Architectural Expression through Bricks

Architectural Expressions Through Bricks Dissertation to be submitted for the award of the degree of

Bachelors of Architecture Milan Kapoor 0233AR171006

Hitkarini College of Architecture and Town Planning, Jabalpur

Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

January (2020-21)

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Synopsis entitled “Architectural expressions through bricks” submitted by Milan Kapoor to Hitkarini College of Architecture and Town Planning for the award of the degree of bachelors of Architecture, is Bonafide record of the research work which will be carried out by him under my supervision and guidance. This B.Arch. Dissertation Synopsis along with recommendation is being forwarded for the Director.

-----------------------------Ar. Ashima C. Grover Dissertation Guide

-----------------------------Ar. Dhananjay Deshpande Director

Place: JABALPUR Date: January 8, 2021

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INTRODUCTION Bricks, one of the most important building materials in the field of architecture, its history goes back to some of the earliest times in the civilization of men. The rich alluvial soil of the Indo-Gangetic Plains is the prime reason for the extensive use of bricks in the plains.

Burnt bricks have been used in construction from the time of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

The cultural landscape of Punjab is dotted with bricks kilns making it the most widely used and common material for building across north India. [1]

Many world-famous archaeological excavations provide much information about the brick uses in different parts of the world. Beautiful examples of bricks have been found in the 20th century in India. Indian brick industry, the second-largest producer of bricks, run as a small sector with more than 150,000 brickfields throughout the country, each unit manufacture on an average between 10-100 million bricks per year. [2]

Brick is the back-bone of construction activity In India, The Gangetic plain of north India accounts for 65% of the total brick production. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and west Bangle are the major brick producing states in this region.

Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa. Tramlined, Madhya Pradesh is the important brick producing states in the Peninsular Plateau and coastal area of India [2]

Bricks have been used not just as masonry walls but have also been used to create structural elements such as domes, columns, and arches. Brick is also used for making jaalis, ensuring privacy and allowing circulation of air within the houses and courtyard.

Brick is usually used in conjunction with a blinder which is traditionally lime. Lime plaster, known as chunaambu in Tamil and and aarayaish in Rajasthan, is further enhanced by the addition of organic items such as eggshells, cow dung, milk, pigments of colours, etc. animal glues are also used as binders in paints and plasters. [1]

In the post-modern era use of brick evolved a great extent, architects started using bricks as finishing material in both exterior as well as interior facades. Brick is one of the most popular materials for architects designing with a vintage or rustic aesthetic: exposed brick walls are often touted as highly desirable for apartments, restaurants, and stores,

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and exterior brick facades can make a building or home feel warmer and more inviting. [3]

In this study we will be exploring different styles, patterns, combinations, and different design principles created through bricks and architectural expression, expressed through them.

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MOTIVATION FOR STUDY •

To Bring brick finishing into limelight.

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Brick being a budget friendly and economical element.

• Brick, degree of use is very vast.

AIM This study aims to explore Architectural Expressions created through bricks, in buildings of post-modern era.

Architectural Expressions – Expression is termed as art of expressing something so Expressions in architecture implies a clear authentic displaying of character of a building

OBJECTIVES •

To explore bricks as key material in construction industry.

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To understand the role of brick in post-modern era.

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To Observe the evolution of, expressions made through bricks w.r.t time.

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To understand how Brick, create different architectural expressions.

buildings of post-modern era –buildings made in late 20th century

SCOPE •

This study will play a vital role in understanding how brick finishing can create different architecture expressions.

• This study will act as a tool to understand the role of brick in post-modern era.

• This study will play a vital role in exploring expressions created through bricks.

LIMITATIONS •

The research will mainly be focused on bricks as finishing material.

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The study will only cover buildings of the postmodern era.

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The study will only be focused on explorations and no design solutions will be drawn.

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This study will not cover hospitality, industrial and agricultural buildings.

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METHODOLOGY

METHODOLOGY

LITERATURE

DOCUMENTARIES

BOOKS

RESEARCH PAPERS

EXPRESSIONS

CONCLUSION

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ARTICLES

LITERATURE CASE STUDY

SOUTH ASIA HUMAN RIGHTS DOCUMENTATION CENTRE,NEW DELHI

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INDIAN STUDIES

MAYA SOMAIYA LIBRARY, SHARDA SCHOOL

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BRICKS ............................................................... 9 HISTORY OF BRICKS ................................................................................................ 9 EVOLUTION OF BRICKS ........................................................................................ 10 The Ancient Period .................................................................................................. 10 Lothal ....................................................................................................................... 11 The Medieval Period ............................................................................................... 11 The Sultanate Period................................................................................................ 12 The Mughal Period .................................................................................................. 12 The Colonial Period ................................................................................................. 12 TYPES OF BRICKS ................................................................................................... 13 Common Burnt Clay Bricks .................................................................................... 14 Sand lime brick ........................................................................................................ 15 Engineering Bricks .................................................................................................. 15 Concrete Bricks ....................................................................................................... 15 Fly Ash Bricks ......................................................................................................... 16 MATERIAL COMPOSITION .................................................................................... 16 POST MODERNISM ..................................................................................................... 17 WHAT IS POST MODERN ERA .............................................................................. 17 Characteristic of The Postmodern Era ..................................................................... 17 ARCHITECTURE STYLE OF POST-MODERN ERA ............................................ 17 Abstractionism ......................................................................................................... 17 Ornamentation ......................................................................................................... 18 Neo-Traditional and Modern Indian Vernacular ..................................................... 19 Humour .................................................................................................................... 19 Juxtaposition and Layering...................................................................................... 20 Metaphor & Symbolism .......................................................................................... 20

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Narrative .................................................................................................................. 21 Cosmology ............................................................................................................... 21 Deconstruction ......................................................................................................... 22 Multi-valence ........................................................................................................... 22 ROLE OF BRICK IN POST MODERN ERA ............................................................ 22 PERMUTATIONS OF BRICK IN POST MODERN ERA ....................................... 23 SIZE ......................................................................................................................... 23 Standard & Nominal Brick size in India ................................................................. 23 SHAPE .................................................................................................................... 24 COLOUR ................................................................................................................. 28 MASONARY .......................................................................................................... 28 VOLUMES .............................................................................................................. 30 CASE STUDIES ............................................................................................................. 33 Case study 1 - South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre / Anagram Architects ..................................................................................................................................... 33 Case study 2 - Maya Somaiya Library, Sharda School ............................................... 40 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 45 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 46 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 48 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 49

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BRICKS

HISTORY OF BRICKS Brick has been used from ancient time to date as a basic building material for any kind of construction. The connotation of the term 'Brick’ has undergone a change. Any building material made of clay was earlier understood as brick, but now the term connotes a building material with a particular shape regardless of the raw material used in making it. "It is interpreted as nothing but a rectangular prism of suitable size that can be handled, conveniently”. Generally, two types of bricks - clay and calcium silicate (Sand lime bricks) - are found to be used in construction. Though some of the items such as plastering can be saved by using sand lime bricks, clay bricks are more popular and widely used.

