds of those who watched them. Native scholars are left with the task of shedding these images in telling their stories of the American Indian experience.

Pepion - 7 DECOLONIZATION As an Indigenous scholar seeking to create a more genuine and complete story about the American Indian experience one must be able to recognize the symptoms of colonization. In Reflections on (de)colonization in Language Documentation, author, Wesley Y. Leonard, tells about some colonial approaches he’s identified in language documentation such as the, “impos[ing] colonial norms of analyzing language in ways that misalign with the needs and values of Indigenous communities.” Other observations include: recognizing that power is given to the system you allow to define your community; power is given in words such as “language” by excluding other definitions that don’t fit the colonial paradigm; power is given to the linguist who enters a community, makes up a problem, and then solves that problem to their benefit; and power is given to the stakeholders who charge for the knowledge that was discovered in the communities of Native peoples (Leonard, 2019). When Canada first unveiled plans for reconciliation, Dr. Taiaiake Alfred asked First Nations peoples to consider, “When you are told that you are Indigenous, that this is your land, that you have a spiritual connection to this place and that your honour, health and existence depend on your relationships with that river, those animals, those plants, when you are told that this is the right and good way to live and you are held to account for that culturally and spiritually, and you’re not able or allowed to live out any of that… What happens to a person, a spirit, a mind? What emerges is not peace, power and righteousness but a mass psychopathology characterized by discordant identities, alienated personalities, and worst of all a culture of lateral violence fueled by unresolvable self-hatred” (2017). So where and how do we start the decolonization process? In 1978, a young man, Wickham Hunter (Shinnecock), was awarded an internship at New York’s Museum of Natural History and noticed, “Photography was violent . . . the camera pointed at us, and shot” (Hughes

Pepion - 8 & Smith, 2018). His solution was for Natives to photograph themselves. As it turns out, there are other effective Indigenous methodologies Native scholars can utilize.

INDIGENOUS METHODOLOGIES In September of this year, my uncle Stanley Perry took me fishing at Ganado Lake. I set out my line then started reading. My uncle couldn’t stand the silence and asked me for the title of my book. When I told him I was reading Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s Decolonization Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, he said, “There’s only one Indigenous MethodologyStorytelling” (Perry, 2020). Smith names at least 25, but we’ll get back to my uncle later.

Storytelling is a pan-Indian practice and it is a key principle in the studies of Indigenous methodologies. An example is “the story about the man who dies and leaves his three sons seventeen horses. He says in his will that they should be divided, half to the first son, a third to the second, and a ninth to the third. Well, this was a perplexity to the boys. They had no idea how they were going to divide seventeen by half or a third or a ninth, and so they went to the tribal elder, and the elder said, ‘It is perplexing, but I’ll tell you what. I’ll give you one of my horses, and then you’ll have eighteen.’ ‘That’s excellent,’ they said. ‘Half of eighteen is nine, a third of eighteen is six, and a ninth of eighteen is two, so let’s see, that’s nine and six is fifteen and two is seventeen. We’ll have one extra horse and we’ll give it back to you.’”. This story was told before a speech about how whole environments (plants, animals, water systems) suffered the effects of colonization, not just the Native people, and how conquest and plunder continue to be the policy for American economies (Mohawk, 1997). In 2018, Reclaiming Truth identified four themes that make a strong narrative: (1) Connecting values of home, land, and “respect for culture and tradition; (2) Honoring Native history by including how historical events are relevant; (3)

Pepion - 9 Remaining visible to public to show we are advancing in the future with everyone else, only our “injustices continue”; and (4) Putting out a call to action, a “request for people to do something” (2018). Indeed, storytelling is a powerful tool Native scholars can use when articulating the American Indian experience, and there’s really not much to it. You just have to go sit with your elders and ask them to tell you stories.

Figure 1.1. The medicine wheel is a circle divided into four equal parts.

