A feminist critique of the twilight saga

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Exposing Twilight: Gender Inequality, Female Subordination and Hegemonic Masculinity explored through the Twilight Saga

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The Twilight Tetralogy -­‐ Twilight (2005), New Moon (2006), Eclipse (2007) & Breaking Dawn (2008) written by Stephanie Meyer:

(Source -­‐ http://thetwilightsaga.com/photo/book-­‐covers-­‐17)

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Acknowledgements

There are a number of people I would like to acknowledge and thank for their support and encouragement whilst researching and creating this dissertation.

-­‐To my supervisor, Julia O’Connell Davidson who's support and feedback has been invaluable.

-­‐To my lecturers, who have ensured my immersion and fascination with sociology, which I believe will stay with me throughout my life.

-­‐To my Mother, Gail for her unwavering support and belief in me.

-­‐Finally, to everyone who I have interacted with during my three years at Nottingham.

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Contents:

Abstract…………………………………………………..……………………..……………………………………………………5

Chapter 1 Gender Inequality & Women’s Rights: A Short History

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....6 1.1 A Short History of Women’s Rights…………..…………..………………………………………………………8 1.2 Equality vs. Difference & Objectification vs. Complicity……………………………………………….14 1.3 Gender Inequality in 21st Century Popular Culture…………………..………………………………….19

Chapter 2 Femininity in Twilight -­‐ A Tale of Forbidden Love: Romance, Immortality & Temptation

2.0 The Allure of the Twilight Saga…………………………………………………………………………………….20 2.1 Bitten By Love -­‐ Bella as (Anti?) Feminist…………………………………………………….……………….23

Chapter 3 Masculinity in Twilight -­‐ Patriarchy & the Dawning of New Monsters

3.0 Hegemonic Masculinity: The Allure of Vampires & Werewolves…………..……………………..30

Chapter 4 Death, Disaster & Desire

4.0 Bella & Edward: Sacrifice, Soul & Serendipity…………………..……………………..………………….36 4.1 Bella & Edward: Depictions of a Victorian Lady & Gentleman………………….………………….41

Chapter 5 Conclusion

5.0 A 21st Century Paradox?…………………………………………………..……………………..…………………..43 5.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………..……………………..……………………………………….45

Bibliography….…………………………………………………..……………………..……………………………………….47

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Abstract

“Woman has always been man’s dependent, if not his slave; the two sexes have never shared the world in equality” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 20).

Discrimination, subordination, objectification and inequality encapsulated and characterised the lives of women historically. For that reason, this dissertation starts from the observation that in spite of women’s growing legal and formal equality with men, in contemporary popular and consumer culture, gender inequality still exists. This is explored through an analysis of the Twilight tetralogy written by Stephanie Meyer and is discussed against a backdrop of the theoretical framework of feminism, which continues to highlight gender inequality in society. Through an analysis of the Twilight series, I aim to show how femininity and masculinity continue to be portrayed as different and unequal in our contemporary popular culture.

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Gender Inequality & Women’s Rights: A Short History

1.0 Introduction The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the continual existence of gender inequality, which has been a feature of Western societies for centuries (Lister: 1997). Despite women’s growing legal and civil equality, this dissertation aims to explore how gender inequality continues to persist in 21st Century popular and consumer culture. Bonnie Mann captures precisely this, “We are accustomed to thinking of women’s subordination as a thing of the past. Yet […] as gendered power retreats from law and policy it is even more intensely concentrated on women’s bodies and the process by which they come to think of themselves as persons” (Mann, 2009: 137). Through an analysis of the alluring yet destructive Twilight saga, I aim to illustrate the continuing relevance of some key feminist arguments about the social and political construction of gender difference and inequality.

In order to critically evaluate the notions of gender inequality inherent within Twilight, it is important to analyze it in the context of the 21st Century and the contemporary environment and current views on equality. It would be remiss and misleading, however, to do so without a thorough portrayal of the evolution of women’s progress from the late 19th Century onwards. This dissertation will seek to unfold a chronological view of significant

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landmarks on the journey for greater equality for women. It is only by illustrating women’s historic and real struggle for social, political and legal reform, that the Twilight saga can be scrutinized and conclusions can be constructed in terms of the notions held therein.

Once the history has been established and the backdrop set, the critical analysis of behaviour and actions by the key characters in the Twilight saga can be conducted in full context. Furthermore, the overwhelming recognition of the franchise and its “widespread popularity” (Wilson, 2011: 7) will pose some unsettling questions regarding its portrayal of gender difference. The predominant purpose of this dissertation is to explore the inequality between men and women in contemporary society and how this is being perpetuated in a very popular and widely recognized publication.

The first chapter explores the complex historical relationship between women and citizenship. It examines and identifies the progress in women’s equality through movements that forced social and legal change. This chapter aims to illustrate clearly the roles and rights of women in the late 19th Century and the pathway of progress that has been achieved to date, and attempts to highlight the very real mental and physical struggle of women throughout history. By definition, the argument of whether women in the 21st Century are objectified or whether they are complicit in their inferior position begs to be discussed.

The second chapter explores the concept of traditional femininity and the female role in the Twilight novels. The protagonist, Bella, is critically analyzed and her character, mindset and personal choices are discussed in the context of women’s roles historically. Conversely, the third chapter looks at masculinity and the way in which typical and traditional notions of masculinity are being perpetuated and constructed in the saga. The two male protagonists, Edward and Jacob, are examined both in terms of their independent behaviour and, also, in

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terms of their behaviour and treatment of Bella. Comparisons are made with the depiction of their characters in the context of a 21st Century piece of literature. The fourth chapter explores the theme of death and desire looking at both masculinity and femininity combined and the ways in which Bella and Edward’s interaction reflects that of individuals living in the Victorian era. Finally, the fifth chapter draws together the strands of the previous chapters in order to offer a considered conclusion in terms of gender inequality in the 21st Century and it’s depiction in popular culture.

A key question simmering throughout this critical evaluation of Twilight is why does the phenomenon resonate so strongly in our contemporary popular and consumer society?

1.1 A Short History of Women’s Rights Women living in the 21st Century have very different lives to their predecessors. Historically, they faced an enduring and pervasive denial of citizenship, as they were legally and formally excluded, “almost nowhere is her legal status the same as man’s, and frequently it is much to her disadvantage […] men and women can almost be said to make up two castes” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 20). The feminist movement was a huge force for political and legal change in society as “feminism emerged as a mighty instrument in the hands of women to achieve their independence” (Chandrababu & Thilagavathi, 2009: 21). Women also struggled continuously for equality, largely through the suffrage movement from the late 19th Century through to the early part of the 20th Century (Wingerden: 1999). This movement created the backdrop for social and political change for women and as a result many laws were passed and formalised that enhanced their civil and political rights.

The suffrage movement began in 1872 and demanded that women be entitled to vote (Wingerden: 1999). It became a wider representation of action to draw attention to gender

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inequality and women deserving their political and civil rights (Wingerden: 1999). Women during the suffrage movement began to rebel and protest against historical male tyranny and women’s subordination in society, as they no longer wanted to be defined by their biology (Wingerden: 1999).

During the suffrage movement, many laws were enforced that resulted in women becoming more equal with men. The Married Women’s Property Act of 1882 is an important act to begin with, which was closely supported by Millicent Fawcett, a suffragist (Thicknesse: 1882). Prior to this Act being formalised women lived under laws of coverture, they were defined as a ‘feme covert’ highlighting their subordination to their husband (Thicknesse: 1882). When married, the husband and wife became one person in the eyes of the law, resulting in the loss of women’s legal identity (Thicknesse: 1882). Any personal property owned by the wife automatically went to her husband, Pateman said, “under coverture, a wife was required to live where her husband demanded, her earnings belonged to her husband and her children were the property of her husband” (1988: 121).

Divorce heavily favoured men over women, as they were entitled to the woman’s property.

