THE FLORIDA AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL UNIVERSITY School of Architecture and Engineering Technology
THE ROLE OF COMPLEXITY: CONNECTING ARCHITECTURE TO NATURE AND HUMANS
By Mikal RodgersA Thesis Submitted to the Division of Architecture In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture
Tallahassee, FL Spring, 2022
The members of the committee approve the thesis, entitled The Role of Complexity: Connecting Architecture to Humans and Nature Accra, Ghana, by Mikal Rodgers defended on April 14, 2022.
Roy Knight, FAIA Professor, Directing Thesis
Olivier Chamel, R.A., Director of Architecture Committee Member
Approved:
Ronald Lumpkin, Ph D , Director of Student Services Committee Member
Rodner B. Wright, AIA., NOMA., Dean School of Architecture and Engineering Technology
Reginald K. Elis, Ph.D., Interim Dean School of Graduate Studies and Research
DEDICATION
To my mom and papa, who shared the same dream.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thank you to those who have helped, pushed, and encouraged me along the way
Complex Natural Processes in Architecture 19
Complexity in Patterns and Shapes 22
Complexity in Africa......................................................................................................29
Designing for the Region ..............................................................................................30
Precedents 36 Lessons Learned 45
Implications for Design.....................................................................................................46
CHAPTER 3 47 Topic as Precedent Study 48
Context as Problem or Background .................................................................................49 Building Justification 49
Population 51 Design Implications ......................................................................................................54
Context as Site and Program 56 Site Selection 56 Building Program ..........................................................................................................63
Topic as Design Proposal..................................................................................................66
CHAPTER 4 71
CHAPTER 5 92
Committee Chair/ Member Meetings
ABSTRACT
This thesis investigates how complexity plays a role in connecting architecture to nature and humans How can one define and exhibit complexity within the architectonic framework of form and space while upholding the architectural value? This study presents arguments through science, expert opinions, and demonstrative measures that architecture can have a positive impact by expressing complexity throughout the design process In designing the Accra Science Center located in Accra, Ghana, notions of complexity were organized and described within the design scheme across three distinct building scales. The large scale encompassed building form and circulation, the medium scale contained the building façade, and the small scale consisted of ornamentation and detail
The goal is to use notions of complexity in designing the Accra Science Center to connect the architecture to the native vegetation, Indigenous population, and ethnic culture. This design and analysis showed that with conscious application, complexity can create a positive relationship that connects architecture to nature and humans. Although complexity isn’t always the solution to a design problem, when predetermined by the appropriate factors (building type, occupants, location, etc.), complexity has its place within architecture.
Keywords: Organized Complexity, Hierarchal Cooperation, Vernacular Architecture
DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Adinkra Symbol: Adinkra are symbols that originated from the Ashanti people of Ghana; Traditionally been used as stamps on cloth, these symbols represent beliefs or proverbs that are passed down
Architectonic: The unifying structural design of something
Biomimicry: When a design borrows from adaptations found in nature among other species
Biophilia: The idea that the inherent human drive to connect with nature and other living things stem from an innate, biologically driven need to interact with other forms of life, such as animals and plants
Box Counting Method: Helps determine the complexity level of a 2 D image by finding the fractal dimension of an image
Chaos: Represented by forms and relationships that are complex and difficult to describe
Complexity: The state or quality of being intricate or complicated; The inability of a simple description being sufficient to capture all properties
Euclidian Geometry: Planes and solid figures that follow a set of rules defined by Euclid
Fractal Dimension: The dimension that lies between our known dimensions
Fractal Patterns: Infinitely repetitive patterns that happen at different scales; Patterns that are irregular as they are hard to describe with Euclidian geometry
Kente Cloth: A hand woven cloth originated in Ghana that was historically worn by royalty of the Akan ethnic group
Kolmogorov Chaitin Complexity: A qualitative measure of complexity based on the number of words needed for a reasonably accurate description; It is the first step of measuring a system’s complexity
Scale: Similar units of the same size
Self Organization: A complex natural phenomenon present in almost every living organism; The process produces a pattern caused by interactions based on local information
Self Similarity: When a shape is composed of smaller copies of itself
SF: Square Footage
Voronoi Diagram: Describes a system of self organization within biological structures. The diagram consists of a cell created from centers, edges, and vertexes
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Chart of Grid Size and Boxes with Information 13
Table 2 Program and Sqaure Footages 65
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Exterior View of the UFA Cinima Centre………………………………………………………. 8
Figure 2 Ground Floor Plan of the UFA Cinema Centre 8
Figure 3 Apartment Building Design 9
Figure 4 Guggenheim Museum by Frank Gehry located in Bilboa, Spain 11
Figure 5 Interior of the Islamic Cultural Center and Mosque 11
Figure 6 Visual Explanation of Diminsions 12
Figure 7 Box Counting Method for Frank Lloyd Wright’s Robie House 13
Figure 8 Equation to Calculate the Fractal Dimension of an Image 14
Figure 9 Perot Museum of Nature and Science Lobby Lighting Design…………………… 15
Figure 10 Types of Symmetries……………………………………………………………………………… 16
Figure 11 Sketch of Compositions 17
Figure 12 Interior View of Termite Mound 20
Figure 13 Voronoi Diagram……………………………………………………………………………………. 21
Figure 14 Exterior View of the Times Eureka Pavilion 22
Figure 15 Fractal Patterns……………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Figure 16 The Elements and Attributes of Biophilic Design………………………………………26
Figure 17 The Progression of the Adinkra Symbol “Adinkrahene” ……………………………28
Figure 18 Ram’s Horn Symbol Used in Balcony………………………………………………………. 28
Figure 19 The Ba ila Village……………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Figure 20 The Formation of an Ethiopian Cross……………………………………………………….30