The medicine wheel is a framework by which Native peoples can tell a story or solve a problem.. For example, the North Dakota Prevention Resource & Media Center developed a medicine wheel activity to address substance abuse concerns for Native youth. The first quadrant of their medicine wheel represents the east, spring, and birth elements. The second quadrant represents the south, summer, and youth elements. The third quadrant represents the west, autumn, and adulthood elements. Finally, the fourth quadrant represents the north, winter, and elder elements. Billy Rogers, from the Native Wellness and Healing Institute created a physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual medicine wheel to “Walk in Balance” (2004). At the Tohono O’odham Community College (TOCC) their Himdag Policy, which includes a seasonal calendar to interconnect their ceremonial cycle to their educational philosophies and curriculum schedule, is a circle divided into 12 months (TOCC, 2020). The organizing of a medicine wheel can look

Pepion - 10 different for every person no matter what tribe, but that is its nature. One time when I was at Haskell’s Medicine Wheel, Patrick Austin Freeland told a group of us, “We must never forget the other three directions: up, down, and within” (2010). In the early 1990’s, Haskell’s Medicine Wheel was created by Stan Herd, Dr. Daniel Wildcat, and Leslie Evans, to commemorate the 500th-year anniversary of Columbus’ infamous journey, “[The Medicine Wheel] was meant to be a healing gesture” (Casagrand, 2020). As it turns out, the creation of the Medicine Wheel helped bring together students and faculty around the issue of a freeway proposed to be built through the Wakarusa Wetlands, a wetlands area located behind Haskell’s campus. The group ended up founding the Wetlands Preservation Organization (WPO) whose mission was to raise awareness about the destruction of the Wakarusa Wetlands, and all sacred places, “[Some people] were claiming that hey, you built that just so you could make a sacred site and try to stop the trafficway and we said, ‘Well, you guys are ignorant in the first place because we don’t make sites sacred. They are sacred in and of their own being . . . [But] I don’t know if that medicine wheel hadn’t been there, that whole thing might not have taken so strongly that flavor” (Casagrand, 2020). Medicine wheels are not concrete, they are malleable and can change to whatever you want. They can be the size of a practice softball field like the one at Haskell, or a modest one drawn on a piece of paper as the example shows. They are simply a tool Native scholars can use to tell the American Indian experience.

Finally, there are numerous other methodologies Native scholars can employ when sharing the American Indian experience, but this paper is limited by time constraints and other life factors so I’ll just name a few from Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s, “Twenty-Five Indigenous Projects.” The first project Smith lists is “Claiming” and she identifies this through the lens of court settings and history lessons. The “tribunals, courts and governments” require research

Pepion - 11 intensive claims processes to “support claims to territories and resources or about past injustices” and history claims give a more genuine, collective story of Indigenous peoples’ account. Further down the list is “Indigenizing” which is a project comprising two parts. The first part is a disconnect between the “settler society and its metropolitan homeland” through the centering of indigenous “landscapes, images, languages, themes, metaphors, and stories in the indigenous world.” The second part is internalizing the concept said by Ward Churchill, “that I am one who not only take the rights of indigenous peoples as the highest priority of my political life, but who draws upon the traditions - the bodies of knowledge and corresponding codes of values - evolved over many thousands of years by native peoples the world over.” Another project is “Intervening” because “it is not ethical to walk away, or simply to carry out projects which describe what is already known.” Those who undertake this project commit to intervening in state policies, communities, departments, programs, and institutions to rework the interactions we have with others and “not changing the indigenous peoples to fit the structures.” The final project I’ll relate is “Connecting” which “to be connected is to be whole.” Creation stories “link people through genealogy to the land, to stars and other places in the universe, to birds and fish, animals, insects, and plants.” Smith implores “researchers, policy makers, educators, and social service providers . . . [to] connect in humanizing ways with indigenous communities.” These projects are important because they can help Native scholars tell stories about issues that we are experiencing currently.

APPLICATION Hitherto, this paper gave a review about frames, and how frames have been used to negatively impact indigenous communities, followed by an overview of decolonial practices and