Therefore, to address this, the act of 1882 stated that the wife could own, buy and sell her own property. Her legal identity was restored as the courts now viewed a husband and wife as two separate legal entities (Thicknesse: 1882). The act enabled women to keep their property whether they were divorced, married, single or widowed. Thus, the wife went from being a “feme covert” to a “feme sole” (Bouvier, 2006: 561). Pateman said the Act was a huge achievement for women and “was one of the great landmarks in the struggle to end coverture and gain recognition for married women as civil individuals” (1988: 120).

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In 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union in Manchester along with her daughters Christabel and Sylvia, and Annie Kearney (Wingerden: 1999). In 1905 Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kearney served a prison sentence for disrupting an election rally. The campaign for votes for women received a great deal of publicity due to this, which is when the press coined the term ‘suffragettes’, to describe women actively involved in the suffrage movement (Wingerden: 1999). This is one illustration of women’s forceful involvement in a bid to achieve women’s equality.

Women’s pro-­‐active stance to achieve equality continued to persist. On 18th November 1910 a suffrage protest occurred known as Black Friday. The protest came about as a reaction against parliamentary proceedings (Wingerden: 1999). The Conciliation bill stated that it would extend the right for women to vote in the United Kingdom. The bill made it to a second reading but the Prime Minister at the time, Herbert Henry Asquith ended this and said there would be no more Parliamentary time for the reading (Wingerden: 1999). As a result, the women’s Social and Political Union lead by Emmeline Pankhurst, arranged a protest of around 300 women. However, about 200 women were brutally assaulted and “were persistently repelled by the police” (Wingerden, 1999: 123).

It was the first documented use of police force and assault against suffragists. “The day was marked by extraordinary violence and, later, by suspicions that the Government had somehow played a part in authorizing the extensive violence” (Wingerden, 1999: 123). Ada Cecil Wright, a suffragist, spoke of the event, “It was a terrible day, and we were battered by the police all day long. The police rode at us with their horses, so I caught hold of the reins […] A policeman caught hold of my arm, and twisted it round and round until I felt the bone almost breaking, and I sank to the pavement helpless” (Ada Cecil Wright cited in Wingerden, 1999: 124). This is an indication of how much women endured when attempting to gain

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their political and civil rights and the extreme lengths and measures they went to in order to achieve this.

Another sign of women’s bravery is the renowned death of Emily Davison. She was a militant activist who fought for women’s suffrage in Britain. On 4th June 1913 during the race on Derby Day, “she squeezed through the railings, ran toward the King’s horse, and tried to rein him down, all in a wild bid for votes for women” (Wingerden, 1999: 70). However, she died four days later as a result of her severe injuries (Wingerden: 1999). This is a demonstration of the extreme efforts women went to in order to secure their civil and legal rights in society, as Wingerden says, “Davison could be hailed by her comrades as one more martyr to the cause of votes for women” (1999: 70).

World War 1 in 1914 is an important landmark regarding women’s role, as prior to this they were solely restricted to traditional female roles and were minimally involved in the political process (Cook: 2006). However, with the loss of thousands of men daily, women had to intervene in other sectors that did not primarily involve duties of the home, “during World War 1, women in Great Britain heeded the same patriotic call to arms as the British men did, assisting the armed forces in many capacities” (Cook, 2006: 237). Their roles varied from working in factories and offices to active wartime roles as decoders, “thousands of women served on or near the front lines as nurses, ambulance drivers, gas-­‐mask instructors, and mechanics, and thousands more worked behind the front lines as munitions workers, fund-­‐ raisers, seamstresses, laundresses, and spies” (Cook, 2006: 237). Britain was the first country in the war that brought “women into formal military service with the creation of three female auxiliary units” (Cook, 2006: 237).

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The war had forced women to have the dual role of housewife and worker, illustrating they were more than capable in diverse fields of endeavour. Despite that women were paid less, their equality was on the rise as they were now getting paid two thirds of the typical pay for men and by the end of the war more than 10,000 women had joined (Cook: 2006). Women were hailed for their active involvement in the war, and “government propaganda referred to women war workers as “100,000 Joans of Arc,” applauding their patriotic selflessness” (Cook, 2006: 237).

Very soon after this, the right for women to vote was sanctioned in 1918 and allowed women, who met the proper qualifications, to vote over the age of 30. In spite of this apparent progress, inequality still existed as men could vote at the age of 21 (Williams: 2005). Moreover, at that time only 17 out of the 1,600 candidates for Parliament were women. However, in 1928 this Act was extended and the voting age for men and women was equalised at 21 years of age (Williams: 2005).

The act was a monumental achievement for the suffrage movement, as the primary factor for the suffrage movement was women’s right to vote. It had been 36 years earlier, in 1892 that the Women’s Suffrage Bill had failed (Wingerden: 1999). Therefore the fact that women were now achieving equality in many political and civil sectors illustrates how their extreme levels of bravery and integrity were finally being recognised (Wingerden: 1999). It is key to acknowledge that these Acts did not simply evolve over time, women had to fight to be heard in their struggle for equality with men, as demonstrated through the brutality women faced from police on Black Friday and by Emily Davison sacrificing her life (Wingerden: 1999).

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Another landmark event occurred on 7th June in 1968 when women working at Ford Motor Company Limited’s Dagenham plant began walking out on strike (Miller, Vandome & McBrewster: 2011). This act of audacity and bravery ultimately led to the establishment of the Equal Pay Act in 1970, which officially came into force in 1975 (Zabalza & Tzannatos: 1985). The aim of the act was to prohibit inequality of treatment between men and women in terms of payment and employment. It became illegal to pay women lower rates than men for the same work (Zabalza & Tzannatos: 1985). This is a further illustration of women’s growing legal equality with men due to their relentless fighting.

The Sex Discrimination Act was passed in 1975 that stated no sex should be discriminated against on the grounds of sex or marriage (Wilson & Beloff: 1976). The Act attempted to eliminate discrimination and instead to promote equality of opportunity between both men and women (Wilson & Beloff). “An Act to render unlawful certain kinds of sex discrimination and discrimination on the ground of marriage, and establish a Commission with the function of working towards the elimination of such discrimination and promoting equality of opportunity between men and women generally; and for related purposes” (Wilson & Beloff, 1976: 93).

Soon after this, in 1992, marital rape was outlawed in the United Kingdom. Historically marital rape was not considered to be illegal, which is most notably illustrated by Sir Matthew Hale in 1736. He said that “the husband cannot be guilty of a rape committed by himself upon his lawful wife, for by their mutual matrimonial consent and contract the wife hath given up herself in this kind unto her husband, which she cannot retract” (Matthew Hale cited in Estrich, 1987: 72). Hasday (2000) argued that a husband’s conjugal rights attracted public controversy almost instantaneously after the first organised woman’s rights movement in 1948. “Over the course of the next half century, feminists waged a vigorous,

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public, and extraordinary frank campaign against a man’s right to forced sex in marriage” (Hasday, 2000: 1377). It was not till 1992 that marital rape was first outlawed in the United Kingdom. It was only at this time that it was prosecuted and deemed as illegal in the West.

This is another indication of women’s unfaltering efforts to achieve equality and how this was then reciprocated in society.

These legal Acts were formalised due to women’s indefatigable efforts to achieve their civil and political rights. Historical records clearly define women’s strong determination to achieve equality through their acts of courage and bravery and illustrate the extent of their struggle. The most important aspect of this short history is the fact that these acts did not simply progress over time, women fought long and hard for the right to be acknowledged as citizens with legal and civil rights.

1.2 Equality vs. Difference & Objectification vs. Complicity Women have long fought for their equality, the doctrine of feminism wanted to advocate the “social and political rights of women equal to those of men” (Chandrababu & Thilagavathi, 2009: 21). However, they have also demanded that their difference be recognised and acknowledged, this distinction is important to many scholars, “equality and difference as basic matrices of feminism“ (Vernon, 2005: 78). Wollstonecraft was the first feminist who articulated this dichotomy. She wanted to honour women’s natural and distinctive talents insisting that women not be measured by the same standards as men, illustrating her emphasis on difference. Vernon examines Wollstonecraft’s views and argues that inherent in feminism is “a binary dilemma between the demand for equality and the acknowledgement for difference” (Vernon, 2005: 78).

