005cd7cf55ef8cf2b51f8c1f41cc9ab8324a816c

Contents 1

Western esotericism

1

1.1

Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

1.2

Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

1.2.1

Esotericism as secret, inner tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

1.2.2

Esotericism as an enchanted world view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

1.2.3

Esotericism as “rejected knowledge” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

1.3.1

Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

1.3.2

Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

1.3.3

Renaissance and Early Modern period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5

1.3.4

18th, 19th and early 20th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6

1.3.5

Later 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

1.4

Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

1.5

Academic study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

1.3

History

1.5.1

Emic and etic divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.6.1

Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.6.2

Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.6

2

Esoteric cosmology

15

2.1

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

2.2

Gnosticism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

2.3

Kabbalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

2.4

Neoplatonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

2.5

Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

2.6

Theosophy and Anthroposophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

2.7

Max Theon and the “Cosmic Philosophy” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

2.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

2.9

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

i

ii 3

4

CONTENTS Spiritual evolution

17

3.1

Precursors to the idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.1.1

The cyclic cosmos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.1.2

Emanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.1.3

Samkhya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.1.4

The great chain of being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

3.2

Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

3.3

Occult concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

3.3.1

Spiritualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

3.3.2

Theosophical conceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

3.3.3

Theurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

3.4

Epigenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

3.5

Evolution towards Godhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3.5.1

A common vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3.5.2

Teilhard de Chardin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3.5.3

Meher Baba's “involution� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3.6

Surat Shabda Yoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3.7

Dynamic evolution through successive kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

3.8

New Age ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.9

Integral theory and spiral dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

Plane (esotericism)

23

4.1

Origins of the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

4.2

Conceptions in ancient traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

4.3

Esoteric conceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

4.4

Emanation vs. Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

4.5

The Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

4.5.1

Physical plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

4.5.2

Astral plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.5.3

Mental plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.5.4

Buddhic plane (also known as Unity Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.5.5

Spiritual plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.5.6

Divine plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.5.7

Logoic plane (also known as Monadic Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.6

31 planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

4.7

The Summerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

4.8

Alleged inhabitants of the various planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

4.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

4.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

CONTENTS

5

4.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

Occult

30

5.1

Occultism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

5.2

Science and the occult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

5.2.1

Occult qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

Religion and the occult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

5.3.1

Christian views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

5.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

5.5

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

5.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

5.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

5.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

5.3

6

Initiation

34

6.1

Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

6.1.1

Reasons for and functions of Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

6.1.2

Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

6.1.3

Psychological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

6.2.1

Religious and spiritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

6.2.2

Trade union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

6.2.3

Naval and military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

6.2.4

Gang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

6.2.5

Tribal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

6.2.6

China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

6.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

6.4

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

6.5

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

6.6

External link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

6.2

7

iii

Alchemy

38

7.1

Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38

7.2

History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

7.2.1

Hellenistic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

7.2.2

India

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40

7.2.3

Muslim world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

7.2.4

East Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

7.2.5

Medieval Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

7.2.6

Renaissance and early modern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

7.2.7

Late modern period

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

7.2.8

Women in alchemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

iv

CONTENTS 7.2.9

Modern historical research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

Core concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

7.3.1

Hermetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

7.3.2

Magnum opus

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

7.4.1

Traditional medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

7.4.2

Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

7.4.3

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

7.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

7.6

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

7.7

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

7.7.1

Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

7.7.2

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

7.3

7.4

7.8 8

Modern alchemy

Gnosticism

53

8.1

Nature and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

8.1.1

Main features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

8.1.2

Dualism and monism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

8.1.3

Moral and ritual practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

8.1.4

Social context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

8.2.1

Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

8.2.2

Neoplatonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57

8.2.3

Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

8.2.4

Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

8.3.1

Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

8.3.2

Development of the Syrian-Egyptian school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

8.3.3

Development of the Persian school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

Major movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

8.4.1

Persian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

8.4.2

Syrian-Egyptian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

8.4.3

Gnostic-influenced people and groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

8.5

Origin of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

8.6

Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

8.6.1

19th century to 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

8.6.2

After the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library, 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

8.6.3

“Gnosis”as a potentially flawed category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

8.7

Modern times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

8.8

Terms and concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

8.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

8.2

8.3

8.4

CONTENTS

9

v

8.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

8.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

8.11.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

8.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

Kabbalah

77

9.1

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

9.1.1

78

9.2

9.3

Dierence between Jewish and non-Jewish Kabbalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History of Jewish mysticism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

9.2.1

Origins of Judaic mysticism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

9.2.2

Mystical doctrines in the Talmudic era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

9.2.3

Pre-Kabbalistic schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

9.2.4

Medieval emergence of the Kabbalah

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

9.2.5

Early modern era: Lurianic Kabbalah

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

Concepts 9.3.1

Concealed and Revealed God

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

9.3.2

Sephirot and the Divine Feminine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

9.3.3

Descending spiritual Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

9.3.4

Origin of evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

9.3.5

Role of Man

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

9.3.6

Levels of the soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

9.3.7

Reincarnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

9.3.8

Tzimtzum, Shevirah and Tikkun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

9.3.9

Linguistic mysticism of Hebrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

9.4

Primary texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

9.5

Scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

9.5.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

9.6

9.7

Claims for authority

Criticism 9.6.1

Dualistic cosmology

9.6.2

Distinction between Jews and non-Jews

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

9.6.3

Medieval views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

9.6.4

Orthodox Judaism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

9.6.5

Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

Contemporary study

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

9.7.1

Universalist Jewish organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

9.7.2

Neo-Hasidic

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

9.7.3

Hasidic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

9.7.4

Rav Kook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

9.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

9.9

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

9.10 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

9.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

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10 Hermeticism

102

10.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 10.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 10.2.1 Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 10.2.2 Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 10.2.3 Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 10.3 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 10.3.1 Prisca theologia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 10.3.2 “As above, so below.” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 10.3.3 The three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 10.3.4 Posthumous lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 10.3.5 Good and evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 10.3.6 Cosmogony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 10.4 As a religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 10.4.1 Religious and philosophical texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 10.5 Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 10.5.1 Rosicrucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 10.5.2 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 10.5.3 Esoteric Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 10.5.4 Mystical Neopaganism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 10.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 10.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 11 Theosophy

110

11.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 11.2 Traditional and Christian theosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 11.2.1 Antiquity and Medieval ending c. 1450 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 11.2.2 16th and 17th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 11.2.3 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 11.2.4 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 11.2.5 Common characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 11.3 Blavatskyan Theosophy and The Theosophical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 11.3.1 The World Teacher Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 11.4 Post-Blavatskyan Theosophy and new religious movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 11.4.1 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 11.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 11.5.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 11.5.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 11.5.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

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11.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 12 Rosicrucianism

119

12.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 12.2 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 12.3 Rosicrucian Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 12.4 Rose-Cross Degrees in Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 12.5 Modern groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 12.6 Chronological list of groups formed for the study of Rosicrucianism and related subjects . . . . . . 123 12.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 12.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 12.8.1 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 12.8.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 12.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 13 Spiritualism

129

13.1 Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 13.1.1 Mediumship and spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 13.1.2 Comparisons with other religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 13.2 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 13.2.1 Swedenborg and Mesmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 13.2.2 Reform-movement links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 13.2.3 Believers and skeptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 13.2.4 Unorganized movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 13.2.5 Other mediums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 13.3 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 13.4 After the 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 13.4.1 Syncretism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 13.4.2 Spiritualist church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 13.4.3 Psychical research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 13.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 13.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 13.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 13.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 14 Spirit 14.1 Etymology

143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

14.2 Spiritual and metaphysical usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 14.3 Metaphorical usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 14.4 Related concepts in other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 14.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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CONTENTS 14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 14.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 14.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

15 Mysticism

147

15.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 15.2 DeďŹ nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 15.2.1 Spiritual life and re-formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 15.2.2 Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 15.2.3 Mystical experience and union with the Divine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 15.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 15.3.1 Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 15.3.2 Medieval meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 15.3.3 Early modern meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 15.3.4 Contemporary meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 15.4 Mystical experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 15.5 Forms of mysticism within world religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 15.5.1 Western mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 15.5.2 Indian religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 15.5.3 East-Asian mysticsm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 15.5.4 Western esotericism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 15.6 Mysticism and morality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 15.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 15.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 15.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 15.10Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 15.10.1 Published sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 15.10.2 Web-sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 15.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 15.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 16 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn

161

16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 16.1.1 Cipher Manuscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 16.1.2 Founding of ďŹ rst temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 16.1.3 Secret Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 16.1.4 Golden Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 16.1.5 Revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 16.1.6 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 16.2 Structure and grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 16.3 The Golden Dawn book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 16.4 Known or alleged members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

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16.5 Contemporary Golden Dawn orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 16.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 16.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 16.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 17 Wicca

168

17.1 Definition and terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 17.2 Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 17.2.1 Theology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 17.2.2 Afterlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 17.2.3 Magic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 17.2.4 Morality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 17.2.5 Five elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 17.3 Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 17.3.1 Ritual practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 17.3.2 Wheel of the Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 17.3.3 Rites of passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 17.3.4 Book of Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 17.4 Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 17.4.1 Covens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 17.4.2 Eclectic Wicca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 17.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 17.5.1 Origins, 1921–1935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 17.5.2 Early development, 1936–1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 17.5.3 Adaptation and spread, 1960–present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 17.6 Debates over the origin of Wicca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 17.7 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 17.8 Acceptance of Wiccans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 17.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 17.9.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 17.9.2 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 17.9.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 17.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 17.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 18 Spirituality

187

18.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 18.2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 18.3 Development of the meaning of spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 18.3.1 Classical, medieval and early modern periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 18.3.2 Modern spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

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CONTENTS 18.4 Traditional spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 18.4.1 Abrahamic faiths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 18.4.2 Asian traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 18.4.3 African spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 18.5 Contemporary spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 18.5.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 18.5.2 Spiritual experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 18.5.3 Spiritual practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 18.6 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.6.1 Antagonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.6.2 Holism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.6.3 Scientific research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 18.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 18.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 18.10Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 18.10.1 Published sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 18.10.2 Web-sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 18.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 18.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

19 Syncretism

203

19.1 Nomenclature, orthography, and etymology 19.2 Social and political roles 19.3 Religious syncretism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

19.3.1 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 19.3.2 Ancient Rome

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

19.3.3 Bahá'í . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 19.3.4 Barghawata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 19.3.5 Buddhism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

19.3.6 Caribbean religions and cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 19.3.7 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 19.3.8 Druze religion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

19.3.9 Indian religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 19.3.10 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 19.3.11 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 19.3.12 Other modern syncretic religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 19.4 Cultures and societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 19.4.1 During the Enlightenment

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

19.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 19.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 19.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

CONTENTS 20 New Age

xi 210

20.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 20.1.1 Terminology of the “New Age” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 20.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 20.2.1 Antecedents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 20.2.2 Emergence and development: c. 1970–2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 20.3 Beliefs and practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 20.3.1 Theology, cosmogony, and cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 20.3.2 Self-spirituality and channeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 20.3.3 Astrological cycles and the Age of Aquarius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 20.3.4 Healing and alternative medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 20.3.5 “New Age science” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 20.3.6 Ethics and afterlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 20.4 Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 20.4.1 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 20.4.2 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 20.4.3 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 20.5 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 20.5.1 Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 20.5.2 Christian perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 20.5.3 Contemporary Pagan perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 20.5.4 Native American and other indigenous responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 20.6 Social and political movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 20.6.1 Late 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 20.6.2 Political objections at century’s end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 20.6.3 New political directions in the 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 20.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 20.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 20.8.1 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 20.8.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 20.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 20.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 21 Angel 21.1 Etymology

234 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

21.2 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 21.2.1 Jewish angelic hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 21.2.2 Individual angels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 21.3 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 21.3.1 Interaction with angels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 21.3.2 The New Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 21.3.3 Latter Day Saints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

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CONTENTS 21.4 Islam

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

21.5 Hermetic Qabalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 21.6 Sikhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 21.7 Bahá'í Faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 21.8 Zoroastrianism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

21.9 Neoplatonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 21.10Theosophy

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

21.11Brahma Kumaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 21.12In art

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

21.13See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 21.14References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

21.15Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 21.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 22 Astrology

246

22.1 Etymology 22.2 History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

22.2.1 Ancient world

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

22.2.2 Hellenistic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 22.2.3 Greece and Rome

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

22.2.4 Medieval world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 22.2.5 Renaissance and Early Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 22.2.6 Enlightenment period and onwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 22.3 Principles and practice

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

22.3.1 Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 22.3.2 Hindu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 22.3.3 Chinese and East-Asian

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

22.4 Theological viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 22.4.1 Ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 22.4.2 Medieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 22.4.3 Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 22.5 Scientific analysis and criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 22.5.1 Demarcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 22.5.2 Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 22.5.3 Lack of mechanisms and consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 22.6 Cultural impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 22.6.1 Western politics and society

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

22.6.2 India and Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 22.6.3 Literature and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 22.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 22.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 22.9 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

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22.10Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 22.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 22.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 23 Soul

265

23.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 23.2 Philosophical views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 23.2.1 Socrates and Plato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 23.2.2 Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 23.2.3 Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 23.2.4 Thomas Aquinas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 23.2.5 Immanuel Kant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 23.2.6 Philosophy of mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 23.3 Religious views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 23.3.1 Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 23.3.2 Bahá'í . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 23.3.3 Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 23.3.4 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 23.3.5 Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 23.3.6 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 23.3.7 Jainism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 23.3.8 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 23.3.9 Shamanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 23.3.10 Sikhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 23.3.11 Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 23.3.12 Zoroastrianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 23.3.13 Other religious beliefs and views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 23.3.14 Spirituality, New Age and new religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 23.4 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 23.4.1 Neuroscience and the soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 23.4.2 Physics and the soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 23.4.3 Biology and the soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 23.5 Parapsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 23.5.1 Weight of the soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 23.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 23.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 23.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 23.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 23.10Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 23.10.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 23.10.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 23.10.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Chapter 1

Western esotericism “Arcane”and “Esoteric”redirect here. For other uses, see Arcane (disambiguation) and Esoteric (disambiguation).

Western esotericism, also called esotericism and es-

its definition of “esotericism”from certain esotericist schools of thought themselves, treating“esotericism”as a perennialist hidden, inner tradition. A second perspective argues that it is a category that encompasses world views which seek to embrace an 'enchanted' world view in the face of increasing de-enchantment. A third view, propounded by Wouter Hanegraaff, views Western esotericism as a category encompassing all of Western culture's “rejected knowledge”that is accepted by neither the scientific establishment nor orthodox religious authorities.

The earliest traditions to later be labelled as forms of Western esotericism emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, where Hermetism, Gnosticism, and Neoplatonism developed as schools of thought distinct from mainstream Christianity. In Renaissance Europe, interest in many of these older ideas increased, with various intellectuals seeking to combine "pagan" philosophies with the Kabbalah and Christian philosophy, resulting in the emergence of esoteric movements like Christian theosophy. The 17th century saw the development of initiatory societies professing esoteric knowledge such as Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry, while the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century led to the development of new forms of esoteric thought. The 19th century saw the emergence of new trends of esoteric thought that have come to be known as occultism. Prominent groups in this century included the Theosophical Society and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which influenced the develThe tree of life as represented in the Kabbalah, containing the opment of Thelema. Modern Paganism also developed Sephiroth. within occultism, and includes religious movements such as Wicca. Esoteric ideas permeated the counterculture oterism, is a scholarly term for a wide range of loosely of the 1960s and later cultural tendencies, from which related unconventional ideas and movements which have emerged the New Age movement in the 1970s. developed within Western society. They are largely distinct from both orthodox Judeo-Christian religion and Although the idea that these varying movements could be Enlightenment rationalism. A trans-disciplinary field, es- categorised together under the rubric of “Western esootericism has pervaded various forms of Western philos- tericism”developed in the late 18th century, these esoophy, religion, pseudoscience, art, literature, and music, teric currents were largely ignored as a subject of acacontinuing to have an impact on intellectual ideas and demic enquiry. The academic study of Western esotericism only emerged in the latter 20th century, piopopular culture. neered by scholars like Frances Yates and Faivre. There The precise definition of Western esotericism has been are now several peer-reviewed journals, university chairs, debated by various academics, with a number of dif- and academic societies devoted to this field. Esoteric ferent options proposed. One scholarly model adopts 1

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CHAPTER 1. WESTERN ESOTERICISM

ideas have meanwhile also exerted an influence in popular esotericism.* [11] Hanegraaff has characterised these as culture, appearing in art, literature, film, and music. “recognisable world views and approaches to knowledge that have played an important although always controversial role in the history of Western culture.”* [12] Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan asserted that Western 1.1 Etymology esotericism constituted “a third pillar of Western culture”alongside “doctrinal faith and rationality”, beThe adjective“esoteric”first appeared in the second cen- ing deemed heretical by the former and irrational by tury CE as the Ancient Greek term esôterikós, with the the latter.* [13] Scholars nevertheless recognise that varearliest known example of the word appearing in a satire ious non-Western traditions have exerted “a profound authored by Lucian of Samosata.* [1] influence”over Western esotericism, citing the prominent example of the Theosophical Society's incorporation The noun “esotericism”, in its French form of * of Hindu and Buddhist concepts into its doctrines.* [14] “l'ésotérisme”, was first used in 1828, [2] by Jacques Matter in his book, Histoire du gnosticisme.* [3] At this Given these influences and the imprecise nature of the time it was being used in the wake of the Age of En- term “Western”, the scholar of esotericism Kennet lightenment and its critique of institutionalised religion, Granholm has argued that academics should cease reduring which alternative religious groups began to dis- ferring to "Western esotericism”altogether, instead simassociate themselves from the dominant Christianity in ply favouring “esotericism”as a descriptor of this phe* Western Europe.* [4] During the nineteenth and twentieth nomenon. [15] centuries, the term“esotericism”came to commonly be seen as something that was distinct from Christianity, and which had formed a subculture that was at odds with the Christian mainstream from at least the Renaissance.* [4] The term was popularized by the French occultist and ceremonial magician Eliphas Lévi in the 1850s, and introduced into the English language by the Theosophist A. P. Sinnet in 1883.* [3] Lévi also introduced the term l'occoltisme, which he likely developed himself, and these terms were often employed as synonyms until being distinguished by later scholars.* [5]

1.2 Definition

There is broad agreement among scholars as to which currents of thought can be placed within a category of “esotericism”, ranging from ancient Gnosticism and Hermetism through to Rosicrucianism and the Kabbalah and on to more recent phenomenon such as the New Age movement.* [16] Nevertheless, “esotericism”itself remains a controversial term, with scholars specialising in the subject disagreeing as to how it can best be defined.* [16]

1.2.1 Esotericism as secret, inner tradition A definition adopted by some scholars has used “Western esotericism”in reference to“inner traditions”which are concerned with a “universal spiritual dimension of reality, as opposed to the merely external ('exoteric') religious institutions and dogmatic systems of established religions.”* [17] This usage of the term “esotericism” is closest to the original meaning of the word as it was used in late antiquity, where it was applied to secret spiritual teachings which were reserved for a specific elite and hidden from the masses.* [18] Accordingly, this use of the term views“Western esotericism”as just one variant of a worldwide“esotericism”which can be found at the heart of all world religions and cultures, reflecting a hidden esoteric reality.* [19] Within the academic field of religious studies, those who study different religions in search of an inner, universal dimension to them all are termed“religionists”.* [19]

The concept of Western esotericism is a modern scholarly construct rather than a pre-existing, self-defined tradition of thought.* [6] Scholars established this category in the late 18th century after identifying“structural similarities”between “the ideas and world views of a wide variety of thinkers and movements”which prior to this had not been placed in the same analytical grouping.* [7] According to the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff, the term provided a“useful generic label”for“a large and complicated group of historical phenomena that had long been perceived as sharing an air de famille.* [5] The historian of esotericism Antoine Faivre noted that “never a precise term, [esotericism] has begun to overflow its boundaries on all sides”,* [8] with both Faivre and Karen-Claire Voss stating that Western esotericism This academic definition of esotericism was heavily inconsists of“a vast spectrum of authors, trends, works of fluenced by the ideas of several esoteric movements philosophy, religion, art, literature, and music”.* [9] themselves, most notably Traditionalism and Martinist Various academics have emphasised the idea that eso- Freemasonry.* [20] It was popular among French acatericism is a phenomenon unique to the Western world; demics during the 1980s, exerting a strong influence over as Faivre stated, an “empirical perspective”would hold the academics Mircea Eliade, Henry Corbin, and the that “esotericism is a Western notion”.* [10] As schol- early work of Faivre.* [20] Such religionist ideas also exars such as Faivre and Hanegraaff have pointed out, there erted an influence on more recent scholars like Nicholas is no comparable category of “Eastern”or “Oriental” Goodrick-Clarke and Arthur Versluis.* [19] Versluis for

1.2. DEFINITION

3

1.2.2 Esotericism as an enchanted world view

A colored version of the 1888 Flammarion engraving

instance defined “Western esotericism”as “inner or hidden spiritual knowledge transmitted through Western European historical currents that in turn feed into North American and other non-European settings”.* [21] He added that these Western esoteric currents all shared a core characteristic, “a claim to gnosis, or direct spiritual insight into cosmology or spiritual insight”,* [21] and accordingly he suggested that these currents could be referred to as“Western gnostic”just as much as“Western esoteric”.* [22] There are various problems with this model for understanding Western esotericism.* [19] The most significant is that is rests upon the conviction that there really is a “universal, hidden, esoteric dimension of reality”that objectively exists.* [19] The existence of this universal inner tradition has not been discovered through scientific or scholarly enquiry; this had led some to claim that it The Magician, a tarot card displaying the Hermetic concept of does not exist, although Hanegraaff thought it better to “as above, so below.”Faivre connected this concept to 'correadopt a view based in methodological agnosticism by stat- spondences', his first defining characteristic of esotericism ing that “we simply do not know - and cannot know” if it exists or not. He noted that, even if such a true Another understanding of Western esotericism has been and absolute nature of reality really existed, it would to view it as a world view that embraces 'enchantment' only be accessible through 'esoteric' spiritual practices, in contrast to world views influenced by post-Cartesian, and could not be discovered or measured by the 'exo- post-Newtonian, and positivist science which have sought teric' tools of scientific and scholarly enquiry.* [23] Hane- to 'dis-enchant' the world.* [26] Esotericism is therefore graaff also highlighted that an attitude which seeks to un- understood as comprising those world views which escover an inner hidden core of all esoteric currents masks chew a belief in instrumental causality and instead adopt the fact that such groups often contain significant differ- a belief that all parts of the universe are interrelated withences from one another, being rooted in their own histor- out a need for causal chains.* [26] It therefore stands as a ical and social contexts, and expressing ideas and agen- radical alternative to the disenchanted world views which das which are mutually exclusive.* [24] A third issue was have dominated Western culture since the scientific revthat many of those currents widely recognised as esoteric olution,* [26] and must therefore always be at odds with never concealed their teachings, and in the twentieth cen- secular culture.* [27] An early exponent of this definition tury came to permeate popular culture, thus problema- was the historian of Renaissance thought Frances Yates tizing the claim that esotericism could be defined by its in her discussions of a“Hermetic Tradition”, which she hidden and secretive nature.* [25] Moreover, Hanegraaff saw as an 'enchanted' alternative to established religion noted that when scholars adopt this definition, it shows and rationalistic science.* [28] However, the primary exthat they subscribe to the religious doctrines which are ponent of this view was Faivre, who published a series espoused by the very groups that they are studying.* [5] of criteria for how to define “Western esotericism”in

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CHAPTER 1. WESTERN ESOTERICISM

1992.* [29] Faivre claimed that esotericism was “identifiable by the presence of six fundamental characteristics or components”, four of which were “intrinsic”and thus vital to defining something as being esoteric, while the other two were“secondary”and thus not necessarily present in every form of esotericism.* [30] He listed these characteristics as follows:

another in a systematic fashion”.* [40] However, criticisms have also been expressed of Faivre's theory, pointing out its various weaknesses.* [41] Hanegraaff claimed that Faivre's approach entailed“reasoning by prototype” that relied upon already having a “best example”of what Western esotericism should look like, and then comparing other phenomenon to that one.* [42] Von Stuckrad noted that Faivre's taxonomy was based on his own areas of specialism – Renaissance Hermeticism, Christian Kabbalah, and Protestant Theosophy – and thus it is not based on a wider understanding of esotericism as it has existed throughout history, from the ancient world to the contemporary.* [43] Accordingly, Von Stuckrad suggested that it was a good typology for understanding “Christian esotericism in the early modern period”but lacked utility beyond that.* [44]

1.“Correspondences": This is the idea that there are both real and symbolic correspondences existing between all things within the universe.* [31] As examples for this, Faivre pointed to the esoteric concept of the macrocosm and microcosm, often presented as the dictum of“as above, so below”, as well as the astrological idea that the actions of the planets have a direct corresponding influence on the behaviour of human beings.* [32] Somewhat crudely, esotericism can be described as a 2.“Living Nature": Faivre argued that all esotericists Western form of spirituality that stresses the importance envision the natural universe as being imbued with of the individual effort to gain spiritual knowledge, or its own life force, and that as such they understand gnosis, whereby man is confronted with the divine aspect it as being “complex, plural, hierarchical”.* [33] of existence.

3.“Imagination and Mediations": Faivre believed that all esotericists place great emphasis on both the human imagination, and mediations –“such as rituals, symbolic images, mandalas, intermediary spirits”– as tools that provide access to worlds and levels of reality existing between the material world and the divine.* [34] 4.“Experience of Transmutation": Faivre's fourth intrinsic characteristic esotericism was the emphasis that esotericists place on fundamentally transforming themselves through their practice, for instance through the spiritual transformation that it alleged to accompany the attainment of gnosis.* [35] 5.“Practice of Concordance": The first of Faivre's secondary characteristics of esotericism was the belief – held by many esotericists, such as those in the Traditionalist School – that there is a fundamental unifying principle or root from which all world religions and spiritual practices emerge. The common esoteric principle is that by attaining this unifying principle, the world's different beliefs can be brought together in unity.* [36]

—Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan, 2007.* [45] As an alternative to Faivre's framework, Von Stuckrad developed his own variant, although argued that this did not represent a “definition”but rather a “a framework of analysis”for scholarly usage.* [46] He stated that“on the most general level of analysis”, esotericism represented“the claim of higher knowledge”, a claim to possessing “wisdom that is superior to other interpretations of cosmos and history”and which serves as a “master key for answering all questions of humankind”.* [47] Accordingly, he believed that esoteric groups placed a great emphasis on secrecy, not because they were inherently rooted in elite groups but because the idea of concealed secrets that can be revealed was central to their discourse.* [48] Examining the means of accessing higher knowledge, he highlighted two themes that he believed could be found within esotericism, that of mediation through contact with non-human entities, and individual experience.* [49] Accordingly, for Von Stuckrad, esotericism could be best understood as “a structural element of Western culture”rather than as a selection of different schools of thought.* [4]

6.“Transmission": Faivre's second secondary characteristic was the emphasis on the transmission of es- 1.2.3 Esotericism as “rejected knowledge” oteric teachings and secrets from a master to their discipline, through a process of initiation.* [37] An additional definition was proposed by Hanegraaff, and holds that“Western esotericism”is a category repreFaivre's form of categorisation has been championed by senting “the academy's dustbin of rejected knowledge.” scholars like Goodrick-Clarke,* [38] and by 2007 Bogdan * [12] In this respect, it contains all of the theories and could note that Faivre's had become“the standard defini- world views that have been rejected by the mainstream tion”of Western esotericism in use among scholars.* [39] intellectual community because they do not accord with Scholar of esotericism Kocku Von Stuckrad commented “normative conceptions of religion, rationality and scithat the advantage of Faivre's system is that it allows ence”.* [12] His approach is rooted within the field of varying esoteric traditions to be compared “with one the history of ideas, and stresses the role of change and

1.3. HISTORY transformation over time.* [50] Goodrick-Clarke was critical of this approach, believing that it relegated Western esotericism to the position of “a casualty of positivist and materialist perspectives in the nineteenth-century”and thus reinforces the idea that Western esoteric traditions were of little historical importance.* [51] Bogdan similarly expressed concern regarding Hanegraaff's definition, believing that it made the category of Western esotericism “all inclusive”and thus analytically useless.* [52]

1.3 History 1.3.1

Late Antiquity

5 cluding the Corpus Hermeticum, Asclepius, and the The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth.* [56] Although it is still debated as to whether Hermetism was a purely literary phenomenon, or whether there were communities of practitioners who acted on these ideas, it has been established that these texts discuss the true nature of God, emphasising that humans must transcend rational thought and worldly desires in order to find salvation and be reborn into a spiritual body of immaterial light, thereby achieving spiritual unity with divinity.* [56] Another tradition of esoteric thought in Late Antiquity was Gnosticism, which had a complex relationship with Christianity. Various Gnostic sects existed, and they broadly believed that the divine light had been imprisoned within the material world by a malevolent entity known as the Demiurge, who was served by demonic helpers, the Archons. It was the Gnostic belief that humans, who were imbued with the divine light, should seek to attain gnosis and thus escape from the world of matter and rejoin the divine source.* [57] A third form of esotericism in Late Antiquity was Neoplatonism, a school of thought influenced by the ideas of the philosopher Plato. Advocated by such figures as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus, Neoplatonism held that the human soul had fallen from its divine origins into the material world, but that it could progress, through a number of hierarchical spheres of being, to return to its divine origins once more.* [58] The later Neoplatonists performed theurgy, a ritual practice attested in such sources as the Chaldean Oracles. Scholars are still unsure of precisely what theurgy involved, although it is known that it involved a practice designed to make gods appear, who could then raise the theurgist's mind to the reality of the divine.* [59]

1.3.2 Middle Ages

A later illustration of Hermes Trismegistus

After the fall of Rome, alchemy and philosophy and other aspects of the tradition were largely preserved in the Arab and Near Eastern world and introduced into Western Europe by Jews and by the cultural contact between Christians and Muslims in Sicily and south Italy.

The 12th century saw the development of the Kabbalah in south Italy and medieval Spain. The medieval period also saw the publication of grimoires which offered often elaborate formulas for theurgy and thaumaturgy. Many of the grimoires seem to have kabbalistic influence. Figures in alchemy from this period seem to also have authored or used grimoires.

