Entry 10 discourse and context in language teaching

Discourse​ ​and​ ​context​ ​in language​ ​teaching Students: ● Santillán​ ​Paula. ● Amaya​ ​Florencia. ● Fiordilino​ ​Milena.

Subject:​ ​Written​ ​Expression​ ​IV Teacher:​ ​Saubidet​ ​Stella.

College:​ ​I.S.F.D.​ ​N°41.

INTRODUCTION ​ ​ ​ ​People​ ​during​ ​their​ ​lives​ ​make​ ​use​ ​of​ ​the​ ​four​ ​macro​ ​skills​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​communicate and​ ​express​ ​themselves​ ​and​ ​understand​ ​the​ ​different​ ​interactants​ ​in​ ​a communicative​ ​situation.​ ​The​ ​first​ ​skill​ ​is​ ​listening​ ​which​ ​is​ ​the​ ​most​ ​frequent​ ​in everyday​ ​life.​ ​Listening​ ​has​ ​both​ ​top-down​ ​and​ ​bottom-up​ ​aspects.​ ​Top-down listening​ ​processes​ ​involve​ ​activation​ ​of​ ​schematic​ ​knowledge​ ​and​ ​contextual knowledge;​ ​while​ ​the​ ​bottom-up​ ​processes​ ​involves​ ​prior​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​language system.​ ​Secondly,​ ​reading​ ​allows​ ​individuals​ ​to​ ​gain​ ​information​ ​or​ ​expand​ ​their knowledge​ ​but​ ​there​ ​are​ ​particular​ ​difficulties​ ​that​ ​the​ ​nonnative​ ​speaker​ ​encounters when​ ​reading​ ​in​ ​the​ ​new​ ​language.​ ​A​ ​third​ ​skill​ ​to​ ​be​ ​acquired​ ​and​ ​developed​ ​is writing​.​ ​Personal​ ​writing​ ​strategies,​ ​preferences​ ​and​ ​techniques​ ​characterize​ ​each individual​ ​writer.​ ​Many​ ​writers​ ​report​ ​that​ ​they​ ​might​ ​use​ ​different​ ​strategies​ ​for different​ ​types​ ​of​ ​writing.​ ​Producing​ ​a​ ​successful​ ​written​ ​text​ ​is​ ​a​ ​complex​ ​task​ ​that requires​ ​simultaneous​ ​control​ ​over​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​language​ ​systems​ ​and​ ​must​ ​also​ ​be shaped​ ​for​ ​a​ ​particular​ ​audience​ ​and​ ​a​ ​particular​ ​purpose.​ ​Finally,​ ​speaking​ ​a​ ​new language​ ​can​ ​be​ ​considered​ ​the​ ​most​ ​difficult​ ​skill​ ​to​ ​acquire​ ​since​ ​it​ ​requires command​ ​of​ ​both​ ​listening​ ​comprehension​ ​and​ ​speech​ ​production.​ ​The​ ​chapter​ ​of speaking​ ​will​ ​deal​ ​with​ ​the​ ​linguistic,​ ​the​ ​sociocultural,​ ​the​ ​contextual​ ​and​ ​the personal​ ​features​ ​of​ ​speaking​ ​in​ ​another​ ​language.​ ​The​ ​four​ ​macro​ ​skills​ ​are​ ​equally difficult​ ​to​ ​acquire​ ​and​ ​use​ ​them​ ​in​ ​society​ ​and​ ​much​ ​more​ ​if​ ​you​ ​are​ ​a​ ​nonnative person.

Listening​ ​(chapter​ ​6) Processes: Top-down:​ ​A​ ​top-down​ ​way​ ​of​ ​understanding​ ​something​ ​starts​ ​with​ ​a​ ​general​ ​idea and​ ​adds​ ​details​ ​later.

Bottom-up:​ ​A​ ​bottom-up​ ​way​ ​of​ ​understanding​ ​is​ ​one​ ​in​ ​which​ ​you​ ​think​ ​about​ ​details before​ ​thinking​ ​about​ ​general​ ​ideas.

TOP-DOWN​ ​PROCESS Involves​ ​schematic​ ​knowledge: CONTENT:​​ ​Background​ ​information​ ​of​ ​the​ ​topic.

FORMAL:​ ​Knowledge​ ​about​ ​how​ ​discourse​ ​is​ ​organized.

Top-down​ ​process​ ​involves​ ​contextual​ ​knowledge​ ​that​ ​is​ ​understanding​ ​of​ ​the specific​ ​listening​ ​situation.​ ​This​ ​is​ ​filtered​ ​through​ ​pragmatic​ ​knowledge.

BOTTOM-UP​ ​PROCESS Bottom-up​ ​process​ ​involves​ ​knowledge​ ​about​ ​the​ ​language​ ​system​ ​(phonological knowledge)​ ​it​ ​allows​ ​the​ ​listener​ ​to​ ​segment​ ​the​ ​acoustic​ ​signals​ ​as​ ​sounds​ ​that​ ​form words.

GRAMMATICAL​ ​KNOWLEDGE​:​ ​This​ ​knowledge​ ​allows​ ​for​ ​recognition​ ​of​​ ​inflections on​ ​words,​ ​phrases​ ​or​ ​clauses.

LEXICAL​ ​KNOWLEDGE:​ ​This​ ​knowledge​ ​allows​ ​the​ ​listener​ ​to​ ​recognize​ ​words within​ ​phrases.

BOTTOM-UP​ ​PROCESS It​ ​is​ ​not​ ​automatic​ ​for​ ​L2​ ​speakers,​ ​they​ ​use​ ​metacognition​ ​and​ ​listening​ ​strategies.

METACOGNITION:​ ​PLANNING ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​REGULATING----​These​ ​allow​ ​for​ ​prediction​ ​monitoring​ ​of​ ​errors​ ​and​ ​evaluation. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​MONITORING ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​MANAGEMENT

SOME​ ​ADVICE​ ​TO​ ​TEACH​ ​LISTENING​ ​STRATEGIES According​ ​to​ ​Mendelsohn:​ ​Use​ ​pre-listening​ ​activities​ ​to​ ​activate​ ​learner​ ​‘background knowledge​ ​related​ ​to​ ​metacognition.​ ​Make​ ​clear​ ​to​ ​learners​ ​what​ ​they​ ​are​ ​going​ ​to listen​ ​and​ ​why.​ ​Provide​ ​guided​ ​listening​ ​activities​ ​designed​ ​to​ ​provide​ ​a​ ​lot​ ​of practice​ ​in​ ​using​ ​a​ ​particular​ ​strategy.

Practice​ ​the​ ​strategy​ ​using​ ​real​ ​data​ ​with​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​context​ ​and​ ​meaning.​ ​Also,​ ​use what​ ​has​ ​been​ ​comprehended,​ ​take​ ​notes​ ​on​ ​a​ ​lecture​ ​and​ ​allow​ ​for​ ​self-​ ​evaluation.

PRE-LISTENING​ ​ACTIVITIES:​ ​PREDICTING​ ​CONTENT ​ ​Students​ ​can​ ​predict​ ​the​ ​topic​ ​and​ ​the​ ​vocabulary​ ​they​ ​are​ ​going​ ​to​ ​listen​ ​to​ ​by looking​ ​at​ ​visual​ ​material.​ ​Depending​ ​on​ ​the​ ​context,​ ​you​ ​can​ ​often​ ​predict​ ​the​ ​kind of​ ​words​ ​and​ ​style​ ​of​ ​language​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​will​ ​use.​ ​Our​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​world​ ​help us​ ​anticipate​ ​the​ ​kind​ ​of​ ​information​ ​we​ ​are​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​hear.​ ​When​ ​we​ ​predict​ ​the​ ​topic of​ ​a​ ​talk​ ​or​ ​a​ ​conversation,​ ​all​ ​the​ ​related​ ​vocabulary​ ​stored​ ​in​ ​our​ ​brains​ ​is​ ​activated to​ ​help​ ​us​ ​better​ ​understand​ ​what​ ​we​ ​are​ ​listening​ ​to.

Comprehension​ ​and​ ​interpretation​ ​will​ ​take​ ​place​ ​depending​ ​on: - Listener's​ ​prior​ ​knowledge.

- Listener's​ ​memory​ ​and​ ​attention.

- His/her​ ​general​ ​problem-solving​ ​ability.

Successful​ ​listening​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​the​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​combine​ ​these​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​processes.

Activities​ ​which​ ​work​ ​on​ ​each​ ​strategy​ ​separately​ ​should​ ​help​ ​students​ ​to​ ​combine top-down​ ​and​ ​bottom-up​ ​processes​ ​to​ ​become​ ​more​ ​effective​ ​listeners​ ​in​ ​real-life situations​ ​or​ ​longer​ ​classrooms​ ​listening.

MICROPROCESSING​ ​STRATEGIES -

Attending​ ​to​ ​stress​ ​and​ ​intonation​ ​and​ ​construct​ ​a​ ​pattern​ ​to​ ​fit​ ​the​ ​utterance.

Attending​ ​to​ ​stressed​ ​vowels.

Segmenting​ ​the​ ​speech​ ​stream​ ​into​ ​words​ ​that​ ​correspond​ ​to​ ​the​ ​stressed​ ​vowels and​ ​their​ ​adjacent​ ​consonants.

Seeking​ ​a​ ​phrase-with​ ​grammar​ ​and​ ​meaning-compatible​ ​with​ ​the​ ​first​ ​strategy and​ ​the​ ​words​ ​identified​ ​in​ ​the​ ​third.

TEACHING​ ​LISTENING​ ​FROM​ ​A​ ​DISCOURSE​ ​PERSPECTIVE

An​ ​effective​ ​listener​ ​is​ ​able​ ​to​ ​use​ ​the​ ​situation​ ​context​ ​(co-text),​ ​to​ ​disambiguate​ ​or decide​ ​on​ ​the​ ​best​ ​interpretation.​ ​According​ ​to​ ​Eisenstein,​ ​learners​ ​that​ ​are​ ​exposed to​ ​this​ ​reduced​ ​speech​ ​forms​ ​enhance​ ​their​ ​listening​ ​comprehension.