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Equally, Carole Pateman (1992) said “the feminist movement and feminist scholarship are frequently seen as divided between the advocates of equality on the one side and the advocates of sexual difference on the other” (1992: 14). She says there is common misinterpretation of women’s enduring struggle for citizenship being viewed as simply a campaign for equality, for the rights of men to be extended to women. However, she argues that people misunderstand the way in which women fought for citizenship. She says that from the late 18th Century, around the time Wollstonecraft was writing, women have fought for both, equal and civil rights, and also that their difference be acknowledged in their citizenship. However, Pateman (1992) argues it is difficult to achieve equality and difference simultaneously due to their incompatibility with one another.

Pateman (1992) continues by saying that within the current patriarchal conception of citizenship, the choice must be made between equality and difference and equality and womanhood. She argues that on the one hand achieving equality requires women to be equal with men, to have the same rights as men, meaning that “women must become (like) men” (Pateman, 1992: 17). However, on the other hand contemporary feminists want women’s distinctive attributes to be noticed and serve as a contribution to their citizenship.

Pateman said that this would mean to “demand the impossible” (1992: 17) as equality and difference oppose one another. Joan Scott further emphasises this dilemma, “When equality and difference are paired dichotomously, they structure an impossible choice. If one opts for equality, one is forced to accept the notion that difference is antithetical to it. If one opts for difference, one admits that equality is unattainable” (1988: 172).

Running as a parallel strand with the conflict between equality and difference is the conflict between women’s objectification and women’s complicity. Feminists have had a long-­‐ standing concern with women’s subordinate position in society as they “plea for the

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recognition of the shared destiny of men and women” (Chandrababu & Thilagavathi, 2009: 22). However, at the same time they have had an ongoing issue with women’s own complicity in their secondary position as some feminists argue women can sometimes be resistant to their own emancipation (Chandrababu & Thilagavathi: 2009). As a result, there is a conflicting debate between objectification and complicity regarding women’s inferior position in society.

Numerous feminist scholars have articulated this ongoing problem with the objectification of women in society. Simone de Beauvoir (1997) argued that women’s subordinate position in society is due to a cultural and social construction, “the battle of the sexes is not implicit in the anatomy of man and woman” (1997: 726). She argued that women have been socialised into adopting characteristics of submissiveness and passivity and that biology is not the reason for women’s subordination. “Woman is determined not by her hormones or by mysterious instincts, but by the manner in which her body and her relation to the world are modified through the action of others than herself” (1997: 734), highlighting how gender inequality continues to persist as a social construction.

Simone de Beauvoir (1997) used the binary of subject and object in order to convey her theory about men and women. She argued that man assigns himself as the subject, effectively placing woman as the other, “she stands before man not as a subject but as an object paradoxically endued with subjectivity; she takes herself simultaneously as self and as other” (1997: 727). The other serves as a projection of all the qualities the subject does not want to adopt, such as passivity and submissiveness, she is “shut up in immanence” (1997: 726). Immanence is the historic domain that is assigned to women and characterises them as static, passive and inferior. Conversely de Beauvoir (1997) said that transcendence is inherently male, characterising them as creative and powerful (de Beauvoir: 1997). She said

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this social construction of inequality between man and woman is rooted early on in one’s life, “the abyss that separates the adolescent boy and girl has been deliberately widened between them since earliest childhood […] woman could not be other than what she was made” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 734).

Catherine MacKinnon’s work ties in significantly with de Beauvoir’s arguments, “woman through male eyes is sex object, that by which man knows himself at once as man and as subject” (1989: 122). They both argue that man renders himself as the subject, automatically placing woman as the object or the other, underscoring the significant difference between men and women in society. MacKinnon argues, “sexual objectification is the primary process of the subjection of women […] women have been the nature, the matter, the acted upon to be subdued by the acting subject” (1989: 124).

Like de Beauvoir, MacKinnon (1989) argues it is the power of the socialisation process rather than the influence of biology that encourages females to accept traditional and conventional gender roles and in turn accept the negative stereotypes. MacKinnon (1989) says that sex difference as well as gender difference is socially constructed and shaped by relations of power which is the primary reason for the inequality between men and women. “Women and men are divided by gender, made into the sexes as we know them, by the requirements of its dominant form, heterosexuality, which institutionalises male sexual dominance and female sexual submission. If this is true, sexuality is the linchpin of gender inequality” (MacKinnon, 1989: 113).

On the other side of the spectrum, there is the issue with women’s complicity in their own subordination, de Beauvoir’s (1997) work is essential here as she argued when it comes to freedom, one has to either embrace it or turn away from it. She said people have the

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temptation to shy away from the responsibilities of their freedom, even if it results in them being treated like an object rather than a human being (de Beauvoir: 1997). Thus, her work provides a different strand to gender inequality, as she argued women can sometimes be complicit in their subordinate position.

Simone de Beauvoir (1997) said everyone is capable of defining their own destinies, however, everyone is subject to the temptation to abstain from their freedom, to deny their liberty. “The males find in woman more complicity than the oppressor usually finds in the oppressed” (1997: 730). She said women have a tendency to sometimes forgo the responsibility of their own lives, effectively letting other people author and control them, thus driving the inequality between men and women. Women are subsequently condemned to being viewed as things or objects, which leaves them with no choice other than to live up to the social construction society and men give them, a passive and submissive female. She continued by saying that women’s complicity in their inferior position is because “she gives up criticizing, investigating, judging for herself, and leaves all this to the superior caste” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 611).

Furthermore, de Beauvoir (1997) argued women are prescribed characteristics of immanence, prudence and pettiness and eventually they come to embody these qualities, as it is what society expects them to become. However, she continued by saying that these characteristics “are not dictated to women by her hormones nor predetermined in the structure of the female brain: they are shaped as in a mould by her situation” (1997: 608).

She means there are no natural characteristics that define ‘woman’. Society has constructed this notion of femininity, which has subsequently resulted in women being “taught to accept masculine authority” (1997: 611), enhancing and highlighting the inequality between men and women in society. However, it is important to recognize that the concept of women’s

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complicity is complex, “to suggest that women are complicit in their own oppression is not to blame the victim but to suggest that all of us are somewhat complicit in going along with the status quo” (Paludi, 2008: 158).

1.3 Gender Inequality in 21st Century Popular Culture The issue for most feminists is that popular culture is saturated with the emphasis on gender difference and gender inequality. In spite of feminists’ attempts to rectify this imbalance, it seems to persist in contemporary society. As Walter says, “from Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792, to Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex in 1949, to Germaine Greer’s The Female Eunuch in 1970, to Naomi Wolf’s The Beauty Myth in 1991, brilliant and angry women have demanded a change in these ideals. Yet far from fading away, they have become narrower and more powerful than ever” (Walter, 2010: 3).

However, there are conflicting views within feminist ideology. For example, Camille Paglia (1992) challenges the feminists cited above by arguing that sex can be a source of power for women. LeMoncheck and Hajdin examine Paglia’s views and argue that women have a “threatening and raw sexual power […] at their disposal” (1997: 45). Whilst presenting a counter-­‐argument, Camille Paglia is, nevertheless, an overtly controversial feminist and her work thus far has provided people with “heated and conflicting opinions” (Gallagher, 1994: 40).

The Twilight series will now be examined in a backdrop to some of the feminist literature already discussed hitherto. Wilson (2011) argues that the Twilight series conveys contradictory messages, produces destructive traditional gender stereotypes, objectifies females and tolerates abuse. Thus, I believe the literary books are an applicable example in

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illustrating that in spite of the seemingly misleading assumption that we live in a gender equal society, this is not the case and gender inequality is more apparent than ever.