The origins of Western esotericism are in the Hellenistic Eastern Mediterranean, then part of the Roman Empire, during Late Antiquity, a period encompassing the first centuries of the Common Era.* [53] This was a milieu in which there was a mix of religious and intellectual traditions from Greece, Egypt, the Levant, Babylon, and Persia, and in which globalisation, urbanisation, and multiculturalism were bringing about socio-cultural change.* [54] 1.3.3 Renaissance and Early Modern peOne component of this was Hermetism, an Egyptian Helriod lenistic school of thought that takes its name from the legendary Egyptian wise man, Hermes Trismegistus.* [55] During the Renaissance, a number of European thinkers In the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, a number of texts ap- began to synthesize “pagan”philosophies which were peared which were attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, in- then being made available through Arabic translations

6

CHAPTER 1. WESTERN ESOTERICISM

with Christian thought and the Jewish kabbalah.* [60] The earliest of these individuals was the Byzantine philosopher Plethon (1355/60–1452?), who argued that the Chaldean Oracles represented an example of a superior religion of ancient humanity which had been passed down by the Platonists.* [61] Plethon's ideas interested the ruler of Florence, Cosimo de Medici, who employed Florentine thinker Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) to translate Plato's works into Latin. Ficino went on to translate and publish the works of various Platonic figures, arguing that their philosophies were compatible with Christianity, and allowing for the emergence of a wider movement in Renaissance Platonism, or Platonic Orientalism.* [62] Ficino also translated part of the Corpus Hermeticum, although the rest would be translated by his contemporary, Lodovico Lazzarelli (1447–1500).* [63] Another core figure in this intellectual milieu was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), who achieved notability in 1486 by inviting scholars from across Europe to come and debate the 900 theses that he had written with him. Mirandola The Masonic Square and Compasses. argued that all of these philosophies reflected a grand universal wisdom, however Pope Innocent VIII condemned these actions, criticising him for attempting to mix pagan theosophy movement through his attempts to solve the and Jewish ideas with Christianity.* [64] problem of evil. Böhme argued that God had been crePico's increased interest in Jewish kabbalah led to his ated out of an unfathomable mystery, the Ungrud, and development of a distinct form of Christian Kabbalah. that God himself composed of a wrathful core, sur* His work was built on by the German Johannes Reuch- rounded by the forces of light and love. [70] Although lin (1455–1522) who authored a prominent text on the condemned by Germany's Lutheran authorities, Böhme's subject, De arte cabalistica.* [65] Christian Kabbalah was ideas spread and formed the basis for a number of small expanded in the work of the German Heinrich Cornelius religious communities, such as Johann Georg Gichtel's Agrippa (1486–1535/36), who used it as a framework Angelic Brethren in Amsterdam, and John Pordage and * through which to explore the philosophical and scientific Jane Leade's Philadelphian Society in England. [71] traditions of Antiquity in his work De occulta philosophia libri tres.* [66] The work of Agrippa and other esoteric philosophers had been based in a pre-Copernican worldview, but following the arguments of Copernicus, a more accurate understanding of the cosmos was established.

Copernicus' theories were adopted into esoteric strains of thought by Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), whose ideas would be deemed heresy by the Roman Catholic Church, eventually resulting in his public execution.* [67]

From 1614 to 1616, the three Rosicrucian Manifestos were published in Germany; these texts purporting to represent a secret initiatory brotherhood which had been founded centuries before by a German adept named Christian Rosenkreutz. There is no evidence that Rosenkreutz was a genuine historical figure, or that a Rosicrucian Order had ever existed, and instead the manifestos are likely literary creations of Lutheran theologian Johann Valentin Andreae (1586–1654). However, they inspired much public interest, with various individuals coming to describe themselves as“Rosicrucian”and claiming that they had access to secret esoteric knowledge as a result.* [72] A real iniatory brotherhood was established in late 16th-century Scotland through the transformation of Medieval stonemason guilds to include noncraftsman: Freemasonry. Soon spreading into other parts of Europe, in England it largely rejected its esoteric character and embraced humanism and rationalism, while in France it embraced new esoteric concepts, particularly those from Christian theosophy.* [73]

A distinct strain of esoteric thought developed in Germany, where it came to be known as Naturphilosophie; although influenced by traditions from Late Antiquity and Medieval Kabbalah, it only acknowledged two main sources of authority: Biblical scripture and the natural world.* [68] The primary exponent of this approach was Paracelsus (1493/94–1541), who took inspiration from alchemy and folk magic to argue against the mainstream medical establishment, which based its approach on the ideas of Galen. Instead, Paracelsus urged doctors to learn medicine through an observation of the natural world, although in later work he also began to focus on overtly religious questions. His work would gain significant support in both areas over the following centuries.* [69] One 1.3.4 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries of those influenced by Paracelsus was German cobbler Jacob Böhme (1575–1624), who sparked the Christian The Age of Enlightenment witnessed a process of increasing secularisation of European governments and an

1.3. HISTORY

7 Spiritualism resulted in the development of the field of psychical research.* [77] Somnambulism also exerted a strong influence on the early disciplines of psychology and psychiatry; esoteric ideas purvey the work of many early figures in this field, most notably Carl Gustav Jung, although with the rise of psychoanalysis and behaviourism in the 20th century, these disciplines distanced themselves from esotericism.* [79] Also influenced by artificial somnambulism was the religion of New Thought, founded by the American Mesmerist Phineas P. Quimby (1802–1866) and which revolved around the concept of "mind over matter", believing that illness and other negative conditions could be cured through the power of belief.* [80]

Hypnotic séance. Painting by Swedish artist Richard Bergh, 1887

embrace of modern science and rationality within intellectual circles. In turn, a “modernist occult”emerged that reflected varied ways in which esoteric thinkers came to terms with these developments.* [74] One of the most prominent esotericists of this period was the Swedish naturalist Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), who attempted to reconcile science and religion after experiencing a vision of Jesus Christ. His writings focused on his visionary travels to heaven and hell and his communications with angels, claiming that the visible, materialist world parallels an invisible spiritual world, with correspondences between the two that do not reflect causal relations. Following his death, followers would found the Swedenborgian New Church, although his writings would influence a far wider array of esoteric philosophies.* [75] Another major figure within the esoteric movement of this period was the German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1814), who developed the theory of Animal Magnetism, which later came to be known more commonly as “Mesmerism”. Mesmer claimed that a universal life force permeated everything, including the human body, and that illnesses were caused by a disturbance or block in this force's flow; he developed techniques which he claimed cleansed such blockages and restored the patient to full health.* [76] One of Mesmer's followers, the Marquis de Puységur, discovered that mesmeric treatment could induce a state of somnumbulic trance in which they claimed to enter visionary states and communicate with spirit beings.* [77] These somnumbulic trance-states would heavily influence the esoteric religion of Spiritualism, which emerged from the United States in the 1840s and spread throughout North American and Europe. Spiritualism was based on the concept that individuals could communicate with spirits of the deceased during séances.* [78] Although most forms of Spiritualism had little theoretical depth, being largely practical affairs, full theological worldviews based on the movement would be articulated by Andrew Jackson Davis (1826–1910) and Allan Kardec (1804–1869).* [77] Scientific interest in the claims of

Pentagram of Eliphas Levi

In Europe, a movement usually termed "occultism" emerged as various figures attempted to find a “third way”between Christianity and positivist science while building on the ancient, medieval, and Renaissance traditions of esoteric thought.* [80] In France, following the social upheaval of the 1789 Revolution, various figures emerged in this occultist milieu who were heavily influenced by traditional Catholicism, the most notable of whom were Eliphas Lévi (1810–1875) and Papus (1865– 1916).* [81] Also significant was René Guénon (1886– 1951), whose concern with tradition led him to develop an occult viewpoint termed Traditionalism; it espoused the idea of an original, universal tradition, and thus a rejection of modernity.* [82] His Traditionalist ideas would have a strong influence on later esotericists like Julius Evola (1898–1974) and Frithjof Schuon (1907– 1998).* [82] In the Anglophone world, the burgeoning occult movement owed more to Enlightenment libertines, and thus was more often of an anti-Christian bent that saw wisdom as emanating from the pre-Christian pagan religions of Europe.* [82] Various Spiritualist mediums came to be disillusioned with the esoteric thought available, and

8 sought inspiration in pre-Swedenborgian currents; the most prominent of these were Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–1899) and Helena Blavatsky (1831–1891), the latter of whom called for the revival of the “occult science”of the ancients, which could be found in both the East and West. Authoring the influential Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888), she cofounded the Theosophical Society in 1875.* [83] Subsequent leaders of the Society, namely Annie Besant (1847–1933) and Charles Webster Leadbeater (1854– 1934) interpreted modern theosophy as a form of ecumenical esoteric Christianity, resulting in their proclamation of Indian Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986) as world messiah.* [84] In rejection of this was the breakaway Anthroposophical Society founded by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925).* [84]

CHAPTER 1. WESTERN ESOTERICISM spread neo-pagan, nationalist ideas, based on Wotanism and the Kabbalah. Many influential and wealthy Germans were drawn to secret societies such as the Thule Society.

Thule Society activist Karl Harrer was one of the founders of the German Workers' Party,* [96] which later became the Nazi Party; some Nazi Party members like Alfred Rosenberg and Rudolf Hess were listed as “guests”of the Thule Society, as was Adolf Hitler's mentor Dietrich Eckart.* [97] After their rise to power, the Nazis persecuted occultists.* [98] While many Nazi Party leaders like Hitler and Joseph Goebbels were hostile to occultism, Heinrich Himmler used Karl Maria Wiligut as a clairvoyant “and was regularly consulting for help in setting up the symbolic and ceremonial aspects of the SS”but not for important political decisions. By 1939, Wiligut was “forcibly retired from the SS”due to being institutionalised for insanity.* [99] On the other hand, the German hermetic magic order Fraternitas Saturni was founded on Easter 1928 and it is one of the oldest continuously running magical groups in Germany.* [100]

These movements were also influenced, and did influence, Neo-Vedanta, an esoteric interpretation of Hinduism developed by influential Brahmo Samaj leaders, especially Ram Mohan Roy, Keshubchandra Sen and Swami Vivekananda.* [85]* [86] Their neo-Vedanta became popular in western esoteric cir- 1.3.5 cles by the end of the 19th century, being regarded as an authentic, millennia-old secret tradition.* [85] It was influenced by Unitarianism,* [87]* [88] Transcendentalism,* [89] and Romanticism,* [90] emphasizing personal religious experience over mere reasoning and theology.* [91] Vivekananda (1863-1902)* [92] played a major role in the spread of Neo-Vedanta to the west* [86] via the Ramakrishna Mission. Vivekananda's acquaintance with western esotericism made him very successful in western esoteric circles, beginning with his speech in 1893 at the Parliament of Religions.* [86]

Later 20th century

New esoteric understandings of magic also developed in the latter part of the 19th century. One of the pioneers of this was American Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825– 1875), who argued that sexual energy and psychoactive drugs could be used for magical purposes.* [84] In England, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an initiatory order devoted to magic which based itself on an understanding of kabbalah, was founded in the latter years of the century.* [93] One of the most prominent members of that order was Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), who went on to proclaim the religion of Thelema and become a prominent member of the Ordo Templi Orientis.* [94] Some of their contemporaries developed esoteric schools of thought that did not entail magic, namely the GrecoArmenian teacher George Gurdjieff (1866–1949) and his Sculpture of the Horned God of Wicca found in the Museum of Russian pupul P. D. Ouspensky (1878–1947).* [95] Emergent occult and esoteric systems found increasing popularity in the early 20th century, especially in Western Europe. Occult lodges and secret societies flowered among European intellectuals of this era who had largely abandoned traditional forms of Christianity. The spreading of secret teachings and magic practices found enthusiastic adherents in the chaos of Germany during the interwar years. Notable writers such as Guido von List

Witchcraft in Boscastle, Cornwall

In the 1960s and 1970s, esotericism came to be increasingly associated with the growing counter-culture in the West, whose adherents understood themselves in participating in a spiritual revolution that would mark the Age of Aquarius.* [101] By the 1980s, these currents of millenarian currents had come to be widely known as the New Age movement, and it became increasingly commer-

1.5. ACADEMIC STUDY

9

cialised as business entrepreneurs exploited a growth in the spiritual market.* [101] Conversely, other forms of esoteric thought retained the anti-commercial and countercultural sentiment of the 1960s and 1970s, namely the techno-shamanic movement promoted by figures such as Terence McKenna and Daniel Pinchbeck which built on the work of anthropologist Carlos Castaneda.* [101] This trend was accompanied by the increased growth of modern Paganism, a movement initially dominated by Wicca, the religion propagated by Gerald Gardner.* [102] Wicca was adopted by members of the second-wave feminist movement, most notably Starhawk, and developing into the Goddess movement.* [102] Wicca also greatly influenced the development of Pagan neo-druidry and other forms of Celtic revivalism.* [102] Other trends which emerged in western occultism in the later 20th century were satanism as exposed by groups such as The Church of Satan and Temple of Set,* [103] as well as chaos magick through the Illuminates of Thanateros group.* [104]

1.4 Popular culture In 2013, Asprem and Granholm highlighted that “contemporary esotericism is intimately, and increasingly, connected with popular culture and new media.”* [105] Granholm noted that esoteric ideas and images could be found in many aspects of Western popular media, citing such examples as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Avatar, Hellblazer, and His Dark Materials.* [106] Granholm has argued that there are problems with the field in that it draws a distinction between esotericism and non-esoteric elements of culture which draw upon esotericism; citing the example of extreme metal, he noted that it was incredibly difficult to differentiate between those artists who were“properly occult”and those who simply utilised occult themes and aesthetics in“a superficial way”.* [107] Writers interested in occult themes have adopted three different strategies for dealing with the subject: those who are knowledgeable on the subject including attractive images of the occult and occultists in their work, those who disguise occultism within “a web of intertextuality”, and those who oppose it and seek to deconstruct it.* [108]

1.5 Academic study Main article: Academic study of Western esotericism The academic study of Western esotericism was pioneered in the early 20th century by historians of the ancient world and the European Renaissance, who came to recognise that – although it had been ignored by previous scholarship – the impact which pre-Christian and nonrational schools of thought had exerted on European society and culture was worthy of academic attention.* [51]

London's Warburg Institute was one of the first centres to encourage the academic study of Western esotericism

One of the key centres for this was the Warburg Institute in London, where scholars like Frances Yates, Edgar Wind, Ernst Cassier, and D. P. Walker began arguing that esoteric thought had had a greater impact on Renaissance culture than had been previously accepted.* [109] The work of Yates in particular, most notably her 1964 book Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, has been cited as “an important starting-point for modern scholarship on esotericism”, succeeding “at one fell swoop in bringing scholarship onto a new track”by bringing wider awareness to the impact that esoteric ideas had on modern science.* [110] At the instigation of the scholar Henry Corbin, in 1965 the world's first academic post in the study of esotericism was established at the École pratique des hautes études in the Sorbonne, Paris; named the chair in the History of Christian Esotericism, its first holder was François Secret, a specialist in the Christian Kabbalah, although he had little interest in developing the wider study of esotericism as a field of research.* [111] In 1979 Faivre assumed Secret's chair at the Sorbonne, which was renamed the “History of Esoteric and Mystical Currents in Modern and Contemporary Europe”.* [112] Faivre has since been cited as being responsible for developing the study of Western esotericism into a formalised field,* [113] with his 1992 work L'ésotérisme having been cited as marking “the beginning of the study of Western esotericism as an academic field of research”.* [114] He remained in the chair until 2002, when he was succeeded by Jean-Pierre Brach.* [110] Faivre noted that there were two significant obstacles to establishing the field. One was that there was an engrained prejudice towards esotericism within academia, resulting in the widespread perception that the history of esotericism was not worthy of academic research.* [115] The second was that esotericism is a trans-disciplinary field, the study of which did not fit clearly within any particular discipline.* [116] As Hanegraaff noted, Western esotericism had to be studied as a separate field to religion, philosophy, science, and the arts, because while

10 it “participates in all these fields”it does not squarely fit into any of them.* [117] Elsewhere, he noted that there was “probably no other domain in the humanities that has been so seriously neglected”as Western esotericism.* [118]

CHAPTER 1. WESTERN ESOTERICISM prem and Granholm observing that scholars within other sub-disciplines of religious studies had begun to take an interest in the work of scholars of esotericism.* [126] Asprem and Granholm noted that the study of esotericism had been dominated by historians and thus lacked the perspective of social scientists examining contemporary forms of esotericism, a situation that they were attempting to correct through building links with scholars operating in Pagan studies and the study of new religious movements.* [127] On the basis of the fact that“English culture and literature have been traditional strongholds of Western esotericism”, in 2011 Pia Brînzeu and György Szönyi urged that English studies also have a role in this interdisciplinary field.* [128]

1.5.1 Emic and etic divisions Hanegraaff follows a distinction between an“emic”and an “etic”approach to religious studies. The emic approach is that of the alchemist or theosopher as an alchemist or theosopher. The etic approach is that of the scholar as an historian, a researcher, with a critical look.

An empirical study of esotericism needs “emic material and etic interpretation”: Prominent scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff

In 1980, the U.S.-based Hermetic Academy was founded

by Robert A. McDermott as an outlet for American scholars interested in Western esotericism.* [119] From 1986 to 1990 members of the Hermetic Academy participated in panels at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Religion under the rubric of the “Esotericism and Perennialism Group”.* [119] By 1994, Faivre could comment that the academic study of Western esotericism had taken off in France, Italy, England, and the United States, but he lamented the fact that it had not done so in Germany.* [115]

Emic denotes the believer’s point of view.

On the part of the researcher, the reconstruction of this emic perspective requires an attitude of empathy which excludes personal biases as far as possible. Scholarly discourse about religion, on the other hand, is not emic but etic. Scholars may introduce their own terminology and make theoretical distinctions which are different from those of the believers themselves.* [129]

Arthur Versluis proposes approaching esotericism In 1999, the University of Amsterdam established a chair through a “sympathetic empiricism”: in the“History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents”, which was occupied by Hanegraaff,* [120] while Esotericism, given all its varied forms and in 2005 the University of Exeter created a chair in“Westits inherently multidimensional nature, cannot ern Esotericism”, which was taken by Goodrick-Clarke, be conveyed without going beyond purely hiswho headed the Exeter Center for the Study of Esoteritorical information: at minimum, the study of cism.* [121] Thus, by 2008 there were three dedicated esotericism, and in particular mysticism, reuniversity chairs in the subject, with Amsterdam and Exquires some degree of imaginative participaeter also offering master's degree programs in it.* [122] tion in what one is studying.* [130] Several conferences on the subject were held at the quintennial meetings of the International Association for the History of Religions,* [123] while a peer-reviewed journal, Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism 1.6 References began publication in 2001.* [123] 2001 also saw the foundation of the North American Association for the Study 1.6.1 Footnotes of Esotericism (ASE), with the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE) being estab- [1] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 80; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3. lished shortly after.* [124] Within a few years, Michael [2] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 2.

Bergunder expressed the view that it had become an established field within religious studies,* [125] with As- [3] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 384.

1.6. REFERENCES

11

[4] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 80.

[37] Faivre 1994, pp. 14–15; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 400; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 8.

[5] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 385.

[6] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p.

Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.

88; Bogdan 2007, p.

6;

[38] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 7–10.

[39] Bogdan 2007, p. 10.

[7] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.

[40] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4.

[8] Faivre 1994, p. 3.

[41] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 5; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.

[9] Faivre & Voss 1995, pp. 48–49.

[42] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 4–14.

[10] Faivre 1994, p. 17.

[43] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 5.

[11] Faivre 1994, p. 6; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 14–15.

[44] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 83.

[12] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 13.

[45] Bogdan 2007, p. 5.

[13] Bogdan 2007, p. 7.

[46] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 93.

[14] Bogdan 2013, p. 177.

[47] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 88.

[15] Granholm 2013a, pp. 31–32.

[48] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 89.

[16] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 79.

[49] Von Stuckrad 2005b, pp. 91–92.

[17] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 10–12.

[50] Bergunder 2010, p. 18.

[18] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 10.

[51] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 4.

[19] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 11.

[52] Bogdan 2007, p. 15.

[20] Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 178.

[53] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 3, 15; Hanegraaff 2013a, p.

18.

[21] Versluis 2007, p. 1.

[54] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 13; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 18.

[22] Versluis 2007, p. 2.

[55] Versluis 2007, p. 24; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 16–20; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 19.

[23] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 11–12.

[24] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 12.

[25] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 385; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81.

[57] Faivre 1994, p. 53; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 27–29; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 19–20.

[26] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 5.

[27] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 7.

[58] Faivre 1994, p. 52; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 20–27.

[28] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 6–7.

[29] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Bogdan 2007, p.

Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 3–4.

[56] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 16–20; Hanegraaff 2013a, p.

19.

10;

[30] Faivre 1994, p. 10; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Bergunder 2010, p. 14; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.

[31] Faivre 1994, p. 10; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 398; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.

[32] Faivre 1994, pp. 10–11.

[33] Faivre 1994, p. 11; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 398; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.

[34] Faivre 1994, p. 12; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 398–399; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.

[35] Faivre 1994, p. 13; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 399–340; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.

[36] Faivre 1994, p. 14; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 400; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 8.

[59] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 25; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 20– 21.

[60] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 25.

[61] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 26.

[62] Faivre 1994, p. 58; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 26–27.

[63] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 27.

[64] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 27–28.

[65] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 28–29.

[66] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 29.

[67] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 30.

[68] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 31.

[69] Faivre 1994, pp. 61–63; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 30–31.

[70] Faivre 1994, pp. 63–64; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 32.

12

[71] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 32–33.

[72] Faivre 1994, pp. 64–66; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 33–34.

CHAPTER 1. WESTERN ESOTERICISM

[103]“Satanism”at Wouter Hannegraaff (ed). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Brill. 2006. pg. 1035

[74] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 36.

[104] Nevill Drury. Stealing Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Modern Western Magic.Oxford University Press. 2011. pg. 251

[75] Faivre 1994, p. 72; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 37.

[105] Asprem & Granholm 2013, p. 6.

[76] Faivre 1994, pp. 76–77; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 37–38.

[106] Granholm 2013a, p. 31.

[73] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 35–36.

[77] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 38.

[78] Faivre 1994, p. 87; Hanegraaff 2013, p. 38.

[107] Granholm 2013b, pp. 8–9.

[108] Brînzeu & Szönyi 2011, p. 185.

[79] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 38–39.

[109] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 4–5.

[80] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 39.

[81] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 39–40.

[82] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 40.

[83] Faivre 1994, pp. 93–94; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 40–41.

[110] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3.

[111] Faivre 1994, p. ix; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 11.

[84] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 41.

[112] Faivre 1994, p. x; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 12.

[85] Michelis 2005.

[113] Versluis 2007, p. 6; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 5.

[86] Hanegraaf 1998, p. 461.

[87] Harris 2009, p. 268.

[114] Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 179.

[115] Faivre 1994, p. ix.

[88] Kipf 1979, p. 3.

[89] Versluis 1993.

[90] Michelis 2005, p. 46-47.

[116] Faivre 1994, p. ix; Versluis 2007, p. 6.

[117] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 1–2.

[91] Michelis 2005, p. 81.

[118] Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 198.

[92] Flood 1996, p. 257.

[119] Faivre 1994, p. x; Faivre & Voss 1995, p. 59.

[93] Faivre 1994, p. 91; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 41.

[120] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 12–13.

[94] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 41–42.

[95] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 42.

[96] Hermann Gilbhard: Thule-Gesellschaft.

[121] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Versluis 2007, p. 7.

[122] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 3.

[97] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke: The Occult Roots of Nazism. [123] London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2005, p. 149.

[124] [98] Corinna Treitel: A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern. Baltimore: The Johns [125] Hopkins University Press 2004, p. 220.

[126] [99] Corinna Treitel: A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern. Baltimore: The Johns [127] Hopkins University Press 2004, p. 215f.

[128] [100] |Wouter Hanegraaff:“The most important magical secret lodge of the 20th century in the German-speaking world.”

[129] “Fraternitas Saturni”at Wouter Hanegraaff (ed). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Brill. 2006. pg.

379 [101] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 43.

[102] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 44.

Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81.

Versluis 2007, p. 6.

Bergunder 2010, p. 9.

Asprem & Granholm 2013, p. 1.

Asprem & Granholm 2013, pp. 3–4.

Brînzeu & Szönyi 2011, p. 184.

Wouter J. Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture. Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998, 6.

[130] Arthur Versluis, “Methods in the Study of Esotericism, Part II: Mysticism and the Study of Esotericism”, in Esoterica, Michigan State University, V, 2003, 27-40.

1.6. REFERENCES

1.6.2

Sources Asprem, Egil (2014).“Beyond the West: Towards a New Comparativism in the Study of Esotericism” (PDF). Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism 2 (1): 3–33.

Asprem, Egil; Granholm, Kennet (2013). “Introduction”. Contemporary Esotericism. Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 1– 24. ISBN 978-1-317-54357-2.

Bergunder, Michael (2010). Kenneth Fleming (translator). “What is Esotericism? Cultural Studies Approaches and the Problems of Definition in Religious Studies”.

Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 22: 9–36. doi:10.1163/094330510X12604383550882.

Bogdan, Henrik (2007). Western Esotericism and Rituals of Initiation. New York: SUNY Press.

ISBN 978-0791470701.

Bogdan, Henrik (2013). “Reception of Occultism in India: The Case of the Holy Order of Krishna” . Occultism in a Global Perspective.

Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurdjevic (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 177–201. ISBN 9781844657162.

Brînzeu, Pia; Szönyi, György (2011).

“The Esoteric in Postmodernism”.

European Journal of English Studies (Routledge) 15 (3): 183–188. doi:10.1080/13825577.2011.626934.

Faivre, Antoine (1994).

Access to Western Esotericism. New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791421789.

Faivre, Antoine (2010). Western Esotericism: A Concise History.

Christine Rhone (translator). New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 9781438433776.

Faivre, Antoine; Voss, KarenClaire (1995).

“Western Esotericism and the Science of Religions”. Numen 42 (1): 48–77. doi:10.1163/1568527952598756.

JSTOR 3270279.

Giegerich, Eric (2001). “Antoine Faivre: Studies in Esotericism”

13 . The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal 20 (2): 7–25. doi:10.1525/jung.1.2001.20.2.7.

Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2008).

The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195320992.

Granholm, Kennet (2013a). “Locating the West: Problematizing the Western in Western Esotericism and Occultism”. Occultism in a Global Perspective. Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurdjevic (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 17– 36. ISBN 978-1844657162.

Granholm, Kennet (2013b). “Ritual Black Metal: Popular Music as Occult Mediation and Practice” (PDF). Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism 1 (1): 5–33.

Granholm, Kennet (2013). “Esoteric Currents as Discursive Complexes”. Religion 43 (1): 46–69. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2013.742741.

Hanegraaff, Wouter (1996). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004106956.

Hanegraaff, Wouter J., ed. (2005), Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism I, Leiden / Boston: Brill Hanegraaff, Wouter (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 9780521196215.

Hanegraaff, Wouter (2013a). Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1441136466.

Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2013b).

“Textbooks and Introductions to Western Esotericism” .

Religion 43 (2): 178–200. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2012.733245.

Tweed, Thomas A. (2005),“American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History” (PDF), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 32 (2): 249–281 Versluis, Arthur (1993), American

14

CHAPTER 1. WESTERN ESOTERICISM Transcendentalism and Asian Religions, Oxford University Press Versluis, Arthur (2007). Magic and Mysticism: An Introduction to Western Esotericism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780742558366.

Von Stuckrad, Kocku (2005a).

Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge.

Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (translator). Durham: Acumen. ISBN 978-1845530334.

Von Stuckrad, Kocku (2005b).

“Western Esotericism: Towards an Integrative Model of Interpretation”. Religion 35 (2): 78–97. doi:10.1016/j.religion.2005.07.002.

1.7 Further reading Scholarly • Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism, Leiden: Brill, since 2001.

• Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism, Leiden: Brill, since 2006.

• Esoterica, East Lansing, Michigan State University (MSU). An online resource since 1999. I (1999); VIII (2006); IX (2007) • Wouter J. Hanegraaff, “The Study of Western Esotericism: New Approaches to Christian and Secular Culture”, in Peter Antes, Armin W. Geertz and Randi R. Warne, New Approaches to the Study of Religion, vol. I: Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches, Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2004, 497 p.

• Wouter J. Hanegraaff (ed.), in collaboration with Antoine Faivre, Roelof van den Broek, Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism, Leiden / Bristol: Brill, 2005, 2 vols., 1228 p.

ISBN 90-04-14187-1.

Other • Benjamin Walker, Encyclopedia of Esoteric Man: The Hidden Side of the Human Entity, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977, 353 p. ISBN 0-7100-8479-X. New title: Body Magic, London: Granada Publishing, “Paladin Books”, 1979, 478 p. ISBN 0-586-08323-5. Arranged alphabetically.

• Benjamin Walker, Man and the Beasts Within: The Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric, and the Supernatural, New York: Stein and Day, 1978, 343 p.

ISBN 0-8128-1900-4 • Kerber, Hannes. “Strauss and Schleiermacher. An Introduction to 'Exoteric Teaching”. In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Ed. Yaffe/Ruderman.

New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 203–214.

1.8 External links • An Esoteric Archive • Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands • The Western Esoteric Tradition Research Site • Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE) • European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE) • Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents, University of Amsterdam • University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO) • Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism • Esoterica. A peer-reviewed academic journal devoted to the transdisciplinary study of Western esotericism • http://esotericbasics.co.uk/ • University of Amsterdam Center for Study of Western Esotericism Research & BA/MA programs in Western esotericism.

• University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO) • ESSWE European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism, with many links to associated organizations, libraries, scholars etc.

• Association for the Study of Esotericism • What is understood by “Western Esotericism”?