Figure 21 Traditional African Architecture……………………………………………………………… 31
Figure 22 Akan Dwelling with Interior Courtyard…………………………………………………….32
Figure 23 Mud Buiildings in Djenné, Mali………………………………………………………………..34
Figure 24 The Great Mosque of Djenné by Ismaila Traoré……………………………………….34
Figure 25 Samples of Kente Cloth…………………………………………………………………………… 36
Figure 26 Exterior View of the KAPSARC………………………………………………………………….37
Figure 27 Musalla Prayer Space………………………………………………………………………………38
Figure 28 Courtyard withing KAPSARC…………………………………………………………………….38
Figure 29 Concept Diagram of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum……………………………..39
Figure 30 Exterior View of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum…………………………………… 40
Figure 31 Floor Plans of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum………………………………………. 41
Figure 32 Residence Under Construction Using Rammed Earth……………………………… 43
Figure 33 Native African Home Made of Mud Walls and Thatched Roof…………………43
Figure 34 Air Intake System to Help with Cooling…………………………………………………… 44
Figure 35 Exterior View of the Muzeiko Children’s Science Center…………………………..48
Figure 36 Map of Africa Hughlighting Ghana………………………………………………………….49
Figure 37 Map of Ghana………………………………………………………………………………………… 50
Figure 38 Map of Accra, Ghana……………………………………………………………………………… 50
Figure 39 Map Showing Site Location in Accra, Ghana……………………………………………51
Figure 40 Pie Graph Showing Ethinic Groups in Ghana………………………………………..….51
Figure 41 Schools withing Seven Miles of the Site……………………………………………………52
Figure 42 Research Facilities within Five Miles of the Site
………………………………………. 53
Figure 43 Tourist Attraction and Hotel Map…………………………………………………………… 54
Figure 44 Map Showing Context Around the Site…………………………………………………….55
Figure 45 Graph Showing Yearly Temperature in Accra, Ghana………………………………56
Figure 46 Graph Showing Average Humidity in Accra, Ghana………………………………… 56
Figure 47 Graph Showing Yearly Precipitation in Accra, Ghana……………………………….57
Figure 48 Chart Showing Typical Wind Direction in Accra, Ghana………………………….. 57
Figure 49 Site Analysis Diagram…………………………………………………………………………….. 58
Figure 50 On Site Location of the Building……………………………………………………………… 59
Figure 51 Roadways and Entry Points to the Site…………………………………………………….60
Figure 52 Sun Path Throughout the Day in Accra, Ghana………………………………………..61
Figure 53 Effectiveness of Overhangs…………………………………………………………………….. 62
Figure 54 Diagram Showing Transformation of Building Layout……………………………..63
Figure 55 Program and Spatial Adjacencies…………………………………………………………….64
Figure 56 Parti Model Conceptualizing Spaces Raised Above Ground……………………..66
Figure 57 Building Layout Progression…………………………………………………………………….67
Figure 58 Building Layout Progression…………………………………………………………………….68
Figure 59 Adinkra Inspired Building Circulation…………………………………………………….. 69
Figure 60 Conceptual Model Showing Voronoi Diagram Application……………………… 69
Figure 61 Conceptual Computer Generated Leaf Vein Pattern………………………………..70
Figure 62 Exterior View of the Accra Science Center………………………………………………. 72
Figure 63 Site Plan…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
Figure 64 Elevations with Material Callouts…………………………………………………………….74
Figure 65 Perspective Section………………………………………………………………………………….75
Figure 66 Ground Floor Plan………………………………………………………………………………….. 76
Figure 67 Ground Floor Circulation Diagram…………………………………………………………..76
Figure 68 Lobby Floor Plan………………………………………………………………………………………77
Figure 69 Courtyard Plan……………………………………………………………………………………….. 77
Figure 70 “Archeology Cove” Exhibit Plan………………………………………………………………. 78
Figure 71 Second Floor Plan……………………………………………………………………………………79
Figure 72 Second Floor Circulation Diagram………………………………………………………….. 80
Figure 73 “Hall of Fame” Exhibit Plan……………………………………………………………………..80
Figure 74 Greenhouse Exhibit Plan………………………………………………………………………….81
Figure 75 Greenhouse Structure…………………………………………………………………………….. 82
Figure 76 Exploded Axon of Central Canopy…………………………………………………………… 83
Figure 77 Connection Details for Central Canopy…………………………………………………….84
Figure 78 Water Harvesting System………………………………………………………………………..85
Figure 79 Air Intake System…………………………………………………………………………………….86
Figure 80 Entry Lobby……………………………………………………………………………………………..87
Figure 81 Hall of Fame Exhibition Space………………………………………………………………….88
Figure 82 Central Courtyard…………………………………………………………………………………… 89
Figure 83 Greenhouse Exhibition Space…………………………………………………………………..90
Figure 84 “Archeology Cove” Exhibit Space and North Stair…………………………………… 91
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background
It is evident that both geometric order and chaos have existed in architecture together, exhibiting complexity in urban structures since the beginning of human history (Rubinowicz, 2000). Complexity is engrained within the underlying order of natural and artificial systems. It is expressed by the inability of a simple description being sufficient to capture all properties of what is being described (Sala, 2004). While it seems to be a concept many wouldn’t want to embrace or thought to introduce unnecessary difficulties, complexity is studied across many fields, including physics, environmental science, business, and architecture. Modern architects study complexity for different reasons, including creating a new kind of building, understanding problems connected to urban growth, and better understanding chaos and complex processes in architecture (Sala, 2004). Notions of complexity have also been consciously linked to concepts rooted in Indigenous African art, culture, and architecture (Eglash, 2007).
Using complexity as a design tool, this design approach is applied to the Accra Science Center, an interactive science museum and research center in Accra, Ghana. Ghana and its continent have a rich history of tradition and culture that is distinctly significant. Accra specifically is a city with a growing economy and has a place within the scientific community as it contains numerous research facilities within the site’ s immediate context. There are also many schools in the surrounding area whose students would serve as a target audience for the Accra Science Center. The design goal of the Accra Science Center is to connect specifically to Africa’s nature, people, and culture through complexity.
Type of Study
Design and demonstration were used to describe and analyze the use of complex relationships in the design scheme. Across three building scales, strategies found through research that describe complexity within architecture were used as design tools. On a large scale, form and building circulation were designed based on self organization and the mirroring of complex systems found in nature. On a medium scale, the façade design was based on biophilic patterns and fractals. On the smallest scale, ornamentation and detail displayed asymmetry and disruption of pattern. Lastly, cultural symbols that convey the concept of complexity were integrated within different scales. The Accra Science Center was evaluated by the studied effects of design elements used and the coherence of these elements across each scale.