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Femininity in Twilight

A Tale of Forbidden Love: Romance, Immortality & Temptation

2.0 The Allure of the Twilight Saga The Twilight saga “offers a vast textual landscape that echoes the world in which they live -­‐ a landscape replete with conflicting messages […] about femininity and masculinity” (Wilson, 2011: 2).

The Twilight Saga was first published in 2005. It is a series of fantasy, romance novels written by Stephanie Meyer that tell “a tortured and impossible love story” (Parke & Wilson, 2011: 2) between Bella Swan, a teenage girl and Edward Cullen a 104-­‐year-­‐old vampire. In the first book, Twilight (Meyer: 2005) Bella moves from Phoenix, Arizona to Forks Washington to live with her father, Charlie. At her school she meets Edward, a fascinating yet cryptic vampire who she ends up falling in love with. It explores the evolving relationship between Bella and Edward and the trials and tribulations they face together, given she is human and he is a vampire, culminating in him saving her life in a dramatic fashion. In the second book, New Moon (Meyer: 2006) Edward and Bella break up, as he believes his world is too dangerous for her. As a result, she forms a close bond and friendship with Jacob, a werewolf. Despite her being completely broken from the break-­‐up with Edward, Jacob falls heavily in love with Bella, his feelings being, to some extent, reciprocated. However, Edward and Bella eventually reunite. The penultimate book, Eclipse (Meyer: 2007) shows Bella

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struggling to choose between her friendship with Jacob and her love for Edward, due to her escalating, loving feelings for Jacob. Breaking Dawn (Meyer: 2008) the final book in the series, sees Bella and Edward getting married. Bella becomes pregnant despite this being highly improbable due to Edward being a vampire. They do, however, end up having a child and Edward eventually turns her into a vampire in order to save her life.

The tetralogy received an immense amount of attention and recognition worldwide. The New York Times selected the original novel in the series as ‘Editor’s choice’, it was also noted as ‘book of the year’ by Publisher’s Weekly (Sykley, 2012: 1). The saga is in the category of ‘Best Books of the Decade’ for Amazon and is in the top ten books for young adults in the American Library Association (Sykley, 2012: 1). The books have had a huge success with all four of them gaining the top four best sellers that year and being translated into 37 languages. The series has sold over 100 million copies with the final book Breaking Dawn selling 1.3 million copies in just one day (Sykley: 2012).

The Twilight books became so popular that they spawned a film franchise, which gained immense commercial status and popularity worldwide. Despite the fact that only the literary books written by Stephanie Meyer will be analysed for this dissertation, it is important to acknowledge the recognition and reception that the movie quartet has received. The first movie Twilight had a worldwide gross profit of $329,616,625. The second movie, The Twilight Saga: New Moon had a worldwide gross profit of $709,827462. The third film, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, had a worldwide gross profit of $698,491,347. Finally, the fourth film The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn was split into two films. The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -­‐ Part 1 had a worldwide gross profit of $712,171,856 and The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -­‐ part 2 had a worldwide gross profit of $829,218,344 (Anon (a): 2013).

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In addition to this, the films have generated so much recognition that they have received multiple awards including the People’s choice awards, the Teen Choice awards, the Satum award and the MTV movie awards, they were also nominated for a Grammy (Anon (b): 2013). These statistics have been included to illustrate the enormous global popularity of the series, which underscores the significant potential influence it may have on people.

Therefore, the messages it conveys about gender roles are worthy of evaluation and critique.

Intellectually, the series has generated a lot of attention due to the wide spectrum of academic literature critically evaluating it such as, ‘Theorizing Twilight’ (Parke & Wilson: 2011), ‘Twilight and History’ (Reagin: 2010), ‘The Twilight Mystique: Critical Essays on the Novels and Films’ (Clarke & Osborn: 2010) and ‘Spotlight: A Close-­‐Up Look at the Artistry and Meaning in Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight Novels’ (Granger: 2010). These are just a few of the academic texts written about the popular phenomenon. Its direct relation to the dissertation question is inherent in what McClimans and Wisnewski (2009) say, “these patterns of domination and subordination continue in our society, even though most girls today are raised to become women who see themselves as individuals with an equal social status” (McClimans & Wisnewski, 2009: 164).

I further wanted to explore the tetralogy due to the symbolism inherent in all the books. For example, the apple that appears on the front cover of the first book symbolises, immortality, temptation and love (Sykley: 2012). Consequently, I will examine and analyse, Twilight (2005), New Moon (2006), Eclipse (2007) and Breaking Dawn (2008) as I believe the novels provide an in depth understanding into some important themes this dissertation intends to explore; patriarchy, subordination, objectification, complicity and inequality.

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2.1 Bitten by Love -­‐ Bella as (Anti?) Feminist The concept of femininity is important to examine in the saga as Bonnie Mann argues Bella’s character “is the locus of exaggerated stereotypically feminine incapacities and self-­‐ loathing” (2009: 133). Additionally, Wilson says Bella is depicted as “a “typical” female -­‐ clumsy, self-­‐conscious, and lacking in confidence -­‐ until, that is, her vampire knight reveals her “true” self” (Wilson, 2011: 62). To elaborate, she argues that in Twilight, despite that the protagonist is female, the hero is male which consequently depicts the female character as weak, submissive and secondary to the man. Joanna Russ (2010) confirms this, as she argues the role of the hero is reserved for males only.

Simone de Beauvoir (1997) argued that women are socialised into believing they must embody characteristics of passivity and dependency, they are “doomed to immanence” (1997: 653). She said every aspect of society deprives women of their subjectivity and consequently turns them into passive objects. Bella literally embodies this critique. Edward aggressively tells Bella to ”get in” the car to which she responds, ”it was amazing how instantaneously the choking fear vanished, amazing how suddenly the feeling of security washed over me…as soon as I heard his voice” (Meyer, 2005: 162). His aggressive and forceful attitude resulted in Bella feeling secure and protected, “most troubling, Bella unquestioningly accepts all of Edward’s worst qualities” (Myers, 2009: 158). Not only does the nature and behaviour of Bella’s character reflect de Beauvoir’s (1997) concept of women’s passivity but it also speaks closely to Germaine Greer’s (2006) argument that girls are taught from an early age to be submissive females which consequently results in them believing they are inferior to men. “Society, being codified by man, decrees that woman is inferior” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 726).

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As previously identified, de Beauvoir (1997) argued biology was not the reason for gender inequality in society, “one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman” (1997: 267). She continued by saying women’s inferiority is a social and cultural construction and it is up to society to change these skewed perspectives. She argued that throughout history man asserts himself as the subject, “he has the courageous inclination towards transcendence […] he is ambitious, he acts” (1997: 653), which automatically places woman as the object, the inessential. A woman has no value as an independent entity, she completes a man, but a woman alone is incomplete. “Humanity is male and man defines woman not in herself but as relative to him; she is not regarded as an autonomous being” (1997: 16). This can all be attributed to Bella’s character, as she is constantly reliant and dependent on Edward, “there’s no point to forever without you. I wouldn’t want one day without you” (Meyer, 2007: 276). Wilson verifies this, “Bella is made strong by her association with Edward, Jacob, and her ultimate turn to vampire” (2011: 66).

Bella is so insistent and obsessed by the idea of being with Edward forever that as a result, any notions of ambition for herself in the form of education or a career, are stifled and become irrelevant. Paradoxically, Mary Wollstonecraft (1796) believed one of the most important aspects of a woman’s life was education, especially since women during her lifetime were prohibited from achieving this. Therefore, the interesting point is that historically, women like Wollstonecraft were denied education, creating a generation of women who fought hard for education to be instated for women, yet this novel shows a woman who has the ability and the right to be educated but she places no value on it.