INTONATION:​ ​The​ ​direction​ ​of​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​pitch​ ​at​ ​the​ ​end​ ​of​ ​an​ ​utterance​ ​can​ ​be particularly​ ​crucial.

TOP-DOWN​ ​AND​ ​INTEGRATED​ ​STRATEGIES Second​ ​language​ ​learners​ ​in​ ​English​ ​can​ ​benefit​ ​from: - Listening​ ​to​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​lecture​ ​openings,​ ​and​ ​to​ ​predict​ ​what​ ​the​ ​lecture​ ​will cover.

- Listening​ ​to​ ​language​ ​segments​ ​of​ ​authentic​ ​lectures​ ​and​ ​working​ ​at​ ​getting​ ​the gist,​ ​writing​ ​down​ ​the​ ​main​ ​point​ ​and​ ​topics.

Both​ ​top-down​ ​and​ ​bottom-up​ ​processes​ ​interact.​ ​They​ ​are​ ​useful​ ​and​ ​necessary​ ​for effective​ ​listening​ ​comprehension.

ACCORDING​ ​TO​ ​STUDENTS​ ​COMPETENCE​ ​AND​ ​INTERESTS​ ​WE​ ​CAN​ ​SELECT DIFFERENT​ ​ACTIVITIES -Extract​ ​detailed​ ​information​ ​from​ ​a​ ​text.

-​ ​Grasp​ ​the​ ​gist​ ​of​ ​an​ ​extended​ ​text.

-​ ​Differentiation​ ​between​ ​fact​ ​and​ ​opinion.

-​ ​Identify​ ​the​ ​genre​ ​and​ ​register​ ​of​ ​a​ ​text -​ ​Recognize​ ​differences​ ​in​ ​intonation.

-​ ​Identify​ ​relationships​ ​between​ ​participants​ ​in​ ​aural​ ​interaction.

-​ ​Identify​ ​the​ ​emotional​ ​tone​ ​of​ ​an​ ​utterance.

-Comprehend​ ​the​ ​details​ ​of​ ​short​ ​conversations​ ​on​ ​unfamiliar​ ​topics.

BOTTOM-UP​ ​STRATEGIES​ ​OR​ ​TOP-DOWN​ ​STRATEGIES -Before​ ​we​ ​start​ ​listening,​ ​we​ ​can​ ​already​ ​predict​ ​some​ ​words​ ​or​ ​phrases​ ​that​ ​might be​ ​used​ ​because​ ​of​ ​our​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​lexical​ ​sets​ ​associated​ ​with​ ​the​ ​topic.

-​ ​We​ ​listen​ ​carefully​ ​to​ ​a​ ​recording​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​times​ ​so​ ​that​ ​we​ ​can​ ​find​ ​a​ ​word​ ​we can´t​ ​catch​ ​clearly.

-​ ​When​ ​we​ ​don´t​ ​clearly​ ​catch​ ​some​ ​of​ ​what​ ​people​ ​say,​ ​we​ ​hypothesise​ ​what​ ​we have​ ​missed​ ​and​ ​reinstate​ ​that​ ​we​ ​think​ ​was​ ​there,​ ​based​ ​on​ ​our​ ​knowledge​ ​of similar​ ​conversations.

-​ ​We​ ​know​ ​the​ ​typical​ ​pattern​ ​some​ ​interactions​ ​follow.

LISTENING​ ​TO​ ​SPEECH​ ​ACTIVITIES Speech​ ​acts:​ ​A​ ​speech​ ​act​ ​is​ ​a​ ​functional​ ​unit​ ​in​ ​communication.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​an​ ​act​ ​that​ ​a speaker​ ​performs​ ​making​ ​an​ ​utterance.

For​ ​example: - Making​ ​apologies.

- Making​ ​requests.

- Expressing​ ​gratitude.

- Making​ ​refusals.

WHAT​ ​ARE​ ​SOME​ ​OF​ ​THE​ ​MOST​ ​USEFUL​ ​EXERCISES​ ​AND​ ​ACTIVITIES​ ​FOR L2​ ​LISTENERS? Pedagogical​ ​strategies​ ​and​ ​priorities.

TASKS - Extract​ ​topic/gist​ ​(first​ ​listening).

- Get​ ​details​ ​of​ ​new​ ​items​ ​(second​ ​listening),​ ​(who,​ ​what,​ ​when,​ ​where).

- Evaluate​ ​emotional​ ​impact​ ​of​ ​new​ ​items​ ​(third​ ​listening),​ ​this​ ​can​ ​vary​ ​but​ ​the listener​ ​should​ ​give​ ​reasons​ ​for​ ​the​ ​choice.

- Neutral​ ​report​ ​of​ ​the​ ​information.

- Information​ ​makes​ ​me​ ​happy/sad.

- Information​ ​worries/surprises​ ​me.

- Information​ ​annoys​ ​me.

Teachers​ ​need​ ​to​ ​design​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​listening​ ​tasks​ ​that​ ​resemble​ ​games​ ​and​ ​at​ ​the same​ ​time​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​identification​ ​and​ ​recognition​ ​of​ ​spoken​ ​sequences.

EASIER​ ​TASK-------------------------------​ ​The​ ​identification​ ​of​ ​certain​ ​key​ ​words.

MORE​ ​COMPLEX​ ​TASK--------------------​ ​The​ ​identification​ ​of​ ​specific​ ​items.

MUCH​ ​MORE​ ​COMPLEX​ ​TASK--------------------The​ ​reasons​ ​for​ ​actions.

DISCOURSE​ ​FUNCTION​ ​OF​ ​ITEMS -

Cue​ ​words​ ​and​ ​discourse​ ​markers​ ​that​ ​signal​ ​what​ ​the​ ​main​ ​points​ ​and​ ​minor points​ ​are.

Lexical​ ​and​ ​structural​ ​cues​ ​including​ ​lexical​ ​routines​ ​and​ ​chunks​ ​that​ ​signal​ ​a new​ ​term​ ​and​ ​or​ ​a​ ​definition​ ​or​ ​some​ ​other​ ​motional​ ​construct.

Key​ ​text​ ​segments​ ​that​ ​serve​ ​as​ ​higher​ ​order​ ​organizers.

Words​ ​and​ ​phrases​ ​used​ ​to​ ​open​ ​or​ ​close​ ​a​ ​topic.

Ways​ ​to​ ​ask​ ​a​ ​question​ ​or​ ​to​ ​interrupt​ ​the​ ​speaker.

Ways​ ​to​ ​ask​ ​for​ ​clarification​ ​or​ ​elaboration.

Native​ ​listeners​ ​and​ ​non-natives​ ​listeners​ ​must​ ​actively​ ​use​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​schemata and​ ​contextual​ ​clues​ ​to​ ​accurately​ ​interpret​ ​oral​ ​messages,​ ​phonological​ ​signals, such​ ​as​ ​stress,​ ​lexical​ ​phrases,​ ​and​ ​word​ ​order,​ ​and​ ​higher​ ​level​ ​organizing elements​ ​that​ ​we​ ​find​ ​in​ ​conversational​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​all​ ​critical​ ​in​ ​signalling information​ ​to​ ​the​ ​listener.

Reading​ ​(chapter​ ​7) The​ ​interactive​ ​nature​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reading​ ​process ​ ​ ​ ​When​ ​reading​ ​a​ ​written​ ​text,​ ​the​ ​reader​ ​has​ ​to: - Decode​ ​the​ ​message.

- Interpret​ ​the​ ​message.

- Understand​ ​the​ ​message.

These​ ​are​ ​simultaneous​ ​tasks​ ​performed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​reader​ ​and​ ​it​ ​is​ ​a​ ​process​ ​that involves​ ​three​ ​participants: - the​ ​writer.

- the​ ​text.

- the​ ​reader.

Two​ ​different​ ​approaches​ ​to​ ​reading - Top-down​ ​approach:​ ​continuum​ ​of​ ​changing​ ​hypothesis​ ​about​ ​the​ ​incoming information.

- Bottom-up​ ​approach:​ ​a​ ​series​ ​of​ ​stages​ ​that​ ​proceeds​ ​in​ ​a​ ​fixed​ ​order​ ​from sensory​ ​input​ ​to​ ​comprehension.

Both​ ​approaches​ ​occur​ ​simultaneously​ ​in​ ​the​ ​reading​ ​process.

The​ ​effective​ ​reader ​ ​ ​ ​ ​What​ ​do​ ​readers​ ​do​ ​when​ ​they​ ​face​ ​a​ ​new​ ​written​ ​text?​ ​They​ ​go​ ​through​ ​different mental​ ​questions​ ​related​ ​to​ ​their​ ​expectations,​ ​their​ ​knowledge​ ​about​ ​the​ ​writer​ ​or the​ ​reasons​ ​why​ ​reading​ ​the​ ​text.​ ​The​ ​last​ ​aspect​ ​is​ ​the​ ​one​ ​which​ ​influences​ ​most readers​ ​when​ ​selecting​ ​reading​ ​strategies.​ ​It​ ​also​ ​guides​ ​the​ ​intensity​ ​with​ ​which they​ ​want​ ​to​ ​read.

Features​ ​of​ ​a​ ​well-written​ ​text:​ ​coherence​ ​and​ ​cohesion Both​ ​facilitate​ ​the​ ​interpretation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text​ ​during​ ​the​ ​reading​ ​process.

Coherence​:​ ​a​ ​text​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​make​ ​sense​ ​to​ ​the​ ​reader​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​be​ ​fully​ ​coherent.