(Prof. Wouter Hanegraaff) • What is Esoteric? (Prof. Arthur Versluis)

Chapter 2

Esoteric cosmology Esoteric cosmology is cosmology that is an intrinsic part 2.2 Gnosticism of an esoteric or occult system of thought. Esoteric cosmology maps out the universe with planes of existence Gnostic teachings were contemporary with those of Neoand consciousness according to a specific worldview usu- platonism. Gnosticism is an imprecise label, covering ally from a doctrine. monistic as well as dualistic conceptions. Usually the higher worlds of Light, called the Pleroma or“fullness”, are radically distinct from the lower world of Matter. The emanation of the Pleroma and its godheads (called Aeons) is described in detail in the various Gnostic tracts, as is the pre-creation crisis (a cosmic equivalent to the“fall”in Christian thought) from which the material world comes 2.1 Overview about, and the way that the divine spark can attain salvation.* [3] Esoteric cosmology almost always deals with at least some of the following themes: emanation, involution, spiritual evolution, epigenesis, planes of existence or 2.3 Kabbalah higher worlds (and their emanation and the connections between them), hierarchies of spiritual beings, cosmic cycles (e.g., cosmic year, Yuga), yogic or spiritual dis- Kabbalah combines orthodox Judaic, Neoplatonic, Gnosciplines and techniques of self-transformation, and refer- tic, and philosophical (e.g. Aristotlean) themes, to deences to mystical and altered states of consciousness.* [1] velop an elaborate and highly symbolic cosmology in which God, who is ineffable and unknowable, manifests Such cosmologies cover many of the same concerns also as ten archetypal sephirot, each with its own Divine ataddressed by religious cosmology and philosophical cos- tributes, and arranged in a configuration of interrelated mology, such as the origin, purpose, and destiny of the paths called the Tree of Life. The original Tree gives universe and of consciousness and the nature of exis- rise to further trees, until there are four or (in Lurianic tence. For this reason it is sometimes difficult to distin- Kabbalah) five worlds or universes (Trees) in all, with the guish where religion or philosophy end and esotericism or lowest sephira of the lowest world constituting the mateoccultism begins. However, esoteric cosmology is distin- rial cosmos. guished from religion in its more sophisticated construction and reliance on intellectual understanding rather than This cosmology proved highly popular with occultists, faith, and from philosophy in its emphasis on techniques and formed the basis of Western hermetic thought (e.g. the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and subsequent of psycho-spiritual transformation. organisations), where it is associated with a form of astral Examples of esoteric cosmologies can be found in travel called "pathworking".

Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, Nagualism (Carlos Castaneda), Hinduism (especially Bhagavata Purana and in Tantra and Kashmir Shaivism), Kabbalah, Sufism, the teachings of Jacob Boehme, The Urantia Book, 2.4 Neoplatonism the Sant Mat/Surat Shabda Yoga tradition, Theosophy, Anthroposophy, The Cosmic Tradition of Max Theon Although under Plotinus, Neoplatonism began as a school and his wife, Max Heindel (The Rosicrucian Cosmo- of philosophy, the teachings of later Neoplatonists such Conception), elements of the teachings of Sri Aurobindo, as Iamblichus and Proclus incorporate additional details Meher Baba, the Fourth Way propounded by Gurdjieff of the emanation process in terms of the dialectical action and Ouspensky, and many current New Age teachings, to of the hypostases and further subdivisions from Plotinus' give only a few examples.* [2] original three hypostases. Each higher hypostasis consti15

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CHAPTER 2. ESOTERIC COSMOLOGY

tutes a more sublime deific state of existence. There is also a tendency in later neoplatonic thought towards increasing transcendentalism and dualism. Although Plotinus saw spiritual ascent as leading ultimately to the One (The Absolute), in later Neoplatonism the best one can hope for is irridation of the Soul by the Nous above.

Neoplatonic ideas were later taken up by Gnosticism, Kabbalah, Christianity (Pseudo-Dionysius), and, in the 19th century, Theosophy.

2.5 Rosicrucian Conception

2.8 See also • Sufi cosmology • Plane (cosmology) • The Urantia Book • Roza Mira • Nondual

Cosmo- 2.9 Notes

Max Heindel presents in his The Rosicrucian CosmoConception (1909) an evolutionary process of man and the universe, correlating science with religion. This work of esoteric knowledge contains the fundamentals of the Rosicrucian Philosophy and also deals, among other topics, metaphysics and cosmology. The second part of the book contains the scheme of Evolution in general and the Evolution of the Solar System and the Earth in particular, according to Heindel. In the field of cosmology (Cosmogenisis and Anthropogenesis) it teaches about the Worlds, Globes and Periods, Revolutions and Cosmic Nights related to life waves and human development and also the constitution of the Solar System and of the Universe: The Supreme Being, the Cosmic Planes and God.

2.6 Theosophy and Anthroposophy H.P. Blavatsky in her Theosophical writings presented a complex cosmology, in terms of a sevenfold series of cosmic planes and subplanes, and a detailed sevenfold system of cycles and sub-cycles of existence.* [4] These ideas were adapted by later esotericists like Rudolf Steiner (Anthroposophy), Max Heindel, Alice Bailey, and Ann Ree Colton, and some of these ideas were included in New Age thought.

2.7 Max Theon and the “Cosmic Philosophy” The occultist Max Theon developed a sophisticated cosmology, incorporating Lurianic Kabbalistic and other themes. This describes a number of divine and material worlds, and four or eight “states”(equivalent to the Theosophical Planes), each divided into degrees, each of which are in turn subdivided into sub-degrees. The details of these various occult worlds, their beings, recognisable colours, and so on, were all laid out, but very little of this material has yet been published.

[1] S. K. Basu Encylopaedic Dictionary of Astrophysics 2007, p. 73 [2] Tim Voigt The Grand Fantasy of Einstein: The Search for the Theory of the Universe 2010 [3] Rosemary Guiley The encyclopedia of saints 2001, p. 396 [4] Virginia Hanson H.P. Blavatsky and the Secret Doctrine 1988

2.10 References • Blavatsky, H.P. (1967). Practical Occultism. ISBN 81-7059-076-0.

• Blavatsky, H.P. (1972). The Key to Theosophy.

ISBN 0-911500-07-3.

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1999). Vedic Physics. ISBN 0-9684120-0-9.

2.11 External links • Puranic Vaishnava cosmology - planetarium • Planes of Existence - Kheper website • The Thirty-one Planes of Existence - according to Buddhist cosmology • Sant Mat / Surat Shabd Yoga charts - Sant Ajaib Singh Ji Memorial Site - Genesis, Planes of Creation, Positive & Negative Powers • The Great Continuum Of Consciousness according to George A. Boyd • The Visible and Invisible Worlds according to Max Heindel & related Diagrams in The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception

Chapter 3

Spiritual evolution Spiritual evolution is the philosophical, theological, esoteric or spiritual idea that nature and human beings and/or human culture evolve: either extending from the established cosmological pattern (ascent), or in accordance with certain pre-established potentials. The phrase “spiritual evolution”can occur in the context of“higher evolution”, a term used to differentiate psychological, mental, or spiritual evolution from the “lower”or biological evolution of physical form.* [1]

deterioration of the universe (as in the Hesiodic, Hindu, and Lurianic cosmologies of a degradation from a Golden Age to an Iron Age or Kali Yuga) might be balanced by a corresponding ascent to more spiritual stages and a return to paradisical conditions. This is what one finds in Buddhist and especially Jain cosmologies.

3.1.2 Emanation

The concept of spiritual evolution is also complemented Many premodern cosmologies and esoteric systems of by the idea of a creative impulse in human beings, known thought are based on an emanationist view of reality. If as epigenesis.* [2] the Cyclic view is temporal, then emanation is a nonWithin this broad definition, theories of spiritual evolu- temporal precursor to the theory of spiritual evolution. tion are very diverse. They may be cosmological (de- According to this paradigm, Creation proceeds as an outscribing existence at large), personal (describing the de- pouring or even a transformation in the original Absolute velopment of the individual), or both. They can be or Godhead. The Supreme Light or Consciousness deholistic (holding that higher realities emerge from and are scends through a series of stages, gradations, worlds or not reducible to the lower), idealist (holding that reality hypostases, becoming progressively more material and is primarily mental or spiritual) or nondual (holding that embodied, before finally turning around to return to the there is no ultimate distinction between mental and phys- One, retracing its steps through spiritual knowledge, conical reality). One can regard all of them as teleological to templation and ascent. a greater or lesser degree.

A supreme example of this form of thinking is the Philosophers, scientists, and educators who have pro- Neoplatonism of Plotinus and his successors. Other posed theories of spiritual evolution include Schelling, examples and interpretations might be found in the Hegel, Carl Jung, Max Théon, Helena Petrovna Hindu sect of Kashmir Shaivism and Tantra in general, Blavatsky, Henri Bergson, Rudolf Steiner, Sri Au- Gnosticism, Sufism, and Kabbalah. The Hindu idea of robindo, Jean Gebser, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Owen the Chakras might also considered here as the “microBarfield, Arthur M. Young, Edward Haskell, E. F. Schu- cosmic”counterpart of macrocosmic involution and evomacher, Erich Jantsch, Clare W. Graves, Alfred North lution. The Yogi raises the Kundalini or life force through Whitehead, Terence McKenna, P.R. Sarkar. As of and thus transcends each chakra in turn, until he reaches 2015 William Irwin Thompson (born 1938), Victor Sku- the crown chakra and liberation.* [3] min (born 1948), Ken Wilber (born 1949), and Brian Swimme (born 1950) work in this field.

3.1.3 Samkhya

3.1 Precursors to the idea 3.1.1

The cyclic cosmos

Mircea Eliade has suggested that in many pre-modern cultures one finds the concept of the Fall and a “nostalgia for paradise”. However for those cultures that have a cyclic cosmology, the concept of a progressive

An early example of the doctrine of spiritual evolution is found in Samkhya, one of the six systems of Hindu philosophy, that goes back more than two and a half thousand years (although its present form dates to around the 4th or 5th century c.e.). Unlike most types of classic Hinduism, the traditional Samkhyan philosophy is atheistic and dualistic. Pure spirit (called purusha) comes into proximity with prakriti (psychophysical nature), disturbing its equilibrium. As a result the original root-prakriti

17

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CHAPTER 3. SPIRITUAL EVOLUTION

(mulaprakriti) undergoes a series of progressive transformations or unfoldings, in the form of successive essences called tattvas. The most subtle tattwas emerge first, then progressively grosser ones, each in a particular order, and finally the elements and the organs of sense. The goal of evolution however is, paradoxically, the release of purusha and the return to the unmanifest condition. Hence everything is tending towards a goal of spiritual quiescence.* [4]

3.1.4

he believed Buddhism and science were compatible.* [9] Albert Low a Zen master and author of The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution (2008) opposes neo-Darwinism and the selfish gene as he claims they are materialistic, he also opposes creationism for being dogmatic, instead he advocates spiritual evolution.* [10] In Vajrayana spiritual evolution is equivalent with the development of the three bodies of Trikaya.

The great chain of being

The concept of the great chain of being developed by Plato and Aristotle whose ideas were taken up and synthesised by Plotinus. Plotinus in turn heavily influenced Augustine's theology, and from there Aquinas and the Scholastics. The Great Chain of Being was an important theme in Renaissance and Elizabethan thought, had an under-acknowledged influence on the shaping of the ideas of the Enlightenment and played a large part in the worldview of 18th century Europe. And while essentially a static worldview, by the 18th and early 19th century it had been “temporalized”by the concept of the soul ascending or progressing spiritually through the successive rungs or stages, and thus growing or evolving closer to God.* [5] It also had at this time an impact on theories of biological evolution.

3.3 Occult concepts Theories of spiritual evolution are important in many Occult and Esoteric teachings, which emphasise the progression and development of the individual either after death (spiritualism) or through successive reincarnations (Theosophy, Hermeticism).

3.3.1 Spiritualism For more details on this topic, see Spiritualism.

Spiritualists reacted with an uncertainy to the theories of evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century. Broadly speaking the concept of evolution fitted the spiritualist thought of the progressive development of humanity. At the same time however, the belief in the animal origins of man threatened the foundation of the immortality of the spirit, for if man had not been created, it was scarcely plausible that he would be specially endowed with a spirit. This led to spiritualists embracing spiritual evolution.* [11]

E. F. Schumacher, author of Small is Beautiful, has recently proposed a sort of simplified Great Chain of Being, based on the idea of four "kingdoms" (mineral, vegetable, animal, human).* [6] Schumacher rejects modernist and scientific themes, his approach recalling the universalist orientation of writers like Huston Smith,* [7] and quite likely contributing to (unless the latter developed his ideas completely independently) Ken Wilber's“holonomic”hierarchy or “Great Nest of Being”.* [8] In the 19th century Anglo-American Spiritualist ideas emphasize the progression of the soul after death to higher states of existence, in contrast to Spiritism, which admits reincarnation.

3.2 Buddhism

The spiritualists view of evolution did not stop at death.

Spiritualism taught that after death spirits progressed to spiritual states in new spheres of existence. According to The concept of spiritual evolution has been taught in spiritualists evolution occurred in the spirit world “at a Buddhism. William Sturgis Bigelow a physician and Bud- rate more rapid and under conditions* more favourable to dhist attempted to merge biology with spirituality, he ac- growth”than encountered on earth. [12] cepted the existence of both material and spiritual realms, The biologist and spiritualist Alfred Russel Wallace many of his ideas were discussed in his book Buddhism (1823–1913) believed that qualitative novelties could and Immortality (1908). Bigelow used the concept of arise through the process of spiritual evolution, in particnatural selection as a mechanism for evolution. Accord- ular the phenomena of life and mind, Wallace attributed ing to Bigelow spiritual evolution is when an individ- these novelties to a supernatural agency.* [13] Later in his ual emerges from “unconditioned consciousness”and life, Wallace was advocate of spiritualism and believed “moves up the scale of evolution guided by natural selec- in an immaterial origin for the higher mental faculties of tion”. Next the individual moves to a level of celestial humans, he believed that evolution suggested that the uniexperience, and finally is able to “return to the uncon- verse had a purpose, and that certain aspects of living orditioned consciousness from which all things emerge.” ganisms are not be explainable in terms of purely materiBigelow accepted both material and spiritual evolution, alistic processes, in a 1909 magazine article entitled The Main article: Buddhism and evolution

3.4. EPIGENESIS World of Life, which he later expanded into a book of the same name.* [14] Wallace argued in his 1911 book World of life for a spiritual approach to evolution and described evolution as“creative power, directive mind and ultimate purpose”. Wallace believed natural selection could not explain intelligence or morality in the human being so suggested that non-material spiritual forces accounted for these. Wallace believed the spiritual nature of man could not have come about by natural selection alone, the origins of the spiritual nature must originate “in the unseen universe of spirit”.* [15]* [16]

19 theosophical conceptions of spiritual evolution, he proposed a definition and classification of Homo spiritalis (Latin: “spiritual man”), the sixth root race, consisting of eight sub-races (subspecies): HS0 Anabiosis spiritalis, HS1 Scientella spiritalis, HS2 Aurora spiritalis, HS3 Ascensus spiritalis, HS4 Vocatus spiritalis, HS5 Illuminatio spiritalis, НS6 Creatio spiritalis, and HS7 Servitus spiritalis.* [19]

Robert Broom in his book The Coming of Man: Was it Accident or Design? (1933) claimed that“spiritual agencies”had guided evolution as animals and plants were too complex to of arisen by chance. According to Broom there were at least two different kinds of spiritual forces, and psychics are capable of seeing them.* [17] Broom claimed there was a plan and purpose in evolution and that the origin of Homo sapiens is the ultimate purpose behind evolution. According to Broom“Much of evolution looks as if it had been planned to result in man, and in other animals and plants to make the world a suitable place for him to dwell in.* [18]

Although including elements of the science of her day as well as both eastern and western esoteric thought, Blavatsky rejected the Darwinian idea that man evolved from apes, and most subsequent esotericists followed this lead. Darwinism, with its explanation of evolution through material factors like natural selection and random mutation, does not sit well with many spiritual evolutionists, for whom evolution is initiated or guided by metaphysical principles or is tending towards a final spiritual or divine state. It is believed by Theosophists that humans are evolving spiritually through a series of esoteric initiations and in the future humans will become esoteric masters themselves as their souls gradually rise upward through the spiritual hierarchy over the course of eons as they reincarnate.

The Anglo-American position recalls (and is presumably inspired by) 18th century concepts regarding the temporalization of The Great Chain of Being. Spiritual evolution, rather than being a physical (or physico-spiritual) process is based on the idea of realms or stages through which the soul or spirit passes in a non-temporal, qualitative way. This is still an important part of some spiritualist ideas today, and is similar to some mainline (as opposed to fundamentalist) Protestant Christian beliefs, according to which after death the person goes to“summerland”(see Spirit world)

Despite this, recent Theosophists and Anthroposophists have tried to incorporate the facts of geology and paleontology into their cosmology and spiritual evolution (in Anthroposophy Hermann Poppelbaum is a particularly creative thinker in this regard). Some have attempted to equate Lemuria with Gondwanaland, for example. Today all these ideas have little influence outside their specialised followings, but for a time Theosophical concepts were immensely influential. Theosophy-like teachings also continue today in a group of religions based on Theosophy called the Ascended Master Teachings.

3.3.2

3.3.3 Theurgy

Theosophical conceptions

Theosophy presents a more sophisticated and complex cosmology than Spiritualism, although coming out of the same general milieu. H. P. Blavatsky developed a highly original cosmology, according to which the human race (both collectively and through the succession of individual reincarnation and spiritual evolution) passes through a number of Root Races, beginning with the huge ethereal and mindless Polarian or First Root Race, through the Lemurian (3rd), Atlantean (4th) and our present“Aryan” 5th Race. This will give rise to a future, Post-Aryan 6th Root Race of highly spiritual and enlightened beings that will arise in Baja California in the 28th century, and an even more sublime 7th Root Race, before ascending to totally superhuman and cosmic states of existence.

Theurgy has a clear relationship to Neoplatonism and Kabbalah and contains the concept of spiritual evolution and ultimately unification with God or the Godhead at its core. Theurgy is considered by many to be another term for high magic and is known to have influenced the members of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn many of whom considered the order to be Theurgic in nature.

Aleister Crowley also considered his Thelemic system of magical philosophy to be a Theurgic tradition as it emphasized the Great Work, which is essentially another form of spiritual evolution. The Great Work is believed to result in communication with one's personal angel or higher self.

Blavatsky's ideas were further developed by her successors, such as C.W. Leadbeater, Rudolf Steiner, Alice Bai- 3.4 Epigenesis ley, Benjamin Creme, and Victor Skumin each of whom went into huge detail in constructing baroque cycles of Epigenesis is the philosophical/theological/esoteric idea rounds, races, and sub-races. Skumin elaborated on the that since the mind was given to the human being, it is

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CHAPTER 3. SPIRITUAL EVOLUTION

the original creative impulse, epigenesis, which has been Meher Baba, the consciousness of the soul in duality first the cause of all of mankind's development. goes through the long process of evolution of form, then, According to spiritual evolution, humans build upon that upon reaching the human form, consciousness enters the which has already been created, but add new elements be- process of reincarnation, and finally reaches the process cause of the activity of the spirit. Humans have the capac- of involution, which culminates in God-realization. ity, therefore, to become creative intelligences—creators.

For a human to fulfill this promise, his training should allow for the exercise of originality, which distinguishes 3.6 Surat Shabda Yoga creation from imitation. When epigenesis becomes inactive, in the individual or even in a race, evolution ceases Surat Shabda Yoga esoteric cosmology depicts the whole and degeneration commences. of creation (the macrocosm) as being emanated and arThis concept is based on the Rosicrucian view of the ranged in a spiritually differentiated hierarchy, often reworld as a training school, which posits that while mis- ferred to as eggs, regions, or planes. Typically, eight spirtakes are made in life, humans often learn more from mis- itual levels are described above the physical plane, altakes than successes. Suffering is considered as merely though names and subdivisions within these levels will the result of error, and the impact of suffering on the vary to some extent by mission and Master. (One version consciousness causes humans to be active along other of the creation from a Surat Shabda Yoga perspective is lines which are found to be good, in harmony with nature. depicted at the Sant Ajaib Singh Ji Memorial Site in“The Humans are seen as spirits attending the school of life for Grand Scheme of All Creation”.) the purpose of unfolding latent spiritual power, develop- The constitution of the individual (the microcosm) is ing themselves from impotence to omnipotence (related an exact replica of the macrocosm. Consequently, the also to development from innocence into virtue), reaching microcosm consists of a number of bodies, each one the stage of creative gods at the end of mankind's present suited to interact with its corresponding plane or reevolution: Great Day of Manifestation.* [20] gion in the macrocosm. These bodies developed over

3.5 Evolution towards Godhead 3.5.1

the yugas through involution (emanating from higher planes to lower planes) and evolution (returning from lower planes to higher planes), including by karma and reincarnation in various states of consciousness.* [23]

A common vision

Sri Aurobindo and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin both de- 3.7 Dynamic evolution through scribe a progression from inanimate matter to a future successive kingdoms state of Divine consciousness. Teilhard de Chardin refers to this as the Omega Point, and Sri Aurobindo as the Arthur M. Young and Edward Haskell have each inSupermind.* [21]* [22] dependently incorporated the findings of science into a larger theory of spiritual evolution, and extended the traditional human, animal, vegetable, and mineral cate3.5.2 Teilhard de Chardin gories with kingdoms representing photons, atoms and Teilhard, who was a Jesuit Paleontologist who played an molecules.* [24]* [25] Arthur M. Young goes further in important role in the discovery of Peking Man, presented considering the human state as a subset of a larger kinga teleological view of planetary and cosmic evolution, ac- dom of “Dominion”, of which the sixth stage is repcording to which the formation of atoms, molecules and resented for example by Christ and Buddha, and the sevinanimate matter is followed by the development of the enth (final) stage an even higher level of Enlightenment or biosphere and organic evolution, then the appearance of God-realisation.* [24] Moreover, both Haskell and Young man and the noosphere as the total envelope of human present profound accounts of evolution through these thought. According to Teilhard evolution does not cease kingdoms in terms of cybernetic principles. A more here but continues on to its culmination and unification in “mainstream”scientific presentation of this same idea is provided by Erich Jantsch in his account of how selfthe Omega Point, which he identifies with Christ. organising systems evolve and develop as a series of "symmetry breaks" through the sequence of matter, life, 3.5.3 Meher Baba's “involution” and mind.* [26] Although abiding strictly by the understanding of science, Jantsch arranges the various elements Meher Baba has used the term involution to describe of cosmic, planetary, biological, psychological, and huthe inner journey of consciousness after transcending man evolution in a single overall framework of emergent the physical or gross state up to the attainment of Self- evolution that may or may not be considered teleologiconsciousness, or merging with God. According to cal.* [26]

3.10. REFERENCES

3.8 New Age ideas New Age thought is strongly syncretic. A common theme is the evolution or the transcendence of the human or collective planetary consciousness in a higher state or higher “vibratory”(a metaphor taken from G. I. Gurdjieff) level.

David Spangler's communications speak of a “New Heaven and a new Earth”, while Christopher Hills refers (perhaps influenced by Sri Aurobindo) to the divinization of man.* [27] Jonathan Livingston Seagull narrated the idea of evolution in a fascinating fashion. James Redfield in his novel The Celestine Prophecy suggested that through experiencing a series of personal spiritual insights, humanity is becoming aware of the connection between our evolution and the Divine. More recently in his book God and the Evolving Universe: The Next Step in Personal Evolution (2002) cowritten with Michael Murphy, he claims that humanity is on the verge of undergoing a change in consciousness.

3.9 Integral theory and spiral dynamics An interpretation of social and psychological development that could also be considered a theory of spiritual evolution is spiral dynamics, based on the work of Clare W. Graves.

More recently the concept of spiritual evolution has been given a sort of respectability it has not had since the early 19th century through the work of Ken Wilber, in whose writings both the cosmological and the personal dimensions are described. In this integral philosophy (inspired in part by the works of Plotinus, Hegel, Sri Aurobindo, Eric Jantsch, and many others) reality is said to consist of several realms or stages, including more than one of the following: the physical, the vital, the psychic, (after the Greek psyche, “soul”), the causal (referring to “that which causes, or gives rise to, the manifest world” ), and the ultimate (or non-dual), through which the individual progressively evolves. Although this schema is derived in large part from Tibetan Buddhism, Wilber argues (and uses many tables of diagrams to show) that these same levels of being are common to all wisdom teachings. Described simplistically, Wilber sees humans developing through several stages, including magic, mythic, pluralistic, and holistic mentalities. But he also sees cultures as developing through these stages. And, much like Hegel, he sees this development of individuals and cultures as the evolution of existence itself. Wilber has also teamed up with Don Beck to integrate Spiral Dynamics into his own Integral philosophy, and vice versa. Spiral Dynamics posits a series of stages through which human's cultural development progresses – from a survival-based hunter-gatherer stage to a magical-tribal-agrarian stage to a city-building-invading stage to a mythic-religious-

21 empire stage to a rational-scientific-capitalist stage to a green-holistic-inclusive stage and then ascending to a second tier where all the previous stages are contemplated and integrated and a third transpersonal tier where a spiritual unity or Omega point is eventually reached, which all the other stages are struggling to embody. He feels that individuals in each of the meme-plexes/stages can ascend to the peak of consciousness – these being the prophets, visionaries and leaders of any region/age.

3.10 References [1] Piyasīlo (1991). The Buddha's teachings: a study of comparative Buddhism in truth, tradition & transformation.

Dharmafarer integrated syllabus series (2 ed.). Dharmafarer Enterprises. p. 130. ISBN 9789839030013. Retrieved 2015-05-27. The instrument of this growth is the Dharma which is the path of the Higher Evolution. The term 'Higher' here refers to the mind - the basis of spiritual evolution. In contrast to the Higher Evolution, the biological (or Darwinian) evolution is known as the Lower Evolution.

[2] Heindel, Max (1922). The Rosicrucian Philosophy in Questions and Answers (3 ed.). Rosicrucian Fellowship. p. 10. Retrieved 2015-05-27. Since the mind was given to man, it is this original creative impulse, epigenesis, which has been the cause of all our development[...]

[3] Arthur Avalon, The Serpent Power [4] Gerard J. Larson, (1979) Classical Samkhya (Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2nd. Ed. [5] Arthur O. Lovejoy (1936), The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936, 1961, 1970). ISBN 0-674-36153-9 [6] E. F. Schumacher (1977), A Guide for the Perplexed, (New York:Harper & Row) ISBN 0-06-090611-1 [7] Huston Smith (1976), Forgotten Truth: The Common Vision of the World's Religions, (New York: Harper & Row), ISBN 0-06-250787-7 [8] Ken Wilber (1996) A Brief History of Everything, (Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, 2nd edition, 2000), ISBN 1-57062-740-1 [9] American encounter with Buddhism, 1844–1912: Victorian culture & the limits of dissent, Thomas A. Tweed, 2000, pp. 107–108 [10] Albert Low, The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution, Sussex Academic Pr, 2008, ISBN 1-84519-260-5 [11] Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914, 1988, p. 267 [12] Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914, 1988, p. 270

22

[13] Debora Hammond, The Science of Synthesis: Exploring the Social Implications of General Systems Theory, 2003, p. 39 [14] Wallace, Alfred Russel. “World of Life”. The Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University. Retrieved 2011-03-23.

[15] Martin Fichman, An elusive Victorian: the evolution of Alfred Russel Wallace, 2004, p. 159

CHAPTER 3. SPIRITUAL EVOLUTION

3.11 See also • Metaphysical cosmology • Esoteric cosmology • Evolution (philosophy) • Hindu idealism • Ietsism

[16] Edward Clodd, Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism, p. 300

• Involution (metaphysics)

[17] Reconciling science and religion: the debate in the earlytwentieth-century Britain, Peter J. Bowler, 2001, pp.

133–134

• Religious cosmology

[18] Bones of contention: controversies in the search for human origins, Roger Lewin, 1997, p. 311 [19] Skumin, V. A. (1996). Человек духовный: роль культуры духовного здоровья в утверждении новой человеческой расы на планете[Spiritual man: The role of the Culture of spiritual health for approval of the new human race on the planet] (in Russian). theeuropeanlibrary.org.

ISBN 5-88167-012-4. Retrieved 12 May 2015.

[20] Max Heindel, The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception: Involution, Evolution and Epigenesis, November 1909, ISBN 0-911274-34-0 www [21] Sri Aurobindo (1977) The Life Divine, (Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust), ISBN 0-941524-62-0 (hardcover), ISBN 0-941524-61-2 (paperback) [22] Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1955), The Phenomenon of Man, (New York:Harper & Row), ISBN 0-06-090495-X [23] Dennis Holtje (1995) From Light to Sound: The Spiritual Progression. Temecula, CA: MasterPath, Inc. ISBN 1885949-00-6 [24] Arthur M. Young (1976), The Reflexive Universe – Evolution of Consciousness (Delacorte Press), ISBN 0-44005924-0; Anodos Foundation 1999 revised edition, ISBN 1-892160-11-0 (paperback), ISBN 1-892160-10-2 (hardcover) see diagram pp.86-7 [25] Edward Haskell (1972) Full Circle; the Moral Force of Unified Science, ed. by Edward Haskell (Gordon and Breach, New York, London & Paris) [26] Erich Jantsch (1980), The Self Organizing Universe – Scientific and Human Implication of the Emerging Paradigm of Evolution (New York: Pergamon), ISBN 008-024312-6, p.224 [27] Christopher Hills (1977) Nuclear Evolution – Discovery of the Rainbow Body (university of Trees Press, Boulder Creek, CA) 2nd ed. p.30

• Plane (cosmology)

• The Celestine Prophecy

Chapter 4

Plane (esotericism) In esoteric cosmology, a plane other than the physical psychiko platei.* [1] plane is conceived as a subtle state of consciousness that transcends the known physical universe.

The concept may be found in religious and esoteric teachings—e.g. Vedanta (Advaita Vedanta), Ayyavazhi, shamanism, Hermeticism, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Kashmir Shaivism, Sant Mat/Surat Shabd Yoga, Sufism, Druze, Kabbalah, Theosophy, Anthroposophy, Rosicrucianism (Esoteric Christian), Eckankar, Ascended Master Teachings, etc. —which propound the idea of a whole series of subtle planes or worlds or dimensions which, from a center, interpenetrate themselves and the physical planet in which we live, the solar systems, and all the physical structures of the universe. This interpenetration of planes culminates in the universe itself as a physical structured, dynamic and evolutive expression emanated through a series of steadily denser stages, becoming progressively more material and embodied.

The emanation is conceived, according to esoteric teachings, to have originated, at the dawn of the universe's manifestation, in The Supreme Being Who sent out—from the unmanifested Absolute beyond comprehension—the dynamic force of creative energy, as sound-vibration ( “the Word”), into the abyss of space. Alternatively, it states that this dynamic force is being sent forth, through the ages, framing all things that constitute and inhabit the universe.

4.1 Origins of the concept

4.2 Conceptions in ancient traditions Directly equivalent concepts in Indian thought are lokas and bhuvanas. In Hindu cosmology, there are many lokas or worlds, that are identified with both traditional cosmology and states of meditation.