Very recently fly ash brick has been introduced. [4] The history of brick making is intimately associated with human civilisation from remote pre-historic period. The history of brick manufacturing deserves close study in terms of archaeological findings and analysis of ecology and socioeconomic situations of communities and nations of the ancient world that predominantly covered Western Asia, India, Egypt, the Eastern Mediterranean, the Far East, and the America distinguished by the emergence of the Aztec and the Inca civilisations. In fact, the annals of urban civilisations of antiquity are often linked with the technical progress in making bricks and tiles, either sun backed or kiln-burnt. Thus, for instance, "At Ur in Mesopotamia the Early Dynastic graves are, apart from their contents, interesting architecturally, for they illustrate the use of stone of the dom, of corbelling and the barrel vault for the constructions of which stones, kiln fired bricks, as well as mud-bricks were used. [4] In India the use of baked bricks dates back to the great age of the Indus civilisation.

The famous granary at Mohenjo-Daro as also the towers and buildings of the ancient citadel were built of burnt bricks in combination with wooden beams. The later after being decomposed, have left vacant square holes and grooves. There is evidence to show that the reinforcing timber could be at times 5" square. The exposed city has amply shown that. the constructions were provided with ventilation and weep holes when necessary.

Furthermore, it may be assumed on obvious grounds that the kiln-burnt bricks were transported to the masons by means of ox-drawn wagons fitted on characteristic wheels.

A comparable construction of a stupendous nature has been met with at Kausambi, the

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ancient Capital of Vats as and their king Udayana. Dating from 500 B.C. the great ramparts of Kausambi makes one remember its much earlier counter-parts at Harappa.

The ramparts of Kausambi consisted of a mud bank faced externally with a backward sloping baked brick wall which beside the eastern gate, still remains to a height of 154 courses. Near the base, the wall had begun to bulge and weep-holes had been cut through it to relieve the pressure. Within the defences were well built brick houses and a famous Buddhist monastery. The utilisation bricks, baked or unbaked, has been observed at the late Harappan site of Rupar that is situated in the vicinity of Chandigarh, Haryana.

Excavations done on the mound of Bupar have exposed construction of both burnt and unburnt bricks, the mud being used as mortar or the cementing agent. [4] Somewhat comparable is the situation at Lothal describable as a miniature Mohenjo-Daro. The alluvial marshy lowland to which the mound of Lothal belongs is situated in Ahmedabad District of Gujrat though its proximity to Saurastra is also significant in term of regional manifestation of the great civilisation of the Indus valley.

What will be relevant here is a brief summing up of the result of the excavations at Lothal done by S.R. Rao. Sankalia recounts, "The Town was divided into six blocks, each built on an extensive mud-brick platform of a varying height. So far four streets two from north to south and two from east to west, with two sides lanes have emerged from the excavations. On one side of a street lies a row of 12 houses. [4]

EVOLUTION OF BRICKS Progress appears to have been along two main vectors. First gross functionalism was replaced with better lines, forms and pattern with progressively greater intricacies in internal and external decorations. Second, materials and systems of construction were improved to perform better after each observed failure. Sustained development along these two lines possibly triggered ancient Indian sages to combine material and spiritual aspects and lay the ground rules of habitat, settlement, and its basic unit home in the Shilpa-Sastra.

The Ancient Period The earliest evidence of the use of adobe for constructing house in rectangular forms in the subcontinent dates to 7000 BC. There are over 1000 Harappa sites across the Indian

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subcontinent of which Mohenjo-Daro, Taxila, Harappa and Lothal are better known.

Building materials in use were stone, mud adobe and hard baked clay bricks.

Different brick sizes used in ancient period [5] [6] [7] [8] •

Pre-Harappa – 30 x 20 x 10 cm

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Post-Harappa – 50 to 25 x 25 to 12.5 x 12.5 to 6.35 cm.

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Early-Harappa – 33 to 27.9 x 15.2 to 12.7 x 12.7 to 8.9 cm.

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Early Historical – 60 to 20 x 31.75 to 16 x 10 to 5 cm.

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Late Historical – 60 to 11 x 28.6 x 8 12 to 4 cm.

These only exemplify the variety of brick sizes but do not exhaust the innumerable sizes found in excavated buildings in different sites.

Lothal Lothal brick-makers used a logical approach in manufacture of bricks, designed with care in regards to thickness of structures. They were used as headers and stretchers in same and alternate layers. Archaeologists estimate that in most cases, the bricks were in ratio 1:0.5:0.25 on three sides, in dimensions which were integral multiples of large graduations of Lothal scale of 25 mm.

From 1100 to around 300 BC there is little evidence of use of hard baked clay bricks. What happened to the old technology is not known. Between 5th and 3rd century BC Nalanda, Bihar. The shrine is made of baked bricks with stucco figures done in lime.

The monasteries at Nalanda were made of bricks and superstructures were supported on wooden beams.

Since the imperial Maurya burnt brick have been continuously in use as building materials in the alluvial plains of India. Temple at Bhitargaon dating to the Gupta period, this temple is made of hard-baked bricks and mortar.

The Medieval Period Relatively, fever examples of dwelling units survive. It is, however, quite clear that stone, timber, biomass and brick were the main building material for the common man.

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The Sultanate Period Islam had its impact on construction in the subcontinent. The Indian subcontinent has a long history of trade and commerce with west Asian tribes. The Sultanate was established in India. Constructions of Qutbuddin Aibak and his successors proved to be one of the three principal influences on later Mughal architecture.

However, it is clear that during this period the primary materials continued to be stone, Brick and timber. While techniques may be improved materials remained the same.

The Mughal Period Both Babar and Humayun are credited with having taken up constructions which would influence later Mughal constructions. In the architectural sense, the Mughal period can be divided into the Mughal and the Imperial Mughal periods. In the earlier period, the construction was generally simple.