Stephanie Meyer presents this as natural and an understandable result of her love for a man, which is deemed the most important and defining feature of her life. Bella’s main focus in her life is to be with Edward forever and for him to turn her into a vampire. She has no care for education or intellect in her life, despite her intelligence, “college was Plan B. I was

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still hoping for Plan A, but Edward was just so stubborn about leaving me human” (Meyer, 2006: 13).

In the 18th Century Wollstonecraft stated, “I love my man as my fellow; but his scepter, real, or usurped, extends not to me, unless the reason of an individual demands my homage; and even then the submission is to reason, and not to man” (Wollstonecraft, 1796: 72), yet in the 21st Century, after much real progress in women’s movements, Stephanie Meyer depicts women as wholly reliant on men. This powerful quote from Wollstonecraft emphasizes the importance of intellect for women and its predominant priority over a relationship with a man, something that Bella seems to wholeheartedly reject. Arguably, this sends out an arbitrary and dangerous message to the reader, as it endorses sacrificing one’s life for a man. This is in complete contradiction to Wollstonecraft’s writings and that of the feminists who followed her and the numerous battles, both literary and physical that have raged historically to allow women individuality and independence, as outlined in Chapter 1.

A consistent theme throughout the novels is Bella’s overwhelming insecurity and lack of confidence. She constantly devalues herself, “he, for some unfathomable reason, wanted to be with me” (Meyer, 2006: 13). This self-­‐deprecation might perhaps be explained by Germaine Greer’s (2006) theory of how women are taught to hate themselves as a result of men’s overpowering dominance over women in society. Arguably, Bella is creating and maintaining the gender binary between men and women through her idealization of Edward, ”I’m absolutely ordinary -­‐ well, except for bad things like all the near-­‐death experiences and being so clumsy that I’m almost disabled” (Meyer, 2005: 210).

John Berger’s notion of the male gaze may relate to Bella in this scenario. Berger (2008) says the male gaze is reflective of male power brought to bear on women. He says men look at

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women, whereas women are simply looked at. He goes on to argue that in order to function in society, women adapt and internalise the male gaze, and therefore, women learn to see themselves through the lens of males. Consequently, women realise they are not good enough as they fail to measure up to this ideal (Berger: 2008).

However, interestingly, Bella also adopts the gaze. She too watches Edward due to her fascination with him and because he is “inhumanly beautiful” (Meyer, 2005: 19). Although this may seem like an empowering attribute, Mann (2009) argues it is not. She references de Beauvoir’s work in order to explain her theory, “When the young girl internalises and assumes the masculine gaze de Beauvoir said, she takes up a perspective on herself as prey.

As in the fairy tales, she becomes ‘an idol’, ‘a fascinating treasure’, ‘a marvellous fetish’, sought after by men” (2009: 136). Bella’s infatuation with Edward results in her character embodying the traditional and conventional aspects of typical femininity, further maintaining how gender inequality is being endorsed in the saga. Bella’s passive and submissive nature is recognisable to Wilson as she says, “this lack of tough women perpetuates traditional gender binaries” (2011: 65).

Bella’s infatuation and idealization of the Cullen family’s beauty, particularly Edward’s, mirrors a tendency in contemporary Western culture that has been critiqued by Bordo (1997). She criticizes Western contemporary culture for evolving into an image-­‐based society. Bordo (1997) likens Plato’s analogy of the cave, whereby images are projected onto the wall of the cave creating an illusion of reality, to the false ideals presented by the media.

She argues that people in society are taught to replicate these airbrushed images that appear everywhere in our contemporary popular culture, despite them being unattainable, “we need to rehabilitate the concept of “truth” for our time […] focusing on helping the next

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generation learn to critically see through the illusions and mystifications of the image dominated culture they have grown up in” (1997: 22).

Bella’s self-­‐deprecation can be further illustrated through the saga and ties in significantly with Bordo. Bordo (1997) argues, due to constructed images of bodily perfection being presented everywhere in society, people feel they need to identify with these when, in reality, it is unachievable. Bella constantly devalues herself in comparison with Edward “the emotional abuse Bella suffers is the undermining of her self-­‐worth” (Housel, 2009: 181).

In New Moon Bella sees a picture of her and Edward together but folds the side she is on so only Edward is visible, as she does not deem herself good enough to be with him, emphasizing her idealization of Edward, conversely undervaluing herself. It secures the argument that “women have helped -­‐ at least -­‐ to create the stereotype of woman narcissistically dependent upon looks” (Tolmach, Scherr & Scherr, 1984: 294). It can also be related to what Wollstonecraft (1792) said. She said women are brought up to focus all their attention on beauty, “taught from infancy that beauty is woman’s scepter, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison” (Wollstonecraft, 1792: 157).

Furthermore, in spite of Bordo’s critique of Western society, Bella says, “I stared because their faces, so different, so similar, were all devastatingly, inhumanly beautiful. They were faces you never expected to see except perhaps on the airbrushed pages of a fashion magazine” (Meyer, 2005: 19). She literally compares Edward and his family to airbrushed models in magazines and instead of deeming them as fake, she idealises them. Bella’s obsession with Edward’s perfect beauty not only relates to the fact that contemporary society is filled with images women cannot adhere to, (which Bella feels she can’t either),

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but it also highlights the apparent gender distinction between men and women. Bella constantly devalues herself, which can be problematic as Wilson argues it “serves to uphold the message that females are, by their very nature, less capable” (Wilson, 2011: 68). She sees Edward as an idol, not an equal, “the contrast between the two of us was painful. He looked like a god. I looked very average, even for a human, almost shamefully plain” (Meyer, 2006: 65). “The fact that the male characters are shown to require no such self-­‐deprecation” (Wilson, 2011: 68) further illustrates how the novels advocate a typical notion of femininity.

Another issue inherent through the books is Bella’s continuous reliance upon men. It can be seen through her evolving, close friendship with Jacob once Edward has broken up with her.

“Without Jacob […] everything I’d been repressing started creeping up on me. The hole in my chest was worse than ever […] I wasn’t handling alone well” (Meyer, 2006: 228). This is an illustration of Bella’s complete dependency on men as “it is only the gaze of a virile werewolf that begins to bring her back to life” (Mann: 2009: 136). In addition to her dependency on all men, another issue intrinsic in Bella is her obsessive and infatuated behaviour regarding Edward, as “Edward becomes all that matters” to her (Myers, 2009: 158). Due to this Bella represents a controversial role of femininity, “the central conflict with Bella and feminism: Edward eventually becomes the only raison d'être for Bella” (Myers, 2009: 158).

In spite of Bella’s lack of confidence and self-­‐belief, the majority of the boys at Bella’s high school are attracted to her. One of her contemporaries, Mike, says, “If I were lucky enough to sit by you, I would have talked to you” (Meyer, 2005: 26). Additionally, another peer, Jessica, says to her, “Tyler told everyone he’s taking you to prom” (Meyer, 2005: 153). Some feminists, such as Camille Paglia (1992) would argue that Bella being so desired is positive, as sex can be a source of power for women, she applauds women for their authentic eroticism.

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“Camille Paglia says that women can be strong and assertive but also ‘very sexy’“ (Randazzo, 1995: 69). However, although Bella appears to get some strength from being an object of desire, this fact seems to underscore the notion that “her strength, as is typical of female heroines, comes through her attachment to men and her acceptance of the patriarchal norms” (Wilson, 2011: 65). Therefore, it can be argued that Bella’s character still reflects the stereotypical and clichéd depiction of women traditionally.

Freud said, “nature has determined woman’s destiny through beauty, charm, and sweetness […] but the position of women will surely be what it is: in youth an adored darling and in mature years a loved wife” (Freud cited in Morales, 2005: 159). In spite of the brutal historical struggle women faced regarding their citizenship and rights as depicted in Chapter 1, Bella embodies Freud’s perspective of women. He is essentially arguing that women have two purposes in life, to be viewed as an object of desire and secondly to enslave oneself to motherhood and marriage. This dual ambition encapsulates Bella. She is desired by the majority of the male characters in the saga and she ends the series as a wife and mother with no career or accomplishments, “her life is not directed towards ends: she is absorbed in producing or caring for things that are never more than means, such as food, clothing, and shelter” (De Beauvoir, 1997: 616). Thus, despite being in the 21st century, the Twilight novels seem to depict a life prior to this, where women were subordinate, objectified and discriminated against.