It​ ​is​ ​not​ ​only​ ​text-based​ ​but​ ​also​ ​reader-centered.​ ​From​ ​the​ ​reader’s​ ​point​ ​of​ ​view, coherence​ ​is​ ​the​ ​result​ ​of​ ​the​ ​interaction​ ​between​ ​text-presented​ ​knowledge​ ​and text-user’s​ ​schemata​ ​(or​ ​stored​ ​knowledge)​ ​regarding​ ​information​ ​and​ ​text structures.​ ​Example:​ ​Credit​ ​cards​ ​are​ ​convenient​,​ ​but​ ​dangerous​.​ ​People​ ​often​ ​get them​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​make​ ​large​ ​purchases​ ​easily​ ​without​ ​saving​ ​up​ ​lots​ ​of​ ​money​ ​in advance.​ ​This​ ​is​ ​especially​ ​helpful​ ​for​ ​purchases​ ​like​ ​cars,​ ​kitchen​ ​appliances,​ ​etc. that​ ​you​ ​may​ ​need​ ​to​ ​get​ ​without​ ​delay​.​ ​However,​ ​this​ ​convenience​​ ​comes​ ​at​ ​a high​ ​price​:​ ​interest​ ​rates.​ ​The​ ​more​ ​money​ ​you​ ​put​ ​on​ ​your​ ​credit​ ​card,​ ​the​ ​more​ ​the bank​ ​or​ ​credit​ ​union​ ​will​ ​charge​​ ​you​ ​for​ ​that​ ​convenience.​​ ​If​ ​you​ ​are​ ​not​ ​careful, credit​ ​card​ ​debt​ ​can​ ​quickly​ ​break​ ​the​ ​bank​​ ​and​ ​leave​ ​you​ ​in​ ​very​ ​dire​​ ​economic circumstances.

Cohesion​:​ ​It​ ​provides​ ​text’s​ ​unity​ ​and​ ​connectedness.​ ​Example:​ ​There​ ​was​ ​a​ ​little

girl​ ​who​ ​had​ ​a​ ​dog​ ​and​ ​a​ ​white​ ​mouse.​ ​One​ ​day​ ​the​ ​mouse​ ​got​ ​out​ ​of​ ​its​ ​jar​ ​and​ ​ran away.​ ​The​ ​girl​ ​and​ ​the​ ​dog​ ​looked​ ​for​ ​the​ ​mouse​ ​everywhere​ ​but​ ​they​ ​couldn’t​ ​find it​.

Cohesion​ ​relies​ ​on​ ​grammar​ ​and​ ​lexis.​ ​It​ ​relates​ ​to​ ​the​ ​reader’s​ ​linguistic competence.​ ​Deficiencies​ ​in​ ​this​ ​area​ ​may​ ​cause​ ​difficulties​ ​in​ ​the​ ​interpretation process.​ ​Halliday​ ​and​ ​Hasan​ ​identify​ ​5​ ​general​ ​categories​ ​of​ ​cohesive​ ​devices​ ​that create​ ​cohesion​ ​in​ ​texts: - reference:​ ​definite​ ​article,​ ​demonstrative​ ​and​ ​personal​ ​pronouns.

- ellipsis:​ ​omission​ ​of​ ​structures​ ​or​ ​words​ ​to​ ​avoid​ ​repetition​ ​of​ ​identical​ ​items that​ ​are​ ​in​ ​a​ ​preceding​ ​or​ ​following​ ​construction.

- substitution:​ ​to​ ​replace​ ​words​ ​or​ ​structures.

- lexical​ ​cohesion:​ ​synonymy,​ ​hyponymy,​ ​etc.

- conjunction:​ ​coordinators,​ ​subordinators.

DIFFICULTIES​ ​ENCOUNTERED​ ​BY​ ​READERS​ ​WHILE READING GLOBAL​ ​PROCESSING​ ​DIFFICULTIES

​ ​ ​ ​Readers​ ​often​ ​face​ ​a​ ​dilemma​ ​with​ ​respect​ ​to​ ​the​ ​plausibility​ ​of​ ​the​ ​message​ ​or​ ​the information​ ​presented​ ​in​ ​the​ ​text,​ ​when​ ​perceived​ ​from​ ​their​ ​own​ ​point​ ​of​ ​view.

When,​ ​however,​ ​a​ ​mismatch​ ​occurs,​ ​it​ ​greatly​ ​interferes​ ​with​ ​comprehension​ ​and demonstrates​ ​the​ ​disadvantages​ ​of​ ​relying​ ​too​ ​heavily​ ​on​ ​top-down​ ​processing.

Language​ ​classes​ ​need​ ​to​ ​make​ ​students​ ​aware​ ​of​ ​such​ ​difficulties​ ​and​ ​encourage them​ ​to​ ​develop​ ​individual​ ​strategies​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​develop​ ​some​ ​tolerance​ ​for​ ​coping with​ ​complex​ ​or​ ​poorly​ ​written​ ​texts.

Another​ ​source​ ​of​ ​difficulty​ ​might​ ​be​ ​in​ ​the​ ​interaction​ ​between​ ​old​ ​and​ ​new information.​ ​In​ ​order​ ​to​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​identify​ ​old​ ​and​ ​new​ ​information​ ​in​ ​the​ ​text​ ​and thus​ ​evaluate​ ​the​ ​writer´s​ ​position​ ​and​ ​intention​ ​and​ ​recruit​ ​his/her​ ​own​ ​relevant schema,​ ​the​ ​reader​ ​must​ ​employ​ ​linguistic​ ​knowledge​ ​that​ ​grammatically​ ​signals​ ​such distinctions.​ ​The​ ​most​ ​important​ ​grammatical​ ​signals​ ​in​ ​English​ ​include​ ​reference markers,​ ​the​ ​sequence​ ​of​ ​tenses,​ ​conjunctions,​ ​the​ ​article​ ​system,​ ​and​ ​so​ ​forth.

GRAMMATICAL​ ​FEATURES​ ​THAT​ ​CAUSE​ ​READING DIFFICULTIES ​ ​ ​ ​In​ ​English,​ ​nominalization​ ​is​ ​a​ ​grammatical​ ​process​ ​that​ ​enables​ ​the​ ​writer​ ​to compact​ ​a​ ​great​ ​deal​ ​of​ ​information​ ​into​ ​one​ ​noun​ ​phrase.

The​ ​complexity​ ​of​ ​any​ ​given​ ​English​ ​noun​ ​phrase​ ​may​ ​be​ ​due​ ​to​ ​multiple​ ​modifiers such​ ​as​ ​one​ ​finds​ ​in​ ​complex​ ​compounds,​ ​relatives​ ​clauses​ ​with​ ​deleted​ ​relative pronouns,​ ​and​ ​various​ ​other​ ​compound​ ​modifiers​ ​in​ ​prenominal​ ​position.​ ​These​ ​types of​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​extremely​ ​common​ ​in​ ​English​ ​exposition​ ​in​ ​general​ ​and​ ​in​ ​scientific writing​ ​in​ ​particular.​ ​The​ ​stringing​ ​together​ ​of​ ​multiple​ ​modifiers​ ​can​ ​make recognition​ ​of​ ​the​ ​head​ ​noun​ ​during​ ​bottom-up​ ​processing​ ​quite​ ​difficult.

Since​ ​from​ ​the​ ​reader's​ ​point​ ​of​ ​view​ ​it​ ​is​ ​not​ ​all​ ​clear​ ​that​ ​the​ ​head​ ​must​ ​be​ ​in​ ​final position​ ​(other​ ​languages​ ​do​ ​not​ ​necessarily​ ​have​ ​such​ ​a​ ​feature),​ ​any​ ​of​ ​the​ ​individual nouns​ ​might​ ​be​ ​perceived​ ​as​ ​potential​ ​heads​ ​of​ ​the​ ​phrase.

Readers​ ​whose​ ​linguistic​ ​proficiency​ ​enables​ ​them​ ​to​ ​make​ ​quick​ ​and​ ​accurate identification​ ​of​ ​the​ ​head​ ​noun​ ​in​ ​complex​ ​noun​ ​phrases​ ​will​ ​end​ ​up​ ​processing​ ​the text​ ​faster​ ​and​ ​more​ ​accurately.​ ​This​ ​bottom-up​ ​processing​ ​skill​ ​is​ ​facilitative​ ​when​ ​it works​ ​well,​ ​but​ ​damaging​ ​when​ ​the​ ​ESL/EFL​ ​ ​reader​ ​misinterprets​ ​the​ ​position​ ​of​ ​the head​ ​noun.

Adjectival​ ​clauses​ ​with​ ​deleted​ ​subjects​ ​potentially​ ​create​ ​a​ ​twofold​ ​difficulty.​ ​On​ ​one the​ ​one​ ​hand,​ ​they​ ​may​ ​interfere​ ​with​ ​the​ ​identification​ ​of​ ​the​ ​modifier​ ​and​ ​the​ ​head; on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​the​ ​grammatical​ ​form​ ​of​ ​the​ ​participles​ ​may​ ​mislead​ ​readers​ ​into thinking​ ​that​ ​such​ ​a​ ​construction​ ​is​ ​a​ ​verb​ ​phrase.

DISCOURSE​ ​FEATURES​ ​THAT​ ​MIGHT​ ​CAUSE PROBLEMS

​ ​ ​ ​The​ ​reader​ ​relies​ ​on​ ​grammatical​ ​features​ ​that​ ​provide​ ​indications​ ​of​ ​reference​ ​such as​ ​the​ ​pronoun​ ​system,​ ​the​ ​article​ ​system,​ ​or​ ​demonstratives.​ ​However,​ ​English​ ​often

creates​ ​ambiguity​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​such​ ​referential​ ​ties​ ​since​ ​redundant​ ​elements​ ​such​ ​as case​ ​and​ ​gender​ ​are​ ​not​ ​always​ ​available,​ ​or​ ​if​ ​available,​ ​still​ ​allow​ ​for​ ​multiple possible​ ​antecedents.

Another​ ​important​ ​device​ ​of​ ​English​ ​discourse​ ​and​ ​grammar​ ​that​ ​creates intersentential​ ​cohesion​ ​within​ ​a​ ​written​ ​text​ ​is​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​tense​ ​and​ ​aspect​ ​markers.