Problem Statement
Complexity is often seen as a negative concept that should be simplified or hidden, but in the proper context, it can be a valid approach and appropriate response to a problem. “It is essential to stop using complexity as a metaphor detached from reality, in a random process without any underlying reasoning, and adopt instead a practitioner’s perspective” (Salingaros, 2014). Complexity in architecture must have an underlying order and should not be used purely for stylistic reasons. To be used most effectively in architecture, the idea of complexity must be understood. It must consciously be defined, organized, and described within the architectural space.
Purpose Statement
“Architecture is successful by connecting visually, emotionally, and viscerally with the observer/ user through its complexity” (Salingaros, 2014). This study aims to define and articulate complexity’s role in connecting architecture to nature and humans. This thesis informs on how complexity is defined, organized, and most effectively applied within a specific approach to architectural design. Clarity will be given on the ways complexity can be used to connect to nature and humans by understanding how it manifests itself in architecture. Complexity is expressed within the building scheme and is used as a design tool that helps connect the Accra Science Center to nature, humans, and the regional culture of Accra, Ghana.
Research Questions
The following questions guided my research: How is complexity expressed and organized in architecture? How can the level of complexity be measured within architecture? What are the effects of organized complexity on humans? What can architecture learn from the complexity of natural systems? In what ways does complexity connect architecture to nature and humans? How does the idea of complexity connect to African culture?
Significance of Study
Complexity is more than an abstract concept; it is a very true part of nature and the societies of all living creatures (Graham, 2014). Architecture takes up space within the natural environment and is inhabited by humans. The architecture must show respect for the natural world while catering to the needs of its occupants. Architecture
can successfully create a positive relationship with both by understanding and organizing complexity. There is the opportunity to mirror nature’s efficiency and sustainability while respecting the natural environment. Connections can be made through humans’ resonation with organized complexity (Salingaros, 2014) and complexity’s expression of African culture and heritage. There are also lessons to be learned on how complex relationships and systems can benefit humans within the designed space.
Theoretical Framework
To continually look away from complexity is to disregard a fact of our reality.
Architecture has the freedom to be indicative of a universal truth. It can be honest in expressing the world around us (Venturi, 1977). Through post modernism, there is the liberty to think conceptually about the considerations of the surrounding environment.
Architecture doesn’t always need to adhere to rigid guidelines dictated by modern ideals if there is underlying reason and meaning. Symmetries can be broken, contradictions can be made, and complexities can be embraced. Complexity has a role and can intentionally be a fundamental part of designing within architecture (Rubinowicz, 2000). Architecture is a setting that one encounters every day in some capacity. As complex creatures, we must function in a complex environment to be fully ourselves (Arnheim, 1972).
Delimitations and Limitations of Study
Throughout this study, some factors were not accounted for. No site visitation occurred, and there was a lack of archival information on topographic information and ecological studies of on site species. Buildings specific factors such as structural loads and life cycle cost analysis were also omitted throughout the study.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Defining, Describing, and Organizing Complexity
Rubinowicz (2000) states that complexity is needed for a good quality of architectural space and discusses how complexity emerges in architecture. A balance between order and perceived chaos (complexity) is necessary. Within this context, Rubinowicz defines chaos as being represented by “forms and relationships that are complex and difficult to describe.” In the 1930’s mathematician, George Birkhoff proposed an equation for the measure of beauty: M = �� ��
Where M represents beauty or aesthetic measure, O signifies order, and C is complexity. This equation suggests that beauty can stem from a balance between order and chaos. Not only should the idea of order and chaos be present in a design, but it can be seen how these relate to one another. Complex phenomena such as climate, turbulence, natural populations, etc., can be expressed through mathematical equations indicating that there is order behind perceived chaos. The UFA Cinema Centre by COOP HIMMELB(L)AU, located in Dresden, Germany, shown in Figures 1 and 2, is a non geometric structure. It gives the impression of randomly composed forms, yet there is order in the programming and relationships of spaces within the building.
Figure 1
Exterior View of the UFA Cinema Centre
Note Source: Chaos and Geometric Order in Architecture and Design, pg. 201
Figure 2
Ground Floor Plan of the UFA Cinema Centre
Note Source: www.archello.com
Order and chaos are the basic components of the UFA Cinema Centre. Order evokes harmony and monumentality, while a sense of complexity revives the space and creates an individual dimension. Although order is needed, one cannot reduce their
experience to something of pure order without losing stimulation and surprise (Arnheim, 1972).
Architectural spaces are not only designed but grown from external or internal factors. Take for example, the façade of an apartment building in the historical part of Barcelona, Spain, shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Apartment Building Design
Note. Original design (left) and photograph of the occupied units (right). Source: Chaos and Geometric Order in Architecture and Design, pg. 202
The original facade design of the apartment building is shown to have a rhythm that expresses an established pattern. A photograph later taken of the apartment while it is in use shows the modifications by occupants. Factors such as different forms of installed sun protectors, various curtains hung in the windows, items placed on the balconies, and others inform a new façade composition that lies outside the original design intended. This idea of internal and external factors influencing the designed space introduces a self organizing process in architecture. Through this process, complexity
emerges, and its influence means that the architectural space is unforeseeable in the long term.
While Rubinowicz suggests both order and chaos can be valuable to the shaping of architectural space, a balance must be struck. Total elimination of chaos from a composition can cause spatial boredom, while complete elimination of order will cause the illegibility of compositions. Complexity in a design is seen when it is hard to describe forms and their relationships. It can also emerge from influences outside of the designer’s implication.
Sala (2004) discussed studying complexity as it is applied in architecture. The goal was to identify and describe how complexity is displayed and calculated. Information was collected from articles, books, and case studies ranging in various locations. Sala analyzes the idea of complexity as it is visually expressed in buildings. A method of calculating the level of complexity is also discussed using the box counting method. Complexity in buildings can be observed through complex textures or surface forms, as exemplified through the works of Frank Gehry (Wong, 2021), shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Note. Source: www.livingetc.com
Self similarity can also display complexity within buildings. Self similarity is when a shape is composed of smaller copies of itself (Frame & Urry, 2016) Italian Architect Paolo Portoghesi uses this concept in the Islamic Cultural Center and Mosque in Rome and the Royal Palace of Amman in Jordan seen in Figure 5
Figure 5
Interior of the Islamic Cultural Center and Mosque
Note. Source: www.thewalkman.it
Complexity can also be calculated. Box counting helps determine the complexity level of a 2 D image. This method works by determining the fractal dimension of an image. The Fractal dimension lies between our known dimensions, as explained in Figure 6. Figure 6
Visual Explanation of Dimensions
Zero Dimensions One Dimension X Dimension
A single point is known to have zero dimensions, while a line has 1 (length). When points are aligned one after the other, they do not connect to make a line, so this arrangement of points lies between zero and one dimension (Johnson, 2014).