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Masculinity In Twilight Patriarchy & the Dawning of New Monsters

3.0 Hegemonic Masculinity: The Allure of Male Vampires and Werewolves When discussing the issue of gender inequity in our popular culture and how this is perpetuated through the Twilight novels, the role of the males in the series is crucial. Katz (2006) argues that the men dominate the fictional landscape of Twilight and Wilson says they “exude a rather traditional, conservative conception of masculinity” (Wilson, 2011: 83).

Despite the fact that Bella is the central character and the books are for the most part told from her perspective, Michael Kimmel says the, “male voices still dominate, even in supposedly “female narratives” illustrating males power over women” (Kimmel cited in Wilson, 2011: 84).

Although Bella is the protagonist in the novels, Edward is portrayed as the hero. He can be likened to The Byronic Hero, who was a major figure in the Romantic Movement and is defined as “boldly defiant but bitterly self-­‐tormenting outcast, proudly contemptuous of social norms but suffering for some unnamed sin” (Baldick, 2008: 44). The notion of the Byronic Hero directly relates to the notion of ‘typical masculinity’ as he usually exudes qualities of arrogance, intelligence and charisma, he is emotionally conflicted, attractive,

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mysterious and sexually dominant (Thorslev: 2008). All these qualities can be attributed to Edwards’s character, as he is also represented as a hero with a dark side.

This striking similarity between the two is picked up on by Myers as she argues the poem about the Byronic Hero in Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage “could easily be describing Meyer’s Edward Cullen” (Myers, 2009: 149). This notion of the Byronic hero also relates to what de Beauvoir said, “man is concerned with the effort to appear male, important, superior” (1997: 728). Stephanie Meyer’s depiction of Edward and the other males in Twilight is rooted in what de Beauvoir (1997) said, “the world is masculine on the whole; those who fashioned it, ruled it, and still dominate it today are men” (1997: 609). Society has changed and evolved considerably since de Beauvoir’s lifetime yet despite women’s unfaltering efforts to achieve equality as identified in Chapter 1, this contemporary novel continues to maintain a traditional notion of masculinity, emphasizing the inequality between men and women.

Edward rescues Bella on countless occasions throughout the saga. It begins in the first book where he saves her from being hit by a car, her immediate fascination begins, “I was consumed by the mystery Edward presented. And more than a little obsessed by Edward himself” (Meyer, 2005: 57). In Twilight he saves her from a group of dangerous men, from James an evil vampire and in Breaking Dawn he saves her life by turning her into a vampire.

Her constant need of rescue not only reflects her dependent and damsel in distress nature but it also highlights Edward’s alpha male persona, which is not always regarded as chivalrous. Katz argues that the Twilight novels promote what he refers to as the “chivalry trap” (2006: 52). He says there is a tenuous line between genuinely defending someone who is in need, and treating someone like an object.

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Katz (2006) argues that chivalry is often used as a mask for making women and girls feel out of control of their own destiny and making them feel like they need constant protection and dependency. This can be directly illustrated through Edward’s constant protection and belittling of Bella, “you are so soft, so fragile, I have to mind my actions every moment that we’re together so that I don’t hurt you. I could kill you very easily Bella, simply by accident…you don’t realise how incredibly breakable you are” (Meyer, 2005: 310). Due to Edwards continual condescending and patronising behaviour toward Bella, it further characterises her as an inadequate and weak female who is in constant need of protection from men, “the more Edward feels the need to protect Bella, the more he views her as weak and vulnerable” (McClimans & Wisnewski, 2009: 166), further fostering the notion of a constructed role of masculinity in the saga.

In terms of power relations, the unequal relationship between Edward and Bella can be identified through the typical male bravado Edward exudes. He lives up to the conventional ideal of masculinity and, what’s more, he relishes it, “I’m the worlds best predator, aren’t I? Everything about me invites you in -­‐ my voice, my face, even my smell” (Meyer, 2005: 67).

Not only is he trying to demonstrate to Bella that he is a ‘bad boy’ but he also portrays his arrogance.

Myers (2009) argues that Edward is a supernatural creature who is designed to be seductive and lure in his prey, which is exactly what happens. He intrigues Bella, but she also describes him as “intimidating” (Meyer, 2005: 179). This is the epitome of a clichéd masculine role, further enhancing his likeness to the Byronic Hero, mysterious, seductive and arrogant (Thorslev: 2008). His power and authority over Bella also characterises him as a macho and defiant male as he says to her he will be “overbearingly protective” (Meyer, 2005: 287). It’s a statement he gives her, not a question, therefore she has no choice, further emphasizing his

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typical male characteristics. This unequal relationship is demonstrated through the work of McClimans & Wisnewski, “Bella is weak, frail, and vulnerable” as opposed to Edward who is “strong, fast, and lethal” (2009: 174).

Throughout the novels Edward and Jacob continuously treat Bella as an object. Wilson (2011) confirms this as she argues Jacob and Edward consistently treat her like a child, as they regularly cradle, rock and carry her everywhere, “the infantilization of women as objects of male desire has intensified” (Mann, 2009: 139). They constantly fight over Bella, as though she is a trophy or ‘thing’ to be won. Edward and Jacob are depicted as aggressive and active whilst Bella is subsequently portrayed as the passive and inactive character (Wilson: 2011).

Edward’s behaviour can be used as an example of what de Beauvoir (1997) refers to as the subject, as man is “the sovereign subject, the absolute superior, the essential being; he refuses to accept his companion as an equal in any concrete way” (1997: 726). These qualities encapsulate Edward’s character and can be accurately illustrated through his constant controlling and aggressive behaviour. For example, in New Moon, Edward actually breaks the wires in Bella’s car in order to prevent her from driving to see Jacob, illustrating his domineering and overbearing behaviour and his constant need to control Bella.

Therefore, as well as characterising women in specific roles, the Twilight novels also promote one specific type of masculinity. The saga implies that men have to live up to this aggressive and shallow male stereotype of being “ruggedly masculine” (Nevid, 2009: 408).

This notion of stereotypical masculinity and a patriarchal system of power has been a feature of Western society for centuries (Mitchell: 2000). Specifically however, Radway (1984) argues that romance novels continue to produce the same messages about

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masculinity, “even when the male characters are extremely violent or misogynistic, even when they rape the heroine or constantly belittle her, the majority of romance texts still ultimately imply that traditional masculinity is good for women” (1984: 168). Arguably, the Twilight series encapsulates this notion as Edward is portrayed as an overbearing and domineering boyfriend, and Jacob is portrayed as an aggressive yet irresistible werewolf (Wilson: 2011). She further says that violent male behaviour “may be incorporated into the romantic fantasy…not because certain writers and readers enjoy it but because they cannot imagine it away” (1984: 169). She argues that the purpose of romance is to make women desire what is ‘naturally’ masculine. Similarly, Juliet Mitchell (2000) argues that we live in a patriarchal society and the only way to change this is to raise children without the fallacy of romance, as romance novels teach people to adhere to traditional male and female roles.

Twilight, which is a romantic saga, perpetuates this concept of a patriarchal system of power, which effectively contradicts the significant progress women have made regarding equality, as described in Chapter 1.

In Forks Washington where the saga is set, gender inequality and traditional male roles can be seen at their highest. The role of the male seems to dominate every field in the Twilight series, all the teachers at their high school are male, the chief of police is male and the doctors are male. Conversely, the women are subjected to traditional female roles, shopping, cooking and decorating, “it’s the nostalgic view of the 1950’s all over” (Wilson, 2011: 86). These typical male, female roles seem to be perpetuated throughout the novels.