Planes of existence may have been referred to by the use of the term corresponding to the word “egg”in English. For example, the Sanskrit term Brahmanda translates to“The Egg of Creation”. Certain Puranic accounts posit that the Brahmanda is the superset of a set of fractal smaller Eggs, as is seen in the assertion of the equivalence of the Brahmanda and the Pinda.* [2] The ancient Norse mythology gave the name "Ginnungagap" to the primordial “Chaos,”which was bounded upon the northern side by the cold and foggy "Niflheim"—the land of mist and fog—and upon the south side by the fire "Muspelheim.”When heat and cold entered into space which was occupied by Chaos or Ginnungagap, they caused the crystallization of the visible universe.

In the medieval West and Middle East, one finds reference to four worlds (olam) in Kabbalah, or five in Sufism (where they are also called tanazzulat;“descents”), and also in Lurianic Kabbalah. In Kabbalah, each of the four or five worlds are themselves divided into ten sefirot, or else divided in other ways.

The concept of planes of existence might be seen as deriving from shamanic and traditional mythological ideas of a vertical world-axis —for example a cosmic mountain, 4.3 Esoteric conceptions tree, or pole (such as Yggdrasil or Mount Meru) —or a philosophical conception of a Great Chain of Being, ar- The alchemists of the Middle Ages proposed ideas about ranged metaphorically from God down to inanimate mat- the constitution of the universe through a hermetic lanter. guage full of esoteric words, phrases, and signs designed However the original source of the word “plane”in this to cloak their meaning from those not initiated into the context is the late Neoplatonist Proclus, who refers to to ways of alchemy. In his “Physica”(1633), the Rosiplatos,“breadth”, which was the equivalent of the 19th crucian alchemist Jan Baptist van Helmont, wrote: “Ad century theosophical use. An example is the phrase en to huc spiritum incognitum Gas voco”q.e., “This hitherto 23

24

CHAPTER 4. PLANE (ESOTERICISM)

unknown Spirit I call Gas.”Further on in the same work he says, “This vapor which I have called Gas is not far removed from the Chaos the ancients spoke of.”Later on, similar ideas would evolve around the idea of aether.

However, in esoteric cosmology expansion refers to the emanation or unfolding of steadily denser planes or spheres from the spiritual summit, what Greek philosophy called The One, until the lowest and most material In the late 19th century, the metaphysical term “planes” world is reached. was popularised by the theosophy of H.P. Blavatsky, who According to Rosicrucians, another difference is that in The Secret Doctrine and other writings propounded a there is no such thing as empty or void space. complex cosmology consisting of seven planes and subplanes, based on a synthesis of Eastern and Western ideas.

“The space is Spirit in its attenuated form; From theosophy the term made its way to later esoteric while matter is crystallized space or Spirit. systems such as that of Alice Bailey, who was very influSpirit in manifestation is dual, that which we ential in shaping the worldview of the New Age movesee as Form is the negative manifestation of ment. The term is also found in some Eastern teachings Spirit--crystallized and inert. The positive pole that have some Western influence, such as the cosmology of Spirit manifests as Life, galvanizing the negof Sri Aurobindo and some of the later Sant Mat, and also ative Form into action, but both Life and Form in some descriptions of Buddhist cosmology. The teachoriginated in Spirit, Space, Chaos! On the ings of Surat Shabd Yoga also include several planes of other hand, Chaos is not a state which has the creation within both the macrocosm and microcosm, existed in the past and has now entirely disincluding the Bramanda egg contained within the Sach appeared. It is all around us at the present Khand egg. Max Theon used the word“States”(French moment. Were it not that old forms--having Etat) rather than “Planes”, in his cosmic philosophy, outlived their usefulness--are constantly being but the meaning is the same. resolved back into that Chaos, which is also The planes in Theosophy were further systematized in the writings of C.W. Leadbeater and Annie Besant.

as constantly giving birth to new forms, there could be no progress; the work of evolution would cease and stagnation would prevent the possibility of advancement.”* [6]

In the early 20th century, Max Heindel presented in The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception a cosmology related to the scheme of evolution in general and the evolution of the solar system and the Earth in particular, according to the Rosicrucians. He establishes, through the conceptions 4.5 The Planes presented, a bridge between modern science (currently starting research into the subtler plane of existence be- In occult teachings and as held by psychics and other eshind the physical, the etheric one) and religion, in order oteric authors there are seven planes of existence.* [7] that this last one may be able to address man's inner quesMost occult and esoteric teachings are in agreement that tions raised by scientific advancement. seven planes of existence exist; however, many different The spiritual teacher Meher Baba proposed that there are occult and metaphysical schools label the planes of exissix planes of consciousness that must be experienced be- tence with different terminology. fore one can attain God-realization on the seventh plane: “Each definite stage of advancement represents a state of consciousness, and advancement from one state of con- 4.5.1 Physical plane sciousness to another proceeds side by side with crossing the inner planes. Thus six intermediate planes and states The physical plane or physical universe, in of consciousness have to be experienced before reach- emanationist metaphysics taught in Neoplatonism, ing the seventh plane which is the end of the journey and Hermeticism, Hinduism, and Theosophy, refers to the where there is final realisation of the God-state.”* [3] visible reality of space and time, energy and matter: the physical universe in Occultism and esoteric cosmology is the lowest or densest of a series of planes of existence.

4.4 Emanation vs. Big Bang

According to Theosophists, after the physical plane is the etheric plane and both of these planes are connected to Further information: Emanationism make up the first plane.* [8] Theosophy also teaches that when the physical body dies the etheric body is left bethe soul forms into an astral body on the astral Most cosmologists today believe that the universe ex- hind and * plane.

[9] * ploded into being some 13.8 billion years ago [4] in a 'smeared-out singularity' called the Big Bang, meaning The psychical researcher F. W. H. Myers proposed the that space itself came into being at the moment of the big existence of a “metetherial world”, which he wrote to bang and has expanded ever since, creating and carrying be a world of images lying beyond the physical world. the galaxies with it.* [5] He wrote that apparitions have a real existence in the

4.5. THE PLANES metetherial world which he described as a dream-like world.* [10]

4.5.2

Astral plane

25 those physical entities, men and animals, for whom sleep involves a separation of the physical body for a time from the higher bodies.

While we “sleep”, we live in our astral bodies, either fully conscious and active, or partly conscious and semi-dormant, as the case may be, according to our evolutionary growth; when we “wake”, the physical and the higher bodies are interlocked again, and we cease to be inhabitants of the astral world.”* [15] Some writers have claimed the astral plane can be reached by dreaming. Sylvan Muldoon and psychical researcher Hereward Carrington in their book The Projection of the Astral Body (1929) wrote: “When you are dreaming you are not really in the same world as when you are conscious —in the physical — although the two worlds merge into one another. While dreaming, you really are in the astral plane, and usually your astral body is in the zone of quietude.”* [16]

The astral spheres were thought to be planes of angelic existence intermediate between earth and heaven

The astral plane, also known as the emotional plane is where consciousness goes after physical death. According to occult philosophy man possesses an astral body.

The astral plane (also known as the astral world) was postulated by classical (particularly neo-Platonic), medieval, oriental, and esoteric philosophies and mystery religions.* [11] It is the world of the planetary spheres, crossed by the soul in its astral body on the way to being born and after death, and generally said to be populated by angels, spirits, or other immaterial beings.* [12] In the late 19th and early 20th century the term was popularised

by Theosophy and neo-Rosicrucianism.

Throughout the renaissance, philosophers, Paracelsians, Rosicrucians, and alchemists continued to discuss the nature of the astral world intermediate between earth and the divine. The Barzakh, olam mithal or intermediate world in Islam and the “World of Yetzirah" in Lurianic Qabala are related concepts.

According to occult teachings the astral plane can be visited consciously through astral projection, meditation, and mantra, near death experience, lucid dreaming, or other means. Individuals that are trained in the use of the astral vehicle can separate their consciousness in the astral vehicle from the physical body at will.* [13]

Astral projection author Robert Bruce describes the astral as seven planes that take the form of planar surfaces when approached from a distance, separated by immense coloured “buffer zones”. These planes are endlessly repeating ruled Cartesian coordinate system grids, tiled with a single signature pattern that is different for each plane. Higher planes have bright, colourful patterns, whereas lower planes appear far duller. Every detail of these patterns acts as a consistent portal to a different kingdom inside the plane, which itself comprises many separate realms. Bruce notes that the astral may also be entered by means of long tubes that bear visual similarity to these planes, and conjectures that the grids and tubes are in fact the same structures approached from a different perceptual angle.

In his book Autobiography of a Yogi, Paramhansa Yogananda provides details about the astral planes learned from his resurrected guru.* [17] Yogananda reveals that nearly all individuals enter the astral planes after death.

There they work out the seeds of past karma through astral incarnations, or (if their karma requires) they return to earthly incarnations for further refinement. Once an individual has attained the meditative state of nirvikalpa samadhi in an earthy or astral incarnation, the soul may progress upward to the “illumined astral planet”of Hiranyaloka.* [17] After this transitionary stage, the soul may then move upward to the more subtle causal spheres where many incarnations allow them to further refine until final unification.* [18]

The Theosophist author Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa wrote that [sic] “When a person dies, they [sic] become fully conscious in the astral body. After a certain 4.5.3 Mental plane time, the astral body disintegrates, and the person then becomes conscious on the mental plane.”* [14] The mental plane, also known as the causal plane is the third lowest plane according to Theosophy. The mental Occultist George Arundale wrote: plane is divided into seven sub-planes.

In the astral world exist temporarily all

Charles Webster Leadbeater wrote:

26

CHAPTER 4. PLANE (ESOTERICISM) In the mental world one formulates a thought and it is instantly transmitted to the mind of another without any expression in the form of words. Therefore on that plane language does not matter in the least; but helpers working in the astral world, who have not yet the power to use the mental vehicle.* [19]

Annie Besant wrote that “The mental plane, as its name implies, is that which belongs to consciousness working as thought; not of the mind as it works through the brain, but as it works through its own world, unencumbered with physical spirit-matter.* [20]

the ego.* [24] Charles Leadbeater wrote that in the buddhic plane man casts off the delusion of the self and enters a realization of unity.* [25] Annie Besant defined the buddhic plane as Persistent, conscious, spiritual awareness.

This is the full consciousness of the buddhic or intuitional level. This is the perceptive consciousness which is the outstanding characteristic of the Hierarchy. The life focus of the man shifts to the buddhic plane. This is the fourth or middle state of consciousness.* [26]

A detailed description of the mental plane, along with the Sri Aurobindo calls the level above the mental plane the mental body, is provided by Arthur E. Powell, who has supermind.* [27] compiled information in the works of Besant and Leadbeater in a series of books on each of the subtle bodies.

4.5.5 Spiritual plane

According to Hindu occultism the mental plane consists of two divisions, the lower division is known as heaven George Winslow Plummer wrote that the spiritual plane (swarglok) and the upper division is known as the causal is split into many sub-planes and that on these planes plane (maharlok).* [21] live spiritual beings who are more advanced in developSatguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami wrote: ment and status than ordinary man.* [28] According to metaphysical teachings the goal of the spiritual plane is “The causal plane is the world of light and to gain spiritual knowledge and experience.* [29] blessedness, the highest of heavenly regions, extolled in the scriptures of all faiths. It is the 4.5.6 Divine plane foundation of existence, the source of visions, the point of conception, the apex of creation.

According to some occult teachings, all souls are born The causal plane is the abode of Lord Siva on the divine plane and then descend down through the and His entourage of Mahadevas and other lower planes; however souls will work their way back to highly evolved souls who exist in their own selfthe divine plane.* [30]* [31] On the divine plane souls can effulgent form--radiant bodies of centillions of * be opened to conscious communication with the sphere of quantum light particles.” [22] the divine known as the Absolute and receive knowledge * Sri Aurobindo developed a very different concept of the about the nature of reality. [32] mental plane, through his own synthesis of Vedanta (including the Taittiriya Upanishad), Tantra, Theosophy, and Max Théon ideas (which he received via The Mother, who was Theon's student in occultism for two years).

In this cosmology, there are seven cosmic planes, three lower, corresponding to relative existence (the Physical, Vital, and Mental), and four higher, representing infinite divine reality (Life Divine bk.1 ch.27) The Aurobindonian Mind or Mental Plane constitutes a large zone of being from the mental vital to the overmental divine region (Letters on Yoga, Jyoti and Prem Sobel 1984), but as with the later Theosophical concept it constitutes an objective reality of sheer mind or thought.

4.5.4

Rosicrucianism teaches that the divine plane is where Jesus dwelt in Christ consciousness.* [33]

4.5.7 Logoic plane (also Monadic Plane)

known

as

The logoic plane is the highest plane, it has been described as a plane of total oneness, the“I AM Presence”.

Joshua David Stone describes the plane as complete unity with God.* [34]

The monadic plane (hyperplane) or continuum/universe, enclosing and interpenetrating grosser hyperplanes, respectively is the plane in which the monad or holy spirit Buddhic plane (also known as Unity or oversoul is said to exist.

Plane) The buddhic plane is described as a realm of pure 4.6 31 planes consciousness.* [23] According to Theosophy the buddhic plane exists to develop buddhic consciousness which Main article: Buddhist cosmology means to become unselfish and solve any problems with

4.8. ALLEGED INHABITANTS OF THE VARIOUS PLANES

27

In Buddhism, the world is made up of 31 planes of exis- is believed to be an extensive structure composed of astence that one can be reborn into, separated into 3 realms. tral matter located on the astral plane about three or four miles (5–6 km) above the surface of Earth, above that part of the world where the particular religion that the heaven is meant for is most predominant.

4.7 The Summerland Theosophists also believe there is another higher level of heaven called Devachan, also called the Mental plane Heaven, which some but not all souls reach between incarnations—only those souls that are more highly develThe Summerland is the name given by Theosophists, oped spiritually reach this level, those souls that are at the Spiritualists, Wiccans, and some earth-based first, second, and third levels of initiation. Devachan is contemporary pagan religions to their conceptualseveral miles (around 10 km) higher above the surface of ization of existence on a plane in an afterlife.* [35] Earth than Summerland.* [37] Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) inspired Andrew The final permanent eternal afterlife heaven to which Jackson Davis (1826–1910), in his major work The Great Theosophists believe most people will go millions or bilHarmonia to say that Summerland is the pinnacle of spirlions of years in the future, after our cycle of reincarnaitual achievement in the afterlife; that is, it is the hightions in this Round is over.* [38] In order to go to Nirvana, est level, or sphere, of the afterlife we can hope to enter. it is necessary to have attained the fourth level of initiaThe common portrayal of the Summerland is as a place of tion or higher, meaning one is an arhat and thus no longer rest for souls after or between their earthly incarnations. needs to reincarnate.

Some believe spirits will stay in the Summerland for an eternal afterlife, though others believe after an amount of time some spirits will reincarnate. The Summerland is also envisioned as a place for recollection and reunion 4.8 Alleged inhabitants of the varwith deceased loved ones.* [36] Main article: The Summerland

As the name suggests, it is often imagined as a place of beauty and peace, where everything people hold close to their hearts is preserved in its fullest beauty for eternity. It is envisioned as containing wide (possibly eternal) fields of rolling green hills and lush grass. In many ways, this ideology is similar to the Welsh view of Annwn as an afterlife realm. The Summerland is also viewed as the place where one goes in the afterlife in traditions of Spiritualism and Theosophy, which is where Wicca got the term.

In Theosophy, the term “Summerland”is used without the definite article “the”. Summerland, also called the Astral plane Heaven, is depicted as where souls who have been good in their previous lives go between incarnations.

Those who have been bad go to Hell, which is believed to be located below the surface of the Earth and is on the astral plane and is composed of the densest astral matter; the Spiritual Hierarchy functioning within Earth functions on the etheric plane below the surface of the Earth.* [37] It is believed by Theosophists that most people (those at high levels of initiation) go to a specific Summerland that is set up for people of each religion. For example, Christians go to a Christian heaven, Jews go to a Jewish heaven, Muslims go to a Muslim heaven, Hindus goes to a Hindu heaven, Theosophists go to a Theosophical heaven, and so forth, each heaven being like that described in the scriptures of that religion. There is also a generic Summerland for those who were atheists or agnostics in their previous lives. People who belong to religions that don't believe in reincarnation are surprised to find out when they get to heaven that they will have to reincarnate again within a few dozen to a few hundred years. Each heaven

ious planes

Occult writers such as Geoffrey Hodson, Mellie Uyldert, and Dora van Gelder had attempted to classify different spiritual beings into a hierarchy based on their assumed place and function on the planes of existence.

Charles Webster Leadbeater fundamentally described and incorporated his comprehension of intangible beings for Theosophy. Along with him there are various planes intertwined with the quotidian human world and are all inhabited by multitudes of entities. Each plane is purported as composed of discrete density of astral or ethereal matter and frequently the denizens of a plane have no discernment of other ones. Other Theosophical writers such as Alice Bailey, a contemporary of Leadbeater, also gave continuousness to Theosophical concepts of ethereal beings and her works had a great impact over New Age movement.* [39]* [40] She puts the nature spirits and devas as ethereal beings immersed in macro divisions of an interwoven threefold universe, usually they belong to the etheric, astral, or mental planes. The ethereal entities of the four kingdoms, Earth, Air, Fire, and Water, are forces of nature.

The Dutch writer Mellie Uyldert, self-proclaimed clairvoyant, characterized the semblance and behavior of ethereal entities on the etheric plane, which, she said, hover above plants and transfer energy for vitalizing the plant, then nourishing themselves on rays of sunlight. She depicted them as asexual gender, and composed of etheric matter. They fly three meters over the ground, some have wings like butterflies while others only have a small face and an aura waving graciously. Some are huge while oth-

28

CHAPTER 4. PLANE (ESOTERICISM)

ers may have the size of one inch.* [41]

[14] First Principles of Theosophy, pp. 139–140 [15] Curuppumullagē Jinarājadāsa First Principles of Theosophy Theosophical Publishing House, 1922, p. 93

4.9 See also

[16] Sylvan J. Muldoon and Hereward Carrington Projection of the Astral Body Kessinger reprint edition, 2003, p. 97

• Astral body

[17] Paramhansa Yogananda (1946). Autobiography of a Yogi (Google books). The Philosophical Library, Inc. Retrieved 20 July 2011.

• Astral projection • Aura • Chain of being

[18] Paramhansa Yogananda (1946). “Autobiography of a Yogi”. Retrieved 20 July 2011.

• Many-worlds interpretation

[19] Charles Leadbeater, The Inner Life, p. 264

• Silver cord

[20] Annie Besant The Ancient Wisdom: An Outline of Theosophical Teachings 1939, Chapter IV

• Spiritual evolution

[21] Ravindra Kumar, Jytte Larsen The Kundalini book of living and dying: gateways to a higher consciousness 2004, p. 39

• Spirituality • Subtle body

[22] Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, Dancing With Siva : Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism, 1996, xxxv, 1008 p., ill., Sixth Edition, First Printing, 2003 Himalayan Academy online

• Plane (Dungeons & Dragons)

4.10 References [1] Dodds, cited in Poortman, 1978, vol II, p. 54

[23] Joshua David Stone, Janna Shelley A Beginner's Guide to the Path of Ascension p. 11

[2] Kak, Subhash: The Architecture of Knowledge

[24] Charles Leadbeater Inner Life Kessinger reprint edition, 2003, p.226

[3] Baba, Meher (1967). Discourses. 2. San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-880619-09-4.

[25] Charles Leadbeater The Masters and the Path 2007, p.

180

[4] “Cosmic Detectives”. The European Space Agency (ESA). 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-04-15.

[26] Alice Bailey The Rays and the Initiations 1971, p. 463

[5] Wright, E.L. (9 May 2009). “What is the evidence for the Big Bang?". Frequently Asked Questions in Cosmology. UCLA, Division of Astronomy and Astrophysics.

Retrieved 2009-10-16.

[6] Heindel, Max, The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception (Chapter XI: The Genesis and Evolution of our Solar System), 1909, ISBN 0-911274-34-0 [7] Seven Planes of Existence - Theta Medical Intuition [8] John Friedlander, Gloria Hemsher Psychic Psychology: Energy Skills for Life and Relationships 2011, p. 196 [9] Norman C. McClelland Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma 2010, p. 32 [10] Myers, F. H. W. (1903). Human personality and its survival of death. London: Longmans.

[27] Madis Senner The Way Home: Making Heaven on Earth 2009, p. 239 [28] George Winslow Plummer Mercury: An Official Organ of the Societas Rosicruciana in America 1916-1921 Kessinger reprint edition, 1998, p. 106 [29] Raymond T. Kranyak Metaphysical Secrets for Health and Success in Life 2009, p. 12 [30] M. C. Poinsot Complete Book of the Occult and Fortune Telling Kessinger reprint edition, 2003, p. 472 [31] The encyclopedia of occult sciences, R. M. McBride and company, 1939, p. 472 [32] John Hamlin Dewey New Testament of Occultism Kessinger reprint edition, 2003, p. 105 [33] The Rosicrucian Digest September 1932, p. 288

[11] G.R.S.Mead, The Doctrine of the Subtle Body in Western Tradition, Watkins 1919.

[34] Joshua David Stone, Janna Shelley Parker A Beginner's Guide to the Path of Ascension 1998, p. 13

[12] Plato, The Republic, trans. mondsworth.

Desmond Lee, Har-

[35] The Spirit World Descriptions by Early Spiritualists by Barbara N. Starr

[13] J. H. Brennan, Astral Doorways, Thoth Publications 1996 ISBN 978-1-870450-21-8

[36] Life in the Spirit World: Part One General Introduction

By Rev. Simeon Stefanidakis

4.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

[37] Leadbeater, C.W A Textbook of Theosophy 1912 [38] Various Levels of the Afterlife in Theosophy: [39] Gary Laderman, Luis D. León; Religion and American cultures: an encyclopedia of traditions, diversity, and popular expressions - Volume 3, 2003; p. 236. ISBN 157607-238-X. [40] Michael York, The emerging network: a sociology of the New Age and neo-pagan movements, 1995; p. 66. ISBN 0-8476-8001-0.

[41] Mellie Uyldert The psychic garden: Plants and their esoteric relationship with man Thorsons, 1980 ISBN 0-72250548-5

4.11 Further reading • Johannes Jacobus Poortman, Vehicles of Consciousness. The Concept of Hylic Pluralism, The Theosophical Society in Netherlands, 1978 • Heindel, Max, The Rosicrucian Mysteries (Chapter III: The Visible and the Invisible Worlds), 1911, ISBN 0-911274-86-3 • H. P. Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, Theosophical Publishing House, 1888

4.12 External links • Vedic cosmology - planetarium • The Thirty-one Planes of Existence, according to Buddhist cosmology • “The Grand Scheme of All Creation”, part of the Sant Ajaib Singh Ji Memorial Site (a small Radhasoami cosmological diagram) • The Creation According to Sant Mat • The Inner Planes of Creation - a Surat Shabd Yoga/Sant Mat diagram • The Material World a Reverse Reflection of the Spiritual Worlds according to Rosicrucian cosmology: • The Seven Worlds • The Supreme Being, The Cosmic Planes and God

29

Chapter 5

Occult For other uses, see Occult (disambiguation).

The occult (from the Latin word occultus “clandestine, hidden, secret”) is “knowledge of the hidden”.* [1] In common English usage, occult refers to “knowledge of the paranormal", as opposed to “knowledge of the measurable",* [2] usually referred to as science. The term is sometimes taken to mean knowledge that “is meant only for certain people”or that “must be kept hidden” , but for most practicing occultists it is simply the study of a deeper spiritual reality that extends beyond pure reason and the physical sciences.* [3] The terms esoteric and arcane can also be used to describe the occult,* [4]* [5] in addition to their meanings unrelated to the supernatural.

not limited to) magic, alchemy, extra-sensory perception, astrology, spiritualism, religion, and divination. Interpretation of occultism and its concepts can be found in the belief structures of philosophies and religions such as Chaos magic, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, Theosophy, Wicca, Thelema and modern paganism.* [6] A broad definition is offered by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke:

It also describes a number of magical organizations or orders, the teachings and practices taught by them, and to a large body of current and historical literature and spiritual philosophy related to this subject.

5.1 Occultism

OCCULTISM has its basis in a religious way of thinking, the roots of which stretch back into antiquity and which may be described as the Western esoteric tradition. Its principal ingredients have been identified as Gnosticism, the Hermetic treatises on alchemy and magic, Neo-Platonism, and the Kabbalah, all originating in the eastern Mediterranean area during the first few centuries AD.* [7]

From the 15th to 17th century, these ideas that are alternatively described as Western esotericism, which had a revival from about 1770 onwards, due to a renewed desire for mystery, an interest in the Middle Ages and a romantic “reaction to the rationalist Enlightenment".* [8] Alchemy was common among important seventeenth-century scientists, such as Isaac Newton,* [9] and Gottfried Leibniz.* [10] Newton was even accused of introducing occult agencies into natural science when he postulated gravity as a force capable of acting over vast distances.* [11]“By the eighteenth century these unorthodox religious and philosophical concerns were well-defined as 'occult', inasmuch as they lay on the outermost fringe of accepted forms of knowledge and discourse”.* [8] They were, however, preserved by antiquarians and mystics.

Based on his research into the modern German occult revival (1890–1910), Goodrick-Clarke puts forward a thesis on the driving force behind occultism. Behind its many varied forms apparently lies a uniform function,“a strong desire to reconcile the findings of modern natural science with a religious view that could restore man to a position of centrality and dignity in the universe” Reconstruction of the “Holy Table”as used by John Dee. .* [12] Since that time many authors have emphasized a syncretic approach by drawing parallels between differOccultism is the study of occult practices, including (but ent disciplines.* [13] 30

5.4. SEE ALSO

5.2 Science and the occult To the occultist, occultism is conceived of as the study of the inner nature of things, as opposed to the outer characteristics that are studied by science. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer designates this“inner nature” with the term Will, and suggests that science and mathematics are unable to penetrate beyond the relationship between one thing and another in order to explain the“inner nature”of the thing itself, independent of any external causal relationships with other“things”.* [14] Schopenhauer also points towards this inherently relativistic nature of mathematics and conventional science in his formulation of the “World as Will”. By defining a thing solely in terms of its external relationships or effects we only find its external or explicit nature. Occultism, on the other hand, is concerned with the nature of the "thing-initself". This is often accomplished through direct perceptual awareness, known as mysticism.

From the scientific perspective, occultism is regarded as unscientific as it does not make use of the standard scientific method to obtain facts.

31 times, in the form of various occult philosophies.* [17] Though there is a Christian occult tradition that goes back at least to Renaissance times, when Marsilio Ficino developed a Christian Hermeticism and Pico della Mirandola developed a Christian form of Kabbalism,* [18] mainstream Christianity has always resisted occult influences, which are:* [19] • Monistic in contrast to Christian dualistic beliefs of a separation between body and spirit; • Gnostic i.e. involving the acquisition of secret knowledge rather than based on scripture and open church tradition • Seen as involving practices such as divination and calling on spirits which are forbidden in the Bible • Not monotheistic, frequently asserting a gradation of human souls between mortals and God; and • Sometimes not even theistic in character.

5.4 See also 5.2.1

Occult qualities

Occult qualities are properties that have no known rational explanation; in the Middle Ages, for example, magnetism was considered an occult quality.* [15] Newton's contemporaries severely criticized his theory that gravity was effected through “action at a distance”, as occult.* [16]

5.3 Religion and the occult Some religions and sects enthusiastically embrace occultism as an integral esoteric aspect of mystical religious experience. This attitude is common within Wicca and many other modern pagan religions. Some other religious denominations disapprove of occultism in most or all forms. They may view the occult as being anything supernatural or paranormal which is not achieved by or through God (as defined by those religious denominations), and is therefore the work of an opposing and malevolent entity. The word has negative connotations for many people, and while certain practices considered by some to be“occult”are also found within mainstream religions, in this context the term“occult”is rarely used and is sometimes substituted with “esoteric”.

• Ariosophy • Esotericism • List of occult terms • List of occultists • Magic (paranormal) • Nazism and occultism • Neotantra • Order of the Occult Hand • Onmyōdō • Renaissance magic • The Morning of the Magicians (book)

5.5 Notes [1] Crabb, G. (1927). English synonyms explained, in alphabetical order, copious illustrations and examples drawn from the best writers. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co. [2] Underhill, E. (1911). Mysticism, Meridian, New York.

5.3.1

Christian views

Christian authorities have generally regarded occultism as heretical whenever they met this: from early Christian times, in the form of gnosticism, to late Renaissance

[3] Blavatsky, H. P. (1888). The Secret Doctrine. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing.

[4] Houghton Mifflin Company. (2004). The American Heritage College Thesaurus. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Page 530.

32

[5] Wright, C. F. (1895). An outline of the principles of modern theosophy. Boston: New England Theosophical Corp.

CHAPTER 5. OCCULT

5.7 Further reading

[6] Nevill Drury, The Watkins Dictionary of Magic, ISBN 184293-152-0. p. 03

• Bardon, Franz (1971). Initiation into Hermetics.

Wuppertal: Ruggeberg.

[7] Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (1985). The Occult Roots of Nazism. p. 17. ISBN 0-85030-402-4.

• Fortune, Dion (2000). The Mystical Qabala. Weiser Books. ISBN 1-57863-150-5

[8] Goodrick-Clarke (1985): 18 [9] Newton's Dark Secrets.

[10] Liukkonen, Petri. “Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz”. Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 10 February 2015.

[11] Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0-940262-45-2. p. 54 [12] Goodrick-Clarke (1985): 29 [13] IAO131. "Thelema & Buddhism" in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32 [14] Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation [15] Religion, Science, and Worldview: Essays in Honor of Richard S. Westfall, Margaret J. Osler, Paul Lawrence Farber, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-52152493-8 [16] Gerd Buchdahl, “History of Science and Criteria of Choice”p. 232. In Historical and Philosophical Perspectives of Science v. 5 (ed. Roger H. Stuewer) [17] Gibbons, B. J. (2001). Spirituality and the occult: from the Renaissance to the twentieth century. London: Routledge. p. 2.

[18] Yates, Frances Amelia (1979). The occult philosophy in the Elizabethan age. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. pp. 1–5.

[19] Surette, Leon (1993). The Birth of Modernism: Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, W. B. Yeats, and the Occult. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 12–15.

5.6 References • Walker, Benjamin (1980). Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric and the Supernatural. New York: Stein & Day. ISBN 0-8128-6051-9.

• Harold W. Percival, Joined the Theosophical Society in 1892. After the death of William Quan Judge in 1896, organized the Theosophical Society Independent and then wrote Thinking and Destiny which covers in plan terms the purpose of the universe and occult meanings.