To understand how the degree of complexity can be determined from fractal dimensions, take the Box Counting Method of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Robie House, shown in Figure 7. The box counting algorithm subdivides the domain (an elevation of the Robie House) into boxes. The number of boxes that contain data (line drawings of the elevation) is counted. The boxes are then subdivided into four equal sized sections, and the box count of contained data is recorded. The boxes are subdivided again for a third time. The data count is recorded four times in total. This can be found seen in Table 1.
Figure 7
Box Counting Method for Frank Lloyd Wright’s Robie House
Note. Source: Complexity in Architecture: A Small Scale Analysis, pg. 42
Table 1
Chart of Grid Size and Boxes with Information
Note. Source: Complexity in Architecture: A Small Scale Analysis, pg. 42
Using the equation in Figure 8, the fractal dimension (Db) of Wright’s elevation is calculated to be between 1.441 and 1.485.
Equation to Calculate the Fractal Dimension of an Image
Note. S1 = grid size, S2 = smaller grid size, N = number of boxes containing information Source: Complexity in Architecture: A Small Scale Analysis, pg. 41
The greater the absolute value of the slope (Db), the more complex the image is perceived. Architecture such as the Heydar Aliyev Centre by Zaha Hadid, the Afghan National Museum by Zhanghua, and the Taichung Metropolitan Opera House by Toyo Itoresulted in a Db value between 2.1299 and 2.1932 (An et al., 2021). The analysis conducted by Sala (2004) shows a non linear approach to designing that has influenced architects such as Peter Eisenman, Daniel Libeskind, Frank Gehry, and many more Complexity can be expressed through textures and building form. It can also be quantified within a design by using the Box Counting Method
Salingaros (2014) discusses how complexity can be described and organized in architecture. Information is presented from journals and lectures. Salingaros notes that complexity is not only the intricacy of structure, but also the stored information on how the system works. The Kolmogorov Chaitin complexity is a method of measuring the complexity of something by describing how many words are needed for a reasonably accurate description. It is the first step in measuring a system’s complexity. The Kolmogorov Chaitin complexity is a modern notion of randomness that deals with the
quantity of information within an individual object (Li & Vitanyi, 2008). This can be used as a qualitative method of determining a design’ s level of complexity.
A visual display of complexity can result from symmetry breaking (asymmetry) and disruption of pattern. This happens when the repeating units vary in a way to distinguish them from each other, but not to the extent that basic similarity is lost. Minor changes are made among units or a pattern that is the same on a particular scale. Take for example, the lobby lighting design of the Perot Museum of Nature and Science by Morphosis, located in Dallas, Texas, shown in figure 9.
Figure 9
Perot
Museum of Nature and Science Lobby Lighting Design
Note: Source: www.aia.org.
There are two types of complexity, disorganized and organized. Organized complexity can be comprehended by the human cognitive system and eliminates informational overload. It does this by reducing the amount of information needed to
specify an entity. One way complexity can be organized is by using continuity across scales. This organization directly correlates to how complexity is organized in natural settings and living organisms. Continuity can be shown through different symmetries within the same scale and similar forms repeating at different scales. Figure 10 shows types of symmetries that can be displayed within the same scale.
Figure 10 Types of Symmetries
Note. Source: www.msu.edu.
Complexity within a design should not only cooperate but also evolve from adaptation. When a design is adaptive, it responds to different forces acting on different scales. Complexity that is most psychologically satisfying shows information on every scale. The perceptive systems of humans have evolved to interpret natural surroundings, so we resonate with organized complexity. A 2013 field study done by architect and environmental psychologist Pall Jakob Lindal demonstrated that participants felt the environment was restorative when shown buildings that are both optically complex and coherent (Lindal & Hartig, 2013). On the other hand, disorganized complexity can create
alarm and disturbing imbalances, so one must be mindful of how complexity is used within architecture. When complexity is not organized, things can be seen as random or not stably put together, as displayed in Figure 11.
Figure 11
Sketch of Compositions
Note. Random composition (left) versus the organization of parts (right). Source: Complexity in Architecture and Design, pg. 11
In designing, it is important to note that form should not contradict function. Complexity imposed for reasons of “fashion” or personal taste can lead to problems in the design or cause the architecture to be incomprehensible and unsettling. For a favorable outcome, complexity should be expressed through continuity and cooperation throughout all building scales Continuity can be achieved by using different types of symmetries of the same size or similar symmetries on different scales. Complexity can naturally emerge within a design to adapt to forces acting on different scales
In another paper by Salingaros (2000), he makes the case that architectural design should be organized hierarchically. This theory of hierarchical systems explains how different scales relate to each other. This relation can determine whether a
structure is seen as coherent or incoherent. As Salingaros (2014) talked about, a way to organize complexity is to have consistencies across different scales.
To understand how hierarchical cooperation works, one must first understand architectural scales. The scale can be defined as similar units of the same size. For example, windows of the same size create an apparent scale related to humans and the rest of the building. If this window is divided into panes, this will create a smaller scale within that window. The massing and form of a building define the largest scale while windows, doors, etc., define a smaller scale.
This way of designing has a strong relation to nature and complexity, as complex systems both natural and artificial, have distinct scales that work together to form a coherent whole. Take for example, the make up of a cell. Atoms make up the smallest scale, with the next consisting of molecules. As the scales increase, organelles will eventually be formed. These organelles are the make up of the entire cell. Each scale is structured to achieve its individual function and works together to create a cohesive whole (Cooper, 2000).