ESL/EFL​ ​reading​ ​course​ ​should​ ​provide​ ​activities​ ​that​ ​enable​ ​learners​ ​to​ ​locate instances​ ​of​ ​obscure​ ​reference,​ ​giving​ ​them​ ​the​ ​opportunity​ ​to​ ​practice​ ​identification and​ ​utilization​ ​of​ ​such​ ​reference.

LEXICAL​ ​ACCESSIBILITY ​ ​ ​ ​Accordingly,​ ​textbook​ ​writers​ ​and​ ​reading​ ​specialists​ ​have​ ​often​ ​suggested​ ​that readers​ ​guess​ ​the​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​unfamiliar​ ​words​ ​by​ ​using​ ​clues​ ​from​ ​the​ ​text,​ ​thus minimizing​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​dictionaries.​ ​This​ ​strategy​ ​is​ ​useful​ ​and​ ​generally​ ​very​ ​effective and​ ​provides​ ​readers​ ​with​ ​important​ ​short​ ​cuts​ ​and​ ​increases​ ​decoding​ ​speed.

Only​ ​when​ ​readers​ ​can​ ​combine​ ​their​ ​general​ ​knowledge​ ​with​ ​information​ ​drawn from​ ​the​ ​text​ ​is​ ​there​ ​a​ ​good​ ​chance​ ​that​ ​guessing​ ​word​ ​meanings​ ​from​ ​context​ ​will​ ​be successful.

For​ ​teaching​ ​purposes​ ​it​ ​is​ ​necessary​ ​to​ ​analyze​ ​reading​ ​passages​ ​carefully​ ​before​ ​they are​ ​assigned​ ​to​ ​intermediate-level​ ​students.

On​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​the​ ​teacher​ ​or​ ​textbook​ ​writer​ ​should​ ​identify​ ​the​ ​words​ ​that​ ​have no​ ​textual​ ​support​ ​in​ ​the​ ​passage​ ​and​ ​provide​ ​easily​ ​accessible​ ​glosses​ ​for​ ​them.

Students​ ​should​ ​be​ ​shown​ ​why​ ​the​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​certain​ ​words​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​guessed​ ​from the​ ​context.

SUGGESTIONS​ ​FOR​ ​DEVELOPING​ ​A​ ​READING​ ​COURSE ​ ​ ​ ​Four​ ​such​ ​goals​ ​will​ ​be​ ​discussed​ ​in​ ​this​ ​section,​ ​the​ ​focus​ ​being​ ​that​ ​a​ ​reading course​ ​today​ ​should​ ​try​ ​to​ ​do​ ​the​ ​following:​ ​maximize​ ​independent​ ​reading opportunities,​ ​facilitate​ ​negotiated​ ​interaction​ ​with​ ​texts,​ ​foster​ ​metacognitive awareness​ ​and​ ​learner​ ​autonomy,​ ​and​ ​expand​ ​access​ ​to​ ​new​ ​content​ ​areas.

When​ ​planning​ ​a​ ​reading​ ​course,​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​major​ ​considerations​ ​should​ ​be​ ​giving learners​ ​ample​ ​time​ ​and​ ​opportunity​ ​to​ ​engage​ ​in​ ​independent​ ​reading.​ ​Silent​ ​reading in​ ​guided​ ​situations,​ ​shared​ ​reading​ ​in​ ​groups,​ ​and​ ​individual​ ​reading​ ​inside​ ​and outside​ ​the​ ​classroom​ ​should​ ​all​ ​be​ ​carefully​ ​planned​ ​as​ ​an​ ​integral​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reading course.

READING​ ​ACTIVITIES​ ​THAT​ ​LEAD​ ​TO​ ​THE DEVELOPMENT​ ​OF​ ​STRATEGIC​ ​READING ​ ​ ​ ​The​ ​knowledge​ ​component​ ​necessary​ ​for​ ​reading​ ​effectively,​ ​as​ ​we​ ​have​ ​seen, consists​ ​of​ ​three​ ​subcomponents​ ​that​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​tackled​ ​in​ ​developing​ ​a​ ​reading course:​ ​language​ ​knowledge,​ ​which​ ​includes​ ​recognition​ ​of​ ​vocabulary​ ​and​ ​syntax​ ​as well​ ​as​ ​graphic​ ​representations:​ ​discourse​ ​knowledge​ ​and​ ​sociocultural​ ​knowledge, which​ ​include​ ​recognition​ ​and​ ​understanding​ ​of​ ​discourse​ ​features​ ​that​ ​are​ ​textual​ ​in nature​ ​(e.g.​ ​cohesion),​ ​discourse​ ​features​ ​that​ ​relate​ ​to​ ​writing​ ​conventions​ ​and​ ​genres and​ ​social​ ​and​ ​cultural​ ​knowledge​ ​related​ ​to​ ​writing:​ ​and​ ​general​ ​(prior)​ ​knowledge​ ​of the​ ​world.

The​ ​selection​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reading​ ​passages,​ ​stories,​ ​and​ ​articles​ ​is​ ​perhaps​ ​the​ ​most important​ ​feature​ ​of​ ​a​ ​good​ ​reading​ ​course.

It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​combination​ ​of​ ​intensive​ ​work​ ​on​ ​the​ ​knowledge​ ​component​ ​along​ ​with ample​ ​processing​ ​activities​ ​that​ ​makes​ ​for​ ​a​ ​successful​ ​reading​ ​course.​ ​However,​ ​in order​ ​to​ ​ensure​ ​the​ ​development​ ​of​ ​strategic​ ​reading​ ​skills​ ​the​ ​teacher​ ​must​ ​also devote​ ​attention​ ​to​ ​reader​ ​awareness​ ​and​ ​metacognition,​ ​as​ ​we​ ​have​ ​discussed.​ ​For younger​ ​learners,​ ​reading​ ​activities​ ​can​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​a)​ ​the​ ​purpose​ ​of​ ​reading;​ ​(b)​ ​the development​ ​of​ ​reading​ ​strategies;​ ​and​ ​(c)​ ​gaining​ ​information​ ​and​ ​knowledge.

Writing​ ​(chapter​ ​8)

Introduction

WRITING

​ ​ ​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​responsibility​ ​of​ ​the​ ​writing​ ​teacher​ ​to​ ​help​ ​novice​ ​writers​ ​develop​ ​into experienced​ ​writers.​ ​This​ ​chapter​ ​is​ ​designed​ ​to​ ​help​ ​writing​ ​teacher​ ​meet​ ​this responsibility.

Personal​ ​writing​ ​strategies,​ ​preferences,​ ​and​ ​techniques​ ​characterize​ ​each​ ​individual writer.

Language​ ​teachers​ ​and​ ​writing​ ​teachers​ ​need​ ​to​ ​become​ ​aware​ ​of​ ​the​ ​individual differences​ ​that​ ​their​ ​learners​ ​exhibit​ ​and​ ​of​ ​the​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​texts​ ​that​ ​can​ ​be​ ​created.

WRITING​ ​AS​ ​COMMUNICATION THE​ ​INTERACTIVE​ ​APPROACH

​ ​ ​ ​Writing,​ ​when​ ​viewed​ ​as​ ​a​ ​language​ ​skill​ ​used​ ​for​ ​communication,​ ​has​ ​much​ ​in common​ ​with​ ​both​ ​reading​ ​and​ ​speaking.​ ​Writing​ ​is​ ​the​ ​production​ ​of​ ​the​ ​written word​ ​that​ ​results​ ​in​ ​a​ ​text​ ​but​ ​the​ ​text​ ​must​ ​be​ ​read​ ​and​ ​comprehended​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​take place.

The​ ​relationship​ ​that​ ​holds​ ​between​ ​reading​ ​and​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​quite​ ​obvious:​ ​it​ ​is​ ​the relationship​ ​between​ ​the​ ​production​ ​and​ ​reception​ ​ends​ ​of​ ​the​ ​continuum.​ ​The relationship​ ​of​ ​writing​ ​to​ ​the​ ​speaking​ ​skill,​ ​however,​ ​is​ ​quite​ ​different:​ ​Both​ ​speaking and​ ​writing​ ​are​ ​productive​ ​language​ ​skills​ ​that​ ​enable​ ​a​ ​language​ ​user​ ​to​ ​express​ ​ideas and​ ​communicate​ ​them​ ​to​ ​others.

Various​ ​rationales​ ​have​ ​been​ ​suggested​ ​for​ ​the​ ​relationship​ ​between​ ​speech​ ​and writing,​ ​with​ ​two​ ​conflicting​ ​positions:​ ​(1)​ ​that​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​different​ ​from​ ​speech​ ​and (2)​ ​that​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​similar​ ​to​ ​speech.​ ​The​ ​former​ ​view​ ​reflects​ ​the​ ​observation​ ​that speaking​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​the​ ​“here”​ ​and​ ​“now”​ ​of​ ​a​ ​given​ ​speaker​ ​and​ ​is​ ​therefore strongly​ ​“context​ ​bound”.​ ​In​ ​the​ ​first​ ​approach,​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​viewed​ ​as​ ​a​ ​much​ ​more decontextualized​ ​production​ ​process​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​writer​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​continually​ ​consider and​ ​accommodate​ ​an​ ​absent​ ​reader-audience​ ​to​ ​his​ ​or​ ​her​ ​ideas.

The​ ​second​ ​school​ ​of​ ​thought​ ​takes​ ​a​ ​more​ ​social​ ​view​ ​of​ ​the​ ​writing​ ​process​ ​and therefore​ ​perceives​ ​it​ ​as​ ​similar​ ​to​ ​speech.​ ​Such​ ​an​ ​approach​ ​often​ ​compares​ ​writing​ ​to speech​ ​events​ ​(Myers,​ ​1987)​ ​that​ ​need​ ​to​ ​adhere​ ​to​ ​specific​ ​writing​ ​conventions.

Perhaps​ ​the​ ​strongest​ ​relation​ ​between​ ​speech​ ​and​ ​writing​ ​was​ ​expressed​ ​by​ ​Vygotsky (1962,​ ​1973),​ ​who​ ​viewed​ ​writing​ ​as​ ​monologic​ ​speech​ ​based​ ​on​ ​socialized​ ​dialogic speech.