• Gettings, Fred, Vision of the Occult, Century Hutchinson Ltd, 1987. ISBN 0-7126-1438-9 • Kontou, Tatiana – Willburn, Sarah (ed.) (2012).

The Ashgate Research Companion to NineteenthCentury Spiritualism and the Occult. Ashgate, Farnham. ISBN 978-0-7546-6912-8 • Martin, W., Rische, J., Rische, K., & VanGordon, K. (2008). The Kingdom of the Occult. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishing.

• Molnar, Thomas (1987). The Pagan Temptation.

Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.; 201 p. N.B.: The scope of this study also embraces the occult. ISBN 0-8028-0262-1 • Regardie, I., Cicero, C., & Cicero, S. T. (2001). The Tree of Life: An Illustrated Study in Magic. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.

• Newton, Isaac, Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John.

Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John by Sir Isaac Newton • Rogers, L. W. (1909). Hints to Young Students of Occultism. Albany, NY: The Theosophical Book Company.

• Shepard, Leslie (editor), Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology, Detroit, MI: Gale Research Co., 1978 • Spence, Lewis, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 1920.

• Davis, R., True to His Ways: Purity & Safety in Christian Spiritual Practice (ACW Press, Ozark, AL, 2006), ISBN 1-932124-61-6.

• Partridge, Christopher (ed.), The Occult World, London: Routledge, 2014. ISBN 0415695961 • Forshaw, Peter, 'The Occult Middle Ages', in Christopher Partridge (ed.), The Occult World, London: Routledge, 2014

5.8 External links • Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents, University of Amsterdam

5.8. EXTERNAL LINKS • University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO) • ESSWE European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism, with many links to associated organizations, libraries, scholars etc.

• Joseph H. Peterson, Twilit Grotto: Archives of Western Esoterica (Esoteric Archives: Occult Literature) • Occult Science and Philosophy of the Renaissance.

Online exhibition from the Louisiana State University Libraries Special Collections. Accessed 201309-15.

• Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Occult Art, Occultism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

• eLibrary of ancient books on occultism, spiritism, spiritualism, séances, development of mediumship in the Western and Oriental Traditions. Many technical advice on ITC and EVP, and practical tips concerning the development of different forms of Mediumship provided by medium Maryse Locke.

• the MYSTICA.ORG An on-line encyclopedia of the occult

33

Chapter 6

Initiation 6.1.2 Types

For other uses, see Initiation (disambiguation).

• Puberty Rites- “collective rituals whose function is to effect the transition from childhood or adolescence to adulthood.”They represent“above all the revelation of the sacred.”

Initiation is a rite of passage marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society. It could also be a formal admission to adulthood in a community or one of its formal components. In an extended sense it can also signify a transformation in which the initiate is 'reborn' into a new role. Examples of initiation ceremonies might include Hindu diksha, Christian baptism or confirmation, Jewish bar or bat mitzvah, acceptance into a fraternal organization, secret society or religious order, or graduation from school or recruit training. A person taking the initiation ceremony in traditional rites, such as those depicted in these pictures, is called an initiate.

• Entering into a Secret Society• Mystical Vocation-“the vocation of a medicine man or a shaman.”This is limited to the few who are “destined to participate in a more intense religious experience than is accessible to the rest of the community.”

These can be broken into two types:

6.1 Characteristics Mircea Eliade discussed initiation as a principal religious act by classical or traditional societies. He defined initiation as “a basic change in existential condition,”which liberates man from profane time and history. “Initiation recapitulates the sacred history of the world. And through this recapitulation, the whole world is sanctified anew... [the initiand] can perceive the world as a sacred work, a creation of the Gods.”

• puberty rites, “by virtue of which adolescents gain access to the sacred, to knowledge, and to sexuality- by which, in short, they become human beings.”

• specialized initiations, which certain individuals undergo in order to transcend their human condition and become protégés of the Supernatural Beings or even their equals.”

6.1.3 Psychological

Eliade differentiates between types of initiations in two ways: types and functions.

In the study of certain social forms of initiation, such as hazing in college fraternities and sororities, laboratory experiments in psychology suggest that severe initiations 6.1.1 Reasons for and functions of Initia- produce cognitive dissonance.* [1] Dissonance is then tion thought to produce feelings of strong group attraction among initiates after the experience, because they want •“this real valuation of ritual death finally led to con- to justify the effort used.* [2] Rewards during initiations quest of the fear of real death.” have important consequences in that initiates who feel * • "[initiation's] function is to reveal the deep mean- more rewarded express stronger group identity. [3] As ing of existence to the new generations and to help well as group attraction, initiations can also produce * them assume the responsibility of being truly men conformity among new members. [4] Psychology experiments have also shown that initiations increase feelings and hence of participating in culture.” of affiliation.* [5] •“it reveals a world open to the trans-human, a world that, in our philosophical terminology, we should call transcendental.”

6.2 Examples

•“to make [the initiand] open to spiritual values.”

34

6.2. EXAMPLES

6.2.1

Religious and spiritual

35

6.2.3 Naval and military Some communities on board a military vessel and also of military soldiers tend to form a closed 'family' which absorbs in members, who are often formally accepted, generally after a form of trial or hazing.

In addition, there can be similar rites of passages associated with parts of naval and military life, which do not constitute true initiations as the participants are already and remain members of the same community. One such rite is associated with crossing the equator on board a naval ship, but it can even be taken by passengers on board a cruise liner, who are not and do not become members of anything but the so-called “equator crossing club”.

Another form, “Kissing the Royal Belly”or “Royal Freemasonry initiation. 18th century Baby”, calls for initiates to kneel before a senior member of the crew, who wears a mock diaper. This “Baby” See also: Religious initiation rites, Empowerment usually has a huge stomach covered with greasy materials ranging from cooking oil to mustard, shaving cream, (Vajrayana) and Endowment (Latter Day Saints) eggs, and oysters. Junior sailors must lick the Baby’s navel area, while the“baby”grabs and shakes their head A spiritual initiation rite normally implies a shepherding to better smear the goo onto their faces.* [6] process where those who are at a higher level guide the initiate through a process of greater exposure of knowledge. This may include the revelation of secrets, hence 6.2.4 Gang the term secret society for such organizations, usually reserved for those at the higher level of understanding.

Gangs often require new members to commit crimes beOne famous historical example is the Eleusinian Mysterfore accepting them as part of the gang.* [7] New memies of ancient Greece, thought to go back to at least the bers may be physically beaten by fellow gang members Mycenaean period or "bronze age". to demonstrate their courage, also known as “beat in” In the context of ritual magic and esotericism, an ini- or “jump in”, which occasionally results in a fataltiation is considered to cause a fundamental process of ity.* [7]* [8] One study indicates that young people are change to begin within the person being initiated. The more likely to be hurt in gang initiation than they are by person conducting the initiation (the initiator), being in refusing to join.* [9] Female members may be required to possession of a certain power or state of being, transfers have sex with male members as a form of initiation, also this power or state to the person being initiated. Thus the known as“sex in”, though they may also be“jumpedconcept of initiation is similar to that of apostolic succes- in”like their male counterparts. One study shows that sion. The initiation process is often likened to a simul- female members who were “sexed-in”as part of gang taneous death and rebirth, because as well as being a be- initiation were there after viewed with lower respect than ginning it also implies an ending as existence on one level those that were“jumped-in”, even when promised they drops away in an ascension to the next. Initiation is a key would become full-fledged members.* [10] Another study component of Vaishnavism, Sant Mat, Surat Shabd Yoga, found that sexed-in members face greater risks of sexual Wicca, and similar religious gnostic traditions. It denotes exploitation and abuse by fellow male members.* [11] acceptance by the Guru and also implies that the Chela (student or disciple) agrees to the requirements (such as living an ethical lifestyle, meditating, etc.)

6.2.5 Tribal

6.2.2

Trade union

In unionised organizations, the “initiation”is typically no more than a brief familiarization with basic procedures and the provision of a copy of the appropriate collective bargaining agreement that governs the work performed by members of the union. Some unions also charge a one-time initiation fee, after which the joining person is officially deemed to be a member in good standing.

Tribes often have initiations. The initiation done in the Bapedi tribe of South Africa is normally regarded as a stage where a boy is to be taught manhood and a girl to be taught womanhood. In many African tribes, initiation involves circumcision/genital mutilation of males and sometimes circumcision/genital mutilation of females as well. Initiation is considered necessary for the individual to be regarded as a full member of the tribe. Otherwise, the individual may not be allowed to participate in ceremonies or even in social rituals such as marriage. A man will not be allowed to marry or have any special re-

36

CHAPTER 6. INITIATION objects.* [13] At each stage, the initiate was offered revelations of secret knowledge (Urap: weng awem), but at the next stage these would be shown to be false (Urap: famoul).* [13] These initiations were abandoned with the adoption of Christianity, and the Urap have expressed relief at no longer having to administer the beatings which were involved.* [15]

6.2.6 China Under the Rites of Zhou, boys are initiated into adulthood at age 20 (加冠) and girls at 15 (及笄). The text Yili (儀 禮) in the chapter 士冠禮 gives the procedural details of the ceremonies involved.

Close to the end of the ceremony, the initiate is given a 字, or an alias; his name thereafter is secreted except before parents and rulers.

6.3 See also • Hazing This hat would only have been worn by initiates to Kindi, the highest level of Bwami. Tail hair of an elephant, a metaphor for Kindi, crowns the hat. European-made buttons began to replace cowrie shells as prestige items on such Bwami paraphernalia as the Western presence grew in eastern Congo in the early twentieth century

lationship with a woman who did not go to an initiation, because she is not considered to be a woman.

Initiation may be thought of as an event which may help teens prepare themselves to be good husbands and wives.

Where modernization is occurring, initiation is not taken so seriously as before, although there are still certain areas which still perform initiations.

In some African tribes, boys take about 3–4 months participating in initiation rites and girls take about 1–2 months.

Australian Aboriginal tribes usually had long periods of time to help prepare adolescent boys, teaching them traditional lore before they were ready to attend large elaborate ceremonies at the time of initiation when they were finally recognized as full-fledged men in their society.

Most tribes had circumcision and scarification as part of the male initiation rituals, while many Central Australian tribes also practiced subincision.

A salient shared cultural feature of the Min peoples of the New Guinea Highlands is initiation into a secret male religious cult.* [12] For example, the Urapmin people used to practice a type of male initiation known in Urap as ban.* [13] These elaborate rituals were a central part of Urapmin social life.* [14] The ban was a multistage process which involved beatings and manipulation of various

• Ulwaluko

6.4 References [1] Aronson, E.; Mills, J. (1959). “The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group”. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59 (2): 177–181. doi:10.1037/h0047195.

[2] Festinger, L (1961). “The psychological effects of insufficient rewards”. American Psychologist 16 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1037/h0045112.

[3] Kamau, C. (2012). What does being initiated severely into a group do? The role of rewards. International Journal of Psychology, doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.663957 [4] Keating, C. F.; Pomerantz, J.; Pommer, S. D.; Ritt, S. J. H.; Miller, L. M.; McCormick, J. (2005). “Going to college and unpacking hazing: A functional approach to decrypting initiation practices among undergraduates”.

Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 9 (2): 104–126. doi:10.1037/1089-2699.9.2.104.

[5] Lodewijkx, H. F. M.; van Zomeren, M.; Syroit, J. E. M. M. (2005). “The anticipation of a severe initiation: Gender differences in effects on affiliation tendency and group attraction”. Small Group Research 36 (2): 237–262. doi:10.1177/1046496404272381.

[6] “Sailor Men: Are Navy rituals, like Kissing the Royal Belly, homophobic or homoerotic?".

[7] Maryland gangs.Associated Gangs in this county.

[8] James M Klatell. Exclusive: Gangs Spreading In The Military

6.6. EXTERNAL LINK

[9] Jeff Grabmeier.

TEENS CAN REFUSE GANG MEMBERSHIP WITHOUT SERIOUS HARM, STUDY SAYS. Ohio State University. Dec 18, 1998.

[10] Burris-Kitchen, D. (1997). Female Gang Participation.

Lampeter, Wales: The Edwin Mellen Press.

[11] Miller, J. (2002). Young Women in Street Gangs: Risk Factors, Delinquency, and Victimization Risk. National Crime Journal, Ch.3> [12] Brumbaugh (1980:332) [13] Robbins (2001:904) [14] Barker (2007:29) [15] Robbins (1998:307–308)

6.5 Bibliography • Barker, John (2007). The Anthropology of Morality in Melanesia and Beyond. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0754671852.

• Brumbaugh, Robert (1980).“Models of Separation and a Mountain Ok Religion”. Ethos 8 (4).

• Robbins, Joel (2001). “God Is Nothing but Talk: Modernity, Language, and Prayer in a Papua New Guinea Society”. American Anthropologist 103 (4). doi:10.1525/aa.2001.103.4.901.

• Robbins, Joel (1998). “Becoming Sinners: Christianity and Desire among the Urapmin of Papua New Guinea”. Ethnology (University of Pittsburgh) 37 (4).

• Mircea Eliade, Rites and Symbols of Initiation, first edition, New York, NY Harper and Row, 1958.

6.6 External link Media related to Initiation at Wikimedia Commons

37

Chapter 7

Alchemy “Alchemist”redirects here. For other uses, see Alchemist ously connected with all of these projects. (disambiguation) and Alchemy (disambiguation).

In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent, and the Muslim world.

In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of Arabic works on science and the Recovery of Aristotle, alchemists played a significant role in early modern science* [4] (particularly chemistry and medicine). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquity's belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.

Kimiya-yi sa'ādat (The Alchemy of Happiness) – a text on Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by Al-Ghazālī (1058– 1111).

practiced throughout Europe, Egypt and Asia. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects.* [1]* [2]* [n 1] Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble" ones (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease; and the development of an alkahest, a universal solvent.* [3] The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to permit or result from the alchemical magnum opus and, in the Hellenistic and western tradition, the achievement of gnosis.* [2] In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was vari-

Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like Homyard* [5] and von Franz* [6] that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences who examine the subject in terms of protochemistry, medicine, and charlatanism. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of Greek philosophy was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology,* [6] numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as Bolus of Mendes's 3rd-century BC On Physical and Mystical Matters (Greek: Physika kai Mystika).* [7]

7.1 Name See also: Chemistry (etymology) The word alchemy was borrowed from Old French alquemie, alkimie, taken from Medieval Latin alchymia, and which is in turn borrowed from Arabic al-kīmiyā’

38

7.2. HISTORY

39

(‫‘ )الـكيمياء‬philosopher's stone’. The Arabic word is borrowed from Late Greek chēmeía (χημεία), chēmía (χημία)* [8]‘black magic’with the agglutination of the Arabic definite article al- (‫)الـ‬.* [9] This ancient Greek word was derived from* [10] the early Greek name for Egypt, Chēmia (Χημία), based on the Egyptian name for Egypt, kēme (hieroglyphic khmi, lit. ‘black earth’, as opposed to red desert sand).* [9]

The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.* [12] Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Hellenistic philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, while The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek chymeia (χυμεία) meaning ‘mixture’and referring to Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in pharmaceutical chemistry.* [11] Egypt under Roman rule.

7.2 History Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and “genetic”relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.

7.2.1

Hellenistic Egypt

Mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion.* [13] Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.* [14] These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others.

The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the “forty-two books of Hermes”, covering all fields of knowledge.* [15] The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.

Technology – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BC.* [16] Many writings were lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books* [17] after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from AD 300– 500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.* [18] These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements.* [19] Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.* [20]

Philosophy – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's charAmbix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimos, from Marcelin Berthelot, acter.* [19] An important example of alchemy's roots in Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887– Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and devel1888).

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CHAPTER 7. ALCHEMY

oped by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were means the art of obtaining/manipulating Rasa: formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was refire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere stricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, to which it belonged and to which it would return if compounds, and medicines, many of which left undisturbed.* [21] The four elements of the Greek have mercury as their core element. Its prinwere mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitaciples restored the health of those who were ill tive, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemage. ical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of differentiated form.”* [22] Later alchemists extensively a divine body (Sanskrit divya-deham) and immortality developed the mystical aspects of this concept. while still embodied (Sanskrit jīvan-mukti). Sanskrit alAlchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. chemical texts include much material on the manipulaLactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied tion of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idol- goddess Devī. atry.* [23] Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish al- Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins chemists can be found during this period. in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosi- the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings mos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalyāṇakārakam written in South India in the early 9th cenIsis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others au- of Ugrāditya, * tury.

[28] thors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.* [24] By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.* [25] It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.* [26]

7.2.2

India

Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Siddha and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine.

Nityanātha Siddha wrote Rasaratnākara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to “mercury” , and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.* [29] Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White.* [30] Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account.

Main article: Rasayana See also: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at * The Vedas describe a connection between eternal life Oxford Bibliographies Online. [31] and gold.* [27] The use of Mercury for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd– or 4th–century Arthashastra.

Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of Alexander the Great in 325 BC, and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like Gandhāra, although hard evidence for this is lacking.* [27]

The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature.* [32]* [n 2] The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra (or Various works on alchemy and gems) gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abū cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorRayhān Bīrūnī, who visited Gujarat as part of the court ship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in Sanskrit is called Rasayāna and in Persian Rasavātam. It

A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.

7.2. HISTORY

7.2.3

Muslim world

Main article: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchem-

Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), considered the“father of chemistry", introduced a scientific and experimental approach to alchemy.

41

by Byzantine scientists from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages.

The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail ....

The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation.

It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts.

The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the `ilm and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the Book of Seventy.* [34]

ical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.* [33] The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word al-kīmiyā’ (‫)الكيمياء‬.

The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the imPlatonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been portance of experimentation: somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th The first essential in chemistry is that thou centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship. shouldest perform practical work and conduct In the late 8th century, Jābir ibn Hayyān (Latinized as experiments, “Geber”or “Geberus”) introduced a new approach to for he who performs not practical work nor alchemy, based on scientific methodology and controlled makes experiments will never attain to the least experimentation in the laboratory, in contrast to the andegree of mastery.* [36] cient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little conEarly Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Alcern for laboratory work.* [34] Jabir is thus “considered Kindi (“Alkindus”) and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi * by many to be the father of chemistry", [35] albeit others (“Rasis”or “Rhazes”) contributed a number of key reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote: acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric To form an idea of the historical place of acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected

Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was

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Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.* [37] According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.* [37] By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.

The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur,“the stone which burns”, which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity.* [38] The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.* [39] From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus,* [40] Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,* [41] Avicenna* [42] and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.

7.2.4

East Asia

Main article: Chinese alchemy Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine.

The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.

Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder

Taoist Alchemists often use this alternate version of the Taijitu.

spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.

Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.).

7.2.5 Medieval Europe The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath.* [43] Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.* [44]

7.2. HISTORY

43 after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.* [47] Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.

Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work (Latin: Opus Majus) for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.* [48] Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The pracThe Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone, by Joseph tical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiWright, 1771 ment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.* [49] In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the transla- Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head tors made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and capable of answering its owner's questions. experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Chris- Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of altian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard chemical practice and theory through the medieval and followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury the unusual clarity with which they were deof Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th theory, and * scribed.

[50] By the end of the 13th century, alchemy century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. analysis and added the use of observation, experimentaAdepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories tion, and conclusions when conducting scientific invesof Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes tigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile * that affect minerals and other substances could have an Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. [45] effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, to purify the human soul). They believed in the four and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts elements and the four qualities as described above, and of the translators were succeeded by that of the ency- they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas clopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchem- art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made ical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.* [46] Albertus Mag- observations and theories about how the universe opernus, a Dominican monk, is known to have written works ated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and com- that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall mented on the operations and theories of alchemical au- of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man thorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed al- could be reunited with God.* [51] chemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they con- In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible cerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking

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CHAPTER 7. ALCHEMY

churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.* [52] Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas non exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudoalchemists.* [53] In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV* [54]). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.* [55] Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous.

Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.* [56]* [57] Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.* [58] Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.

Page from alchemic treatise of Ramon Llull, 16th century.

Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.* [59]* [60] A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermetism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.* [61]* [62]

Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new 7.2.6 Renaissance and early modern Eu- form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving rope away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, “Many Further information: Renaissance magic and natural have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold magic and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foun- only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.”* [63] dations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn His hermetical views were that sickness and health in of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm branches of alchemy followed. and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach difIn the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin.

These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.

ferent from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.* [64] Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named spagyrics (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning to separate and to join

7.2. HISTORY

45

together, based on the Latin alchemic maxim: solve et co- synonyms in the early modern period, and the differagula).* [65] Iatrochemistry also refers to the pharmaceu- ences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale astical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. saying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed day. There were important overlaps between practitionAgrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for an- ers, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists gel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój, 1566–1636), a alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pio* Hermetic axiom As above so below. [66] During the 17th century, a short-lived “supernatural”interpretation of neer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Pro- Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to sum- ton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he mon and communicate with angels.* [67] did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermetism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.

7.2.7 Late modern period

“Alchemist Sendivogius" (1566–1636) by Jan Matejko, 1867.

Entrepreneurial opportunities were not uncommon for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.* [68] Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland,* [69] Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Henry V, Duke of BrunswickLüneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of HesseKassel all contracted alchemists.* [70] John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book Fasciculus Chemicus.

Though most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrüger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists.* [71] False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.

The terms “chemia”and “alchemia”were used as

Robert Boyle

The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for“ancient wisdom”. Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century. As late as 1781

46 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: “Scholastic and antiAristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof.”* [72] Robert Boyle (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.* [73] This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton.

CHAPTER 7. ALCHEMY a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.* [83]

7.2.8 Women in alchemy Women were major players in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone.* [84] Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab), and Isis the Prophetess also play a role in the early alchemical texts.

Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between “alchemy”and “chemistry”for the first time.* [74]* [75] By the 1740s, “alchemy”was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.* [72]* [75] In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the“new”chemistry from the“old”practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.* [76]

The first alchemist is recognized as being Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.).* [85] Mary is known for a number of improvements on alchemy equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry.* [85] Her most well-known advancements are heating and distillation processes. The water-bath, also known as Bain-Marie is said to have been invented by or at least improved by her.* [86] This double-boiler was often used in chemistry for processes that might require gentle heating. The tribikos (a basic still) and the kerotakis (a more intricate distilling apparatus) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her.* [87] While these were great achievements, Mary the Jewess' most critical contribution is considered to be the identification of hydrochloric During the occult revival of the early 19th cen- acid, a frequently used chemical today.* [88] Though we tury, alchemy received new attention as an occult sci- have no writing from Maria herself, she is known from the ence.* [77]* [78] The esoteric or occultist school, which fourth century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.* [89] arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to Due to the proliferation of pseudepigrapha and anonyhold) the view that the substances and operations menmous works, it is difficult to know which of the altioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a chemists were actually women. None-the-less, followspiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as ing the Greco-Roman period women's names appear less * * * a practical tradition or protoscience. [74] [79] [80] This frequently. Women vacate the history of alchemy durinterpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is ing the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment fictitious account of Perenelle Flamel. Mary Anne Ator illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation wood's A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth century language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise occult revival. * for spiritual, moral or mystical processes. [80] In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: “No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy.”* [81]* [82] Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make

7.2.9 Modern historical research The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.* [90] As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements.* [91] Institutions involved in this re-

7.3. CORE CONCEPTS search include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents.

A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam.

47

7.3.1 Hermetism

In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.* [7] The writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is named “alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiraJournals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy * tion and guide”.

[92] include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The Early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. AD History of Science Society.

300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.* [93] This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for spiritual 7.3 Core concepts entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation.

In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. Practitioners and patrons such as Melchior Cibinensis and Pope Innocent VIII existed within the ranks of the church, while Martin Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.* [94] Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.

In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was a symbol:

Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From Spiegel der Kunst und Natur.

Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology.

As such, the Classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven Classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone.

Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?

A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.* [1] 1. ^ Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects. 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.)

48

7.3.2

CHAPTER 7. ALCHEMY

Magnum opus

Spagyrists of the 20th century, Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods.

Main article: Magnum opus (alchemy) The schools they founded, Les Philosophes de la Nature and The Paracelsus Research Society, popularized modern The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures of four stages represented by colors. and products.* [100] The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to • nigredo, a blackening or melanosis influence popular applications of alchemy as a new age medicinal practice.

• albedo, a whitening or leucosis • citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis

7.4.2 Psychology

• rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis [95] *

7.4 Modern alchemy Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.* [96] Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These practitioners have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.* [97] At the opposite end of the spectrum, esoteric alchemists interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements.* [98] Groups like the rosicrucians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism.

Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, “occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.”,* [72] which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.

7.4.1

Traditional medicine

Main articles: medicine

Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the internal or psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. He called the creation of the gold or lapis within the process of "individuation.”* [101]* [102] Together with his alchemical mystica soror, Jungian Swiss analyst, Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the hieros gamos or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding of the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes)* [102]* [103]* [104] that influence all of life.

Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, Mysterium Conuinctionis.

7.4.3 Literature

Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Main article: Alchemy in art and entertainment

Traditional medicine sometimes involves the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques.

In Ayurveda, the samskaras are claimed to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.* [99]

Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett.

7.7. REFERENCES Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy.

While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.

7.5 See also • Alchemy in art and entertainment • Biological transmutation • Chemistry • Chinese alchemy • Cupellation • Hermes Trismegistus • Historicism • History of chemistry

49

Rasakāmadhenu, Rasakaumudī, Rasamañjarī, Rasamitra, Rasāmṛta, Rasapaddhati, Rasapradīpa, Rasaprakāśasudhākara, Rasarājalakṣmī, Rasaratnadīpikā, Rasaratnākara, Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava, Rasārṇavakalpa, Rasasaṃketakalikā, Rasasāra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Rasāyanasāra, Rasayogasāgara, Rasayogaśataka, Rasendracintāmaṇi, Rasendracūḍāmaṇi, Rasendramaṅgala, Rasendrapurāṇa, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasārasaṅgraha, Rasoddhāratantra or Rasasaṃhitā, and Rasopaniṣad.

7.7 References 7.7.1 Citations [1] Malouin, Paul-Jacques (1751), “Alchimie [Alchemy]", Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, Vol. I, Paris: translated by Lauren Yoder in 2003 for Michigan Publishing's The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project.

[2] Linden (1996), pp. 7 & 11.

[3] “Alchemy”, Dictionary.com.

[4] Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.

• List of alchemists

[5] Holmyard 1957, p. 16

• List of topics characterized as pseudoscience

[6] von Franz (1997).

• Magnum opus (alchemy)

[7] Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.96

• Mary the Jewess

[8] alchemy, Oxford Dictionaries

• Nuclear transmutation • Outline of alchemy • Philosopher's Stone • Physics • Porta Alchemica • Scientific method • Superseded scientific theories • Synthesis of precious metals

7.6 Notes [1] For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see Linden 1996, pp. 6–36 [2] To wit, the Ānandakanda, Āyurvedaprakāśa, Gorakṣasaṃhitā, Kākacaṇḍeśvarīmatatantra, Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra, Kūpīpakvarasanirmāṇavijñāna, Pāradasaṃhitā, Rasabhaiṣajyakalpanāvijñāna, Rasādhyāya, Rasahṛdayatantra, Rasajalanidhi,

[9] “alchemy”. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Or see Harper, Douglas. “alchemy”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved April 7, 2010..

[10] See, for example, the etymology for χημεία in Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott (1901). A Greek-English Lexicon (Eighth edition, revised throughout ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-910205-8.

[11] See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott; Henry Stuart Jones (1940).

A Greek-English Lexicon (A new edition, revised and augmented throughout ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-910205-8.

[12] New Scientist, 24–31 December 1987 [13] Garfinkel, Harold (1986). Ethnomethodological Studies of Work. Routledge &Kegan Paul. p. 127. ISBN 0-41511965-0.

[14] Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'.

University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213 [15] Clement, Stromata, vi. 4.

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CHAPTER 7. ALCHEMY

[17] Partington, James Riddick (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications. p. 20. ISBN 0-486-65977-1.

[35] Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007). “On wine, chirality and crystallography”.

Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246–258 [247].

Bibcode:2008AcCrA..64..246D. doi:10.1107/S0108767307054293. PMID 18156689.

[18] Linden 2003, p. 46

[36] Holmyard 1931, p. 60

[19] A History of Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, Harvard University Press, 1996, p13

[37] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 29. ISBN 0-906540-96-8.

[16] Linden 1996, p. 12

[20] Linden 1996, p. 14 [21] Lindsay, Jack (1970). The Origins of Alchemy in GraecoRoman Egypt. London: Muller. p. 16. ISBN 0-38901006-5.

[38] Strathern, Paul. (2000), Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements, New York: Berkley Books

[22] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 66. ISBN 0-906540-96-8.

[39] Moran, Bruce T. (2005). Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 146. ISBN 0-674-01495-2. a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)

[23] Fanning, Philip Ashley. Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution. 2009. p.6

[40] Felix Klein-Frank (2001),“Al-Kindi”, in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 174.

London: Routledge.

[24] F. Sherwood Taylor. Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry. p.26.

[25] Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix. p. 36 [26] Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world. p. 284–285 [27] Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008).

Alchemy. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008).

[28] Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2002). History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. pp. IIA, 151– 155.

[29] See Dominik Wujastyk, “An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna”in Ambix 31.2 (1984): 70-83. Online at http://univie.academia.edu/ DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/

[41] Marmura ME (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr". Speculum 40 (4): 744– 6. doi:10.2307/2851429.

[42] Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p.

196–197.

[43] Holmyard 1957, pp. 105–108 [44] Holmyard 1957, p. 110 [45] Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw–Hill College. pp. 294f. ISBN 0-07-557141-2.

[46] John Read. From Alchemy to Chemistry. 1995 p.90 [47] James A. Weisheipl. Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays. PIMS. 1980. p.187-202

[30] See bibliographical details and links at https://openlibrary. org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body

[48] Edmund Brehm. “Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy.”Ambix. Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.

[31] DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0046

[49] Holmyard 1957, pp. 120–121

[32] Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2002). History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. pp. IIA, 581– 738.

[50] Holmyard 1957, pp. 134–141.

[33] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 46. ISBN 0-906540-96-8.

[51] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 149. ISBN 0-906540-96-8.

[52] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire. University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49

[34] Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits [53] John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. John Gower, Trilingual Poet: jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942– Language, Translation, and Tradition. Boydell & Brewer.

1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam.

2010. p.170 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. Ahmad Y Hassan. “A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three” [54] D. Geoghegan, “A licence of Henry VI to practise . Retrieved 16 September 2014.)