Across all scales, cohesiveness is achieved when there is a distinguishing characteristic that visually connects them. Similar texture or color, a link through contact, or a mathematical link can all be examples of this connection. When hierarchical cooperation is removed, there can be negative effects on humans. There will be a lack of familiarity that humans subconsciously pick up from this cooperation in nature (Mehrabian, 1976). When using this method of cooperation, it is essential to note a few ways that could result in an unsuccessful design:
(a) Too large a gap between scales. Substructures between the scale of the building’s form and smaller natural details of materials are repressed.
(b) Elimination of smaller scales. When a building primarily focuses on the larger scales, there is rarely much for the user’ s focus on the level of a human scale. This can sometimes be seen in the monumentality of Brutalist architecture.
(c) Scales are too close together. This can be caused by using too many differentiating units. There is no sense of rhythm due to too many variations.
With the lack of distinct scales, the design can be too busy.
The research done by Salingaros helps inform how cooperation can be achieved as different scales relate to each other. The scales must be easily distinguishable and spaced from each other appropriately.
Complex Natural Processes in Architecture
Mehaffy, Michael, and Salingaros (2011) talk about self organization in architecture. Self organization is a complex natural phenomenon that is present in almost every living organism. This process produces a pattern caused by interactions based on local information (Nichols & Dove, 2001) Take for instance, the termite mound in Figure 12 Though the pattern may not be simple to describe, it is organized in a way to provide the mound with a self regulated cooling system based on factors pertaining to the air and wind
Interior View of Termite Mound
Note. Source: travelpod.com.
Certain aspects of the architecture can organize itself outside the design control of the architect. Local “rules” or factors help generate the order on a large scale. This organization is a kind of spontaneous order that can help solve problems and adapt successfully to various environments (Kauffman, 1993). Characteristics of self organization can be seen within the villages of traditional societies that relied on governing rules to generate forms as opposed to the designs of an architect.
In architecture, form generation evolves step by step using adaptive measures. Self organization can also be translated into architecture through Voronoi diagrams (Asghar et al.,2020). This particular pattern visually describes the self organization that emerges within the veins of a leaf or the wings of a dragonfly. Using these types of patterns reflects an active response to the properties of an environment and is used to organize. Ideas of self organization within the design scheme can create a building that adapts to its surroundings and reflects a natural way of organization.
Nowak (2012) explores the application of Voronoi diagrams within contemporary architecture. Voronoi diagrams describe a system of self organization within biological structures. The diagram consists of a cell created from centers, edges, and vertexes. As shown in Figure 13, the centers of the cells are closest to at least three surrounding edges than any other center (Miu, 2005).
Figure 13 Voronoi Diagram Note. Source: www.mit.edu.
P1 : Site Points e : Voronoi Edge v : Voronoi Vertex
The Voronoi diagram has been used to divide spaces into walkways and activity areas, creating a dynamic circulation pattern that weaves through programmed space. An example of its application can be seen in the spatial breakup of the conceptual Aldgate Aerial Park design in London. It can also be seen in the façade of the Melbourne Recital Centre by Ashton McDougall located in Melbourne, Australia, and the Times Eureka Pavilion by Nex Architecture located in London, shown in Figure 14.
Exterior View of the Times Eureka Pavilion
Note. Source: www.archiweb.cz
Voronoi diagrams can be used to create fractal patterns of those found in nature (Shirriff, 1995). This method uses a mathematical formula that can be an optimal solution to spatial division while creating organic sub spaces. It was also found that though the Voronoi pattern is hard to control due to its complex behavior, it can produce a structural order that is beneficial for a static structure (Freidrich, 2008).
The research of Nowak (2012) provides insight on how Voronoi diagrams can inform the spatial breakup and visual patterns in architecture
Complexity in Patterns and Shapes
Noor (2019) discusses fractals as a visual display of complexity and its effects on those that perceive it Fractal patterns are infinitely repetitive and happen at different scales. According to Falconer (2003), these patterns are irregular as they are hard to describe with Euclidian geometry. Euclidian geometries are planes and solid figures that follow a set of rules defined by Euclid (the father of geometry) (Byju’s, 2019).
Nature is filled with fractal patterns of different levels of complexity, shown in Figure 15. With them being so abundant in nature, humans process them easily with a sense of pleasure and familiarity (Joye, 2006).
Figure 15
Fractal Patterns
Note Dragonfly wings (left) and veins of a leaf (right) Source: www.flickr.com
Studies have shown a relationship between fractal patterns and wellbeing. Self reports were made of people documenting increased visual interest, preference, and positive mood when perceiving fractal patterns (Abboushi et al., 2019). Furthermore, fractals of mid range complexity (having a fractal dimension of 1.3 1.5) were shown to have the strongest sense of well being (Taylor & Wise, 2002). This is the case because mid range fractals are the most prevalent in nature.
To best connect the positive effects of fractal patterns, the scale of its implementation should relate to the human experience. In a built environment, the scale of the interior space is readily perceivable. On a micro scale, surface decoration and
ornamentation would be the most impactful since it is within the arm’s reach of humans. (Alexander et al., 1977).
Noor’s research helps discuss the effects of fractal patterns on those within the space and how they are most effectively perceived.
Kellert & Mador (2008) provides information on biophilic design by discussing its dimensions, elements, and attributes. Biophilia is “the inherent human inclination to affiliate with natural systems and processes” (Kellert & Mador, 2008). Particular distinctions of biophilic design connect architecture to complexities in nature (Salingaros, 2014). The tendency to be drawn in this way is biologically encoded due to its prevalence in enhancing physical, emotional, and intellectual fitness through the course of human evolution.
There are two dimensions of biophilic design. These dimensions are described by elements that are further broken down into attributes. The two dimensions of biophilic design are naturalistic and vernacular. Naturalistic can be defined as shapes and forms that are built to reflect our inherent attraction for nature directly, indirectly, or symbolically. The vernacular dimension is buildings that connect to the culture and ecology of a geographic area.
These two dimensions are related to six biophilic design elements. One of them being “natural shapes and forms” which is the representation and simulation of the natural world. Biomimicry is one of the attributes tied to this element. Biomimicry is when designs borrow from adaptations found in nature among other species. Some adaptations can be related to complex systems found in nature, such as the termite
mound and organizational structure of the cell mentioned earlier. Another element is “natural patterns and processes.” This element is about incorporating properties found in nature into the built environment. One attribute to this is fractals. As Noor (2019) discussed, fractals are found in nature and are used to describe related or similar forms. Another attribute is hierarchically organized ratios and scales. Successfully built structures are connected hierarchically (Salingaros, 2000). This unity can help assimilate patterns of high complexity. The last element to mention is evolved human nature relationships. One of the attributes of this is “order and complexity.” This attribute recognizes the melding of order and complexity to stimulate the desire for variety while still having a sense of control and comprehension.