Evidence shows that houses of the nobility and wealthy men were made of stone and burnt bricks. Houses built of un-burnt bricks have collapsed. This shows that constructions even of wealthy people required regular repairs and maintenance. The dominant material in these constructions is stone which was quarried locally.

The Colonial Period The advent of the British and the establishment of the Raj across the Indian subcontinent led to interesting constructions and extensive use of local materials. The most extensive constructions by the British were the Dak bungalows. The foundation and walls were made of local bricks, bonded with surkhi and lime until these were replaced with cement.

With the British came ordinary Portland cement, Victorian bricks and steel as key building materials. Also, with the British came the bull’s trench kiln to produce burnt clay bricks. The earliest Bull’s trench kiln was established off Mapla in Hooghly district, about 100 years ago. This brick field is still in operation and its bricks sell under the brand name ‘Kishori”. With the establishment of the Bull’s kiln-based mass production of brick, building materials emerge as an industry. Later cement and steel also came to be produced in India.

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For the ancient period until the end of the British Raj, the dominant materials have been mud, adobe, stone, sundry bricks, baked bricks, lime and timber. Steel and cement introduced by the British.

DIFFERENT BRICK SIZES [5]

BRICK

SIZE

TIME PERIOD

(CM.)

EXAMPLE (AHMEDABAD)

30 X 22.5 X 7.5-8

Sultanate Period

Bhadra Fort

20 X 14 X 4-5

16th Century

Bhadra Fort

22.8 X 10.7 X 6.9

19th Century

Town Hall

10 X 10 X 20

20th Century

AMC Building

TYPES OF BRICKS There are many types of bricks available in the Indian construction industry with different shapes, dimensions, color, and composition. nowadays bricks are customizable according to the need of the buyer.

The most common bricks that are used in India are – 1. Common Burnt Clay Bricks 2. Sand Lime Bricks 3. Engineering Bricks 4. Concrete Bricks 5. Fly ash Bricks

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Common Burnt Clay Bricks Common Burnt Clay Bricks are shaped by pressing in moulds. Then these bricks are dried in a hot kiln.

Common Burnt Clay Bricks are employed in general work with no special enticing appearances. Once these bricks are employed in walls, they need covering or rendering.

Common Burnt Clay Bricks are classified into different types such as: 1. Class 1 2. Class 2 3. Class 3 Class 1 These are the finest quality of common burnt clay bricks available in the market. Its cost is highest among the three. Class 1 Bricks are the ideal burnt bricks.

Some of the features of Class 1 Bricks are: Table-Moulded Bricks, Pointy Edges and Smoother Surfaces without any Irregularities, Bright & Uniform in colour, Higher Compressive Strength of about 105 kg/cm2, Used as a Load Bearing Wall in almost all Civil Structures and, Water Absorption should not exceed 20% when soaked in water for 24 hours.

Class 2 These are also good quality Bricks but is slightly inferior to Class 1 Bricks. Class 2 bricks may be slightly overburnt or under burnt. Class 2 Bricks are the second choice of the engineers in terms of quality.

Some of the features of the Class 2 Bricks are: Ground-Moulded Bricks, Curved Edges with Surface Irregularities, Bright & Uniform in Colour, Compressive Strength less than Class 1 Bricks of about 70 kg/cm2, It is also used as Load Bearing Walls, Water Absorption should not exceed 22% when soaked in water for 24 hours.

Class 3 These are the lowest quality Bricks which are used in masonry. Class 3 Bricks are overburnt or under burnt bricks. Class 3 Bricks are chosen only when the budget of the

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construction is very low or the structure is not permanent in nature and only be used for some time.

Some of the properties of the Class 3 Bricks are: Ground-Moulded Bricks, Broken Edges and Highly Uneven Surface, Dull & Non-Uniform in Colour, Compressive Strength is lowest among the three of about 30 kg/cm2, Used for Temporary Structures, Water Absorption should not exceed 25% when soaked in water for 24 hours.

Sand lime brick Sand Lime Bricks are second in the list of different types of bricks. Sand Lime Bricks are created by combining sand, ash, and lime followed by a chemical action throughout wet mixing. The combination is then shaped under pressure forming the brick.

These bricks offer benefits over clay bricks such as: Their colour look is grey rather than the regular crimson colour.

Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother end that doesn’t need covering.

These bricks provide wonderful strength as a supporting member.

Engineering Bricks Engineering Bricks are third on the list of different types of bricks. Engineering Bricks are bricks factory-made at extraordinarily high temperatures, forming a dense and powerful brick, permitting the brick to limit strength and water absorption.

Engineering Bricks provide wonderful load bearing capability damp-proof characteristics and chemical resisting properties. These bricks are employed in specific construction works and they will price higher than the regular or ordinary bricks.

Concrete Bricks Concrete Bricks are fourth in the list of different types of bricks. Concrete Bricks are made of solid concrete and are quite common among homebuilders.

Concrete Bricks are typically placed in facades, fences, and supply a superb aesthetic presence. These bricks are often factory-made to supply totally different colours and can be pigmented while its production.

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Fly Ash Bricks Fly Ash Bricks are fifth on the list of different types of bricks. Fly Ash Bricks are factorymade with clay and ash, at about 1,000 degrees Celsius.

Some studies have shown that these bricks tend to fail, once bricks get in contact with wetness and water, inflicting the bricks to expand.

MATERIAL COMPOSITION There are two main types of brick: building bricks and refractory bricks.

Building bricks are made of clay with at least one "presentable" face. This is how they are made: 1. A brickwork, or plant where bricks are made, is located near a clay supply.

2. Screening & filtering: In a brickwork, rocks and impurities are removed from a batch of clay.

3. Mix: Water and clay are mixed together and machines knead the mix (think of giant machines kneading bread).

4. Extrusion: The soft mixture is squeezed through a rectangular hole to take its shape.

5. Cut: A wire cuts the long shapes of clay into individual, smaller bricks.

6. Dry: The bricks get moved to drying rooms where the moisture evaporates in about one day.

7. Fire: The bricks are turned into the hard building bricks we know via a kiln. the temperature varies per the clay mix.

Refractory bricks are made in a different way because they are used in applications with much higher temperatures. Hydraulic rams compress the clay for a denser brick before they go into the kiln.