Both​ ​reading​ ​and​ ​writing​ ​deal​ ​with​ ​written​ ​text.​ ​In​ ​both​ ​processing​ ​frameworks​ ​the language​ ​user​ ​begins​ ​with​ ​prior​ ​knowledge​ ​and​ ​experience​ ​with​ ​written​ ​texts, combining​ ​this​ ​with​ ​discourse​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​writing​ ​conventions​ ​and​ ​with​ ​assessment of​ ​the​ ​purpose​ ​and​ ​intent​ ​related​ ​either​ ​to​ ​reading​ ​or​ ​writing,​ ​as​ ​the​ ​case​ ​may​ ​be.

Language​ ​knowledge​ ​is​ ​important​ ​for​ ​bottom-up​ ​processing​ ​whether​ ​we​ ​are interpreting​ ​a​ ​written​ ​text​ ​or​ ​editing​ ​our​ ​written​ ​product.

Perhaps​ ​the​ ​most​ ​significant​ ​similarity​ ​between​ ​the​ ​writing​ ​process​ ​and​ ​speech production​ ​is​ ​a​ ​concern​ ​with​ ​bridging​ ​the​ ​gap​ ​between​ ​producer​ ​and​ ​receiver.

It​ ​is​ ​such​ ​a​ ​reader-based​ ​approach​ ​that​ ​places​ ​special​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​the​ ​connection​ ​between reading​ ​and​ ​writing​ ​and​ ​views​ ​writing​ ​as​ ​aiming​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​text​ ​that​ ​can​ ​be​ ​“read successfully”.

WRITING​ ​FOR​ ​A​ ​READER-MATCHING​ ​THE​ ​WRITER'S AND​ ​READER'S​ ​SCHEMATA

​ ​ ​ ​It​ ​is​ ​actually​ ​through​ ​schooling​ ​and​ ​personal​ ​development​ ​throughout​ ​our​ ​lifetime that​ ​we​ ​expand​ ​our​ ​use​ ​of​ ​the​ ​writing​ ​skill.

The​ ​school​ ​environment​ ​is​ ​usually​ ​the​ ​first​ ​and​ ​most​ ​dominant​ ​situation​ ​in​ ​which young​ ​people​ ​are​ ​expected​ ​to​ ​partake​ ​in​ ​writing​ ​tasks,​ ​and​ ​students​ ​often​ ​perceive​ ​the teacher​ ​as​ ​their​ ​only​ ​reader​ ​audience.​ ​Being​ ​able​ ​to​ ​anticipate​ ​the​ ​reader's´​ ​needs​ ​when they​ ​read​ ​the​ ​text​ ​we​ ​are​ ​creating​ ​is​ ​perhaps​ ​the​ ​most​ ​important​ ​characteristic​ ​of​ ​a successful​ ​writer.

Experienced​ ​writers,​ ​on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​are​ ​sensitive​ ​to​ ​the​ ​reader,​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​to background​ ​knowledge​ ​and​ ​potential​ ​content​ ​schemata​​ ​and​ ​thus​ ​are​ ​able​ ​to​ ​use elaboration​ ​skills​ ​to​ ​create​ ​a​ ​text​ ​that​ ​is​ ​comprehensible​ ​and​ ​communicative​ ​in​ ​nature.

Research​ ​in​ ​writing​ ​has​ ​found​ ​that​ ​training​ ​in​ ​elaboration​ ​skills​ ​is​ ​important​ ​not​ ​only for​ ​young​ ​writers​ ​but​ ​also​ ​for​ ​college​ ​students​ ​in​ ​freshmen​ ​courses​ ​and​ ​basic​ ​writers of​ ​any​ ​age​ ​who​ ​lack​ ​the​ ​sense​ ​of​ ​an​ ​audience​ ​and​ ​fail​ ​to​ ​generate​ ​potential​ ​reader demands​ ​for​ ​elaboration.

Writing​ ​instruction​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​place​ ​special​ ​focus​ ​on​ ​developing​ ​this​ ​awareness​ ​of potential​ ​reader​ ​audiences​ ​in​ ​L1​ ​and​ ​later​ ​on​ ​in​ ​L2.

There​ ​is​ ​good​ ​reason​ ​to​ ​believe​ ​that​ ​having​ ​a​ ​good​ ​foundation​ ​in​ ​writing​ ​in​ ​one's​ ​first language​ ​can​ ​help​ ​one​ ​eventually​ ​become​ ​a​ ​good​ ​writer​ ​in​ ​a​ ​second​ ​language.

The​ ​expressivist​ ​approach​ ​views​ ​writing​ ​as​ ​an​ ​act​ ​which​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​and​ ​encourages “self-discovery”​ ​and​ ​is​ ​therefore​ ​crucial​ ​in​ ​the​ ​development​ ​of​ ​an​ ​educated​ ​person.

The​ ​cognitivist​ ​approach,​ ​on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​places​ ​great​ ​importance​ ​on​ ​“writing​ ​as​ ​a problem-solving​ ​activity”​ ​and​ ​therefore​ ​emphasizes​ ​thinking​ ​and​ ​process​ ​in​ ​writing.

According​ ​to​ ​this​ ​approach,​ ​writing​ ​requires​ ​the​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​work​ ​with​ ​higher-order thinking​ ​skills.

Going​ ​back​ ​to​ ​the​ ​four​ ​components​ ​of​ ​Berlin´s​ ​model,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​viewed​ ​the​ ​writer​ ​thus far​ ​as​ ​a​ ​creator,​ ​designer,​ ​and​ ​reformulator​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text.​ ​Such​ ​a​ ​process,​ ​if​ ​it​ ​is​ ​to​ ​adjust to​ ​a​ ​reader​ ​audience,​ ​has​ ​to​ ​take​ ​into​ ​account​ ​the​ ​given​ ​audience​ ​and​ ​what​ ​that audience​ ​brings​ ​to​ ​the​ ​reading​ ​process.

The​ ​writer​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​take​ ​into​ ​consideration​ ​the​ ​reality​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a​ ​text​ ​is​ ​written​ ​and​ ​the imagined​ ​reality​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​text​ ​will​ ​be​ ​read.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​Berlin's​ ​fourth​ ​component,​ ​the language​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text,​ ​which​ ​places​ ​additional​ ​responsibility​ ​on​ ​the​ ​writer​ ​to​ ​also​ ​make his/her​ ​text​ ​accessible​ ​to​ ​readers​ ​at​ ​the​ ​local​ ​level.

WRITING​ ​AS​ ​PROCESS

CREATING​ ​COHERENCE​ ​IN​ ​A​ ​TEXT

​ ​ ​ ​A​ ​writer​ ​who​ ​undertakes​ ​the​ ​task​ ​of​ ​creating​ ​a​ ​written​ ​text​ ​for​ ​communication purposes​ ​is​ ​faced​ ​with​ ​the​ ​need​ ​to​ ​organize​ ​his/her​ ​thoughts​ ​into​ ​a​ ​sequence​ ​which makes​ ​sense.

Whatever​ ​the​ ​initial​ ​steps​ ​of​ ​writing​ ​are​ ​for​ ​the​ ​individual​ ​writer,​ ​they​ ​eventually​ ​lead to​ ​the​ ​process​ ​of​ ​organizing​ ​thoughts.

CONTRASTIVE​ ​RHETORIC

​ ​ ​ ​In​ ​teaching​ ​ESL/EFL​ ​we​ ​often​ ​come​ ​across​ ​the​ ​difficulty​ ​that​ ​students​ ​encounter when​ ​reading​ ​or​ ​writing​ ​expository​ ​texts​ ​if​ ​they​ ​come​ ​from​ ​a​ ​cultural​ ​background where​ ​coherence​ ​conventions​ ​are​ ​different​ ​from​ ​those​ ​in​ ​Western​ ​rhetorical​ ​tradition.

Problems​ ​of​ ​this​ ​sort​ ​are​ ​dealt​ ​with​ ​systematically​ ​in​ ​the​ ​subfield​ ​of​ ​written​ ​discourse called​ ​contrastive​ ​rhetoric​.

Hartmann​ ​(1980)​ ​and​ ​others​ ​have​ ​emphasized​ ​the​ ​need​ ​for​ ​researchers​ ​in​ ​contrastive rhetoric​ ​to​ ​use​ ​parallel​ ​texts​ ​when​ ​carrying​ ​out​ ​any​ ​comparative​ ​analysis​ ​so​ ​that​ ​the genre,​ ​topic,​ ​and​ ​register​ ​of​ ​the​ ​texts​ ​are​ ​controlled.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​one​ ​can​ ​compareon​ ​many​ ​levels-​ ​personal​ ​essays​ ​on​ ​the​ ​same​ ​topic​ ​or​ ​news​ ​articles​ ​on​ ​the​ ​same​ ​topic in​ ​two​ ​or​ ​more​ ​languages.

STRATEGIES​ ​AND​ ​STEPS​ ​IN​ ​CREATING​ ​COHERENCE

​ ​ ​ ​Although​ ​the​ ​reader,​ ​while​ ​interpreting​ ​the​ ​text,​ ​creates​ ​his/her​ ​own​ ​version​ ​of​ ​the text,​ ​this​ ​happens​ ​most​ ​easily​ ​if​ ​the​ ​text​ ​has​ ​been​ ​carefully​ ​planned​ ​by​ ​the​ ​writer.​ ​It​ ​is the​ ​responsibility​ ​of​ ​the​ ​writer​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​text​ ​that​ ​will​ ​be​ ​coherent​ ​to​ ​the​ ​potential reader,​ ​and​ ​it​ ​is​ ​the​ ​responsibility​ ​of​ ​the​ ​writing​ ​teacher​ ​to​ ​help​ ​writers​ ​develop strategies​ ​to​ ​do​ ​so.​ ​These​ ​strategies​ ​involve​ ​considerations​ ​of​ ​extratextual​ ​features​ ​that relate​ ​to​ ​the​ ​background​ ​knowledge​ ​the​ ​reader​ ​is​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​bring​ ​to​ ​the​ ​reading​ ​of​ ​the text​ ​and​ ​intratextual​ ​features​ ​that​ ​the​ ​writer​ ​must​ ​build​ ​into​ ​the​ ​text​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​ensure coherence.