The Elements and Attributes of Biophilic Design
Note. Highlighted attributes were discussed. Source: www.reasearchgate.com.
Understanding some of these biophilic elements, shown in Figure 16, clarifies how biophilia's positive implications can inform the design scheme. It also sheds light on how complexity is interwoven within the concept of biophilia and how it can be an underlying source of a positive effect on people.
Babbitt (n.d.) talks about the origin of Adinkra symbols and their relationship to complexity both conceptually and mathematically. Adinkra are symbols that originated from the Ashanti people of Ghana. They have traditionally been used as stamps on cloth and are currently used throughout Ghana for different applications. The symbols represent beliefs or proverbs that are passed down. According to Kwame Anthony Appiah, a British Ghanaian philosopher, cultural theorist, and novelist, these symbols are “a means for supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief.”
The geometric forms of the symbols start with an observation of an object from nature or culture. This object is then artistically represented. Lastly, the artistic representation is abstracted into geometric forms, emphasizing iteration and logarithmic curves. This sequence can be seen in Figure 17.
Figure 17
The Progression of the Adinkra Symbol “Adinkrahene”
Artistic Representation Water Drop
Note. Source: www.csdt.org.
Artistic Representation Soul Washer’s Badge
Adinkra Symbol Adinkrahene
The shapes of Adrinkra also have a mathematical significance in using logarithmic curves to represent organic growth. Mathematical adinkras are named after the Ghanaian symbols and similarly represent concepts that are difficult to express in words (Gates, 2011). According to Gates (2011), Adinkras as it relates to the symbols and math, are “complex ideas and complex shapes.”
Adinkra symbols have been expressed in architecture through shading devices or balcony design seen in figure 18.
Figure 18
Ram’s Horn Symbol Used in Balcony
Note. Source: www.csdt.org.
Adinkra symbols within design conceptually connect architecture to a cultural and mathematical representation of complexity.
Complexity in Africa
Eglash (2007) hosts a TEDTalk (a presentation that focuses on technology, entertainment, and design) that discusses notions of complexity found in African art, architecture, religion, and culture The idea of fractals is evident within African villages. These self similar patterns can be seen in the Nankani village in Mali and the Ba ila Village in southern Zambia The Ba ila Village is comprised of rings that represent the family enclosures. These enclosures get larger as it goes towards the back of the village. The chief’s house is in the middle of the village towards the back. Figure 19 shows how the village’s shape on the largest scale is reflected on smaller scales to make up the different sized enclosures. Each enclosure has the same layout that is replicated on different scales. Figure 19 The Ba ila Village
Fractals can also be seen in African textiles, sculptures, and religious icons. Take the Ethiopian cross in Figure 20, for example.
Figure 20
The Formation of an Ethiopian Cross
Note Source: www.csdt.org
Another expression of complexity can be seen in the game known as Mancala. In Ghana, it is referred to as Owari and shows the concept of self organization. Self organizing patterns emerge spontaneously from the moves players make, and these patterns are picked up on and used strategically to win the game. Eglash (2007) describes a connection between complexity and African culture. Fractals and ideas of self organization are rooted in African practices as they can be seen in architecture, art, and even social facets
Designing for the Region
Stouter (2008) discusses regional design pertaining to the humid tropics across Africa. Designing for people, planning for comfort, designing with nature, and building materials were discussed. Architecture plays a vital role in connecting to people and the history of the place. Old buildings responded to the weather, economy, and people. They
also reflect the culture and traditions. Defining characteristics of African architecture can be seen in patterns, materials, layout, and form shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21
Traditional African Architecture
The courtyard feature has been a unique layout to African architecture throughout history Different types of courtyard houses are found throughout Africa, specifically Fihankra compounds These were the living quarters of Akan people, a native ethnic group that resides in present day Ghana. Figure 22 shows a compound consisting of four single room houses with verandas surrounding a central courtyard (Nduom, 2017)
Akan Dwelling with Interior Courtyard
Note. Source: Housing and Culture in Ghana, pg. 3. There are also climatic factors that are considered benefits of courtyards as they are one way that breezes can be channeled and help mitigate high temperatures (Abass, 2016). Different strategies can help keep the building cooler when designing for hot, humid climates. Buildings should be oriented to avoid direct sunlight. Long sides or walls with the most windows should face the north or south, so the roof’s overhang will provide shade during the middle of the day. The east and west sides should be shorter to let in the lower angled morning and afternoon sun. High ceilings are important to allow heat to rise above so occupants can feel cooler in the space below. Wind direction needs to be accounted for, and those sides should be open to allow air to penetrate the building. Breezes should be used to take advantage of natural ventilation. Opening the building to breezes is more effective in dealing with condensation caused by humidity than electric fans or air conditioning. Green roofs can also keep buildings cool by using thin layers of lightweight rock on a waterproof membrane.
The preservation of plants is essential for keeping the quality of the soil to allow for rich plant life to grow. When creating the land to build on, as much soil and plants around the area should be left untouched. When soil is stacked and used later, it can degrade and make it harder for plant life to grow in the future due to soil organisms dying from the displacement. Preserving existing plants can help with on site water mitigation as the vegetation will help soak up water.
Lightweight and low heat storing materials should be used. Traditional building materials such as wood, grass, palm, and bamboo are cooler and cheaper than masonry but can be eaten by insects, so they must be used carefully. They are often used on the second level or for buildings raised above the ground. Bamboo specifically is cheap and can function as roof rafters that span further than wood. It is ideal for interior spaces or under a wide roof overhang. Like other woods, bamboo can be smoked to deter termites and mold. Buildings made of earth last when they are well maintained and are less likely to overheat and become damp than stone or concrete. Earth is also a good insulator as it doesn’t get hot or cool very quickly. Earth as a material can be raw with cob walls, mud blocks, rammed earth, or compressed earth bricks. Figures 23 and 24 show sundried earth bricks plastered in mud used for buildings throughout Djenné, Mali (Alatalo, 2018).