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POST MODERNISM WHAT IS POST MODERN ERA Postmodernism is an international architectural movement that emerged in the 1960s became prominent in the late 1970s and '80s and remained a dominant force in the '90s. the postmodernist moment is often seen as an American moment, starting in the USA around the 1960s-1970s and spreading to the rest of the world. [9] the movement largely has been a reaction against the austerity, simplicity, and functional design approach of the modern architecture international style. rejection of strict rules set by the early modernist and seeks high spirits in the use of building techniques, angles, and stylistic references.

Characteristic of The Postmodern Era the aim of the postmodern era or late modernism or late modernism begins with its reaction to modernism it tries to address the limitations of its predecessors. the communication is done by quoting extensively from past architectural styles, often many at once. in breaking away from modernism, it also strives to produce buildings that are sensitive to the context within which they are built. postmodern architecture rejects the notion of " pure " or " perfect " form, instead, it draws from, all methods, materials, forms, and colours available to architects. moves away the neutral white colours seen in modernism.

With the revival of traditional elements and techniques post-modernist looked into past architecture to learn from it. classical designs such as domes, arches, and pillars were used in a new almost humorous way just to send a message to modernist people. The 1990s. [9] ARCHITECTURE STYLE OF POST-MODERN ERA Abstractionism Historicism often found its expression in post-modern architecture through the use of abstracted traditional forms. Stanley Tigerman’s use of Ionic silhouettes for the Pensacola Place Apartments, Chicago, is a classic example of western abstractionism. Similar use of abstracted historic forms as cultural references in contemporary Indian architecture actually started long before the international postmodernist debate, and this strain continues to thrive in agreement with the international development.

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Several instances of Indian abstractionism have religious associations. In the Mazhar of President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, designed by Habib Rahman, the architect uses an abstraction of the silhouette of the Taj Mahal. In the Dakshin Delhi Kalibari Temple by Sumit Ghosh, we witness abstracted forms of a Bengal Roof in the garbha griha, and a temple shikhara fused with a multiple conoid base which represents the traditional Kalibaris. The Prarthana Mandir of the Ramkrishna Mission Vidyapith in Purulia, West Bengal, by Sunil Pal and Ramananda Bandopadhyay, employs a mushroom-like dome atop a tower, decorated with abstracted leaf forms, to symbolize the Panchavati. By their very nature, religious structures probably demand cultural references in order to convey continuity in meaning to the lay-people. However, these references were not mere copying of historic shapes and forms but a creative response through abstraction and transformation which makes them post-modern, in contrast to the earlier Indo- Saracenic works of British architects in India.

The use of abstractionism is also evident in some non-religious buildings. In the School for Spastic Children in New Delhi by Romi Khosla, the form of rock-cut caves of Ajanta symbolize protection and shelter. Again, in the Oberoi Hotel in Bhubaneswar by Satish Grover, the plan form of the Hindu temple and the Buddhist vihara evolve to create an interesting sequence of spaces. [9]

Ornamentation Ornamentation re-emerged in postmodernism as a noticeable shift from the modernist paradigm of minimalism. The employment of sculptures and murals was an integral part of traditional Indian architecture, and understandably, it became one of the key features adopted in the Indian experiments of post-modernity. The ISCON Temple, New Delhi and the Lake Kalibari, Kolkata, designed by the first-generation modernist master Achyut Kanvinde, show elements of ornamentation which may well be identified as post-modern.

C. P. Kukreja’s buildings at the IIM Lucknow campus are notable examples of employing decorative elements in post-modern Indian building façades. Several instances of graphic elements may be noted at Charles Correa’s Jawahar Kala Kendra, which, though metaphorical, are also decorations in their own right. The relief murals in concrete at the Mahindra College Campus by Christopher Beninger, and the painted murals in the style of the Kalighat Patachitra, employed by Charles Correa at The City Centre, Kolkata, also exemplify the same trend, though they are rather understated and may also be paralleled to Le Corbusier’s use of murals in Chandigarh.

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Hafeez contractor’s design of Hiranandani Gardens, like many of his other works, employs a profusion of decorative elements inspired by western classical architecture, and is reminiscent of the works of Ricardo Bofill. A number of commercial developments all over India follow this trend of decorative pastiche façades fixed on to utilitarian modernist plans, in line with Robert Venturi’s concept of a ‘decorated shed’. [9]

Neo-Traditional and Modern Indian Vernacular The use of “pitched roofs, chunky detailing, picturesque massing and brick” was the hallmark of a neo-vernacular post-modernism in the western world but the inspiration from traditional Indian building practices came in various forms: materials, building technology, shilpaic canons, settlement patterns, and aesthetic values. While some of the resultant architecture is visually identifiable as having vernacular inspiration, some appear rather modernist despite being rooted in traditional empirical knowledge. The fuzziness between modern and post-modern is most pronounced while examining this trait.

Nari Gandhi’s residences, Gerard da Cunha’s Nritya gram, and Laurie Baker’s works, like St. John’s Cathedral, Tiruvalla, display the use of traditional building forms, vernacular technology, and materials like stone, bamboo, brick, mud and thatch.

Appukuttam Nair and Narayan Rao’s Kalakshetra Theatre in Chennai, and Charles Correa’s Crafts Museum in New Delhi are excellent examples of interpretation of vernacular architecture in a modern typology. While the Craft Museum draws inspiration from the Indian village, the historic cities of North India serve as models for a large number of housing developments like Raj Rewal’s Asiad Village, and Charles Correa’s Tara Housing. In these designs, the streets, chowks, and the courtyards regain their importance as important living spaces. The Hotel Mughal Sheraton, Agra, by Arvind Gupta and Associates, employs patterns derived of Mughal architecture, while B. V. Doshi draws his inspiration from Fatehpur Sikri in his layout of IIM Bangalore. Darshan Kumar Bubbar’s Methodist Centre in Mumbai is based on the Chandita Mandala, and is articulated through an indigenous system of proportions, yet remaining utilitarian and modernist in appearance. [9]

Humour Tigerman’s Hot Dog House is said to find justification in its attempt to make his client laugh. Though it would be difficult to cite such striking examples of humour in 19

contemporary Indian architecture, it has been well employed in the designing of interior spaces. Charles Correa’s use of Mario Miranda’s cartoons of theatre-goers in the Kala Akademi, Goa, reflect an underplayed wit, while the graphics and installations at the MTV Office, Bangalore, by Khosla Associates, are examples of the frivolous and kitsch.