Many​ ​different​ ​activities​ ​can​ ​make​ ​students​ ​aware​ ​of​ ​the​ ​importance​ ​of​ ​coherence.

An​ ​important​ ​consideration​ ​in​ ​the​ ​creation​ ​of​ ​coherence​ ​in​ ​a​ ​text​ ​is​ ​the​ ​choice​ ​of​ ​genre and​ ​rhetorical​ ​format,​ ​which​ ​in​ ​turn​ ​is​ ​closely​ ​related​ ​to​ ​the​ ​purpose​ ​of​ ​writing.

Obviously,​ ​coherence​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​be​ ​created​ ​somewhat​ ​differently​ ​for​ ​each​ ​of​ ​these audiences​ ​relating​ ​to​ ​the​ ​different​ ​background​ ​knowledge​ ​that​ ​each​ ​of​ ​them​ ​brings​ ​to the​ ​reading​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text.

Lautamatti​ ​(1990)​ ​makes​ ​an​ ​important​ ​distinction​ ​between​ p​ ropositional​ ​coherence and​ ​interactional​ ​coherence.​ ​Propositional​ ​coherence,​ ​the​ ​semantic​ ​property​ ​of​ ​texts, creates​ ​a​ ​logical​ ​progression​ ​within​ ​the​ ​text.​ ​On​ ​the​ ​basis​ ​of​ ​this​ ​progression,

comprehension​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text​ ​can​ ​be​ ​established​ ​in​ ​the​ ​mind​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reader​ ​who​ ​perceives a​ ​connecting​ ​thread​ ​among​ ​the​ ​propositions​ ​presented​ ​in​ ​the​ ​text​ ​and​ ​relates​ ​it​ ​to his/her​ ​own​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​the​ ​world.​ ​Formally,​ ​this​ ​type​ ​of​ ​coherence​ ​is​ ​reflected​ ​in the​ ​cohesive​ ​features​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text​ ​such​ ​as​ ​appropriate​ ​use​ ​of​ ​referential​ ​ties,​ ​lexical chains,​ ​and​ ​conjunctions​ ​or​ ​transitional​ ​expressions.

Interactional​ ​coherence,​ ​on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​is​ ​more​ ​prominent​ ​in​ ​spoken​ ​discourse,​ ​yet it​ ​may​ ​also​ ​apply​ ​to​ ​more​ ​personal​ ​or​ ​intimate​ ​types​ ​of​ ​writing.

Planning​ ​ahead,​ ​organizing​ ​the​ ​ideas​ ​and​ ​propositions,​ ​providing​ ​connections​ ​and support,​ ​and​ ​constantly​ ​revising​ ​the​ ​text​ ​to​ ​make​ ​it​ ​more​ ​“reader-based”​ ​are​ ​some​ ​of the​ ​ways​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a​ ​writer​ ​creates​ ​coherence​ ​in​ ​a​ ​written​ ​text.

CREATING​ ​A​ ​WELL-WRITTEN​ ​TEXT

​ ​ ​ ​ ​It​ ​is​ ​possible​ ​to​ ​view​ ​coherence​ ​as​ ​a​ ​feature​ ​of​ ​a​ ​text​ ​that​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​top-down planning​ ​and​ ​organization.​ ​A​ ​well-written​ ​text,​ ​however,​ ​also​ ​has​ ​to​ ​conform​ ​to​ ​more local​ ​and​ ​specific​ ​features​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text​ ​such​ ​as​ ​choosing​ ​proper​ ​lexical​ ​items​ ​and grammatical​ ​forms,​ ​appropriate​ ​use​ ​of​ ​cohesive​ ​devices,​ ​and​ ​using​ ​proper​ ​punctuation and​ ​others​ ​details​ ​of​ ​form.​ ​These​ ​relate​ ​to​ ​bottom-up​ ​strategies​ ​in​ ​creating​ ​a​ ​text.

One​ ​of​ ​the​ ​important​ ​features​ ​of​ ​a​ ​well-formed​ ​text​ ​is​ ​the​ ​unity​ ​and​ ​connectedness​ ​that make​ ​the​ ​individual​ ​sentences​ ​in​ ​the​ ​text​ ​”hang”​ ​together​ ​and​ ​relate​ ​to​ ​each​ ​other.

The​ ​overall​ ​coherence​ ​of​ ​a​ ​longer​ ​passage​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​the​ ​coherence​ ​within​ ​each paragraph​ ​or​ ​section​ ​of​ ​the​ ​text.

Harris​ ​(1990)​ ​investigated​ ​the​ ​organizational​ ​functions​ ​fulfilled​ ​by​ ​opening​ ​sentences of​ ​paragraphs​ ​in​ ​scientific​ ​writing.

According​ ​to​ ​Bardovi-​ ​Harlig​ ​(1990:45),​ ​a​ ​sentence​ ​within​ ​a​ ​passage​ ​has​ ​three​ ​levels: the​ ​syntactic,​ ​the​ ​semantic,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​pragmatic.

In​ ​teaching​ ​writing​ ​it​ ​is​ ​important​ ​to​ ​exposure​ ​students​ ​to​ ​such​ ​different​ ​stylistic versions​ ​of​ ​ ​the​ ​same​ ​text​ ​so​ ​that​ ​they​ ​can​ ​understand​ ​what​ ​options​ ​the​ ​English language​ ​makes​ ​available​ ​to​ ​them​ ​and​ ​how​ ​some​ ​choices​ ​can​ ​render​ ​the​ ​message​ ​in​ ​a text​ ​in​ ​a​ ​more​ ​effective​ ​or​ ​convincing​ ​manner.

In​ ​order​ ​to​ ​create​ ​the​ ​thread​ ​that​ ​holds​ ​the​ ​text​ ​together​ ​and​ ​creates​ ​unity​ ​and​ ​interest, an​ ​experienced​ ​writer​ ​will​ ​use​ ​the​ ​cohesive​ ​elements​ ​in​ ​the​ ​language​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to establish​ ​a​ ​clear​ ​sequence​ ​of​ ​anaphoric​ ​reference.

From​ ​what​ ​has​ ​been​ ​said​ ​thus​ ​far,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​clear​ ​that​ ​creating​ ​a​ ​well-written​ ​text​ ​is​ ​a process​ ​that​ ​requires​ ​many​ ​conscious​ ​decisions​ ​along​ ​the​ ​way,​ ​especially​ ​prior​ ​to writing.​ ​Many​ ​experienced​ ​writers​ ​need​ ​to​ ​plan​ ​the​ ​overall​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​a​ ​text​ ​in​ ​order to​ ​ensure​ ​global​ ​coherence.​ ​Within​ ​each​ ​paragraph​ ​the​ ​opening​ ​sentence​ ​should​ ​be carefully​ ​composed​ ​to​ ​serve​ ​a​ ​major​ ​purpose​ ​in​ ​the​ ​logical​ ​development​ ​of​ ​the​ ​ideas

presented.​ ​Cohesion​ ​should​ ​be​ ​properly​ ​exploited​ ​to​ ​ensure​ ​back​ ​reference​ ​and forward​ ​progression​ ​in​ ​the​ ​discourse.

WRITING​ ​INSTRUCTION

BREAKING​ ​THE​ ​INITIAL​ ​BARRIER

​ ​ ​ ​One​ ​of​ ​the​ ​initial​ ​steps​ ​in​ ​writing​ ​instruction​ ​must,​ ​therefore,​ ​involve​ ​breaking​ ​the barrier​ ​and​ ​alleviating​ ​the​ ​anxiety​ ​which​ ​may​ ​accompany​ ​the​ ​writing​ ​task.

The​ ​teacher´s​ ​first​ ​goal​ ​in​ ​writing​ ​instruction​ ​must​ ​be​ ​to​ ​convince​ ​students​ ​that everybody​ ​can​ ​write​ ​successfully​ ​for​ ​some​ ​purpose,​ ​even​ ​if​ ​the​ ​resulting​ ​writing products​ ​are​ ​quite​ ​different.

Perhaps​ ​the​ ​most​ ​important​ ​barrier​ ​to​ ​break​ ​is​ ​the​ ​feeling​ ​that​ ​“I​ ​have​ ​nothing​ ​to​ ​write about”.​ ​Preparatory​ ​work​ ​prior​ ​to​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​crucial​ ​here-brainstorming​ ​activities, discussions,​ ​and​ ​oral​ ​interactions​ ​of​ ​various​ ​types​ ​such​ ​as​ ​role-play​ ​activities​ ​through which​ ​students​ ​can​ ​discover​ ​they​ ​have​ ​a​ ​lot​ ​to​ ​say​ ​about​ ​the​ ​subject​ ​can​ ​be​ ​most helpful.

CHOOSING​ ​A​ ​TOPIC​ ​AND​ ​CHOOSING​ ​THE​ ​GENRE

​ ​ ​ ​Choosing​ ​a​ ​topic​ ​or​ ​a​ ​theme​ ​for​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​an​ ​important​ ​initial​ ​step​ ​for​ ​classroom writing.​ ​Once​ ​the​ ​students​ ​as​ ​a​ ​group,​ ​or​ ​individual​ ​son​ ​their​ ​own,​ ​have​ ​identified​ ​a topi​ ​con​ ​which​ ​they​ ​want​ ​to​ ​write,​ ​the​ ​next​ ​step​ ​would​ ​be​ ​to​ ​think​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reader​ ​or​ ​the audience​ ​to​ ​whom​ ​the​ ​written​ ​product​ ​would​ ​be​ ​addressed.​ ​The​ ​identification​ ​of​ ​the intended​ ​reader​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​a​ ​whole​ ​list​ ​of​ ​considerations​ ​that​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​thought​ ​out​ ​prior to​ ​the​ ​actual​ ​task​ ​of​ ​writing.