Figure 23
Mud Buildings in Djenné, Mali
Note. Source: www.fieldstudyoftheworld.com.
Figure 24
The Great Mosque of Djenné by Ismaila Traoré
Note. Source: www.fieldstudyoftheworld.com.
The earth bricks can integrate lime or cement to preserve them in the rain. Wood can also be inserted into the walls to provide extra structure making the building stronger. This combination of earth and timber has been well preserved over time in the old town of Djenné and can be an inexpensive alternative to concrete and steel. Earth also performs better in the climate as heavier masonry like concrete in humid climates can become damp more frequently from condensation.
Knowing how to design for a specific climate is essential to ensuring comfort for the building’s occupants and making sure the building performs well in its environment. Materials such as wood and clay can perform well in Accra’s climate. The architecture should also express history through vernacular design and relate to the people and region.
National Clothing (2018) talks about the colors, designs, and cultural significance of Kente cloth. Originated in Ghana, Kente cloth is a hand woven cloth historically worn by royalty of the Akan ethnic group (National Clothing, 2018). It is now worn for more social events or daily wear. Worn by both men and women, Kente cloth is a way many celebrate African Ghanian culture and heritage. The designs and colors used have a specific purpose or meaning. These colors include maroon (mother earth and healing), yellow (royalty and prosperity), blue (peace and unity), green (harvest and health), and black (spiritual energy). Figure 25 shows various samples of Kente cloth.
Figure 25
Samples of Kente Cloth
Note. Source: www.nationalclothing.com
The colors of the Kente cloth used can inform and inspire the integration of color to express African culture.
Precedents
Geleff (2021) talks about the King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Centre (KAPSARC), designed by Zaha Hadid Architects in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. This sustainable power research facility uses passive and active environmental solutions to achieve LEED Platinum certification by the US Green Building Council KAPSARC is designed in a way that reflects self organization within biology.
The structural organization of KAPSARC’s composition is based on a hexagonal prismatic honeycomb that uses the least material to create a lattice of cells within a
specific volume. A modular honeycomb formation, shown in Figure 26, allows for future adaptation and expansion of the campus. More cells can be added by extending the honeycomb grid. According to the design team, these irregular, angular structures mirror crystalline forms that emerge in the desert landscape and evolve to best respond to the facility's environmental conditions and internal program.
Figure 26 Exterior View of the KAPSARC Note. Source: www.designboom.com
The central courtyard is surrounded by five buildings of different sizes and organizations to fit their use best KAPSARC also promotes cultural aspects reflected in geometric motifs, materials, and mesh elements, as shown in Figures 27 and 28 (Architect’s Empire, 2020).
Figure 27
Musalla Prayer Space
Note. www.designboom.com.
Figure 28 Courtyard within KAPSARC
Note. www.designboom.com.
Ideas of complexity are used, such as the makeup of the form and the different organizations of spaces. It can be seen how these ideas are reflected in sustainable design while holding cultural value.
The Muzeiko Children’s Museum in Sofia, Bulgaria by Skolnick Architecture + Design Partnership is a 35,000 square foot (SF) building that achieves LEED Gold. It is organized conceptually being a journey through space and time highlighting different studies of science, as seen in Figure 29.
Figure 29
Concept Diagram of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum
Note. Source: www.segd.org.
The Muzeiko Children’s Museum includes a science playground, outdoor activity space, green roof, and rain garden. The architectural theme of the “Little Mountains” that interrupts the structure’s glass volume alludes to Bulgaria’s mountainous topography. These sculptural forms shown in Figure 30 also use color and texture to connect to the Indigenous craft traditions of Bulgaria.
Figure 30
Exterior View of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum
Note. Source: www.archdaily.com.
Figure 31 shows the Muzeiko Children’s Museum's first and second levels, including programmatic spaces such as the lobby, exhibit area, café, amphitheater, and green roof.
Figure 31
Floor Plans of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum
Note. First (bottom) and second (top) levels of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum Source: www.archdaily.com
The Muzeiko Children’s Museum’s concept of interactive programs that enhance informal learning and early science literacy has hugely impacted the surrounding area. It has become significant in the lives of local children and families, as well as an asset to classroom educators. Within the first five months of opening, the Muzeiko Children’s Museum surpassed its yearly projected 100,000 visits and has served over 241 schools in Bulgaria (SEGD, 2017). The city has also seen improvements in the surrounding area of the Muzeiko Children’s Museum. New sidewalks, lighting, signage, ramps, and art installations have been installed. Additionally, public transport to the facility has been promoted. The Muzeiko Children’s Museum is an example of a museum building typology that expresses culture and impacts children and the community. Insight is given on the program of the Accra Science Center in Ghana and the impact it could make on the surrounding area.
Duncan (2019) talks about affordable eco housing in Ghana. Affordable and eco friendly housing is built using locally sourced materials such as clay which is abundantly available in West Africa. As seen in Figure 32, houses are built using the rammed earth technique with a mixture of laterite, clay, and granite chippings. A small amount of cement is also used to help bind it together.
Figure 32
Residence Under Construction Using Rammed Earth
Note. Source: www.citinewsroom.com.
This is better than using cement that is typically seen in other areas in Ghana because it can be very toxic in the humid climate, creating bad indoor air quality. This technique is like an updated version of the traditional mud house shown in Figure 33.
Figure 33
Native African Home Made of Mud Walls and Thatched Roof
Note: Source: www.designindaba.com.
The eco friendly homes also incorporate an underground cooling system to help cut the cost and use of air conditioning. Piping is laid at least eight feet (ft) underground, and a solar pump is used to help bring in cool air. The concept of this system can be seen in Figure 34. Figure 34
Air Intake System to Help with Cooling
Note. Source: www.researchgate.com
The information provided talks about materials native to the region that also perform well in the climate. Integrated systems to help with human comfort can also be analyzed and further studied.
Lessons Learned
• Complexity in architecture can be seen through the balance of order and chaos
• Complexity can be expressed in architecture through, asymmetry, disruption of pattern, self similarity, patterned designs, and elements of biophilic design
• Complexity has an emerging property as it adapts to internal and external factors outside the decisions of the designer
• Humans resonate with organized complexity, while unorganized complexity can cause uneasiness and overall unpleasant reactions
• Complexity can be organized through hierarchical cooperation throughout scales and self organization
• Hierarchical cooperation is best applied when distinct building scales are clearly shown
• The level of complexity in design can be defined both qualitatively and quantitatively
• Complex systems found in nature can inform architecture on creating physically comfortable environments.