Using the example of Charlie, Bella’s dad, he is depicted as a typical male. He is not good at expressing his emotions, he is inadequate in the kitchen, he loves hunting and fishing and watching televised sports (Wilson: 2011). Additionally, Edward is viewed in the same light, “he seems to be a (stereo)typical man in every respect: he has trouble controlling his urges, he’s rude and he always thinks he knows best” (McClimans & Wisnewski, 2009: 163).

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Both of these illustrate the pinnacle of a clichéd and shallow male role and illustrate how Bella lives in a male dominated world. “This has always been a man’s world; and none of the reasons hitherto brought forward in explanation of this fact has seemed adequate” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 93). Even now in the 21st Century, man is still depicted as the superior.

Wilson confirms this as she says Twilight presents “masculinity as chromosomal destiny, the saga suggests that challenging norms of masculinity is fruitless -­‐ that patriarchy is here to stay” (Wilson, 2011: 87).

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Death, Disaster & Desire

4.0 Bella & Edward: Sacrifice, Soul & Serendipity Edward’s character ties in significantly with the theme of death, disaster and desire due to the aggressive alpha-­‐male bravado he exudes. Bella is lured in through Edward’s belligerent and violent behaviour and is attracted to the fact he lusts for her blood “you are exactly my brand of heroin” (Meyer, 2005: 268). He even says to her, “I’m dangerous, Bella -­‐ please, grasp that” (Meyer, 2005: 190). Bella never listens, regardless of the fact he keeps telling her to stay away. She just says to him, “I don’t believe that you’re bad” (Meyer, 2005: 80). Her naivety and his forceful aggression provide clear examples of the gender stereotypes used in the saga. Nevid argues, “in our culture the stereotypical female is perceived as nurturing, gentle, dependent […] patient and submissive” whereas the stereotypical male is “ruggedly masculine […] tough, self-­‐reliant, and independent, but also dominant and protective” (2009: 408). This underscores how the Twilight saga perpetuates typical notions of masculinity and femininity, highlighting the existence of gender inequality in our contemporary popular culture.

Bella’s literal undying and eternal love for Edward is an example of pure death and desire, “I’d rather die than be with anyone but you” (Meyer, 2006: 45). Simone de Beauvoir argues that woman “is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference

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to her; she is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the Subject, he is the Absolute -­‐ she is the Other” (1997: 16). She further argues that as women are characterised as the other this effectively denies their humanity, the woman is “destined to the male from childhood, habituated to seeing in him a superb being whom she cannot possibly equal” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 653). Arguably, this can be seen through Bella choosing death over life for Edward, “at least I could be with him again before I died. That was better than a long life” (Meyer, 2006: 459). She is content in losing her humanity for him and effectively sacrificing her soul.

Renée, Bella’s mother is sensitive to the intensity of their relationship and Bella’s complete infatuation with Edward, “the way you move -­‐ you orient yourself around him without even thinking about it. When he moves, even a little bit, you adjust your position at the same time. Like magnets…or gravity. You’re like a…satellite, or something” (Meyer, 2007: 68).

Bella has effectively attached herself to Edward. She has revolved her life around him so now “there is no other way out for her than to lose herself, body and soul, in him who is represented to her as the absolute, as the essential” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 653). This highlights the unequal relationship between Bella and Edward and the way in which the novels are maintaining these fictitious and stereotypical gender roles.

When Edward breaks up with Bella she says to him, “I don’t care! You can have my soul. I don’t want it without you -­‐ it’s yours already!” (Meyer, 2006: 69). Bella’s overemotional and suicidal behaviour is problematic as it encourages the readers to empathise with her character due to the overwhelming popularity of the saga, “not only does Bella comply to the patriarchal rules of her fictional world, but so too are the readers encouraged to comply with the message her character offers” (Wilson, 2011: 67). The archetype of damsel in distress can be epitomised through Bella’s character, she is helpless, defenceless and

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dependent on men. “When Bella falls in love, then, a girl in love is all she is. By page 139 she has concluded that her mundane life is a small price to pay for the gift of being with Edward, and by the second book she’s willing to trade her soul for that privilege” (Mann, 2009: 133).

Bella falls into a seriously deep depression after her break-­‐up with Edward, “with shaky legs, ignoring the fact that my action was useless, I followed him into the forest. The evidence of his path had disappeared instantly. There were no footprints […] but I walked forward without thinking. I could not do anything else […] If I stopped looking for him, it was over.

Love, life, meaning…over” (Meyer, 2006: 73). The important point here is the definitive contrast between Edward and Bella. He is in control as opposed to Bella who is a wreck and is clearly dependent on him. It reflects what Julien Benda said, “man can think of himself without woman. She cannot think of herself without man” (Benda cited in de Beauvoir, 1997: 16). Bella has attached herself to Edward, so now he has gone she is empty and alone, further enhancing her typical female characteristics, “a weak, passive, beautiful female’s only hope for adventure, love, and triumph comes at the hands of domineering, violent, and controlling alpha males” (Wilson, 2011: 65).

In the final book, Breaking Dawn, Edward and Bella consummate their marriage. However, as he is a strong, powerful vampire and Bella is merely a human, she gets injured and hurt.

The following day she looks in the mirror to find bruises on her body, she tries to hide and conceal them in front of Edward, “first sex with the vampire leaves the bed in splinters” and then it leaves “Bella covered with bruises” (Mann, 2009: 140). He is upset that he has hurt her yet she keeps telling him that it is fine and that she does not care. This further illustrates her absolute passivity, as effectively she is letting him abuse her, “in real life Bella would be considered a victim” (Housel, 2009: 180).

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This scene can be related to Andrea Dworkin’s (1987) work as she argues heterosexual sex is invasive and violent due to the fact we live in a male supremacist society. She says heterosexual sex is degrading to women and is the core reason for women’s inferior position in society. “Violation is a synonym for intercourse […] Intercourse occurs in a context of a power relation that is pervasive and incontrovertible […] Because of their power over us, [men] are able to strike our hearts dead with contempt or condescension […] They force us to be compliant, turn us into parasites, then hate us for not letting go” (Dworkin, 1987: 122-­‐ 27).

Although Edward did not intentionally hurt Bella, he still knew there was a possibility she could die. Bella and Edward having sexual intercourse highlighted and extracted his dominance over her. She was willing to let him abuse her because of her love for him, further underscoring Dworkin’s (1987) argument about men forcing women to be compliant.

In this scene, Bella is merely an object of desire to Edward, “she is simply what man decrees; thus she is called ‘the sex’, by which is meant that she appears essentially to the male as a sexual being” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 16).

This scene is also reflective of MacKinnon’s (1989) ideas on power differentials. She argues that heterosexual intercourse enacts male domination over women. Thus, for MacKinnon, domination is linked to her understanding of gender difference. She argues that sex is the paradigm of male domination, “the social relation between the sexes is organized so that men may dominate and women must submit and this relation is sexual -­‐ in fact, is sex” (MacKinnon 1989: 3). This can be likened to Edward’s domination over Bella. Even though he is remorseful about hurting her, he embodies MacKinnon’s view and takes it even further as his strength could have effectively killed her, he had the power to end her life and chose to risk it. This scene illustrates how the saga produces constructed roles of masculinity and

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femininity, underlining the core to Dworkin (1987) and MacKinnon’s (1989) argument about male domination and female submission.

The intensity of Bella and Edward’s relationship must be under scrutiny as their relationship conveys disturbing messages. “There’s no romance in stalking. There’s no love in bruises.

There’s nothing remotely romantic or loving about being killed” (Housel, 2009: 186). Edward is domineeringly overprotective of Bella and even watches her sleep at night. The irony here however is that when Bella finds out that Edward has been following her in secret and watching her sleep at night, “she is flattered” (Housel, 2009: 184). Edward is being portrayed as desirable, charming and enchanting, instead of being depicted as controlling overprotective and sinister, “any man who climbs through your window at night to watch you sleep is a stalker by any definition” (Housel, 2009: 179-­‐180). This then encourages people in society to emulate Edward and Bella’s overly intense relationship, it convinces people to “romanticise violence” (Wilson, 2011: 6).