Once​ ​these​ ​questions​ ​have​ ​been​ ​considered,​ ​there​ ​is​ ​often​ ​room​ ​for​ ​the​ ​choice​ ​of​ ​genre as​ ​well.​ ​Will​ ​the​ ​written​ ​product​ ​be​ ​a​ ​story?​ ​Will​ ​it​ ​be​ ​a​ ​factual​ ​description?​ ​Will​ ​it​ ​be in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​a​ ​letter​ ​or​ ​perhaps​ ​an​ ​advertisement​ ​in​ ​a​ ​newspaper?​ ​Sometimes​ ​we​ ​are writing​ ​in​ ​a​ ​situation​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​genre​ ​is​ ​given​ ​and​ ​the​ ​audience​ ​is​ ​well​ ​defined.

Other​ ​times​ ​we​ ​can​ ​make​ ​these​ ​decisions​ ​when​ ​we​ ​engage​ ​in​ ​the​ ​writing​ ​process.

TACTICS​ ​FOR​ ​PLANNING​ ​THE​ ​WRITING​ ​PROCESS

​ ​ ​ ​Many​ ​different​ ​ways​ ​of​ ​planning​ ​for​ ​the​ ​activity​ ​of​ ​writing​ ​have​ ​been​ ​suggested​ ​in the​ ​literature.​ ​One​ ​of​ ​the​ ​best​ ​known​ ​is​ ​that​ ​of​ ​preparing​ ​an​ ​outline​ ​for​ ​the​ ​text​ ​that one​ ​is​ ​going​ ​to​ ​write.​ ​Another​ ​common​ ​and​ ​more​ ​intricate​ ​planning​ ​technique​ ​is preparation​ ​of​ ​a​ ​flowchart.

READING​ ​AS​ ​A​ ​MODEL​ ​FOR​ ​WRITING

​ ​ ​ ​Many​ ​writing​ ​courses​ ​and​ ​certainly​ ​most​ ​autodidactic​ ​strategies​ ​in​ ​writing​ ​involve

using​ ​well-written​ ​passages​ ​from​ ​literature,​ ​or​ ​passages​ ​written​ ​by​ ​others,​ ​as​ ​models for​ ​one's​ ​own​ ​writing.​ ​At​ ​the​ ​least​ ​such​ ​passages​ ​serve​ ​as​ ​stimuli​ ​for​ ​writing​ ​by providing​ ​content​ ​people​ ​want​ ​to​ ​react​ ​to.​ ​Thus,​ ​many​ ​writing​ ​classes​ ​begin​ ​with reading​ ​texts,​ ​analyzing​ ​them,​ ​looking​ ​at​ ​them​ ​from​ ​both​ ​the​ ​reader's​ ​and​ ​writer's perspective,​ ​and​ ​finally​ ​using​ ​them​ ​as​ ​models​ ​for​ ​writing​ ​or​ ​using​ ​them​ ​as​ ​a​ ​piece​ ​of communication​ ​to​ ​respond​ ​to.​ ​The​ ​analysis​ ​of​ ​models​ ​has​ ​the​ ​potential​ ​of​ ​making them​ ​better​ ​writers​ ​once​ ​they​ ​start​ ​writing.

THE​ ​PORTFOLIO

​ ​ ​ ​The​ ​portfolio,​ ​which​ ​is​ ​usually​ ​an​ ​ongoing​ ​collection​ ​of​ ​different​ ​writing assignments​ ​kept​ ​by​ ​the​ ​student​ ​in​ ​a​ ​folder​ ​or​ ​workbook,​ ​has​ ​become​ ​an​ ​important concept​ ​in​ ​developing​ ​writing​ ​skills​ ​and​ ​in​ ​giving​ ​teachers​ ​a​ ​fairer​ ​and​ ​more perceptive​ ​way​ ​to​ ​evaluate.​ ​Each​ ​student​ ​writes​ ​and​ ​rewrites​ ​assignments,​ ​personal messages,​ ​essays,​ ​letters,​ ​summaries,​ ​and​ ​any​ ​other​ ​kind​ ​of​ ​writing​ ​done​ ​for​ ​a​ ​class.​ ​A portfolio​ ​is​ ​also​ ​used​ ​in​ ​preparing​ ​a​ ​longer​ ​writing​ ​Project​ ​that​ ​involves​ ​collecting information​ ​and​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​data​ ​on​ ​a​ ​topic​ ​before​ ​the​ ​actual​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​done.​ ​Thus, students​ ​have​ ​an​ ​opportunity​ ​to​ ​go​ ​through​ ​various​ ​types​ ​of​ ​writing​ ​tasks​ ​within​ ​the larger​ ​Project.

WRITING​ ​AND​ ​REWRITING

​ ​ ​ ​One​ ​of​ ​the​ ​most​ ​important​ ​things​ ​a​ ​writing​ ​class​ ​should​ ​aim​ ​at​ ​is​ ​bringing​ ​the students​ ​to​ ​the​ ​point​ ​where​ ​they​ ​are​ ​willing​ ​to​ ​revise​ ​and​ ​feel​ ​comfortable​ ​about revising​ ​what​ ​they​ ​have​ ​written.​ ​Two​ ​major​ ​techniques​ ​are​ ​helpful​ ​in​ ​this​ ​context: peer​ ​review/feedback​ ​and​ ​self-questioning

Speaking​ ​(chapter​ ​9) ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Learning​ ​to​ ​speak​ ​a​ ​new​ ​language​ ​implies​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​more​ ​than​ ​just​ ​one​ ​skill.​ ​In some​ ​way,​ ​speaking​ ​can​ ​be​ ​considered​ ​the​ ​most​ ​difficult​ ​skill​ ​to​ ​acquire​ ​since​ ​it requires​ ​command​ ​of​ ​both​ ​listening​ ​comprehension​ ​and​ ​speech​ ​production​ ​subskills.

This​ ​chapter​ ​will​ ​deal​ ​with​ ​the​ ​linguistic,​ ​the​ ​sociocultural,​ ​the​ ​contextual​ ​and​ ​the personal​ ​features​ ​of​ ​speaking​ ​in​ ​another​ ​language.

Making​ ​oneself​ ​understood​ ​in​ ​a​ ​second​ ​language:​ ​message​ ​and​ ​medium​ ​in​ ​oral communication. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​In​ ​order​ ​to​ ​interpret​ ​any​ ​spoken​ ​message,​ ​we​ ​need​ ​to​ ​have​ ​a​ ​wealth​ ​of​ ​information beyond​ ​the​ ​linguistic​ ​elements​ ​appearing​ ​in​ ​any​ ​statement​ ​produced​ ​in​ ​the​ ​oral medium​ ​or​ ​channel.​ ​This​ ​distinction​ ​between​ ​speaking​ ​and​ ​writing​ ​is​ ​also​ ​referred​ ​to as​ ​modality.​ ​Misunderstanding​ ​in​ ​oral​ ​communication​ ​can​ ​be​ ​the​ ​result​ ​of: 1. The​ ​speaker​ ​does​ ​not​ ​have​ ​full​ ​command​ ​of​ ​the​ ​target​ ​linguistic​ ​knowledge and​ ​produces​ ​an​ ​unacceptable​ ​or​ ​even​ ​unintelligible​ ​form.

2. The​ ​necessary​ ​background​ ​knowledge​ ​is​ ​not​ ​shared​ ​by​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​and​ ​the hearer.

3. The​ ​speaker​ ​and​ ​the​ ​hearer​ ​do​ ​not​ ​share​ ​sociocultural​ ​rules​ ​of​ ​appropriacy.

The​ ​message​ ​of​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​is​ ​to​ ​be​ ​understood​ ​and​ ​for​ ​the​ ​message​ ​to​ ​be​ ​properly interpreted​ ​by​ ​the​ ​hearer(s).​ ​The​ ​speaker’s​ ​intention​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​be​ ​communicated​ ​but a​ ​‘faulty’​ ​production​ ​of​ ​any​ ​of​ ​the​ ​three​ ​areas​ ​may​ ​create​ ​a​ ​piece​ ​of​ ​spoken discourse​ ​that​ ​gets​ ​misunderstood.​ ​To​ ​ensure​ ​proper​ ​interpretation: - Factors​ ​of​ ​form.

- Factors​ ​of​ ​appropriacy.

- Speaker’s​ ​linguistic​ ​competence.

The​ ​interactive​ ​perspective​ ​of​ ​oral​ ​communication.

The​ ​speaker​ ​initiates​ ​the​ ​interaction​ ​with​ ​a​ ​communicative​ ​intention​ ​that​ ​is​ ​to​ ​be realized​ ​through​ ​verbal​ ​utterances​ ​that​ ​make​ ​use​ ​of​ ​the​ ​speaker’s​ ​language knowledge​ ​and​ ​repertoire​ ​of​ ​speaking​ ​skills​ ​and​ ​communication​ ​strategies.​ ​The hearer,​ ​on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​brings​ ​her/his​ ​own​ ​set​ ​of​ ​presuppositions​ ​and expectations​ ​to​ ​the​ ​interaction​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​interpret​ ​the​ ​speaker’s​ ​message,​ ​and​ ​later react​ ​to​ ​it​ ​by​ ​changing​ ​roles​ ​and​ ​becoming​ ​the​ ​speaker.

Choosing​ ​the​ ​linguistic​ ​features ​ ​ ​In​ ​producing​ ​spoken​ ​discourse,​ ​speakers​ ​use​ ​their​ ​grammatical​ ​competence​ ​in order​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​linguistically​ ​acceptable​ ​utterances​ ​in​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language.​ ​Besides, a​ ​meaningful​ ​piece​ ​of​ ​discourse​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​context​ ​and​ ​there​ ​is​ ​cohesion​ ​and coherence.​ ​Levelt​ ​(1978)​ ​identified​ ​three​ ​important​ ​contextual​ ​factors​ ​in​ ​speech production:​ ​demand​,​ ​arousal​ ​and​ ​feedback​.​ ​Demand​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of processing​ ​required​ ​by​ ​a​ ​task.​ ​Arousal​ ​is​ ​the​ ​speaker’s​ ​emotional​ ​and​ ​cognitive response​ ​to​ ​a​ ​task​ ​and​ ​relates​ ​to​ ​the​ ​importance​ ​that​ ​the​ ​individual​ ​attaches​ ​to​ ​the communicative​ ​interaction.​ ​Thirdly,​ ​feedback​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​what​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​receives from​ ​the​ ​listener(s)​ ​and​ ​the​ ​wider​ ​environment​ ​and​ ​affects​ ​the​ ​performance.