Correa’s use of trompe l’oeil and stage set decorations in Hotel Cidade de Goa, Panjim, creates an interesting and humorous interplay of the real and unreal.

A very different variety of humour, albeit unintended, is aroused by the pastiche façade decorations, which Gautam Bhatia sarcastically refers to as Punjabi Baroque, Bania Gothic, Marwari Mannerism, Anglo-Indian Rococo, etc Though the grotesque may not always qualify as humour in architecture, it is important to note these as valid post-modern tendencies. Also, these may well have been the architects’ attempts to humour their clients, just like Tigerman. [9]

Juxtaposition and Layering Post-modernism, by its inherent eclecticism, fosters the concurrent use of culturally dissimilar elements. The two opposing approaches to this would be in seeking harmony in the variety, and in the celebration of the juxtaposition through highlighting the contrast.

Hafeez Contractor’s design for the Global Training Centre at Infosys campus, Mysore, is a particularly stunning example of juxtaposition where a Parthenon-like classical façade is flanked by wings of minimalist modern blocks on either side. A similar juxtaposition is evidenced in the utilitarian block and the fort like entrance structure of the Radisson Fort Resort by Prabir Mitra, where the latter forms an outer layer to the interior modern space, and is somewhat comparable to Frank Gehry’s own house. [9]

Metaphor & Symbolism Symbols and metaphors become increasingly important elements when architecture intends to convey meaning. As already noted, in the School for Spastic Children, New Delhi, by Romi Khosla, the metaphor of the cave is interpreted as a symbol of protection.

This is reminiscent of the Hillington Civic Centre by Andrew Derbyshire, where the pitched roofs coming down almost to the ground are a symbol of protection overpowering the walls, which are symbolically defensive and hostile. In Hafeez Contractor’s design for the Russy Modi Centre for Excellence, Jamshedpur, free standing columns and pyramidal forms become symbols of classical civilizations, eliciting comparisons for the achievements of the house of Tatas.

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The employment of metaphors may time and again be observed in the works of Charles Correa. In the British Council Library, Delhi, the abstract imagery of the giant tree in the façade becomes a symbol of India, and may well be interpreted as a metaphor: the tree of knowledge. An axial progression through three nodes with elements representing the Hindu axis mundi, the Muslim Charbagh, and the European inlay depicting the age of reason, symbolizes historic interface between cultures. The cosmological references for Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, and the Interuniversity Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune, also rely on the use of metaphors and symbols.

[9]

Narrative The post-modern sense of concept, context and continuity is reflected in the building up of narratives, real or concocted, through architectural spaces. Charles Correa designed Cidade de Goa as a city with virtual imagery and real dwellings, narrating the life and culture of an Indo-Portuguese town. The layout of dwellings along a street is reminiscent of Kresge College. In the Radisson Fort Resort, Raichak, Prabir Mitra recreates a British naval fort which relays a fictitious narrative as to its antecedents. The Belgian Embassy complex, by Satish Gujral, depicts a colonial vision of India as a ruin and relates a reconstructed Indian history of “disparate temporalities” — Harappan, Mauryan, Gupta, and even the Kahn-influenced modern. [9]

Cosmology Historically, architecture of various cultures has attempted to present a model for the cosmos. The Indian Vaastu-shilpa tradition was intrinsically linked to Hindu cosmology, astrology, and mythology, and was considered superstitious and retrogressive by the modern architectural fraternity, until post-modernism rendered it with a patina of avantgarde and intellectualism. The layout of the Vidhana Bhavan, Bhopal, and the Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, by Correa, were inspired by the Navagraha Mandal: the archaic Indian notion of the cosmos. At IUCAA, Pune, Correa’s attempt is to express more contemporary notions of the Cosmos with metaphors of expanding universe and centrifugal energy. [9]

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Deconstruction Charles Correa’s Hindustan Lever Pavilion is an early example displaying a striking fragmentation of space, and the Tillany Museum, Bangalore, by Inform Architects, may be cited as a conscious effort at deconstruction, but otherwise, built examples of deconstructivist architecture in India are rare. Building technology and skill available in India is probably not favourable to such architecture; indeed, very few designs have been realized even in the affluent western world. Also, it may be conjectured, the absence indicates that fragmentation, disorientation, and alienation are yet to become predominant realities of Indian society. Some of the gravity-defying structures by Hafeez Contractor at Infosys Mysore may indicate that deconstruction has finally arrived, but how much of the styling arises out of the theoretical paradigm is questionable. However, several unbuilt design competition entries and students’ projects do reveal the contemporary Indian architect’s fancy for this strain of postmodernism. It is also witnessed in the design of interior spaces, like that of the AVLC Building, Lonavala, by Sanjay Puri. [9]

Multi-valence Undoubtedly, the most important paradigm of post-modernism is meaning, and especially, multiple coding. Jawahar Kala Kendra may be taken as a suitable attempt at multi-valence, where Correa presents parallel references to ancient Indian cosmology and shilpaic traditions, Indian visual culture, the context of the city of Jaipur, as well as to Jai Singh and Jawaharlal Nehru as individuals who were both traditional and modern. Again, B. V. Doshi’s Hussain-Doshi Gufa reveals multiple references: the cave, the forest, the circle, the mountain, the breast, and the Buddhist stupa. It is as much architecture as an object of art in itself, much like Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum at Bilbao. [9]

ROLE OF BRICK IN POST MODERN ERA The common burnt brick is one of man’s great inventions. Five thousand years ago bricks were made in many different shapes and sizes but, one by one, the less satisfactory ones were discarded. Now, all over the world, with only a few exceptions, nearly all bricks are roughly the same shape and size - that is about 9 x 4.5 x 3 inches. [10] As discussed in the above section there were many styles emerged in post modern era in India and brick played a very vital role in the whole era.

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Famous architects like nari Gandhi, b.v Doshi, Laurie baker, lik etc. Were the pioneers of using brick in its true form in their designs.

Using brick as the main element and combining them with other materials they have made their designs low cost, economical and nature friendly.

From exterior facades, interior finishes, walls, flooring and ceiling. are now a days made using bricks.

This common burnt brick is usually pleasing to look at with warm colours ranging from cream, through orange sandy colours to brown and even blue brown. [10] Thus, brick had a very vital role to play in post modernism in India.