Alchemy”Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10-17

7.7. REFERENCES

51

[55] Leah DeVun. From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages.

Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104

[74] Newman & Principe 2002, p. 37

[56] Linden 2003, p. 123

[76] Principe & Newman 2001, pp. 386–7

[57]“Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or”by Nigel Wilkins

[77] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 387

[58] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. pp. 170–181. ISBN 0-906540-96-8.

[78] Kripal & Shuck 2005, p. 27

[59] Peter J. Forshaw. '"Chemistry, That Starry Science”Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy' (2013) [60] Peter J. Forshaw, 'Cabala Chymica or Chemia Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala' (2013) [61] Glenn Alexander Magee. Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition. Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30 [62] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction. Oxford University Press.

2008 p.60 [63] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History.

New York: Stein and Day. p. 47. ISBN 0-552-114634.

[64] Debus, Allen G. and Multhauf, Robert P. (1966).

Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century. Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. pp. 6–12.

[65] Joseph Needham. Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy. Cambridge University Press. P.9

[75] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 386

[79] Eliade 1994, p. 49 [80] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 388 [81] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 391 [82] Rutkin 2001, p. 143 [83] Daniel Merkur. Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions. SUNY Press. 1993 p.55 [84] Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. p.78 [85] Rayner-Canham, M and Rayner-Canham, G (2005).

Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. Chemical Heritage Foundation. pp. 2–4. ISBN 9780941901277.

[86] Patai, R (1995). The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. pp. 60–80.

ISBN 9780691006420.

[87] Lindsay, J (1970). The origins of alchemy in GraecoRoman Egypt. New York: Barnes & Noble. pp. 240–250.

ISBN 9780389010067.

[88] Gaster, Moses (2011).“Alchemy”. Jewish Encyclopedia.

Funk & Wagnalls Company. Retrieved April 6th 2016.

Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

[66] William Royall Newman, Anthony Grafton. Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe.

MIT Press, 2001. P.173.

[89] Patai, R. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. pp. 81–93. ISBN 9780691006420.

• Journal of the History of Ideas, 41, 1980, p. 293318

[90] Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.viii–xvi

• Principe & Newman 2001, pp. 399

[91] See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website

[67]

• The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest, by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, pp. 188 90 [68] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.4 [69] Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.

[70] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.85-98 [71] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.171 [72] Principe, Lawrence M. “Alchemy Restored.”Isis 102.2 (2011): 305-12. Web. [73] Pilkington, Roger (1959). Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry. London: John Murray. p. 11.

[92] Linden 2003, pp. 9 [93] Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry.

The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.

[94] Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. p.4 [95] Joseph Needham. Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention: magisteries of gold and immortality. Cambridge. 1974. p.23 [96] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 385 [97] Richard Conniff. “Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was.”Smithsonian Magazine. February 2014.

[98] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 396

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CHAPTER 7. ALCHEMY

[99] Junius, Manfred M; The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs; Healing Arts Press 1985 [100] Joscelyn Godwin. The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions. Quest Books, 2007. p.120 [101] Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed.

1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6).

London: Routledge.

[102] Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. The Cambridge companion to Jung. Cambridge University Press.

1997. p.33 [103] C.-G. Jung Preface to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching.

[104] C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of The Secret of The Golden Flower.

7.7.2

Bibliography

• Calian, George (2010). Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy. Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. • Eliade, Mircea (1994). The Forge and the Crucible.

State University of New York Press.

• Forshaw, Peter J. “Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy”. (2013) Sky and Symbol Check |url= value (help).

• Forshaw, Peter J.“Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala”.

(2013) Ambix, Vol. 60:4 Check |url= value (help).

• Holmyard, Eric John (1931). Makers of Chemistry.

Oxford: Clarendon Press.

• Holmyard, Eric John (1957). Alchemy. Courier Dover Publications.

• Linden, Stanton J. (1996). Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration. University Press of Kentucky.

• Linden, Stanton J. (2003). The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton.

Cambridge University Press.

• Newman, William R.; Principe, Lawrence M. (2002). Alchemy Tried in the Fire. University of Chicago Press.

• von Franz, Marie Louise (1997). Alchemical Active Imagination. Boston: Shambhala Publications.

ISBN 0-87773-589-1.

• Kripal, Jeffrey John; Shuck, Glenn W. (July 2005).

On the Edge of the Future. Indiana University Press.

ISBN 978-0-253-34556-1. Retrieved 17 December 2011.

• Principe, Lawrence M. (2013). The secrets of alchemy. Chicago &London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-68295-2.

• Principe, Lawrence M.; Newman, William R. (2001). “Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy”. In Newman, William R.; Grafton, Anthony. Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. MIT Press. pp. 385–432. ISBN 978-0-262-14075-1. Retrieved 17 December 2011.

• Rutkin, H. Darrel (2001).“Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's Astronomia Nova and Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius". In Newman, William R.; Grafton, Anthony.

Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. MIT Press. pp. 133–172. ISBN 978-0262-14075-1. Retrieved 17 December 2011.

• Gallina, Furio (2015). Miti e storie di alchimisti tra il medioevo e l'età contemporanea. Resana: mp/edizioni.

7.8 External links • SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry • ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism • Association for the Study of Esotericism • The Alchemy Website. – Adam McLean's online collections and academic discussion.

• Inner Garden Alchemy Research Group: a nonprofit foundation that aims to transmit the alchemical tradition.

• • Alchemy on In Our Time at the BBC. ((Peter Forshaw, Lauren Kassell and Stephen Pumfrey) listen now) • Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Alchemy • Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000 – A digital exhibition from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University

Chapter 8

Gnosticism 8.1.1 Main features

Not to be confused with Agnosticism.

Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek: γνωστικός gnostikos, “having knowledge”, from γνῶσις gnōsis, knowledge) is a modern term categorizing a collection of ancient religions whose adherents shunned the material world – which they viewed as created by the demiurge – and embraced the spiritual world.* [1] Gnostic ideas influenced many ancient religions* [2] that teach that gnosis (variously interpreted as knowledge, enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or 'oneness with God') may be reached by practicing philanthropy to the point of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for hearers, entirely for initiates) and diligently searching for wisdom by helping others.* [3] However, practices varied among those who were Gnostic.

A common characteristic of some of these groups was the instruction that the realisation of Gnosis (esoteric or intuitive knowledge) is the way to salvation of the soul from the material world. Gnostic systems, particularly the Syrian-Egyptian schools, are typically marked by: • The notion of a remote, supreme monadic divinity • The introduction by emanation of further divine beings known as Aeons.

• The introduction of a distinct creator god or demiurge, which is an illusion and a later emanation from the single monad or source.

• The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as an “error”or flawed simulacrum of a higher-level reality, but possibly as good as its constituent material might allow.* [8]

In Gnosticism, the world of the demiurge is represented by the underworld, which is associated with matter, flesh, time and, more particularly, an imperfect, ephemeral world. The world of God is represented by the upper world and is associated with the soul and perfection. The world of God is eternal and not part of the physical. It is impalpable and timeless.

Gnosticism is primarily defined in a Christian context.* [4]* [5] In the past, some scholars thought that gnosticism predated Christianity and included pre-Christian religious beliefs and spiritual practices argued to be common to early Christianity, Neoplatonism, Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery religions, and Zoroastrianism (especially Zurvanism). The discussion of gnosticism changed radically with the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library and led to a revision of older assumptions. To date, no pre-Christian gnostic texts have been found,* [6] and gnosticism as a unique and recognizable belief system is considered to be a second century (or later) development.* [7]

• A complex mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element “falls”into the material realm and lodges itself within certain human beings • A doctrine of salvation in which the divine element may be returned to the divine realm through a process of awakening.

The supreme divine source is known under a variety of names, including "Pleroma" (fullness, totality) and "Bythos" (depth, profundity).

Aeons are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the divine nature.

The salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrent restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level of a cosmically significant event.

8.1 Nature and structure

The model limits itself to describing characteristics of the Syrian-Egyptian school of Gnosticism. This is because the greatest expressions of the Persian gnostic school – 53

54 Manicheanism and Mandaeanism – are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right; indeed, the typical usage of“Gnosticism”is to refer to the SyrianEgyptian schools alone, while“Manichean”describes the movements of the Persian school.

This conception of Gnosticism has in recent times come to be challenged (see below). Nonetheless, the understanding presented above remains the most common and is useful in aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism. Above all, the central idea of gnōsis, a knowledge superior to and independent of faith made it attractive to many. The Valentinians, for example, considered pistis (Greek: “faith”) as consisting of accepting a body of teaching as true, being principally intellectual or emotional in character.* [9]

The demiurge The demiurge or creator god is a lesser and inferior or false god. In most of the systems, this demiurge was seen as imperfect, in others even as evil. This creator god is commonly referred to as the demiourgós used in the Platonist tradition.* [10] Different gnostic schools sometimes identified the demiurge as Ahriman, El, Saklas, Samael, Satan, Yaldabaoth, or Yahweh.

The gnostic demiurge bears resemblance to figures in Plato's Timaeus and Republic. In the former, the demiourgós is a central figure, a benevolent creator of the universe who works to make the universe as benevolent as the limitations of matter will allow; in the latter, the description of the leontomorphic “desire”in Socrates' model of the psyche bears a resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion; the relevant passage of The Republic was found within a major gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi,* [11] wherein a text existed describing the demiurge as a“lion-faced serpent”.* [12] Elsewhere, this figure is called “Ialdabaoth”,* [12] “Samael”(Aramaic: sæmʻa-ʼel,“blind god”) or“Saklas”(Syriac: sækla,“the foolish one”), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior god, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent. The demiurge typically creates a group of co-actors named archons who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it.* [12] The inferiority of the demiurge's creation may be compared to the technical inferiority of a work of art, painting, sculpture, etc.—to the thing the art represents. In other cases it takes on a more ascetic tendency to view material existence negatively, which then becomes more extreme when materiality, and the human body, is perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants.

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM Savior figures Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnōsis to the earth,* [13] while others adamantly denied that the supreme being came in the flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who attained divinity through gnosis and taught his disciples to do the same. Among the Mandaeans, Jesus was considered a mšiha kdaba or "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him

by John the Baptist.* [14] Still other traditions identify Mani and Seth, third son of Adam and Eve, as salvific figures.* [15]

8.1.2 Dualism and monism Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being “dualistic”in nature, meaning that they have the view that the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities. Hans Jonas writes: “The cardinal feature of gnostic thought is the radical dualism that governs the relation of God and world, and correspondingly that of man and world.”* [16] Within this definition, they run the gamut from the “radical dualist”systems of Manicheanism to the “mitigated dualism”of classic gnostic movements; Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner.

• Radical dualism or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces. Manichaeism conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness that become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits* [17]* [18] this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism,* [19] in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant.

The Mandaean creation myth witnesses progressive emanations of the Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of Ptahil, a demiurge who had a hand in creating and henceforward rules the material realm.

Additionally, general Gnostic thought (specifically found in Iranian groups; for instance, see "The Hymn of the Pearl") commonly included the belief that the material world corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the light trapped in-

8.1. NATURE AND STRUCTURE

55

side it, or literally to keep them “in the dark”, or resorting to slanderous (and, in some cases, exaggerated) ignorant; in a state of drunken distraction. allegations of libertinism, or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being either based on incorrect interpretations of • Mitigated dualism —where one of the two princi- scripture or simply duplicitous in nature. Irenaeus deples is in some way inferior to the other. Such clas- clares in his treatise“Against Heresies”* [23] that Gnossical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived tic movements subjected all morality to the caprice of of the material world as being created by a lesser the individual and made any fixed rule of faith imposdivinity than the true God that was the object of sible. According to Irenaeus, a certain sect known as the their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of "Cainites" professed to impart a knowledge“greater and as being radically different from the material world, more sublime”than the ordinary doctrine of Christians, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home and believed that Cain derived his power from the suof certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, perior Godhead.* [24] Epiphanius provides an example these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute when he writes of the "Archontics": “Some of them alienation within the world, and their resultant aim ruin their bodies by dissipation, but others feign ostenwas to allow the soul to escape the constraints pre- sible fasts and deceive simple people while they pride sented by the physical realm. themselves with a sort of abstinence, under the disguise of monks”(Panarion, 40.1.4).

• Qualified monism —where it is arguable whether or not the second entity is divine or semi-divine. El- In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ements of Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth sug- ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct gest to some that its understanding of the universe behaviour. Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora lays out a project may have been monistic rather than a dualistic one. of general asceticism in which the basis of action is the Elaine Pagels states that “Valentinian gnosticism moral inclination of the individual: [...] differs essentially from dualism";* [20] while, “External physical fasting is observed even according to Schoedel “a standard element in the among our followers, for it can be of some interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms benefit to the soul if it is engaged on with of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundareason (logos), whenever it is done neither by mentally monistic”.* [21] In these myths, the malevway of limiting others, nor out of habit, nor olence of the demiurge is mitigated; his creation of because of the day, as if it had been specially a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing appointed for that purpose.” on his part, but due to his imperfection by contrast —Ptolemy, Letter to Flora to the superior entities of which he is unaware.* [8] As such, Valentinians already have less cause to treat physical reality with contempt than might a Sethian Gnostic.

This extract marks a definite shift away from the orthoThe Valentinian tradition conceives of materiality, dox position that the correct behaviour for Christians is rather than as being a separate substance from the di- best administered and prescribed by the central authorvine, as attributable to an error of perception, which ity of the Church, as transmitted through the Apostles becomes symbolized mythopoetically as the act of to the Church's bishops. Instead, the internalised inclimaterial creation.* [8] nation of the individual assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no significance or effective8.1.3 Moral and ritual practice ness unless its external prescription is matched by a personal, internal motivation.

Numerous early Christian Fathers accused some Gnostic teachers of claiming to eschew the physical realm, Charges of Gnostic libertinism find their source in the while simultaneously freely indulging their physical ap- works of Irenaeus. According to this writer, Simon Mapetites; however, there is reason to question the accuracy gus (whom he has identified as the prototypical source of of these claims. Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnosticism, and who had previously tried to buy sacraGnostic moral behaviour as being generally ascetic in ba- mental authority of ordination from St. Peter the Apostle) sis, expressed most fluently in their sexual and dietary founded the school of moral freedom ('amoralism'). Irepractice.* [22] Many monks would deprive themselves of naeus reports that Simon's argument was that those who food, water, or necessary needs for living. This presented put their trust in him and his consort Helen need trouble a problem for the heresiologists writing on gnostic move- themselves no further with the biblical prophets or their ments: this mode of behaviour was one they themselves moral exhortations and are free “to do what they wish” and not by their favoured and supported, so the Church Fathers would be , as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace * Haereses [25]). “righteous works”(Adversus required perforce to offer support to the practices of their theological opponents. To avoid this, a common heresi- Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save ological approach was to avoid the issue completely by for his curious attachment to Helen, typically reputed to

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CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM

be a prostitute. There is, however, clear evidence in the 8.1.4 Social context Testimony of Truth that followers of Simon did, in fact, get married and beget children, so a general tendency to The age of the Gnostics was highly diverse; they seem to asceticism can likewise be ruled out. have originated in Alexandria and coexisted with the early Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he character- Christians until the 4th century AD, and because there izes as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they eat food was as yet no fixed church authority, syncretism with pre“offered to idols”(idol-worship), are sexually promis- existing belief systems as well as new religions were often cuous (“immoderately given over to the desires of the embraced. According to Clement of Alexandria, "... In flesh”) and are guilty of taking wives under the pre- the times of the Emperor Hadrian appeared those who they continued until the age of the tence of living with them as adopted “sisters”. In devised heresies, and * elder Antoninus.”

[27] the latter case, Michael Allen Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly correct in the behaviour described, but not in his apprehension of its causes. Williams argues that members of a cult might live together as“brother”and“sister": intimate, yet not sexually active. Over time, however, the self-denial required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes.

Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of the Bridal Chamber, a ritualistic sacrament in which sexual union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired syzygies that constitute the Valentinian Pleroma.

Though it is known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to sexuality than much of the Catholic Church (he allowed women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply being used in a metaphorical sense.

The Christian groups first called Gnostics a branch of Christianity, but according to the modern scholars the theology's origin is not so clear.* [28]* [29] For example, Joseph Jacobs and Ludwig Blau note that much of the terminology employed is Jewish and note that this “proves at least that the principal elements of gnosticism were derived from Jewish speculation, while it does not preclude the possibility of new wine having been poured into old bottles”.* [28] The movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths,* [30] and the Persian Empire; it continued to develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East before and during the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Conversion to Islam and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though a few Mandaean communities still exist. Gnostic and pseudognostic ideas became influential in some of the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups.

Of the Carpocratians Irenaeus makes much the same report: they “are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim to have in their power and be able to practise anything whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious ... they say that conduct is only good or evil in the 8.2 Origins eyes of man”.* [26] Once again a differentiation might be detected between a man's actions and the grace he 8.2.1 Buddhism has received through his adherence to a system of gnosis; whether this is due to a common sharing of such an Main article: Buddhism and Gnosticism attitude amongst Gnostic circles, or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is open to conjecture.

The idea that Gnosticism was derived from Buddhism On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behaviour was first proposed by the Victorian gem collector tended towards the ascetic. This said, the heresiologiand numismatist Charles William King (1864).* [31] cal accusation of duplicity in such practises should not Mansel (1875)* [32] considered the principal sources of be taken at face value; nor should similar accusations Gnosticism to be Platonism, Zoroastrianism, and Budof amoral libertinism. The Nag Hammadi library itself dhism.* [33] However, the influence of Buddhism in any is full of passages that appear to encourage abstinence sense on either the gnostikos Valentinus (c. 170) or the over indulgence. Fundamentally, however, gnostic moveNag Hammadi texts (3rd century) is not supported by ments appear to take the “ancient schema of the two modern scholarship, but in the latter case is considered ways, which leaves the decision to do what is right to quite possible by Elaine Pagels (1979),* [34] who called human endeavour and promises a reward for those who for Buddhist scholars to try to find parallels.* [35] make the effort, and punishment for those who are negligent”(Kurt Rudolph, Gnosis:The Nature and History of Early 3rd and 4th-century Christian writers such as Hippolytus and Epiphanius write about a Scythianus who Gnosticism, 262). visited India around 50 AD and brought back “the doctrine of the Two Principles”. Karl Ritter (1838)* [36] suggested that when Cyril of Jerusalem remarks that one

8.2. ORIGINS

57

of Scythianus' pupils Terebinthus had changed his name to Buddas to escape detection while passing through Judea, and then died in Judea from a fall from a rooftop, that this is connected with the Buddha.* [37] “But Terebinthus, his disciple in this wicked error, inherited his money and books and heresy, and came to Palestine, and becoming known and condemned in Judæa he resolved to pass into Persia: but lest he should be recognised there also by his name he changed it and called himself Buddas.

However, he found adversaries there also in the priests of Mithras: and being confuted in the discussion of many arguments and controversies, and at last hard pressed, he took refuge with a certain widow. Then having gone up on the housetop, and summoned the dæmons of the air, whom the Manichees to this day invoke over their abominable ceremony of the fig , he was smitten of God, and cast down from the housetop, and expired: and so the second beast was cut off.”

—Cyril of Jerusalem,“Catechetical lecture 6”

Also in the 3rd century the Syrian writer and Christian Gnostic theologian Bar Daisan (154–222) described his exchanges with the religious missions of holy men from India passing through Syria on their way to Elagabalus or another Severan dynasty Roman Emperor. His accounts were quoted by Porphyry (On Abstinence 4:17) and Stobaeus (Eccles., iii, 56, 141). Clement of Alexandria in his Stromateis distinguishes Sramanas (Greek: Σαρμαναίοι) and Brahmans, without making any gnostic connection.* [38] From the 3rd century to the 12th century, some Gnostic religions such as Manichaeism, which combined Christian, Hebrew and Buddhist influences (Mani, the founder of the religion, resided for some time in Kushan lands),* [39] spread throughout the Old World, to Gaul and Great Britain in the West, and to China in the East.

Augustine of Hippo, like some other leading Christian theologians, was Manichaean before converting to orthodox Christianity.* [40]* [41]

8.2.2

Neoplatonism

See also: Neoplatonism and Neoplatonism and Christianity

Gnosticism

The earliest origins of Gnosticism are obscure and still disputed. For this reason, some scholars prefer to speak of “gnosis”when referring to 1st-century ideas that later developed into gnosticism and to reserve the term “gnosticism”for the synthesis of these ideas into a coherent movement in the 2nd century.* [42] Probable influences include Plato, Middle Platonism and NeoPythagoreanism academies or schools of thought, and this seems to be true both of the more Sethian Gnostics, and of the Valentinian Gnostics.* [43] Further, if we compare different Sethian texts to each other in an attempted chronology of the development of Sethianism during the first few centuries, it seems that later texts are continuing to interact with Platonism. Earlier texts such as Apocalypse of Adam show signs of being preChristian and focus on the Seth, third son of Adam and Eve. These early Sethians may be identical to or related to the Nazarenes (sect), Ophites or to the sectarian group called heretics by Philo.* [44] Later Sethian texts such as Zostrianos and Allogenes draw on the imagery of older Sethian texts, but utilize“a large fund of philosophical conceptuality derived from contemporary Platonism, (that is late middle Platonism) with no traces of Christian content.”* [45] Indeed, the doctrine of the“triple-powered one”found in the text Allogenes, as discovered in the Nag Hammadi Library, is“the same doctrine as found in the anonymous Parmenides commentary (Fragment XIV) ascribed by Hadot to Porphyry [...] and is also found in Plotinus' Ennead 6.7, 17, 13– 26.”* [43] However, by the 3rd century Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus, Porphyry and Amelius are all attacking the Sethians. It looks as if Sethianism began as a pre-Christian tradition, possibly a syncretic* [46] that incorporated elements of Christianity and Platonism as it grew, only to have both Christianity and Platonism reject and turn against it. Professor John D Turner believes that this double attack led to Sethianism fragmentation into numerous smaller groups (Audians, Borborites, Archontics and perhaps Phibionites, Stratiotici, and Secundians ).* [45]

Scholarship on Gnosticism has been greatly advanced by the discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi texts, which shed light on some of the more puzzling comments

by Plotinus and Porphyry regarding the Gnostics. More importantly, the texts help to distinguish different kinds of early Gnostics. It now seems clear that“Sethian”and “Valentinian”* [47] gnostics attempted“an effort towards conciliation, even affiliation”with late antique philosophy,* [48] and were rebuffed by some Neoplatonists, inand cluding Plotinus.

Philosophical relations with Neoplatonism Ancient Greek philosophy See also: Platonic Academy

Gnostics borrow a great deal of ideas and terms from Platonism. They exhibit a keen understanding of Greek philosophical terms and the Greek Koine language in gen-

58 eral, and use Greek philosophical concepts throughout their text, including such concepts as hypostasis (reality, existence), ousia (essence, substance, being), and demiurge (creator God). Good examples include texts such as the Hypostasis of the Archons (Reality of the Rulers) or Trimorphic Protennoia (The first thought in three forms).

Criticism by antique Greek philosophy Being a pagan mystic, Plotinus considered his opponents heretics* [49] and elitist blasphemers,* [50] arriving at misotheism as the solution to the problem of evil, being not traditional or genuine Hellenism (in philosophy or mysticism), but rather one invented taking all their truths over from Plato,* [51] coupled with the idea expressed by Plotinus that the approach to the infinite force, which is the One or Monad cannot be through knowing or not knowing (i.e., dualist, which is of the dyad or demiurge).* [52]* [53] Although there has been dispute as to which gnostics Plotinus referred to, it appears they were indeed Sethian.* [54] Plotinus' main objection to the gnostics he was familiar with, however, was their rejection of the goodness of the demiurge and the material world. He attacks the gnostics as vilifying Plato's ontology of the universe as contained in the Timaeus. He accused Gnosticism of vilifying the Demiurge, or craftsman that crafted the material world, and even of thinking that the material world is evil, or a prison. As Plotinus explains, the demiurge is the nous (as the first emanation of the One), the ordering principle or mind, and also reason. Plotinus was also critical of the gnostic origin of the demiurge as the offspring of wisdom, represented as a deity called Sophia. She was anthropomorphically expressed as a feminine spirit deity not unlike the goddess Athena or the Christian Holy Spirit. Plotinus even went so far as to state at one point that if the gnostics did believe this world was a prison then they could at any moment free themselves by committing suicide. To some degree the texts discovered in Nag Hammadi support his allegations, but others such as the Valentinians and the Tripartite Tractate insist on the goodness of the world and the Demiurge.

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM of Gnosticism upon Christianity is speculative.

The necessity of immediate revelation through divine knowledge in order to attain transcendence in a Supreme Deity is important to understand in the identification of what evidence there is pertaining to Gnosticism* [57] in the New Testament (NT), which would influence orthodox teaching.* [58] Central Gnostic beliefs that differ from orthodox Christian teachings include: the creator as a lower being [‘Demiurge’] and not a Supreme Deity; the belief that all matter is evil and the body is a prison to escape from (versus the Nicene Creed teaching that there will be a physical resurrection of all people); scripture having a deep, hidden meaning whose true message could only be understood through “secret wisdom";* [59] and Jesus as a spirit that“seemed”* [60] to be human, leading to a rejection of the incarnation (Docetism).* [61] The traditional “formula which enshrines the Incarnation...is that in some sense God, without ceasing to be God, was made man...which is a prima facie [‘at first sight’] contradiction in theological terms...the NT nowhere reflects on the virgin birth of Jesus as witnessing to the conjunction of deity and manhood in His person...the deity of Jesus was not...clearly stated in words and [the book of] Acts gives no hint that it was”.* [62] This philosophy* [63] was known by the Church Fathers such as Origen, Irenaeus, and Tertullian.* [64] At its core, Gnosticism formed a speculative interest in the relationship of the oneness of God to the ‘triplicity’ of his manifestations. It seems to have taken Neoplatonic metaphysics of substance and hypostases ["being"]* [65] as a departure point for interpreting the relationship of the “Father”to the “Son”* [66] in its attempt to define a new theology.* [67] This would point to the infamous theological controversies by Arius* [68] against followers of the Greek Alexandrian school,* [69] headed by Athanasius.* [70]

The ancient Nag Hammadi Library, discovered in Egypt in the 1940s, revealed how varied this movement was.

The writers of these manuscripts considered themselves ‘Christians’, but owing to their syncretistic beliefs, borrowed heavily from the Greek philosopher Plato. The find included the hotly debated Gospel of Thomas, which parallels some of Jesus’sayings in the Synoptic Gospels.

This may point to the existence of a postulated lost tex8.2.3 Christianity tual source for the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, known as the Q document.* [71] Thus, modern debate is split beSee also: Christian Gnosticism and Gnosticism and the tween those who see Gnosticism as a pre-Christian form New Testament of ‘theosophy’* [72] and those who see it as a postChristian counter-movement.

Although some scholars hypothesize that gnosticism developed before or contemporaneous with Christianity, no gnostic texts have been discovered that pre-date Christianity.* [55] James M. Robinson, a noted proponent of pre-Christian Gnosticism, has admitted “pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all.”* [56] Since pre-Christian Gnosticism, as such, is strictly hypothetical, any influence

It is hard to sift through what actual evidence there is regarding Gnosticism in the New Testament due to their historical synchronicity. The Hammadi library find contains Pagan, Jewish, Greek and early Gnostic influences.* [73] The antiquity of the find is of utmost importance since it shows primary evidence of texts that may also have influenced the process of New Testament can-

8.3. HISTORY onization.* [74]* [75]

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8.3.1 Sources Main articles: Church Fathers and Nag Hammadi Library

8.2.4

Judaism

Many heads of gnostic schools were identified as Jewish Christians by Church Fathers and Hebrew words and names of God were applied in some gnostic systems.* [76] The cosmogonic speculations among Christian Gnostics had partial origins in Ma`aseh Bereshit and Ma`aseh Merkabah.* [77]

Gnostic rejection of Judaism Modern research (Cohen 1988) identifies Judaism, rather than Persia, as a major origin of Gnosticism. Many of the Nag Hammadi texts make reference to Judaism, in some cases with a violent rejection of the Jewish God.* [78] Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as “the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism”.* [79] Professor Steven Bayme said gnosticism would be better characterized as anti-Judaism.* [80] Recent research into the origins of Gnosticism shows a strong Jewish influence, particularly from Hekhalot literature.* [81]

Kabbalah Gnostic ideas found a Jewish variation in the mystical study of Kabbalah. Many core Gnostic ideas reappear in Kabbalah, where they are used for dramatically reinterpreting earlier Jewish sources according to this new system.* [82] The Kabbalists originated in 13th-century Provence,* [83] which was at that time also the center of the Gnostic Cathars. While some scholars in the middle of the 20th century tried to assume an influence between the Cathar “gnostics”and the origins of the Kabbalah, this assumption has proved to be an incorrect generalization not substantiated by any original texts.* [84] On the other hand, other scholars, such as Scholem, have postulated that there was originally a Jewish gnosticism, which influenced the early origins of gnosticism.* [85] Kabbalah does not employ the terminology or labels of non-Jewish Gnosticism, but grounds the same or similar concepts in the language of the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible).* [86] The 13th-century Zohar ( “Splendor”), a foundational text in Kabbalah, is written in the style of a Jewish Aramaic Midrash, clarifying the five books of the Torah with a new Kabbalistic system that uses completely Jewish terms.* [87]

8.3 History Main article: History of Gnosticism

Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library, much of what we know today about gnosticism was preserved only in the summaries and assessments of early church fathers.

The Nag Hammadi library * [88] is a collection of Gnostic texts discovered in 1945 near Nag Hammadi, Upper Egypt. Twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local farmer named Muhammed al-Samman.* [89] The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic treatises, but they also include three works belonging to the Corpus Hermeticum and a partial translation/alteration of Plato's Republic. In his introduction to The Nag Hammadi Library in English, James Robinson suggests that these codices may have belonged to a nearby Pachomian monastery, and were buried after Bishop Athanasius condemned the use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter of 367 AD.

8.3.2 Development of the Syrian-Egyptian school Bentley Layton has sketched out a relationship between the various gnostic movements in his introduction to The Gnostic Scriptures (SCM Press, London, 1987). In this model, “Classical Gnosticism”and “The School of Thomas”antedated and influenced the development of Valentinus, who was to found his own school of Gnosticism in both Alexandria and Rome, whom Layton called “the great [Gnostic] reformer”and“the focal point”of Gnostic development. While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher Basilides, and may have been influenced by him.