Pepion - 12 Indigenous methodologies for Native scholars to utilize. This last part of the paper will focus on how to apply decolonial practices and Indigenous methodologies to current Native issues being framed in the United States. One young reporter who surveyed mainstream, independent, and Indigenous media outlets concluded the #NoDAPL protests impacted both the United States and Canada, “the DAPL protests were seen as an inspiration to pipeline activists, as well as a message to the Canadian government about the possibilities of a protest against similar pipeline projects in Canada (Burt, 2018). Yet, one of the first things on President Trump’s agenda when he took office was to crush the #NODAPL movement and move forward with the pipeline project “in an expedited manner” (The White House Office of the Press Secretary, 2017). How might embracing a storytelling narrative be incorporated here? Remember when I said we will get back to my uncle? So there we were driving home from our fishing trip. On the way back to the hogan he explained to me that a story tells the audience about an event that happened a long time ago, that is replaying itself again. If you are a keen listener, then the storyteller will be able to show you where you are in the story and how to avoid what is certain to happen next (Perry, 2020). The story my uncle told at the #NoDAPL protest involves a fight with Mother Earth and Father Sky. The children were taking advantage of Mother Earth so Father Sky decided to punish them. He created a series of catastrophic weather events before Mother Earth banished him from this galaxy. The world was dark and dying when he left, and it was only until the people started praying and giving offerings again that Mother Earth called him back. When he saw the people giving back to Mother Earth he cried rain and the wetlands were forged, but it was too late for some parts of the world. That is the story of how the deserts were formed. Where is the United States in that story? How many fires happened this year? How many hurricanes happened over the summer? Altogether, storytelling only serves those who are willing and/or able to listen.

Pepion - 13 Nevertheless, storytelling is an important skill Native scholars must learn how to use to articulate a complete American Indian experience.

Another story currently playing out in the American Indian experience, is the story about the migration of the Condor people, our relatives from Central and South America. Angelique EagleWoman reminds her readers that “historically, the area now claimed as the southern political land border of the United States has been a place of Indigenous territories, communities, gatherings, markets, and cross roads for thousands of years” (2009). Today, as reported by Blake Gentry in Deprivation Not Deterrence: A Report on Human Rights Violations of Immigrants held in the Department of Homeland Security’s Short Term Detention Facilities in Southern Arizona, hundreds of Indigenous migrants and families are being held in makeshift detention camps besieged in human rights violations (2014). Gentry found human rights violations regarding their length of stay; the quality of food, nutrition, sleep, and water they are given; the treatment of health issues such as dehydration, care for pregnant women, and sustaining an environment conducive to illness; “physical, verbal, and psychological abuse”; and finally, denying their right to due process (Gentry, 2014). The medicine wheel might offer some guidance for Native scholars working to reframe this issue. To start, let’s examine a quote by the late Jose Matus, founder of the Indigenous Alliance Without Borders organization in Tucson. Earlier this year his group published a Handbook on Indigenous Peoples’ Border Crossing Rights Between the United States and Mexico (2020), that includes knowledge about different policies and agreements the United States has entered to and must abide by, as well as different avenues for Indigenous migrants to take when applying for citizenship. Jose once said, “Resistance, Rebellion, and Regeneration. Fight all borders. Borders are not the way of our people. We are one family and will never be divided.” Embracing a medicine wheel framework for Resistance,

Pepion - 14 Rebellion, and Regeneration, might offer the group insight on where they are in their fight to protect Indigenous migrants, and how to acquiesce into the different phases they experience.

CONCLUSION This year the National Conference of State Legislatures acknowledges there are 574 federally recognized tribes in the United States eligible for funding and services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (NCSL, 2020). Robert F. Berkhofer holds dear that before Europeans came to the Americas, Native peoples did not group themselves as being a single race or view themselves collectively as one group of people, “the Indian was a White invention and still remains largely a White image, if not stereotype” (1978). President Jefferson noted, “We are told that the Powhatans, Mannahoacs, and Monacans, spoke languages so radically different that interpreters were necessary when they transacted business” (1787). Finally, EagleWoman reminds us, “It was the old Indian trails that Spanish and American explorers used when they explored the Southwest and the rest of the continent . . . . [I]t should be remembered that they had Indian guides and followed routes that already were older than collective human memory” (2009). When framing the American Indian experience, please Native scholars remember we were human beings long before there was even an America, and all this time, while the images of savagery are forced upon us, the Indigenous methodologies our ancestors founded live on. We just have to awaken them inside of us. Unlike Chrissy Tiegan and Ellie Gouldie, we don’t have to pay money to be something we aren’t. The story of our American Indian experience begins with remembering who we are and utilizing what our ancestors gave us.

Pepion - 15 REFERENCES 1. Alianza Indígena Sin Fronteras/Indigenous Alliance Without Borders and Christian Leza, Handbook on Indigenous Peoples’ Border Crossing Rights Between the United States and Mexico (IndigenousAlliance.org, 2020).