Bella’s mother, Renée, worries about Edward’s intensity towards Bella. “The way he watches you -­‐ it’s so…protective […] He’s very intense about you…and very careful. I feel like I don’t really understand your relationship” (Meyer, 2007: 67). Bella defends Edward as she does not believe his intense over-­‐protectiveness is necessarily a negative thing, when women are “faced with controlling and overbearing behaviour from partners and boyfriends, women and girls […] often interpret that behaviour as caring and romantic” (McClimans & Wisnewski, 2009: 164). Bella’s willingness to accept Edward’s intense and domineering behaviour is a direct example of their unequal relationship, underscoring the existence of gender inequality in our contemporary popular culture.

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The intensity of Bella and Edward’s relationship illustrates how this fictional publication is engendering damaging messages about heterosexual relationships, and also, about masculinity and femininity. In particular, “there is an innate danger to buying in to the romanticized version of the “ideal” man as described by Meyer” (Housel, 2009: 188). Bella and Edward continue to be portrayed as unequal and different. Arguably, their likeness to men and women in the Victorian era is uncanny.

4.1 Bella & Edward: Depictions of a Victorian Lady & Gentleman The study of Bella’s conventional and traditional qualities can be seen in harmony with the fact that Edward is from a different era. He mirrors the Victorian ideal of a man, as he composes music, speaks several languages, is very well read and plays the piano, Reagin says that these qualities “align with popular notions of the Victorian gentlemen” (Reagin, 2010: 12). Similarly if you look at Bella’s most notable characteristics, she is reliant, passive and dependent on men. This strikingly resembles Victorian women whose only status was attributed to being with a man, as a woman was “like a slave” she was “civilly dead” (Pateman, 1988: 119).

Pateman argued that, “until late into the nineteenth century the legal and civil position of a wife resembled that of a slave […] unlike men, who were born free, women were born slaves” (1988: 119-­‐120). Women had highly restricted rights, which on marriage, dissolved completely (Pateman: 1988). In the suffrage movement there are numerous examples of women being treated inhumanely, in particular the tragic event on Black Friday in 1910 (Wingerden: 1999). This illustrates the irony inherent in the Twilight novels. Women in the past endured pain and suffering just for the right to be recognised as official citizens, yet Bella, appears to choose to attach herself to a man at the expense of her individuality.

Housel argues that this abusive and dangerous relationship between Bella and Edward is

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written “through the rose-­‐coloured glasses provided by Stephanie Meyer’s romanticized version” (2009: 180).

Although this is the 21st Century, Bella appears to comply with early dictates on marriage, as she is willing to become “the person of the husband” (Pateman, 1988: 119) in line with her 19th Century predecessors. This is in spite of Bella’s countless opportunities to pursue and achieve things women were excluded from traditionally. The saga “mirrors disturbingly a relationship that would be called abusive in the real world” (Myers, 2009: 158), which posits a huge problem in contemporary society as the Twilight series is a 21st Century popular culture publication reaching millions of impressionable people, therefore it encourages them to emulate the characters of Bella and Edward. Moreover, the fact that Bella is willing to sacrifice her life for a man mentally, physically, spiritually and sexually shows how gender inequality, on a major scale, continues to be perpetuated in mainstream culture.

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Conclusion

5.0 A 21st Century Paradox?

“Cultural messages about womanhood are fraught with paradox. And the imaginary domain in which young women negotiate these realities has become a messy place indeed” (Mann, 2009: 139).

Mann (2009) argues that women are presented with conflicting messages about femininity and heterosexual love in contemporary society. They are taught, “the notion that love conquers all is ubiquitous” but also that “love hurts, that women can’t expect too much from men” (2009: 139). Therefore Bella’s character is important when examining whether she is objectified or whether she is complicit as de Beauvoir argues, “woman has the power to choose between the assertion of her transcendence and her alienation as an object” (1997: 50).

Therefore, the inherent question is “whether or not Bella is a feminist hero: Is she being assertive and going after what she wants, or is she submissive to the greater power of an older man, a predator?” (Housel, 2009: 187). San Randazzo (1995) might perhaps argue that she is the former as Bella is using her sex as a source of power through leveraging, intentionally or unintentionally, Jacob and Edward’s affection for her, “a woman’s beauty is

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tied to a woman’s overall sense of self-­‐worth and is also a source of power over men” (1995: 69). However, arguably she is the latter. Even when Edward manipulates, lies, keeps secrets from her, tells her what to do and who she can see, instead of standing up for herself, Bella is compliant to all of this. The females in Twilight are “far from feminist heroines who champion egalitarianism and balk at gender norms” (Wilson, 2011: 64).

Moreover the interesting point with Bella is that, although historically women had severely restricted rights, this novel portrays a woman who is entitled to substantially more rights, yet places little value on them. This is portrayed in Wollstonecraft’s argument about women’s limited education in Chapter 2 and, furthermore, with Pateman’s argument about women becoming “the person of the husband” (Pateman, 1988: 119) in Chapter 4.

Stephanie Meyer portrays this as an understandable result of her love for Edward, which is presented as the most imperative and defining feature of her life. “Putting forward this kind of fiction is dangerous, perhaps even irresponsible” (Housel, 2009: 178). Therefore, when Bella behaves in ways that promote women’s passivity, complicity and submissiveness, the danger exists that females in today’s society will replicate and emulate her character.

However, as identified, the concept of women’s complicity is complex, “the oppression of women is not simply the problem of women in general or of individual women because they do not try hard enough. The inequities that women face […] falls upon patriarchy, culture, and socialization” (Paludi, 2008: 158).

This suggests that, in many aspects it can be argued we still live in a patriarchal society, which arguably creates the environment for a mainstream novel such as Twilight to thrive irrespective of some very real progress in the roles of women through legal and social changes. “Woman cannot be transformed unless society has first made her really the equal of man” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 738). Therefore, in order for women to progress more, society

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must change, “it is quite true that there are no limits to masculine egotism in ordinary life. In order to change the conditions of life we must learn to see them through the eyes of women” (Leon Trotsky cited in MacKinnon, 1989: 106). But the issue still exists in contemporary popular culture, if a notion of typical masculinity continues to be perpetuated, how can men and women ever be equal with one another?

5.1 Conclusion

This dissertation has seeked to analyze the numerous ways in which Bella and Edward comply with traditional and stereotypical notions of masculinity and femininity.

Furthermore, their characters have been assessed in the context of the 21st Century, illustrating how the saga continues to perpetuate specific gender roles for men and women.

It has scrutinized the manner in which the narratives repeatedly depict Bella and Edward as unequal and different, thus underscoring the argument of gender inequality in our contemporary popular and consumer culture.

Women have made significant progress over the last century in their fight for equality, yet as we exist within a society that exudes elements of a patriarchal system, an environment remains for romanticising women in heterosexual relationships as traditional and conventional, which propels them back in time to an era when they were “civilly dead” (Pateman, 1988: 119). The saga is “painted with the romantic, fictitious flourish of author Stephanie Meyer’s pen, what in reality would be a horrific account of violence against women […] becomes a dangerously romanticized fantasy for a primarily young female audience” (Housel, 2009: 178).

As a result, “the quarrel will go on as long as men and women fail to recognize each other as equals; that is to say as long as femininity is perpetuated as such” (de Beauvoir, 1997: 727).

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Exploring the Twilight saga has highlighted that the messages contained within a popular culture publication conflict significantly with the messages young women are receiving in other areas of their upbringing, messages imploring them to be independent and strong (McClimans & Wisnewski, 2009). This conflict presents an underlying and perpetual dichotomy for young women and illustrates that so long as typical notions of femininity and masculinity continue to be endorsed and romanticized in our contemporary popular culture, women’s battle to be established as equals with men will continue to rage.

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