Valentinianism flourished after the middle of the 2nd century AD. This movement was named after its founder Valentinus (c. 100 – 180 AD). The school is also known to have been extremely popular: several varieties of their central myth are known, and we know of “reports from outsiders from which the intellectual liveliness of the group is evident.”* [90] It is known that Valentinus' students elaborated on his teachings and materials (though the exact extent of their changes remains unknown), for example, in the version of the Valentinian myth brought to us through Ptolemy.

Valentinianism might be described as the most elaborate and philosophically“dense”form of the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism, though it should be acknowledged that this in no way debarred other schools from attracting followers. Basilides' own school was popular also, and survived in Egypt until the 4th century.

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Simone Petrement, in A Separate God, in arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded as a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil. (See below.)

emergence of the Paulicians, Bogomils and Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out by the Catholic Church.

In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, given that the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire.

8.4 Major movements Schools of Gnosticism can be defined according to one classification system as being a member of two broad categories. These are the “Eastern"/"Persian”school, and a “Syrian-Egyptic”school. The former possesses more demonstrably dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zurvanist Zoroastrians. Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view.

Notable exceptions include relatively modern movements that seem to include elements of both categories, namely: the Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians, which are included in their own section.

8.4.1 Persian

Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in Sogdian. Manuscript from Khocho, Tarim Basin.

8.3.3

Development of the Persian school

An alternate heritage is offered by Kurt Rudolph in his book Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism (Koehler and Amelang, Leipzig, 1977), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic schools. The decline of Manicheism that occurred in Persia in the 5th century was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west. In the west, the teachings of the school moved into Syria, Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa (where Augustine was a member of the school from 373–382); from Syria it progressed still farther, into Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia. There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and Dalmatia in the 4th century, and also in Gaul and Spain. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the

The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian province of Babylonia (in particular, within the Sassanid province of Asuristan), and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism.

• Mandaeanism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan. The name of the group derives from the term Mandā d-Heyyi, which roughly means“Knowledge of Life.”Although the exact chronological origins of this movement are not known, John the Baptist eventually came to be a key figure in the religion, as an emphasis on baptism is part of their core beliefs. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity,* [91] Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed. Their beliefs and practices likewise have little overlap with the religions that manifested from those religious figures and the two should not be confused. Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture, written in

8.4. MAJOR MOVEMENTS Mandaean Aramaic, survive in the modern era. The primary source text is known as the Genzā Rabbā and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the 2nd century AD. There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical Book of Prayer and The Book of John the Baptist (sidra ḏ-iahia).

61 • The Apocalypse of Adam • The Reality of the Rulers, Also known as The Hypostasis of the Archons • The Thunder, Perfect Mind

• The Three-fold First Thought (Trimorphic Proten• Manichaeism, which represented an entire indenoia) pendent religious heritage, but is now extinct, was founded by the Prophet Mani (216–276 AD). The • The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit (also original writings were written in Syriac Aramaic, known as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians)* [94] in a unique Manichaean script. Although most of the literature/scripture of the Manichaeans was • Zostrianos believed lost, the discovery of an original series • Allogenes of documents have helped to shed new light on the subject. Now housed in Cologne Germany, a • The Three Steles of Seth Manichaean religious work written in Greek, the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis, contains mainly bi• The Gospel of Judas ographical information on the prophet and details • Marsanes on his claims and teachings. Before the discovery of these authentic Manichaean texts, scholars had to • The Coptic Apocalypse of Paul rely on anti-Manichaean polemical works, such as the Christian anti-Manichaean Acta Archelai (also • The Thought of Norea written in Greek), which has Mani saying, for example, “The true God has nothing to do with the • The Second Treatise of the Great Seth material world or cosmos,”and,“It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their The texts commonly attributed to the Thomasine school priests. Thus the Christians, the Jews, and the Pa- are: gans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts • The Hymn of the Pearl, or, the Hymn of Jude he taught them.”* [92]* [93] Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians

8.4.2

Syrian-Egyptian

The Syrian-Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from Platonist influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe. As a result, these schools tend to view evil in terms of matter that is markedly inferior to goodness—evil as lacking spiritual insight and goodness, rather than to emphasize portrayals of evil as an equal force. These schools of gnosticism may be said to use the terms “evil”and “good”as being relative descriptive terms, as they refer to the relative plight of human existence caught between such realities and confused in its orientation, with“evil” indicating the extremes of distance from the principle and source of goodness, without necessarily emphasizing an inherent negativity. As can be seen below, many of these movements included source material related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian (albeit quite different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms). Most of the literature from this category is known to us through the Library discovered at Nag Hammadi.

Sethian works typically include: • The Apocryphon of John

• The Gospel of Thomas • The Infancy Gospel of Thomas • The Acts of Thomas • The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect • The Psalms of Thomas • The Apocalypse of Thomas Valentinian works are named in reference to the bishop and teacher Valentinius. Circa 153 AD, Valentinius developed a complex cosmology outside the Sethian tradition. At one point he was close to being appointed the Bishop of Rome of what is now the Roman Catholic Church. Works attributed to his school are listed below, and fragmentary pieces directly linked to him are noted with an asterisk: • The Divine Word Present in the Infant (Fragment A) * • On the Three Natures (Fragment B) * • Adam's Faculty of Speech (Fragment C) *

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• To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System (Fragment 8.4.3 D) * • Annihilation of the Realm of Death (Fragment F) * • On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom (Fragment G) * • Epistle on Attachments (Fragment H) * • Summer Harvest* • The Gospel of Truth* • Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth • Prayer of the Apostle Paul • Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora • Treatise on the Resurrection (Epistle to Rheginus) • Gospel of Philip Basilidian works are named for the founder of their school, Basilides (132–? AD). These works are mainly known to us through the criticisms of one of his opponents, Irenaeus in his work Adversus Haereses. The other pieces are known through the work of Clement of Alexandria: • The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A) • The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B) • Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C) • The State of Virtue (Fragment D) • The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E) • Reincarnation (Fragment F) • Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G) • Forgivable Sins (Fragment H) The Gospel of Judas is the most recently discovered Gnostic text. National Geographic has published an English translation of it, bringing it into mainstream awareness. It portrays Judas Iscariot as the “thirteenth spirit (daemon)",* [95] who “exceeded”the evil sacrifices the disciples offered to Saklas by sacrificing the “man who clothed me (Jesus)".* [96] Its reference to Barbelo and inclusion of material similar to the Apocryphon of John and other such texts, connects the text to Barbeloite and/or Sethian Gnosticism.

Gnostic-influenced groups

people

and

• Simon Magus, the magician baptised by Philip and rebuked by Peter in Acts 8, became in early Christianity the archetypal false teacher. The ascription

by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and others of a connection between schools in their time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books.

• Justin Martyr identifies Menander of Antioch as Simon Magus' pupil.

• Justin identifies Marcion of Sinope as a false teacher.

Both developed a sizable following. Marcion is generally labeled a gnostic, however some scholars do not consider him to be a gnostic at all, for example Mead does consider him to be a Gnostic "...it is evident that the Marcionite tradition was of a distinctly Gnostic tendency* [97] but Harnack does not.* [98] Also the Encyclopædia Britannica article on Marcion clearly states: “In Marcion's own view, therefore, the founding of his church—to which he was first driven by opposition—amounts to a reformation of Christendom through a return to the gospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to be accepted beyond that. This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A dualist he certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic”.

• Cerinthus (c. 100 AD), the founder of a heretical school with gnostic elements. Like a Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus, and he cited the demiurge as creating the material world. Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the Second Coming. His gnosis was a secret teaching attributed to an apostle. Some scholars believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus.* [99] • The Ophites, so-named by Hippolytus of Rome because, Hippolytus claims, they worshiped the serpent of Genesis as the bestower of knowledge.

• The Cainites are so-named since Hippolytus of Rome claims that they worshiped Cain, as well as Esau, Korah, and the Sodomites. There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group. Hippolytus claims that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see libertinism). The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the usual Biblical sense of people descended from Cain.

• The Carpocratians, a libertine sect following only the Gospel according to the Hebrews

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63

• The Borborites, a libertine Gnostic sect, said to be descended from the Nicolaitans Later groups accused by their contemporaries of being in line with the “gnostics”of Irenaeus. Various later groups were also associated with earlier heretics by their contemporaries: • The Paulicans, an Adoptionist group of which little is known first-hand, were accused by orthodox medieval sources of being Gnostic and quasi Manichaean Christian. They flourished between 650 and 872 in Armenia and the Eastern Themes of the Byzantine Empire • The Bogomils, the synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church reform movement, which emerged in Bulgaria between 927 and 970 and spread throughout Europe • The Cathars (Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians) were also accused by their enemies of the traits of Gnosticism; though whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. If their critics are reliable the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god), though they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (gnosis) as an effective salvific force.

8.5 Origin of the term The term “Gnosticism”does not appear in ancient sources,* [100] and was first coined in the 17th Century by Henry More in a commentary on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation, where More used the term “Gnosticisme”to describe the heresy in Thyatira.* [101] The term derives from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos (“learned”, “intellectual”, Greek γνωστικός)

by St. Irenaeus (c. 185 AD) to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis “the heresy called Learned (gnostic)".* [102] This occurs in the context of Irenaeus' work On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis, (Greek: elenchos kai anatrope tes pseudonymou gnoseos, ἔλεγχος καὶ ἀνατροπὴ τῆς ψευδωνύμου γνώσεως) where the term “knowledge falsely so-called”(pseudonymos gnosis) covers various groups, not just Valentinus, and is a quotation of the apostle Paul's warning against “knowledge falsely so-called”in 1 Timothy 6:20.* [103] The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is “learned”or“intellectual”, such as used in the comparison of“practical”(praktikos) and“intellectual”(gnostikos) in Plato's dialogue between Young Socrates and the

Irenaeus, who first used “gnostic”to describe heresies

Foreigner in his The Statesman (258e).* [104] Plato's use of “learned”is fairly typical of Classical texts.* [105] By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, becoming synonymous with the Greek term musterion. The adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria in Book 7 of his Stromateis speaks of the “learned” (gnostikos) Christian in complimentary terms.* [106] The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus. Some scholars, for example A. Rousseau and L. Doutreleau, translators of the French edition (1974),* [107] consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean“intellectual”, as in 1.25.6, 1.11.3, 1.11.5, whereas his mention of “the intellectual sect”(Adv. haer. 1.11.1) is a specific designation. Irenaeus' comparative adjective gnostikeron“more learned” , evidently cannot mean“more Gnostic”as a name.* [108] Of those groups that Irenaeus identifies as “intellectual”(gnostikos), only one, the followers of Marcellina use the term gnostikos of themselves.* [109] Later Hippolytus uses“learned”(gnostikos) of Cerinthus and the Ebionites, and Epiphanius applied“learned”(gnostikos) to specific groups.

8.6 Studies

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8.6.1

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM

19th century to 1930s

Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi, evidence for gnostic movements was of necessity largely seen through the testimony of the early church heresiologists. The “church historical model,”represented by Adolf von Harnack among others, saw gnosticism as an internal development within the church under the influence of Greek philosophy.* [110]

mysteries for an élite”."

—Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, p. 13

In essence, this decided that “Gnosticism”would become a historically specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while “gnosis”would be a universal term, denoting a system of knowledge retained“for a privileged élite.”However, this effort towards providing clarity in fact created more conceptual confusion, as the historical term “Gnosticism” 8.6.2 After the discovery of the Nag Ham- was an entirely modern construction, while the new unimadi library, 1945 versal term“gnosis”was a historical term: “something was being called“gnosticism”that the ancient theologians See also: Nag Hammadi library had called 'gnosis' ... [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical * Study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian Christian- sense”. [114] In antiquity, all agreed that knowledge was centrally important to life, but few were agreed as to what ity received a strong impetus from the discovery of the * exactly constituted knowledge; the unitary conception that Coptic Nag Hammadi Library in 1945. [111] the Messina proposal presupposed did not exist.* [114] In 1979, Elaine Pagels, Professor of Religion at Princeton University, published a popular* [112]* [113] book, The These flaws have meant that the problems concerning an * Gnostic Gospels, which detailed the suppression of some exact definition of Gnosticism persist. [115] It remains of the writings found at Nag Hammadi by early bishops current convention to use “Gnosticism”in a historical sense, and“gnosis”universally. Leaving aside the issues of the Christian church. with the latter noted above, the usage of “Gnosticism” to designate a category of 3rd-century religions has re8.6.3 “Gnosis”as a potentially flawed cate- cently been questioned as well. Of note is Michael Allen Williams' Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for the gory Dismantling of a Dubious Category, in which the author In 1966 in Messina, Italy, a conference was held concern- examines the terms by which Gnosticism as a category ing systems of gnosis. Among its several aims were the is defined, and then closely compares these suppositions need to establish a program to translate the recently ac- with the contents of actual Gnostic texts (the newly required Nag Hammadi library and the need to arrive at an covered Nag Hammadi library was of central importance * agreement concerning an accurate definition of “Gnos- to his argument). [116] ticism”. This was in answer to the tendency, prevalent Williams argues that the conceptual foundations on which since the 18th century, to use the term “gnostic”less as the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the its origins implied, but rather as an interpretive category agenda of the heresiologists. Too much emphasis has for contemporary philosophical and religious movements. been laid on perceptions of dualism, body- and matterFor example, in 1835, New Testament scholar Ferdinand hatred, and anticosmism* [117] without these supposiChristian Baur constructed a developmental model of tions being properly tested. In essence, the interpretive Gnosticism that culminated in the religious philosophy of definition of Gnosticism that was created by the antagoHegel; one might compare literary critic Harold Bloom's nistic efforts of the early church heresiologists has been recent attempts to identify Gnostic elements in contem- taken up by modern scholarship and reflected in a categorporary American religion, or Eric Voegelin's analysis ical definition, even though the means now existed to verof totalitarian impulses through the interpretive lens of ify its accuracy. Attempting to do so, Williams contests, Gnosticism. reveals the dubious nature of categorical “Gnosticism” The“cautious proposal”reached by the conference con- , and he concludes that the term needs replacing to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises.* [116] cerning Gnosticism is described by Markschies: Williams' observations have provoked debate; however, to date his suggested replacement term “the Biblical “In the concluding document of Messina demiurgical tradition”has not become widely used. the proposal was “by the simultaneous application of historical and typological methods” to designate “a particular group of systems of 8.7 Modern times the second century after Christ”as gnosticism, and to use gnosis to define a conception of Main article: Gnosticism in modern times knowledge that transcends the times, which was described as “knowledge of divine

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65

A number of 19th-century thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer,* [118] Albert Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like Herman Melville and W. B. Yeats were more tangentially influenced.* [119] Jules Doinel “re-established”a Gnostic church in France in 1890, which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as Tau Synésius and Joanny Bricaud as Tau Jean II most notably), and, though small, is still active today.* [120] Early 20th-century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who included it in many of his short stories), and Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderatedly influenced.

Rene Guenon founded the gnostic review, Le Gnose in 1909 (before moving to a more“Perennialist”position).

Gnostic Thelemite organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace themselves to Crowley's thought.

The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 has had a huge effect on Gnosticism since World War II. Intellectuals who were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this period include Lawrence Durrell, Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen Ginsberg being more moderately influenced.* [119] A number of ecclesiastical bodies that think of themselves as Gnostic have set up or refounded since World War II as well, including the Society of Novus Spiritus, Ecclesia Gnostica, Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, the Thomasine Church, the Apostolic Johan- Engraving from an Abraxas stone. nite Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, the North American College of Gnostic Bishops. Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own phiThe word Abraxas was engraved on certain antique gemlosophy.* [121] stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which may Alfred North Whitehead was aware of the existence have been used as amulets or charms by Gnostic groups. of the newly discovered Gnostic scrolls. Accordingly, In popular culture, Abraxas is sometimes considered the Michel Weber has proposed a Gnostic interpretation of name of a god who incorporated both Good and evil * his late metaphysics. [122] (god and demiurge) in one entity, and therefore representing the monotheistic god, singular, but (unlike, for example, the Christian God) not omnibenevolent. Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in recent centuries has been 8.8 Terms and concepts claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon, sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of SaSee also: List of gnostic terms tan/Lucifer.

Abraxas/Abrasax

The above information relates to interpretations of ancient amulets and to reports of Christian heresy hunters, which are not always clear.

Main article: Abraxas The Egyptian Gnostic Basilideans referred to a figure called Abraxas who was at the head of 365 spiritual beings (Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, I.24); it is unclear what to make of Irenaeus' use of the term archon, which may simply mean “ruler”in this context. The role and function of Abraxas for Basilideans is not clear.

Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag Hammadi Library, such as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians, refer to Abraxas as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Spiritual Fullness in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who

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encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge and Archon's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abraxas, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Divine Fullness that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality.

teach man how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the Pleroma.* [13]

Aeon

Main article: Demiurge The term Demiurge derives from the Latinized form of

Archon

In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term archon to refer to several servants of the demiurge.* [131] In this context they may be seen as having Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also ap- the roles of the angels and demons of the Old Testament. pear in the Greek Magical Papyri. There are similariAccording to Origen's Contra Celsum, a sect called the ties and differences between such figures in reports about Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning Basiledes' teaching, in the larger magical traditions of the with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that folGraeco-Roman world, in the classic ancient Gnostic texts low: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos and Hosuch as the Gospel of the Egyptians, and in later magical raios.* [132] Similarly to the Mithraic Kronos and Vedic and esoteric writings.

Narasimha, a form of Vishnu, Ialdabaoth had a head of a The Swiss psychologist Carl Jung wrote a short Gnostic lion.* [12]* [133]* [134] treatise in 1916 called Seven Sermons to the Dead, which called Abraxas a God higher than the Christian God and Demiurge Devil, that combines all opposites into one Being.

Main article: Aeon (Gnosticism) In many Gnostic systems, the aeons are the various emanations of the superior God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleios (Αἰὼν τέλειος, “The Complete Æon”), Bythos (Greek: Βυθός,“Depth, Profundity”), Proarkhe (Greek: Προαρχή,“Before the Beginning”), he Arkhe (Greek: ἡ ἀρχή, “The Beginning”), Ennoia (Greek: Ἔννοια, “Thought”) of the Light* [123] or Sige (Greek: Σιγή, “Silence”).* [124] From this first being, also an æon, a series of different emanations occur, beginning in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic Barbelo,* [12]* [125]* [126] from which successive pairs of aeons emanate, often in malefemale pairings called syzygies;* [127] the numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty.* [128] The aeons as a totality constitute the pleroma, the “region of light”.

The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world.

Two of the most commonly paired æons were Jesus and Sophia (Greek: “Wisdom”); the latter refers to Jesus as her “consort”in A Valentinian Exposition.* [129] Sophia, emanating without her partner, resulting in the production of the Demiurge (Greek: lit.“public builder” ),* [130] who is also referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations thereof in some Gnostic texts.* [12] This creature is concealed outside the Pleroma;* [12] in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a host of co-actors, referred to as archons. The demiurge is responsible for the creation of mankind; trapping elements of the Pleroma stolen from Sophia inside human bodies.* [12]* [131] In response, the Godhead emanates two savior aeons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to

A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge; however, cf. Mithraic Zervan Akarana* [135]

the Greek term dēmiourgos, δημιουργός (literally“public or skilled worker”), and refers to an entity responsible for the creation of the physical universe and the physical aspect of humanity. The term dēmiourgos occurs in a number of other religious and philosophical systems, most notably Platonism. Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of Gnosticism —such judgements usually correspond to

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67

each group's judgement of the status of materiality as be- Gnosis ing inherently evil, or else merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter allows. In Gnosticism the Main article: Gnosis Demiurge, creator of the material world, was not God but the Archon.* [136] The word“Gnosticism”is a modern construction, though As Plato does, Gnosticism presents a distinction between based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes a supranatural, unknowable reality and the sensible mate- from the Greek word meaning “knowledge”, gnosis riality of which the demiurge is creator. However, in con- (γνῶσις). However, gnosis itself refers to a very spetrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present cialised form of knowledge, deriving both from the exthe Demiurge as antagonistic to the Supreme God: his act meaning of the original Greek term and its usage in act of creation either in unconscious and fundamentally Platonist philosophy. flawed imitation of the divine model, or else formed with Ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the didifferent forms of knowing. These different forms may vine in materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demibe described in English as being propositional knowledge, urge acts as a solution to the problem of evil. In the indicative of knowledge acquired indirectly through the Apocryphon of John (several versions of which are found reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as “I in the Nag Hammadi library), the Demiurge has the name know of George Bush”or“I know Berlin is in Germany” "Yaltabaoth", and proclaims himself as God: ), and empirical knowledge acquired by direct participation or acquaintance (such as“I know George Bush perNow the archon who is weak has three names. sonally”or “I know Berlin, having visited”).

The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Gnosis (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind.

Saklas, and the third is Samael. And he is imTherefore, in a religious context, to be“Gnostic”should pious in his arrogance which is in him. For he be understood as being reliant not on knowledge in a gensaid,“I am God and there is no other God beeral sense, but as being specially receptive to mystical or side me,”for he is ignorant of his strength, the esoteric experiences of direct participation with the diplace from which he had come.* [137] vine. Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause ( acquaintance with” “Samael”, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, refers to the of salvation is this“knowledge of”“ ) the divine.

This is commonly identified with a process evil angel of death, and corresponds to the Christian deof inward“knowing”or self-exploration, comparable to mon of that name, one second only to Satan. Literally, it that encouraged by Plotinus.

This is what helps separate can mean“blind god”or“god of the blind”in Aramaic Gnosticism from proto-orthodox views, where the ortho(Syriac sæmʻa-ʼel); another alternative title is “Saklas”, * dox views are considered to be superficial.

[138] The inAramaic for “fool”(Syriac sækla “the foolish one”). adequate take then requires a correct form of interpretaGnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek, literally tion. With “gnosis”comes a fuller insight that is conmeaning“wisdom”), the Demiurge's mother and a par- sidered to be more spiritual. Greater recognition of the tial aspect of the divine Pleroma or“Fullness”, desired to deeper spiritual meanings of doctrines, scriptures, and create something apart from the divine totality, and with- rituals are obtained with this insight. However, as may out the receipt of divine assent. In this abortive act of be seen, the term “gnostic”also had precedent usage in separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demi- several ancient philosophical traditions, which must also urge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him be weighed in considering the very subtle implications of in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The its appellation to a set of ancient religious groups.

Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, Monad being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birthplace.

Main article: Monad (Gnosticism) The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies), God is the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute, Aion teleos of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in (The Perfect Æon), Bythos (Depth or Profundity, Βυθος), unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, προαρχη), and HE Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the mate- Arkhe (The Beginning, ἡ ἀρχή). God is the high source rial forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the of the pleroma, the region of light. The various emanamaterial universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was tions of God are called æons. typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a Within certain variations of Gnosticism, especially those return by the subject to the superior, non-material reali- inspired by Monoimus, the Monad was the highest God which created lesser gods, or elements (similar to æons). ties that were its primal source.

68 According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the Monad, which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc. This was also clarified in the writings of Plato, Aristotle and Plotinus. This teaching being largely Neopythagorean via Numenius as well.

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form since the word appears under the book of Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels of Princeton University, view the reference in Colossians as something that was to be interpreted in the gnostic sense.

This Monad is the spiritual source of everything that emanates the pleroma, and could be contrasted to the dark Sophia Demiurge (Yaldabaoth) that controls matter.

The Sethian cosmogony as most famously contained in the Apocryphon (“Secret book”) of John describes an unknown God, very similar to the orthodox apophatic theology, although very different from the orthodox credal teachings that there is one such god who is identified also as creator of heaven and earth. In describing the nature of a creator god associated with Biblical texts, orthodox theologians often attempt to define God through a series of explicit positive statements, themselves universal but in the divine taken to their superlative degrees: he is omniscient, omnipotent and truly benevolent. The Sethian conception of the most hidden transcendent God is, by contrast, defined through negative theology: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable; commonly, “he”is seen as being hermaphroditic, a potent symbol for being, as it were, “all-containing”. In the Apocryphon of John, this god is good in that it bestows goodness. After the apophatic statements, the process of the Divine in action are used to describe the effect of such a god.

Main article: Sophia (wisdom) In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σoφíα, Greek for “wisdom”) refers to the final and lowest emanation of God. In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive or negative depiction of materiality thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90.

Almost all gnostic systems of the Syrian or Egyptian type taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable God, referred to as the Parent or Bythos, as the Monad by Monoimus, or the first Aeon by still other traditions. From this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously emanated further Aeons, pairs of progressively “lesser”beings in sequence. The lowest of these pairs An apophatic approach to discussing the Divine is found were Sophia and Christ. The Aeons together made up throughout gnosticism, Vedanta, and Platonic and Aristhe Pleroma, or fullness of divinity and thus should not totelian theology as well. It is also found in some Judaic be seen as identical with God nor as distinct from the disources. vine, but as embodied divine emanations.

Pleroma

8.9 See also

Main article: Pleroma

• Christian anarchism

Pleroma (Greek πληρωμα) generally refers to the totality of God's powers. The term means fullness, and is used in Christian theological contexts: both in Gnosticism generally, and in Colossians 2:9.

• Christian mysticism

Gnosticism holds that the world is controlled by evil archons, one of whom is the demiurge, according to some the deity of the Old Testament (YHWH) who holds the human spirit captive.

The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light “above”(the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons. Jesus is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. The term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology.

• Druze • First Council of Nicaea • Gnosiology • Hermeticism • Jesuism • John D. Turner • Sethian Gnosticism • Theosophy

8.10. NOTES

8.10 Notes [1] On the complexity of gnosticism, see Larry W. Hurtado (2005). Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 519– 561.

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[13] “An Introduction to Gnosticism and The Nag Hammadi Library”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 200912-02.

[14] Macuch, Rudolf (1965). Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Berlin: De Gruyter & Co. pp. 61 fn. 105.

[2] John Hinnel (1997). The Penguin Dictionary of Religion.

Penguin Books UK.

[15] “The Gnostic World View: A Brief Introduction”. The Gnosis Archive. Retrieved 2009-02-12.

[3] Tobias Churton (2005). Gnostic Philosophy: From Ancient Persia to Modern Times. Inner Traditions, VA USA. ISBN 978-159477-035-7.

[16] Hans Jonas, The Gnostic Religion, p. 42, Beacon Press, 1963, ISBN 0-8070-5799-1; 1st ed. 1958

[4] Adolf von Harnack (1885) defined it as “the acute Hellenization of Christianity”. Moritz Friedländer (1898) advocated Hellenistic Jewish origins, and Wilhelm Bousset (1907) advocated Persian origins.

[17] Middle Persian Sources: D. N. MacKenzie, Mani’s Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34, pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310.

[5] Karen L. King, What is Gnosticism? (2005) “Bousset held that Gnosticism was a pre-Christian religion, existing alongside of Christianity. It was an Oriental product, antiJewish and un-Hellenic... "

[18] Bevan, A. A. (1930). Manichaeism. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Volume VIII Ed. James Hastings.

London

[9] “Faith (pistis) and Knowledge (gnosis)". The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12.

[28] J. Jacobs, L. Blau Gnosticism from the Jewish Encyclopedia 1911

[19] Zaehner, Richard Charles (1961). The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam. ISBN 1-84212[6] James M. Robinson, one of the chief scholars on Gnosti165-0. A section of the book is available online. Several cism said at the 1978 International Conference on Gnostiother websites have duplicated this text, but include an cism at Yale “At this stage we have not found any Gnos“Introduction”that is very obviously not by Zaehner. tic texts that clearly antedate the origin of Christianity.” cited in Edwin Yamauchi,“Pre-Christian Gnosticism, the New Testament and Nag Hammadi in recent debate,”in [20] Pagels, Elaine (1978). The Gnostic Gospels.

Themelios 10.1 (Sept 1984): 22–27.

[21] Schoedel, William (1980). “Gnostic Monism and the Gospel of Truth”in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, [7] To this end Paul Trebilco cites the following in his article Vol.1: The School of Valentinus, (ed.) Bentley Layton,.

“Christian Communities In Western Asia Minor Into The Leiden: E.J.Brill.

Early Second Century: Ignatius And Others As Witnesses Against Bauer”in JETS 49.1: E.M. Yamauchi, “Gnosticism and Early Christianity,”in W. E. Helleman, ed. [22] Layton, Bentley (1987). The Gnostic Scriptures. SCM Press —Introduction to“Against Heresies”by St. Irenaeus (1994). Hellenization Revisited: Shaping a Christian Response Within the Greco-Roman World. University Press of America. p. 38. ; Karen L. King (2003). What is [23] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, II, 27, 1”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13.

Gnosticism?. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 175.; C. Markschies (2003). Gnosis: An Introduction. London: T&T Clark. pp. 67–69.; cf. H. [24] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, I, 31, 2”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13.

Koester (1982). Introduction to the New Testament, Vol 2: History and Literature of Early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. p. 286.; For discussions of “Gnosticism”see [25] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, I, 23, 3”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13.

Yamauchi,“Gnosticism”29–61; M. A. Williams (1996).

Rethinking “Gnosticism": An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category. Princeton University Press.; Gerd [26] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, I, 25, 4”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13.

Theissen (1999). A Theory of Primitive Christian Religion.

London: SCM Press. pp. 231–39..

[27] Huidekoper, Frederic (1891). Judaism at Rome: BC 76 to [8] “Valentinian Monism”. The Gnostic Society Library.

AD 140. D. G. Francis. p. 331. First on our list stand the Retrieved 2009-02-12.

Gnostics ...

[10] “Demiurge”. Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 200902-12.

[11] “Plato, Republic 588A-589B”. “The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12.

[12] “The Apocryphon of John”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12.

[29] Brakke, David (January 1, 2011). The Gnostics (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. ASIN B004Z14APQ. [30] Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 By Guy Halsall pg 293 Publisher: Cambridge University Press (January 28, 2008) ISBN 0-521-43491-2 ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1

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[31] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Clare Goodrick-Clarke G. R. S. Mead and the Gnostic Quest 2005 p8 “The idea that Gnosticism was derived from Buddhism was first postulated by Charles William King in his classic work, The Gnostics and their Remains (1864). He was one of the earliest and most emphatic scholars to propose the Gnostic debt to Buddhist thought.”

[32] H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies of the First and Second Centuries (1875); p.32 [33] International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J p490 ed.

Geoffrey W. Bromiley —1982“Mansel ... summed up the principal sources of Gnosticism in these three: Platonism, the Persian religion, and the Buddhism of India.”

[34] “The Gnostic Gospels”.