PERMUTATIONS OF BRICK IN POST MODERN ERA As discussed in the above section brick is been used in different areas of a building since the starting of post-modern era in this section, we will see the different permutations of brick – SIZE Various countries have various standard brick size and dimensions, however, brick can be made in multiple shapes and sizes, depending on its application. If bricks are large, it is difficult to burn them properly and they become too heavy to be placed with a single hand. On the other hand, if bricks are small, more quantity of mortar is required. Hence, a standard dimension is determined for various brick works. Actual size (or the specified size), is the real dimension of the brick. Nominal size is the actual size plus the width of the mortar joint. Most bricks are manufactured in such a way that the nominal sizes fit into a grid of 4 inch, which comply with the modules of other building materials such as doors, windows, and wood components.

Standard & Nominal Brick size in India In India, standard brick size is 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm as per the recommendation of BIS. With mortar thickness, the dimension of the brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also known as the nominal size of the modular brick.

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Figure 1standard brick size in India

Although brick size varies throughout India. Like in north India brick size is 230 mm x 115 mm x 75 mm, in middle India the size is 190 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm etc. every brick is different in size and creates different expressions.

SHAPE Below are described a few important forms in which bricks are made in various shapes to suit the different situations in which they are used.

1. Ordinary bricks. These are ordinary bricks with rectangular faces and of standard size.

2. Perforated bricks. These bricks have cylindrical holes through their thickness. It is done by pushing iron bars through the brick at the time of moulding.

Figure 2perforated brick

3. Hollow bricks or Cavity bricks. Volume of solid material in them should not be less than one-half of its gross overall volume. No web should be less than 1.5 cm thick.

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Figure 3 hollow bricks or cavity bricks

4. Splay, Can’t or Plinth bricks. These have a bevel taken off on one side as shown in These are used in door and window jambs and in plinths. The splay should be on the header or on the stretcher as shown.

Figure 4 splay, can’t or plinth bricks

5. Coping bricks. These are of different shapes and sizes to suit various conditions of use. These are used as topmost course on parapets and their shapes are so made as to expeditiously drain off rain water from the top of parapets. When projecting the undersides of the projecting portions are provided with throats so as to throw the rain water off the faces of walls.

Figure 5 coping bricks

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6. Bull-nosed bricks. These are used to round off sharp corners.

Figure 6 bull- nose brick

7. Paving bricks. Clay used for their manufacture contains more iron than the brickearth used to manufacture ordinary bricks. Excessive iron causes the vitrification of bricks while burning. It gives them natural glaze as a result of which they can resist abrasion better.

These bricks are mechanically shaped and not hand moulded. Their compressive strength is not to be less than 400 kg/cm2 and dimensions are 19.5×9.5×9 cm and 19.5×9.5×4 cm. these should not absorb water more than 5% of their weight on 24 hours of immersion in water. [11] 8. Gutter or channel bricks. These are moulded to the shape shown in Fig. Very often these are glazed and are used for laying drains.

Figure 7 Gutter or channel bricks

9. Burnt clay sewer bricks. These are bricks used in construction of sewers for domestic sewage. These bricks should be free from cracks, flaws and nodules of lime. These should have rectangular faces with sharp edges and corners. Their sizes are 19×9×9 cm and

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19×9×4 cm. Their average compressive strength is not less than 175 kg/cm2 and these should not absorb more than 10% of their weight of water.

10. Queen closer. It is a brick cut into two parts longitudinally as shown in Fig. It is placed next to the first header at the corner of a wall to get proper bond.

Figure 8 Queen Closer - half

11. King closer. One corner of a brick is so cut as to remove half the header and half the stretcher It is used when two walls meet at an angle.

Figure 9 King Closer

12. Cornice bricks. Several shapes and sizes of bricks when combined to form cornice are known as cornice bricks as shown in Fig.

Figure 10 Cornice brick

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13. Arch bricks or Visors. Bricks to be used in arches are moulded to the exact wedgelike shape required. Such bricks are known as arch bricks or visors.

14. Circle bricks. These are bricks made to the exact curve of the desired circle and are used in the construction of circular walls for circular towers and wells etc. While ordering such bricks the radius should always be specified. [11] 15. Purpose-made bricks. These are bricks of special shape and size made to suit a particular requirement. These are generally more costly than the ordinary bricks but ensure quicker and cleaner construction as no cutting to shape is involved. Also, as the surface skin of the brick is left intact so it can withstand weather far better than those bricks that have been cut to the shape required. [11]

COLOUR The colour of clay bricks is affected by the chemical and mineral content of the raw material used, the firing temperature and the atmosphere of the kiln. Bricks can be pink, white, yellow or red in colour. The pink is due to a high iron content, the colour turns to various red hues on increasing the temperature. It first turns to dark red, then purple and grey or brown at around 1300 Celsius. The yellow or white colour is due to higher lime content.

MASONARY There are different kinds of masonry that can be made using bricks. Some of them are mentioned below, masonry can be customizable also to generate different kinds of patterns through bricks.

Figure 11 English bond

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Figure 12 Flemish bond

Figure 13 rat trap bond

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VOLUMES Bricks can be used to create different volumes such as jail, arches, ceilings, flooring and lintels.

Figure 14 brick jail by Laurie baker

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Figure 15 corbel arch by Laurie baker

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Figure 16 brick lintels by Laurie baker

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CASE STUDIES Case study 1 - South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre / Anagram Architects South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre (SAHRDC) is a non-governmental organisation which seeks to investigate, document and disseminate information about human rights. A small office with limited resources, the SAHRDC also runs an internship programme attracting scholars from universities in India and abroad. It required an office to be made on a 50 sqm plot emphasising spatial efficiency and cost-effective construction.

Figure 17 staircase along the facade wall

Figure 18 South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre

STREET CORNER The site is at a busy street corner with essentially pedestrian traffic. As the site is not very large, the acoustic and visual intrusion of the street activity into work spaces was a key concern.

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CONSTRAINTS OF SPACE AND COSTS The method of construction adopted had to optimize the space available on site and a modest budget.

SOLAR THERMAL GAIN The orientation of the site is such that the longer 10m side is exposed to direct sun throughout the day. Reducing the resulting solar thermal gain was an important design generator.

Design response

ENGAGING THE STREET Although some fortification against the street was required, it was crucial for the façade “converse” with the external activity. The external wall is conceived as an animated, dynamic skin reflecting the bustle of the street and activating what would otherwise have been a mundane façade with minimal fenestrations. The porosity of the wall maintains a degree of privacy while playfully engaging with the street corner.