• Voronoi diagrams express a fractal pattern and the idea of self organization
• People are inherently attracted to elements of biophilic design that connect to complexity.
• Fractal patterns visually and conceptually express the idea of complexity
• Fractal patterns can have a positive effect on those who perceive them
• Fractals have been integral to African customs and culture
• Pertaining to the Kente cloth, colors hold symbolic meanings within African culture
• Certain materials such as bamboo, earth, and clay can be used to work well with the climate and connect to the vernacular architecture.
• Programming and spatial needs of a science museum are better understood.
Implications for Design
• Expressions of complexity will be used on different scales within the Accra Science Center
• Complexity will be organized within the Accra Science Center’s design scheme to achieve coherence
• The Accra Science Center’s level of complexity can be quantified using the Kolmogorov Chaitin Complexity or Box Counting Method discussed
• Building systems will be integrated to help improve the comfort of users
• The Accra Science Center’s form and layout will have a relationship to traditional African architecture
• Colors that hold symbolic meaning will be expressed throughout the Accra Science Center
• Materials used will be appropriate for the climate of Accra, Ghana
METHODOLOGY
Complexity is often seen as a negative concept that should be simplified or hidden, but in the proper context, it can be a valid approach and appropriate response to a problem. The purpose of the Accra Science Center’s design is to articulate complexity’s role in connecting architecture to nature, humans, and the regional culture of Accra, Ghana.
Topic as Precedent Study
Shown in Figure 35, the Muzeiko Children’s Science Center by Skolnick Architecture + Design Partnership is located in Sofia, Bulgaria.
Figure 35
Exterior View of the Muzeiko Children’s Science Center
Note. Source: www.archdaily.com.
This children’s science museum is the same building type as the Accra Science Center and is the first children’s museum built in post Soviet Eastern Europe. This museum has positively impacted the surrounding community by creating an educational resource for children and revitalizing the areas around it. Colors, textures, and form are used throughout the Muzeiko Children’s Science Center to reflect Bulgaria's culture, customs,
and topography. The integration of visually and physically stimulating exhibitions give users of the museum a unique and meaningful learning experience.
Context as Problem or Background
Building Justification
Ideas of complexity found in science and African culture will be expressed throughout the Accra Science Center in Accra, Ghana, as shown in Figures 36, 37, 38, and 39 There are no built structures on the site, just vegetation including trees and bushes The Accra Science Center lies in a region surrounded by many research facilities, elementary through high schools, hotels, and tourist attractions. The local scientific research would be reflected within the Accra Science Center, whose primary audience is school aged children from surrounding educational institutions. The Accra Science Center offers entertainment that can attract local tourists, in the long term, contributing to the already growing economy of Accra.
Figure 36
Map of Africa Highlighting Ghana
Note. Source: www.wegerwiki.nl.
Figure 37
Map of Ghana
Note. Source: www.freeworldmaps.net.
Figure 38 Map of Accra, Ghana
Note. Source: www.googlemaps.com.
Figure 39
Map Showing Site Location in Accra, Ghana
Population
As of now, Accra’s population is about 2.6 million. Approximately 56% of the population is under the age of 24. The major ethnic groups of Accra are Akan and Ga Dangme (World Population Review, 2022). More ethnic groups can be seen in Figure 40.
Figure 40
Pie Graph Showing Ethnic Groups in Ghana
Note. Source: www.britannica.com
In 2010 Accra’s pre school enrollment rate was 98%, Primary School, Junior High, and High School were all at 95% Outside of Primary, Junior High, and High School, there are also a few K 12th schools and over 20 Universities. Documented in Figure 41 are the
proximities of schools within a 7 mile radius of the proposed site for the Accra Science Center. Figure 41 Schools within Seven Miles of the Site
= Schools
Elementary Schools = 21
Middle Schools = 9
High Schools = 9
Figure 42 shows the mapping of over ten research institutes within a 5 mile radius of the site. Areas of study include environmental, medical, and food science.
Figure 42
= Research Facilities
Research Facilities = 13
Research Facilities within Five Miles of the Site Tourist attractions within a 5 mile radius of the site were recorded, shown in Figure 43. These attractions include the W.E.B. DuBois Center, Ashanti African Tours, and the Accra Ghana Temple. Hotels and lodging within a 3 mile radius of the site were also documented.
Tourist Attraction and Hotel Map
Note. Tourist attractions within five miles of the site (top) and hotels within 3 miles of the site (bottom).
Design Implications
The site lies close to a main roadway and is less than half a mile from a bus stop. Medical and food science research facilities adjacent to the site, shown in Figure 44, will influence some of the subject matter of the Accra Science Museum. Walkers and bikers will enter the site on the east from the main road. Vehicular access will be focused on the
south. On site would be the natural vegetation currently existing along with additional planting. Designed water features will also be used to help with site run off, drainage, and integrated building systems.
Figure 44
Map Showing Context Around the Site = Bus Stop = Educational Institutes = Research Facilities = Hotels
Context as Site and Program
Site Selection
Accra, Ghana has a hot tropical climate with high humidity shown in Figures 45 and 46. The year round temperature ranges from 77° 90° Fahrenheit (F), with the hottest months in March and April.
Figure 45
Graph Showing Yearly Temperature in Accra, Ghana
Note. Temperature shown in Fahrenheit Source: www.bing.com
Figure 46
Graph Showing Average Humidity in Accra, Ghana
Note. Source: www.weather atlas.com
Rainfall in Accra ranges from 1.7 inches (in.) to 9.6 in. per month, with June having the most precipitation. This can be seen in Figure 47.
Figure 47
Graph Showing Yearly Precipitation in Accra, Ghana
Note. Rainfall shown in inches. Source: www.bing.com.
An ocean wind comes in from the south to the southwest and ranges from 5mph to 20 mph shown in Figure 48
Figure 48
Chart Showing Typical Wind Direction in Accra, Ghana
Note. Source: www.world weather.info