2. Andrew Jackson, “On Indian Removal,” Records of the United States Senate, 1789-1990 (December 6, 1830).

3. Angelique EagleWoman, “The Eagle and the Condor of the Western Hemisphere: Application of International Indigenous Principles to Halt the United States Border Wall,” Idaho Law Review, Vol. 45, No. 3 (2009): 555-574.

4. Benjamin Franklin, Remarks Concerning the Savages of America (1784) 5. Bethany Berger, “Red: Racism and the American Indian,” Faculty Articles and Papers (2009).

6. Bill Moyers, “American Indians Confront ‘Savage Anxieties,’” Moyers & Company (December 26, 2014).

7. Billy Rogers, “Walk in Balance,” Native Wellness and Healing Institute, 2004.

8. B. Quinn Burt, Indigenous-Led Environmentalism: News Framing of Pipeline Protest in the Harper and Trudeau Eras, Memorial University of Newfoundland (2018) 9. Blake Gentry, Deprivation Not Deterrence: A Report on Human Rights Violations of Immigrants held in the Department of Homeland Security’s Short Term Detention Facilities in Southern Arizona (Guatemala Acupuncture and Medical Aid Project, 2014).

10. Daniel A. Medina, “Standing Rock Sioux Takes Pipeline Fight to UN Human Rights Council in Geneva,” NBC News (2016).

Pepion - 16 11. Dean Van Nguyen, “Ellie Goulding Responds to Accusations of Racism after Wearing a Native American Headdress,” NME (2014).

12. Declaration of Independence, U.S. Congress (July 4, 1776).

13. Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (Rinehart & Winston, 1970).

14. Donald J. Trump, “Subject: Construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline,” The White House Office of the Press Secretary (January 24, 2017), Memorandum for the Secretary of the Army.

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Pepion - 17 24. John Adams, (January 24, 1776), Diary entry.

25. John Mohawk, How the Conquest of Indigenous Peoples Parallels the Conquest of Nature (Center for New Economics, 1997).

26. Johnson v. M’Intosh, 21 U.S. 543 (1823).

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32. Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (London, U.K.; New York, U.S.A.: University of Otago Press, 1999).

33. Michael Blake et al., Dances with Wolves (MGM Home Entertainment, 2003).

34. North Dakota Prevention Resource & Media Center, “The Medicine Wheel,” (2020).

35. Patrick Austin Freeland, Wetlands Tour, Haskell Indian Nations University (2010).

36. Pope Alexander VI, Inter Cera “Doctrine of Discovery”, Roman Catholic Church (May 4, 1493), Papal Bull.

Pepion - 18 37. Richard H. Pratt, “The Advantages of Mingling Indians with Whites,” Official Report of the Nineteenth Annual Conference of Charities and Correction (1892).

38. Reclaiming Native Truth: A Project to Dispel America’s Myths and Misconceptions, Changing the Narrative about Native Americans: A Guide for Allies (First Nations Development Institute and Echohawk Consulting, 2018).

39. Robert A. Trennert, The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (The University of Oklahoma Press, 1988).

40. Robert A. Williams, Savage Anxieties (Kirkus Reviews, 2012).

41. Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present, 1st ed. (Knopf, 1978).

42. Stanley Perry, Mother Earth, Father Sky, Trail of Broken Promises, and Global Warming, Youtube (May 2, 2018).

43. Stanley Perry, Personal Interview (September 30, 2020).

44. Taiaiake Alfred, “It’s All About the Land,” Whose Land Is It Anyway?: A Manual for Decolonization, Federation of Post-Secondary Educators of BC, Peter McFarlane & Nicole Schabus (2017).

45. Tohono O’oham Community College, “Himdag Policy,” TOCC.EDU (2020).

46. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (1787).

47. Tina Casagrand, “Ceremony is Protest, Protest is Ceremony,” New Territory Magazine (June 18, 2020).

48. Vincent Shilling, “NoDAPL Water Protector Halloween Costumes Hit Social Media,” Indian Country Today (2016).

Pepion - 19 49. Walter Scott, The Works of John Dryden, Now First Collected in Eighteen Volumes (1808).

50. Wesley Y. Leonard, “Reflections on (de)colonialism in Language Documentation,” Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication No. 15 (2019): 55-65.