Efficient Space utilisation is achieved by creating a single consolidated volume on each floor to be flexibly partitioned as per the client’s requirements. This volume is serviced by a flanking buffer bay of a single flight cantilevered staircase and a toilet stack. Costs were minimised by using exposed brick construction and by creating a beamless soffit at every floor. To create a beamless soffit without increasing the thickness of the slab, a gently vaulting roof was designed. Lateral inverted beams were introduced and flooring laid onto an infill so that each floor plate insulated eliminating the need for a false ceiling.

Figure 19 Brick ceiling

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This buffer bay forms a breathing thermal barrier along the sun facing side. By situating the staircase and toilet stack in this bay, the internal workspaces are protected. The porosity of the wall ensures that the buffer bay is well ventilated and yet shaded so as to reduce the amount of heat transmitted to the workspaces. A single repeating brick module creates a visually complex pattern in the manner of traditional South Asian brises soleils.

Figure 20 Front facade of the building

Figure 21 Brick Detailing

A six-brick module is laid in staggered courses that create twirling vertical stacks and an undulating surface. The construction of the screen wall was a result of a five-week process devising masonry techniques on site. From verification of plumb line to the structural

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bonding of the brick courses, methods of brick laying were devised through a deep onsite collaboration between the masons and the architects.

There were four objectives that the construction of the screen wall was attempting to achieve: •

High level of porosity in the central portion of the wall.

•

Effective horizontal bonding and load distribution between the bricks.

•

No visible intrusion of any material other than brick masonry onto the façade.

•

The repeating pattern modules must be complete end to end over the entire width and height of the wall i.e. there should be no deviation in the pattern.

•

Through computer modelling, the architects realized that a simple rotating module of bricks would create the kind of visual and textural complexity need to achieve the design objective of engaging the street corner.

Figure 22 Brick module

To begin with a six-brick module of bricks on edge was devised for the construction of the wall. This was so that the module would cubic in shape and therefore directionally

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inert. Bricks were laid on edge so that the voids created by missing bricks would substantially contribute to the porosity in the central portion.

But using a 6-brick module created to very basic masonry concerns: For proper alignment (prevention of corbelling), all the centres of the modules in a vertical stack had to fall on one perfectly vertical axis around which the module would rotate.

This was difficult to estimate accurately on-site during bricklaying (owing to human errors).

The other issue was verification of plumbness of every course. Dropping an accurate plumb line from one course to the next was not feasible since the brick faces were not in the same plane.

A single vertical stack was built and rebuilt five times on site with both the architects and the masons trying to co-strategies on a simple and practical brick laying technique that could be replicated by the various masonry teams without relying heavily on the individual skills of a master mason.

The floor slabs were cast at floor-to-floor heights of 3180 mm. This was distributed over two sets of continuously repeating 6 module course patterns so that the 1st, 7th and 13th course is the same. A set of 6 individual course drawings were prepared in studio and the angle of rotation between them calculated. From these, sets of triangular wooden wedges were made and distributed amongst the masonry teams. They were used by the bricklayers to verify the orientation of the bricks while laying them.

Figure 23 brick jail between the facade wall

The horizontal interlocking between modules essentially happens through the cross-stack overlapping of the central bricks in the modules. In the porous central portion of the façade, brickwork is reinforced horizontally by a laying a thin section (95mm X 125 mm) 37

reinforced cement concrete beam along the cavity created by the missing central brick.

[12]

Expressions created through bricks 1. Masonry

Figure 24 Masonry in 3d

Figure 25 Brick course detail

2. Colour

Figure 26 Brick ceiling

Figure 27 South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre

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As shown in these figures different colours of bricks are used in this building the colours of brick vary from yellow, brown, red, to dark brown. This gives the masonry a pleasing since as the colours are warm in nature.

Summary

In this case study we have seen that brick is been used in the ceiling and façade of the building. The masonry is customized to give it a unique pattern also the colours vary and they are warm in nature. openings have been created by brick masonry to create window from it so that the building is climate responsive. In this case study we have also seen that not only brick create different expressions but it also helps to make a building climate responsive and eco-friendly.

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Case study 2 - Maya Somaiya Library, Sharda School The site chosen for this small addition of a children’s library within a school in rural Maharashtra, was a sliver between existing buildings and the school boundary, a site that almost implied a linear building footprint to adjust the program for the chosen site. Alluding to the impetus that children have towards landscape over a building we imagined the library building to be a formal extension of the ground plane. A place inside for study and a place above for play. With the limited teaching resources available in the larger vicinity we needed the inspiring spatial experience to be a magnet to attract students and hopefully other residents from the nearby settlements after school hours. [13]

Figure 28 Maya Somaiya Library

The library lies at the intersection of a student’s daily routine it became a pavilion accessed from multiple sides with students potentially engaging with books while traversing through the library or over it.

The library interior has varied spatial & seating systems, a floor stool system towards the edges for a more intimate study area and towards the centre, tables and stools for collaborative study. The self-structured window bays are striated profiles for increased stability with economical window section sizes.

The construction technology for the project also makes a case to re-examine the age-old binaries of the global and local as being in opposition. The regional or the local within the South Asian paradigm typically manifests within strict formal constraints of the style in memory. This is often at the expense of material efficiencies. [13]

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Our effort to search for a material and construction efficiency in brick tile looked to leverage the networks of knowledge that our practices are situated in, allowing us to enrich the regional or local through the extended capacities of the global.

Figure 31 Interior View

Figure 29 Brick Ceiling

Figure 30 Exterior View Of library

In using principles ranging from the Catalan Tile Vaulting system to the compression ring detail from the work of Eladio Dieste in Uruguay, to using a form finding software plug -in made in Switzerland the library is a resultant of not only lessons learnt from various geographic locations but also various lessons through time/history. [13]

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Expressions created through bricks 1. Masonry

Figure 32 Sandwich slab

Figure 33 Masonry

Brick masonry is played in stretcher bond on reinforced frame so that it creates a strong and seamless design and people can also walk on it.

Figure 34 Brick ceiling Construction Technique

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2. Shape The shape of the brick used in the construction is different as the brick is thin, similar to that ones which were used in modern era. this is how there is a link between modern and post-modern era.

3. Volume Creating a volume with an abstract form which is strong in nature with the help of bricks and combining it with other elements.