The​ ​linguistic​ ​features​ ​have​ ​a​ ​serious​ ​impact​ ​on​ ​successful​ ​production​ ​of​ ​spoken discourse;​ ​however,​ ​sociocultural​ ​norms​ ​may​ ​play​ ​an​ ​even​ ​more​ ​significant​ ​role​ ​in successful​ ​interaction.​ ​In​ ​English,​ ​for​ ​instance,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​not​ ​polite​ ​to​ ​express

disagreement​ ​in​ ​a​ ​direct​ ​manner.​ ​That​ ​is​ ​why​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​have​ ​reached​ ​a certain​ ​level​ ​of​ ​language​ ​knowledge.​ ​In​ ​the​ ​process​ ​of​ ​speech​ ​production,​ ​language ability​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​be​ ​combined​ ​with​ ​sociocultural​ ​considerations.

Adhering​ ​to​ ​rules​ ​of​ ​appropriacy ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Sociocultural​ ​rules​ ​of​ ​appropriacy​ ​are​ ​viewed​ ​today​ ​as​ ​an​ ​integral​ ​part​ ​of​ ​a person’s​ ​communicative​ ​competence.​ ​The​ ​field​ ​of​ ​pragmatics​ ​includes​ ​the​ ​study​ ​of social​ ​situations​ ​and​ ​it​ ​consists​ ​of​ ​two​ ​subfields: - Pragmalinguistics:​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​language​ ​in​ ​context.

- Sociopragmatics:​ ​societal​ ​rules​ ​of​ ​behaviour.

Both​ ​subfields​ ​are​ ​concerned​ ​with:​ ​the​ ​characteristics​ ​of​ ​the​ ​individuals​ ​who​ ​take part​ ​in​ ​the​ ​communicative​ ​exchange​ ​(age,​ ​social​ ​status,​ ​social​ ​distance);​ ​features​ ​of the​ ​situation​ ​in​ ​which​ ​this​ ​exchange​ ​takes​ ​place;​ ​the​ ​goal​ ​of​ ​the​ ​exchange;​ ​features of​ ​the​ ​communicative​ ​medium.

Sociocultural​ ​norms​ ​need​ ​to​ ​become​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​speaker’s​ ​knowledge.​ ​Furthermore, speakers​ ​will​ ​have​ ​to​ ​make​ ​choices​ ​with​ ​respect​ ​to​ ​register.​ ​A​ ​more​ ​intimate​ ​and casual​ ​register​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​immediate​ ​and​ ​familiar​ ​contexts​ ​while​ ​a​ ​more​ ​formal register​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​occupational​ ​on​ ​everyday​ ​situations.

Maxims​ ​of​ ​oral​ ​interaction ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Grice​ ​suggests​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​four​ ​maxims​ ​that​ ​apply​ ​when​ ​natural​ ​conversation functions​ ​efficiently: A. The​ ​maxim​ ​of​ ​quantity​:​ ​the​ ​provision​ ​of​ ​necessary​ ​information​ ​by​ ​the​ ​speaker, not​ ​too​ ​much​ ​and​ ​not​ ​too​ ​little.

B. The​ ​maxim​ ​of​ ​quality​:​ ​the​ ​speaker’s​ ​conviction​ ​that​ ​he/she​ ​is​ ​stating​ ​the​ ​truth and​ ​the​ ​hearer​ ​accepts​ ​the​ ​utterances​ ​made​ ​by​ ​the​ ​speaker.

C. The​ ​maxim​ ​of​ ​relevance​:​ ​relevance​ ​of​ ​what​ ​is​ ​being​ ​said.

D. The​ ​maxim​ ​of​ ​manner​:​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​coherent,​ ​well-presented​ ​utterance.

Participating​ ​in​ ​oral​ ​interaction ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Maintaining​ ​the​ ​flow​ ​of​ ​speech:​ ​transferring​ ​ideas​ ​from​ ​one​ ​interactant​ ​to​ ​the other.

- Turn-taking​ ​rules:​ ​change​ ​roles​ ​constantly​ ​and​ ​constructing​ ​shared​ ​meaning by​ ​maintaining​ ​the​ ​flow​ ​of​ ​talk.

- Conversation​ ​analysis​:​ ​it​ ​describes​ ​the​ ​sequences​ ​that​ ​are​ ​developed​ ​and​ ​the sequential​ ​constraints​ ​that​ ​are​ ​characteristic​ ​of​ ​the​ ​natural​ ​flow​ ​of conversation.​ ​A​ ​native​ ​speaker​ ​knows​ ​how​ ​to​ ​function​ ​at​ ​the​ ​transition​ ​points.

Accommodating​ ​the​ ​hearer(s):​ ​the​ ​speaker​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​accommodate​ ​the​ ​hearer, facilitate​ ​the​ ​interpretation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​spoken​ ​message,​ ​maintain​ ​eye​ ​contact​ ​and​ ​pay careful​ ​attention​ ​to​ ​the​ ​hearer’s​ ​body​ ​language. ​ ​Interacting​ ​as​ ​a​ ​speaker​ ​in​ ​a​ ​new​ ​lñanguage​ ​requires​ ​self-awareness​ ​and self-evaluation​ ​and​ ​a​ ​considerable​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​tolerance​ ​and​ ​accommodation.

Learners​ ​of​ ​a​ ​second/foreign​ ​language​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​exposed​ ​to​ ​a​ ​variety​ ​of​ ​situations in​ ​which​ ​such​ ​exchanges​ ​take​ ​place.​ ​But​ ​above​ ​all,​ ​nonnative​ ​speakers​ ​need​ ​to posses​ ​communication​ ​strategies​ ​that​ ​can​ ​facilitate​ ​and​ ​make​ ​adjustments​ ​in incomplete​ ​or​ ​failing​ ​interactions.​ ​Nonnative​ ​speakers’​ ​communication​ ​strategies differed​ ​from​ ​native​ ​speakers’​ ​strategies​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​frequency​ ​and​ ​formulation​ ​types rather​ ​than​ ​in​ ​mental​ ​processes.​ ​Can​ ​strategy-based​ ​instruction​ ​improve​ ​speaking ability​ ​in​ ​a​ ​second​ ​or​ ​foreign​ ​language?​ ​The​ ​results​ ​indicate​ ​that​ ​an​ ​integration​ ​of strategy​ ​training​ ​with​ ​the​ ​regular​ ​language​ ​instruction​ ​taking​ ​place​ ​in​ ​the​ ​classroom can​ ​improve​ ​learners’​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​communicate​ ​through​ ​spoken​ ​discourse.

Some​ ​prerequisites​ ​for​ ​speaking​ ​in​ ​another​ ​language ​ ​ ​ ​ ​The​ ​linguistic,​ ​sociocultural​ ​and​ ​discourse​ ​competencies​ ​ensure​ ​better​ ​oral communication​ ​and​ ​are​ ​part​ ​of​ ​discourse​ ​knowledge: a) knowing​ ​the​ ​vocabulary​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​the​ ​situation. b) ability​ ​to​ ​use​ ​discourse​ ​connectors​ ​(well,​ ​ok,​ ​etc.). c) ability​ ​to​ ​use​ ​suitable​ ​opening​ ​and​ ​closing​ ​phrases​ ​(excuse​ ​me). d) ability​ ​to​ ​comprehend​ ​and​ ​use​ ​reduced​ ​forms. e) knowing​ ​the​ ​syntax​ ​for​ ​producing​ ​basic​ ​clauses​ ​in​ ​the​ ​language. f) ability​ ​to​ ​use​ ​the​ ​basic​ ​intonation,​ ​patterns​ ​of​ ​the​ ​language. g) ability​ ​to​ ​use​ ​proper​ ​rhythm​ ​and​ ​stress​ ​with​ ​the​ ​proper​ ​pauses. h) awareness​ ​of​ ​how​ ​to​ ​apply​ ​Grice’s​ ​maxims. i) knowing​ ​how​ ​to​ ​use​ ​the​ ​interlocutors’​ ​reactions​ ​and​ ​input. j) awareness​ ​of​ ​the​ ​various​ ​conversational​ ​rules​ ​that​ ​facilitate​ ​the​ ​flow​ ​of​ ​talk.

Speaking​ ​in​ ​the​ ​language​ ​classroom​​ ​should​ ​enable​ ​students​ ​to​ ​gain​ ​experience using​ ​all​ ​the​ ​‘prerequisites’​ ​for​ ​effective​ ​oral​ ​communication.​ ​What​ ​makes​ ​a classroom​ ​activity​ ​useful​ ​for​ ​speaking​ ​practice?​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​authentic​ ​opportunity​ ​to​ ​get individual​ ​meanings​ ​and​ ​utilize​ ​every​ ​area​ ​of​ ​knowledge.​ ​Students​ ​should​ ​become flexible​ ​users​ ​of​ ​their​ ​knowledge​ ​through: - role​ ​play - group​ ​discussions - using​ ​the​ ​target​ ​language​ ​outside​ ​the​ ​classroom - using​ ​the​ ​learner’s​ ​input - feedback - authentic​ ​speech

BIBLIOGRAPHY​: -

Celce-Murcia,​ ​M.​ ​&​ ​Olshtain,​ ​E.​ ​(2000):​ ​Discourse​ ​and​ ​Context​ ​in​ ​Language Teaching.​ ​A​ ​ ​ ​Guide​ ​for​ ​Language​ ​Teachers.​ ​Chapters​ ​6,​ ​7,​ ​8​ ​&;​ ​9.​ ​U.K.: CUP.