Figure 35 Abstract form of the library

Figure 36 Conceptual Diagram

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Summary

In this case study we have seen that brick is been used in the ceiling of the building.

The masonry is simple to give it a seamless pattern. In this case study we have seen brick of different shapes and combining them with other materials can give us a strong and low-cost structure also we can create infinite abstract forms with the bricks that gives as different expressions.

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CONCLUSION In the preceding sections, we have seen that bricks have been used in the construction industry for a very long time in India. As discussed in the above section many styles emerged in the post-modern era in India and brick played a very vital role in the whole era. bricks are capable of creating different expressions by changing their size, shape, colour, masonry, and volume. Bricks are economical and are also capable of creating low-cost architecture.

"Bricks to me are like faces. All of them are made of burnt mud, but they vary slightly in shape and colour. I think these small variations give tremendous character to a wall made of thousands of bricks, so I never dream of covering such a unique and characterful creation with plaster, which is mainly dull and characterless. I like the contrast of textures of brick, of stone, of concrete, of wood. " -Laurie Baker

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1standard brick size in india ................................................................................ 24 Figure 2perforated brick ................................................................................................. 24 Figure 3 hollow bricks or cavity bricks .......................................................................... 25 Figure 4 splay, cant or plinth bricks ............................................................................... 25 Figure 5 coping bricks .................................................................................................... 25 Figure 6 bull- nose brick ................................................................................................. 26 Figure 7 Gutter or channel bricks ................................................................................... 26 Figure 8 Queen Closer - half........................................................................................... 27 Figure 9 King Closer....................................................................................................... 27 Figure 10 Cornice brick .................................................................................................. 27 Figure 11 english bond ................................................................................................... 28 Figure 13 flemish bond ................................................................................................... 29 Figure 12 rat trap bond.................................................................................................... 29 Figure 14 brick jali by laurie baker ................................................................................. 30 Figure 15 corbel arch by laurie baker ............................................................................. 31 Figure 16 brick lintels by laurie baker ............................................................................ 32 Figure 17 staircase along the facade wall ....................................................................... 33 Figure 18 South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre ....................................... 33 Figure 20 Brick ceiling ................................................................................................... 34 Figure 19 Front facade of the building ........................................................................... 35 Figure 21 Brick Detailing ............................................................................................... 35 Figure 22 Brick module .................................................................................................. 36 Figure 23 brick jali between the facade wall .................................................................. 37 Figure 24 Masonary in 3d ............................................................................................... 38 Figure 25 Brick cource detail.......................................................................................... 38 Figure 26 Brick ceiling ................................................................................................... 38 Figure 27 South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre ....................................... 38 Figure 28 Maya Somaiya Library ................................................................................... 40 Figure 29 Brick Ceiling .................................................................................................. 41 Figure 30 Exterior View Of library ................................................................................ 41 Figure 31 Interior View .................................................................................................. 41 Figure 32 Sandwich slab ................................................................................................. 42

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Figure 33 Masonary ........................................................................................................ 42 Figure 34 Brick ceiling Construction Technique ............................................................ 42 Figure 36 Abstrack form of the library ........................................................................... 43 Figure 35 Comceptual Diagram ...................................................................................... 43

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REFERENCES [1] a. tipnis, vernacular traditiond contemporary architecture, new delhi: the energy and resource (TERI), Teri press, 2012.

[2] S.

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[3] L. cao, “The Colors of Brics,” The Colors of Bric, p. 10, 29 july 2020.

[4] A. Mukhopadhyay, “Economics of brick industry a case study based upon the units located in Uttarpara industrial belt,” Calcutta, 1993.

[5] builtheritageconservation,

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[6] T. A. O. Gupta, Building Material in India: 50 Years A Commemorative Volume.

[7] R. Diamant, The Chemistry of Building Materials.

[8] B. O. Encyclopaedia, History of Brick Making.

[9] A. ,. D. S. B. MUKHERJI, “A SEARCH FOR POST-MODERNISM IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE,” ABACUS,, 2011..

[10] L. baker, brick work.

[11] s. sharma, “civilengineering.blog,” 29 september 2017. [Online]. Available: https://civilengineering.blog/2017/09/29/different-forms-and-shapes-of-bricks/.

[12] A. Architects, “Arch Daily,” Anagram Architects, 04 may 2010. [Online].

Available:

https://www.archdaily.com/58519/south-asian-human-rights-

documentation-centre-anagram-architects.

[13] S. P. &. Associates, “Arch daily,” Sameep Padora & Associates, 23 october 2020.

[Online]. Available: https://www.archdaily.com/903713/maya-somaiya-librarysharda-school-sameep-padora-and-associates.

48

BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] a. tipnis, vernacular traditiond contemporary architecture, new delhi: the energy and resource (TERI), Teri press, 2012.

[2] S.

Ganga,

“Brick

Architecture,”

.

.

..

[Online].

Available:

https://sg.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/152177/16/9.%20chapter-1.pdf.

[Accessed . . .].

[3] L. cao, “The Colors of Brics,” The Colors of Bric, p. 10, 29 july 2020.

[4] A. Mukhopadhyay, “Economics of brick industry a case study based upon the units located in Uttarpara industrial belt,” Calcutta, 1993.

[5] builtheritageconservation,

“builtheritageconservation,”

[Online].

22

september

2012.

Available:

https://builtheritageconservation.wordpress.com/2012/09/22/hello-world/.

[Accessed 2012].

[6] T. A. O. Gupta, Building Material in India: 50 Years A Commemorative Volume.

[7] R. Diamant, The Chemistry of Building Materials.

[8] B. O. Encyclopaedia, History of Brick Making.

[9] A. ,. D. S. B. MUKHERJI, “A SEARCH FOR POST-MODERNISM IN INDIAN ARCHITECTURE,” ABACUS,, 2011..

[10] L. baker, brick work.

[11] s. sharma, “civilengineering.blog,” 29 september 2017. [Online]. Available: https://civilengineering.blog/2017/09/29/different-forms-and-shapes-of-bricks/.

[12] A. Architects, “Arch Daily,” Anagram Architects, 04 may 2010. [Online].

Available:

https://www.archdaily.com/58519/south-asian-human-rights-

documentation-centre-anagram-architects.

[13] S. P. &. Associates, “Arch daily,” Sameep Padora & Associates, 23 october 2020.

[Online]. Available: https://www.archdaily.com/903713/maya-somaiya-librarysharda-school-sameep-padora-and-associates.

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