[35] The Eastern Buddhist Society (1981) “This paper is an initial attempt to follow up Pagels' call for a comparative study of the Nag Hammadi tractates and Indian sources,6 by considering some of the similarities in theory and practice present in certain Nag Hammadi texts, in certain Buddhist wisdom scriptures, and in the works of two second to third century cE Mahayana Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna and Aryadeva.”

[36] Ritter Die Stupa's: oder die architectonischen Denkmale 1838 [37] “CHURCH FATHERS: Catechetical Lecture 6 (Cyril of Jerusalem)".

[38]“There are two classes of these, called Sarmans and Brahmans. Among the Sarmans, the so-called forest dwellers do not occupy cities or have roofs over their heads.”

[39] Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer. The Gnostic Bible, p.7, p.569, p.572, Shambhala Publications, 2006.

[40] Cross, Frank L.; Livingstone, Elizabeth, eds. (2005).

“Platonism”. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19280290-9.

[41] TeSelle, Eugene (1970). Augustine the Theologian. London. pp. 347–349. ISBN 0-223-97728-4. March 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57910-918-7.

[42] R. McL. Wilson, “Nag Hammadi and the New Testament”, New Testament Studies, vol. 28, (1982), 292.

[43] Turner, John (1986). “Sethian Gnosticism: A Literary History”in Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity. p. 59.

[44] Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (Rise and Decline of the Roman World) Vl 21/1 Volume 2; Volume 21

By Hildegard Temporini, Joseph Vogt, Wolfgang Haase Publisher: Walter de Gruyter (December 31, 1983) Language: German ISBN 3-11-008845-2 ISBN 978-3-11008845-8 [45] Turner, John. “Sethian Gnosticism: A Literary History”in Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity, 1986 p. 59

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM

[46] “No Longer Jews: The Search for Gnostic Origins: Carl B. Smith: 9781565639447: Amazon.com: Books”.

[47] This is what the scholar A. H. Armstrong wrote as a footnote in his translation of Plotinus' Enneads in the tract named against the Gnostics. Footnote from Page 264 1.

From this point to the end of ch.12 Plotinus is attacking a Gnostic myth known to us best at present in the form it took in the system of Valentinus. The Mother, SophiaAchamoth, produced as a result of the complicated sequence of events after the fall of the higher Sophia, and her offspring the Demiurge, the inferior and ignorant maker of the material universe, are Valentinian figures: cp. Irenaues adv. Haer 1.4 and 5. Valentinius had been in Rome, and there is nothing improbable in the presence of Valentinians there in the time of Plotinus. But the evidence in the Life ch.16 suggests that the Gnostics in Plotinus's circle belonged rather to the other group called Sethians on Archonties, related to the Ophites or Barbelognostics: they probably called themselves simply “Gnostics.”Gnostic groups borrowed freely from each other, and it is likely that Valentinius took some of his ideas about Sophia from older Gnostic sources, and that his ideas in turn influenced other Gnostics. The probably Sethian Gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi included Valentinian treatise: ep. Puech, Le pp. 162–163 and 179–180.

[48] Schenke, Hans Martin. “The Phenomenon and Significance of Gnostic Sethianism”in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism. E. J. Brill 1978 [49] Introductory Note This treatise (No.33 in Porphyry's chronological order) is in fact the concluding section of a single long treatise that Porphyry—to carry out the design of grouping his master's works more or less according to subject into six sets of nine treatise—roughly hacked into four parts, which he put into different Enneads, the other three being III. 8 (30) V. 8 (31) and V .5 (32). Porphyry says (Life ch. 16.11) that he gave the treatise the Title “Against the Gnostics”(he is presumably also responsible for the titles of the other sections of the cut-up treatise).

There is an alternative title in Life. ch. 24 56–57, which runs“Against those who say that the maker of the universe is evil and the universe is evil. The treatise as it stands in the Enneads is a most powerful protest on behalf of Hellenic philosophy against the un-Hellenic heresy (as it was from the Platonist as well as the orthodox Christian point of view) of Gnosticism. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220–222 [50] They claimed to be a privileged caste of beings, in whom God alone was interested, and who were saved not by their own efforts but by some dramatic and arbitrary divine proceeding; and this, Plotinus claimed, led to immorality. Worst of all, they despised and hated the material universe and denied its goodness and the goodness of its maker. For a Platonist, this is utter blasphemy —and all the worse because it obviously derives to some extent from the sharply other-worldly side of Plato's own teaching (e.g. in the Phaedo). At this point in his attack Plotinus comes very close in some ways to the orthodox Christian opponents of Gnosticism, who also insist that this world is the work of God in his goodness. But, here as on the question of salvation, the doctrine Plotinus is defending is as

8.10. NOTES

sharply opposed in other ways to orthodox Christianity as to Gnosticism: for he maintains not only the goodness of the material universe but also its eternity and its divinity.

A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220–222 [51] The teaching of the Gnostics seems to him untraditional, irrational and immoral. They despise and revile the ancient Platonic teachings and claim to have a new and superior wisdom of their own: but in fact anything that is true in their teaching comes from Plato, and all they have done themselves is to add senseless complications and pervert the true traditional doctrine into a melodramatic, superstitious fantasy designed to feed their own delusions of grandeur. They reject the only true way of salvation through wisdom and virtue, the slow patient study of truth and pursuit of perfection by men who respect the wisdom of the ancients and know their place in the universe.

A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220–222 [52] “Faith and Philosophy”.

[53] Enneads VI 9.6 [54] This is what the scholar A. H. Armstrong wrote as a footnote in his translation of Plotinus' Enneads in the tract named against the Gnostics. Footnote from Page 264 1.

From this point to the end of ch.12 Plotinus is attacking a Gnostic myth known to us best at present in the form it took in the system of Valentinus. The Mother, Sophia-Achamoth, produced as a result of the complicated sequence of events that followed the fall of the higher Sophia, and her offspring the Demiurge, the inferior and ignorant maker of the material universe, are Valentinian figures: cp. Irenaues adv. Haer 1.4 and 5.

Valentinius had been in Rome, and there is nothing improbable in the presence of Valentinians there in the time of Plotinus. But the evidence in the Life ch.16 suggests that the Gnostics in Plotinus's circle belonged rather to the other group called Sethians on Archonties, related to the Ophites or Barbelognostics: they probably called themselves simply“Gnostics.”Gnostic groups borrowed freely from each other, and it is likely that Valentinius took some of his ideas about Sophia from older Gnostic sources, and that his ideas in turn influenced other gnostics. The probably Sethian Gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi included Valentinian treatise: ep. Puech, Le pp. 162–163 and 179–180.

71

[58] What is understood as“orthodox”and“Gnostic”teachings in this early period (1st and 2nd centuries) must be redefined due to the complexities now unfolding regarding their historical and doctrinal similarities and dissimilarities (e.g., the gnostic belief that all matter is evil and the body is a prison to escape from, versus the NT insistence on a physical resurrection).

[59] The terminology has ties to the passage in Prov 8:23, taking a well known Judaic-concept of ‘personification’ and defining it with Christ as the “wisdom of God”[1 Co 1:24]. This metaphor was common and understood by most church fathers like Athanasius, Basil, Gregory, Epiphanius and Cyril. (Racovian Catechism, pp. 73–75) [60] From the Greek dokein, hence Docetism (Dictionary of the Later NT & its Developments, Intervarsity Press, 1997) [61] Jesus was Sui Generis, the doctrine of the “pre-existent” Christ accepted by some Gnostics and‘orthodox’Christians. Hanson R. P. C (The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318–381 A.D. Edinburgh T. & T. Clark, 1988) [62] New Bible Dictionary, (Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub., Grand Rapids, MI, 1975), pp. 558–560. Furthermore, some New Testament texts indicate that this is not in line with Judaic [or rabbinic] teaching, something Jesus himself adhered to [Luke 2; John 4:24; Phil 3:3–4]. Also see, Nuesner, Jacob, The Modern Study of the Mishna, 1997; & Mishne Torah.

[63] In Platonism the soul [psuchē] was self-moving, indivisible; degenerated and eternal, existing before the body which housed it, and longing to be free from its earthly imprisonment, leading to the Docetist-dualist concept of ‘good’& ‘evil’matter. Ed. Note.

[64] Their own heresiology would later be attacked as heretical. Holt, Reinhard. The Western Heritage of Faith and Reason (Winston N.Y., 1971), p. 382; Logan, Alastair H. B. Gnostic Truth and Christian Heresy (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, MA, 1996).

[65]“Was the Lord’s prayer addressed only to the hypostasis of the Father as ‘our Father’and the Father of the Son, or to the entire ousia of the Godhead?" Pelikan, Jaroslav.

The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol. 1, the Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1971.

[55]“At this stage we have not found any Gnostic texts that clearly antedate the origin of Christianity.”J. M. Robinson, “Sethians and Johannine Thought: The Trimorphic Protennoia and the Prologue of the Gospel of John”in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, vol. 2, Sethian Gnosticism, ed. B. Layton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1981), 662.

[66] A new theological vocabulary capable of explaining this doctrine was created [e.g. homoousios=same essence].

Adopting an idea of Origen’s that easterners would appreciate in their own Sabellianism. Hanson, Search, pp.

687–688

[56] J. M. Robinson, “Jesus: From Easter to Valentinus (Or to the Apostles' Creed),”Journal of Biblical Literature, 101 (1982), p.5.

[67] The crisis of the later Roman Empire and move towards the east brought a new realism, which may have inclined Christians to accept the new theological doctrine. Ed. note

[57] First coined in Plato’s Politikos [‘Statement’] as gnostikoi [‘those capable of knowing’], and linking it with knowledge [episteme] (Introduction to Politikos. Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. [Eds.] (1997)

[68] Arius preached that, “before Christ, God was not yet a Father...there was when he [Jesus] was not.”Since most of his works are lost, the accounts are based on reports of others. Hanson, Search, pp. 5–8.

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[69] Alexandria had long been a hotbed of theological innovation and debate where high ranking Christian thinkers used methods from Greek philosophy as well as Jewish and Christian sources for their teachings.

[70] Although he took his monotheism seriously, he later taught the only way to save mankind from moral and physical extinction was for God to do the unthinkable, descend into human flesh. Athanasius,“On the Incarnation of the World”, in Phillip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, vol. 4, Athanasius: Select Works and Letters (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994) [71] See Goodacre, Mark. The Case against Q: Studies in Marcan Priority and the Synoptic Problem (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 2002); Robinson, James, M. The Nag Hammadi Library (HarperOne, 1990).

[72] The word became familiar to Greeks in the 3rd century with Ammonius Saccas and the Alexandrian NeoPlatonists [or Theurgists]: it was adopted in 1875 by H. P. Blavatsky and others associated with the Theosophical Society (Blavatsky, H. P. The Secret Doctrine, the synthesis of science, religion, and philosophy, Theosophical Uni. Press, first published 1888) [73] Dictionary of the Later New Testament, p.410.

[74] Ferguson, Everett. “Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon,”in The Canon Debate, eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002); Lindberg, Carter. A Brief History of Christianity (Blackwell Publishing, 2006)) [75] Works Cited I. Alastair, H. B. Logan, Gnostic Truth and Christian Heresy (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, MA, 1996) II. Bewkes, E. G. The Western Heritage of Faith and Reason (Holt, Rinehart, Winston, N.Y., 1960). III. Blavatsky, H. P. The Secret Doctrine, the synthesis of science, religion, and philosophy, Theosophical Uni. Press, first published 1888. IV. Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.) Introduction to Politikos, 1997. V. Danielou, Jean. The Origin of Latin Christianity (Westminster Press, Philadelphia, PA, 1977). VI. Dictionary of Paul and his Letters, Intervarsity Press, 1993. VII. Dictionary of the Later New Testament & its Developments, Intervarsity Press, 1997. VIII. Hanson, R. P. C. The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318–381 AD. Edinburgh T. & T. Clark, 1988. IX. Holt, Reinhard. The Western Heritage of Faith and Reason, Winston N.Y., 1971. X. Horner, G. W. The Coptic version of the New Testament in the southern dialect, otherwise called Sahidic and Thebaic, 1911. XI. New Bible Dictionary, Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub., Grand Rapids, MI, 1975. XII. Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol. 1, the Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600).

Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1971. XIII. Phillip, Schaff & Wace, Henry eds., Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, vol. 4, Athanasius: Select Works and Letters (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994).

XIV. Selwyn, E. G. ‘Image, Fact and Faith’, NTS 1 no. 4 (May 1955). XV. Wolfson, H. A. ‘Notes on Patristic Philosophy’, Harvard Theological Review 57, no.

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM

2 (Apr. 1964) & the Philosophy of the Church Fathers (Harvard Uni. Press, Publishing, PA. 1976).

[76] Jewish Encyclopedia Gnosticism:“Jewish gnosticism unquestionably antedates Christianity, for Biblical exegesis had already reached an age of five hundred years by the first century C.E. Judaism had been in close contact with Babylonian-Persian ideas for at least that length of time, and for nearly as long a period with Hellenistic ideas.

Magic, also, which, as shown further on, was a not unimportant part of the doctrines and manifestations of gnosticism, largely occupied Jewish thinkers. There is, in general, no circle of ideas to which elements of gnosticism have been traced, and with which the Jews were not acquainted. It is a noteworthy fact that heads of gnostic schools and founders of gnostic systems are designated as Jews by the Church Fathers. Some derive all heresies, including those of gnosticism, from Judaism (Hegesippus in Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.”iv. 22; comp. Harnack, “Dogmengesch.”3d ed. i. 232, note 1). It must furthermore be noted that Hebrew words and names of God provide the skeleton for several gnostic systems. Christians or Jews converted from paganism would have used as the foundation of their systems terms borrowed from the Greek or Syrian translations of the Bible. This fact proves at least that the principal elements of gnosticism were derived from Jewish speculation, while it does not preclude the possibility of new wine having been poured into old bottles.”

[77] According to The Jewish Encyclopedia entry Gnosticism, 'Pre-Christian. —Cosmogonic-theological speculations, philosophemes on God and the world, constitute the substance of gnosis. They are based on the first sections of Genesis and Ezekiel, for which there are in Jewish speculation two well-established and therefore old terms: “Ma'aseh Bereshit”and“Ma'aseh Merkabah.”Doubtless Ben Sira was thinking of these speculations when he uttered the warning: “Seek not things that are too hard for thee, and search not out things that are above thy strength.

The things that have been commanded thee, think thereupon; for thou hast no need of the things that are secret” (Ecclus. [Sirach] iii. 21–22, R. V.). The terms here emphasized recur in the Talmud in the accounts of gnosis.

“There is no doubt that a Jewish gnosticism existed before a Christian or a Judæo-Christian gnosticism. As may be seen even in the apocalypses, since the second century B.C. gnostic thought was bound up with Judaism, which had accepted Babylonian and Syrian doctrines; but the relation of this Jewish gnosticism to Christian gnosticism may, perhaps, no longer be explained "(Harnack,” “Geschichte der Altchristlichen Litteratur,”p. 144). The great age of Jewish gnosticism is further indicated by the authentic statement that Johanan b. Zakkai, who was born probably in the century before the common era, and was, according to Sukkah 28a, versed in that science, refers to an interdiction against “discussing the Creation before two pupils and the throne-chariot before one."' The passage in Sukkah mentioned in the extract says,“They said of R. Johanan b. Zakkai that he did not leave [unstudied] Scripture, Mishnah, Gemara, Halachah, Aggada, details of the Torah, details of the Scribes, inferences a minori ad majus, analogies, calendrical computations, gematrias, the speech of the Minstering Angels, the speech of spir-

8.10. NOTES

its, and the speech of palm-grees, fullers' parables and fox fables, great matters or small matters; 'Great matters' mean the Ma'aseh merkabah, 'small matters' the discussions of Abaye and Raba”(‫אמרו עליו על רבן יוחנן בן‬ ‫זכאי שלא הניח מקרא ומשנה תלמוד הלכות ואגדות דקדוקי‬ ‫תורה ודקדוקי סופרים קלים וחמורים וגזרות שוות תקופות‬ ‫וגימטריאות שיחת מלאכי השרת ושיחת שדים ושיחת דקלים‬ ‫משלות כובסין משלות שועלים דבר גדול ודבר קטן דבר גדול‬ ‫)מעשה מרכבה דבר קטן הויות דאביי ורבא‬.

[78] 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought Arthur A. Cohen, Paul Mendes-Flohr, Arthur Allen Cohen 1988 republished 2010 – Page 286 “Recent research, however, has tended to emphasize that Judaism, rather than Persia, was a major origin of Gnosticism. Indeed, it appears increasingly evident that many of the newly published Gnostic texts were written in a context from which Jews were not absent. In some cases, indeed, a violent rejection of the Jewish God, or of Judaism, seems to stand at the basis of these texts. ... facie, various trends in Jewish thought and literature of the Second Commonwealth appear to have been potential factors in Gnostic origins.

[79] Gager, John G. (1985-02-14). The origins of antisemitism: attitudes toward Judaism in pagan and Christian antiquity. Oxford University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-019-503607-7.

[80] Understanding Jewish History: Texts and Commentaries

by Steven Bayme Publisher: Ktav Publishing House ISBN 0-88125-554-8 ISBN 978-0-88125-554-6 [81] Idel, Moshe. Kabbalah: New Perspectives, Yale University Press, 1990, p. 31. ISBN 978-0-300-04699-1 [82] Scholem, Gershom Origins of the Kabbalah, 1962.

73

[92] Classical Texts:Acta Archelai Now, he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests he says is the archont of Darkness, and the Christians, Jews, and pagans (ethnic) are one and the same, as they revere the same god. For in his aspirations he seduces them, as he is not the god of truth. And so therefore all those who put their hope in the god who spoke with Moses and the prophets have (this in store for themselves, namely) to be bound with him, because they did not put their hope in the god of truth. For that one spoke with them (only) according to their own aspirations. Page 76 [93] Likewise, Manichaeism, being another Gnostic sect, preached a similar doctrine of positioning God against matter. This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light. The Acta Archelai further has Mani saying,“It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their priests. Thus the Christians, the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them.”

[94] Meyer, Marvin (2007). The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: International Edition. p. 247.

[95] Gospel of Judas, pg 44. translated by Kasser, Meyer, Wurst.

[96] Gospel of Judas, pg 56. translated by Kasser, Meyer, Wurst.

[97] “An Introduction to Marcion by G.R.S. Mead”.

[98] “Adolf Von Harnack: Marcion”.

[99] González, Justo L.(1970). A History of Christian Thought, [83] The first kabbalistic text with a known author that reached Vol. I. Abingdon. pp. 132–3 us is a brief treatise, a commentary on the Sefer Yezira written by Rabbi Isaac ben Abraham the Blind, in Provence [100] Ismo Dunderberg Beyond gnosticism: myth, lifestyle, and near the turn of the thirteenth century. Dan, Joseph Kabsociety in the school of Valentinus. Columbia University balah: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Press, 2008. p.16;“The problems with the term“Gnos2006, p 25. ticism”itself are now well known. It does not appear in ancient sources at all, ... " [84] Dan, Joseph Kabbalah: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2006, p 24.

[101] Birger Albert Pearson Gnosticism and Christianity in Roman and Coptic Egypt 2004 p210 “As Bentley Layton [85] Scholem, Gershom. Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mystipoints out, the term Gnosticism was first coined by Henry cism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1965.

More (1614–1687) in an expository work on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation.29 More used the term [86] Lessons from the Kabbalah and Jewish history By Josef Gnosticisme to describe the heresy in Thyatira.”

Blaha, Page 183 [87] Jewish mysticism: an introduction By J. H. Laenen, Page [102] Stephen Charles Haar Simon Magus: the first gnostic? p231 130 [88] Sometimes popularly known as the Gnostic Gospels after Elaine Pagels' 1979 book of the same name, but the term has a wider meaning.

[103] Dominic J. Unger, John J. Dillon —1992 St. Irenaeus of Lyons Against the heresies, Vol.1 p3 “the final phrase of the title “knowledge falsely so-called”is found in 1 Timothy 6:20.

[89] Marvin Meyer and James M. Robinson, Nag Hammadi [104] LSJ entry γνωστ-ικός , ή, όν, A. of or for knowing, Scriptures, The: The International Edition. HarperOne, cognitive: ἡ -κή (sc. ἐπιστήμη), theoretical science 2007. pp 2-3. ISBN 0-06-052378-6 (opp. πρακτική), Pl.Plt.258e, etc.; τὸ γ. ib.261b; "ἕξεις γ.”Arist.AP0.100a11 (Comp.); "γ. εἰκόνες" Hierocl.in [90] Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, 94.

CA25p.475M.: c. gen., able to discern, Ocell. 2.7. Adv. [91] King, Karen L. What Is Gnosticism? , p.91.

"-κῶς" Procl.Inst.39, Dam.Pr.79, Phlp.in Ph.241.22.

74

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM

[105] In Perseus databank 10x Plato, Cratylus, Theaetetus, 'Gnosticism'. Future research will have to show whether Sophist, Statesman 2x Plutarch, Compendium libri de ana new, working ...” imae procreatione + De animae procreatione in Timaeo, [116] Williams, Michael Allen (1999). Rethinking “Gnosti2x Pseudo-Plutarch, De musica cism": An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0[106] Morton Smith History of the term gnostikos 1973 691-00542-7.

[107] A. Rousseau and L. Doutreleau Saint Irénée de Lyon : [117] Afloroaei, Lucia (2009).“Religious Dualism: Some LogTraité contre les hérésies 1974 ical and Philosophical Difficulties” (PDF). Journal for [108] Williams Rethinking “Gnosticism": an argument for disInterdisciplinary Research on Religion and Science 4 (Janmantling a dubious category 1999 p36: “But several of uary): 83–111. Retrieved 2009-02-13.

Irenaeus's uses of the designation gnostikos are more ambiguous, and it is not so clear whether he is indicating the [118] Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. II, Ch. XLVIII specific sect again or using “gnostics”now merely as a shorthand reference for virtually all of the"; p37: “They [119] Smith, Richard.“The Modern Relevance of Gnosticism” argue that Irenaeus uses gnostikos in two senses: (1) with in The Nag Hammadi Library, 1990 ISBN 0-06-066935the term's 'basic and customary meaning' of 'learned' (sa7 vant), and (2) with reference to adherents of the specific sect called 'the gnostic heresy' in Adv. haer. 1.11.1."; [120] Cf. l'Eglise du Plérôme p271: “1.25.6 where they think that gnostikos means 'learned' are in 1.11.3 ('A certain other famous teacher [121] Green, Celia (1981,2006). Advice to Clever Children. Oxford: Oxford Forum. Ch.s XXXV-XXXVII. of theirs, reaching for a doctrine more lofty and learned [gnostikoteron] ...') and 1.11.5 ('... in order that they [122] Michael Weber. Contact Made Vision: The Apocryphal [i.e.,])" Whitehead Pub. in Michel Weber and William Desmond, Jr. (eds.), Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought, [109] Williams p42-43 “On the other hand, the one group Frankfurt / Lancaster, Ontos Verlag, Process Thought X1 whom Irenaeus does explicitly mention as users of this & X2, 2008, I, pp. 573-599. self-designation, the followers of the second-century CE teacher Marcellina, are not included in Layton's anthology [123] “The Thought of Norea”. The Gnostic Society Library. at all, on the grounds that their doctrines are not similar Retrieved 2009-02-13. to those of the “classic”gnostics.44 As we have seen, Epiphanius is one of the witnesses for the existence of a [124] “Valentinian Theology”. The Gnostic Society Library. special sect called“the gnostics,”and yet Epiphanius himRetrieved 2009-02-13. self seems to distinguish between these people and “the Sethians”(Pan 40.7.5), whereas Layton treats them as [125] “Allogenes”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13. both under the “classic gnostic”category.”

[110] Trames – 2006 Vol. 10, n° 3 “One of the most difficult [126] “Trimorphic Protennoia”. The Gnostic Society Library.

Retrieved September 29, 2013. questions in the history of the study of Gnosticism has been the issue of the origins of gnostic movement, ... The [127] “The Pair (Syzygy) in Valentinian Thought”. Retrieved main representative of that model was Adolf von Harnack 2009-02-13. in the 19th century; however, the model has had [128] Mead, G.R.S. (2005). Fragments of a Faith Forgotten.

[111] R. van den Broek Studies in Gnosticism and Alexandrian Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4179-8413-9.

Christianity Page vii 1996“The study of Gnosticism and, to a lesser extent, of early Alexandrian Christianity re- [129] “A Valentinian Exposition”. The Gnostic Society Liceived a strong impetus by the discovery of the Coptic brary. Retrieved 2009-02-13.

Nag Hammadi Library, in 1945,” [130] “Demiurge”.“Catholic encyclopedia”. Retrieved 2009[112] “National Book Awards – 1980”. National Book Foun02-13. dation. Retrieved March 8, 2012.

[131] “The Hypostasis of the Archons”. The Gnostic Society [113] Sheahen, Laura (June 2003). “Matthew, Mark, Luke Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12. and... Thomas?: What would Christianity be like if gnostic texts had made it into the Bible?". Beliefnet. Retrieved [132] Origen. “Cotra Celsum”. The Gnostic Society Library.

Retrieved 13 February 2009.

June 7, 2009.

[114] Markschies, “Christolph”(2003). Gnosis: An Introduc- [133] “Mithraic Art”. Retrieved 2009-12-13. tion. T.& T.Clark Ltd. pp. 14–15.

[134] “Narashimba”. Manas: Indian Religions. Retrieved 2009-02-13.

[115] The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies – Susan Ashbrook Harvey, David G. Hunter – 2008 Page 216 [135] Campbell, Joseph: Occidental Mythology, page 262. Pen“As the first section of this chapter paradoxically demonguin Arkana, 1991. strates, during the last 20 years the definition of 'Gnosticism' has become the most difficult issue in the study of [136] “demiurge”.

8.11. REFERENCES

[137]“Images of the Feminine in Gnosticism”by Karen L. King, Page 243 [138] Ehrman, Bart D."Lost Christianities”. Oxford University Press, 2003, p.185.

8.11 References 8.11.1

Books

Primary sources • Barnstone, Willis; Meyer, Marvin (2003). The Gnostic Bible. Shambhala Books. p. 880. ISBN 1-57062-242-6.

75 • Haardt, Robert (1967). Die Gnosis: Wesen und Zeugnisse. Otto-Müller-Verlag, Salzburg. pp. 352 pages., translated as Haardt, Robert (1971). Gnosis: Character and Testimony. Brill, Leiden.

• Hoeller, Stephan A. (2002). Gnosticism —New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing.

Wheaton: Quest. pp. 257 pages. ISBN 0-83560816-6.

• Jonas, Hans (1993). Gnosis und spätantiker Geist vol. 2:1–2, Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

ISBN 3-525-53841-3.

• King, Charles William (1887). The Gnostics and Their Remains.

• Barnstone, Willis; Meyer, Marvin (2010). Essential Gnostic Scriptures. Shambhala Books. p. 271.

ISBN 978-1590309254.

• King, Karen L. (2003). What is Gnosticism?. Harvard University Press. pp. 343 pages. ISBN 0-67401071-X.

• Layton, Bentley (1987). The Gnostic Scriptures.

SCM Press. pp. 526 pages. ISBN 0-334-02022-0.

• Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1993). Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia. Harper, San Francisco. ISBN 0-06-064586-5.

• Barnstone, Willis (1984). The Other Bible: Gnostic Scriptures, Jewish Pseudepigrapha, Christian Apocyrypha, Kabbalah, Dead Sea Scrolls. San Francisco: Harper & Row. p. 771. ISBN 978-0-06-081598-1.

• Kosack, Wolfgang: Geschichte der Gnosis in Antike, Urchristentum und Islam. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014. ISBN 978-3-906206-06-6 • Robinson, James (1978). The Nag Hammadi Library in English. San Francisco: Harper & Row. pp. 549 pages. ISBN 0-06-066934-9.

• Plotinus (1989). The Enneads 1. translated by A.H. Armstrong. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-67499484-1.

Secondary sources • Aland, Barbara (1978). Festschrift für Hans Jonas.

Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-58111-4.

• Layton, Bentley (1995).“Prolegomena to the study of ancient gnosticism”. In edited by L. Michael White, O. Larry Yarbrough. The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks. Fortress Press, Minneapolis. ISBN 0-80062585-4.

• Layton, Bentley (ed.) (1981). The Rediscovery of Gnosticism: Sethian Gnosticism. E.J. Brill.

• Markschies, Christoph (2000). Gnosis: An Introduction. trans. John Bowden. T & T Clark. pp.

145 pages. ISBN 0-567-08945-2.

• Mins, Denis (1994). Irenaeus. Geoffrey Chapman.

• Pagels, Elaine (1979). The Gnostic Gospels. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 182 pages. ISBN 0-67972453-2.

• Burstein, Dan (2006). Secrets of Mary Magdalene.

CDS Books. ISBN 1-59315-205-1.

• Pagels, Elaine (1989). The Johannine Gospel in Gnostic Exegesis. Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press. pp.

128 pages. ISBN 1-55540-334-4.

• Filoramo, Giovanni (1990). A History of Gnosticism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ISBN 9780631187073.

• Petrement, Simone (1990), A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim, Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-066421-5

• Freke, Timothy; Gandy, Peter (2002). Jesus and the Lost Goddess : The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-00-710071X.

• Rudolph, Kurt (1987). Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06067018-5.

• Green, Henry (1985). Economic and Social Origins of Gnosticism. Scholars P.,U.S. ISBN 0-89130-8431.

• Tuckett, Christopher M. (1986). Nag Hammadi and the Gospel Tradition: Synoptic Tradition in the Nag Hammadi Library. T & T Clark. ISBN 0-56709364-6. (206 pages)

76 • Walker, Benjamin (1990). Gnosticism: Its History and Influence. Harper Collins. ISBN 1-85274-0574.

• Williams, Michael (1996). Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category.

Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01127-3.

• Yamauchi, Edwin M. (1983). Pre-Christian Gnosticism : A Survey of the Proposed Evidences. ISBN 0-8010-9919-6. (278 pages) • Yamauchi, Edwin M., "Pre-Christian Gnosticism in the Nag Hammadi Texts?,”in Church History vol.

48, pp129–141.

8.12 External links • Gnostic texts at sacred-texts.com • Religious Tolerance —A survey of Gnosticism • Early Christian Writings —primary texts • The Gnostic Society Library —primary sources and commentaries.

• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gnosticism • Jewish Encyclopedia: Gnosticism • Pre-Christian Gnosticism, the New Testament and Nag Hammadi in Recent Debate • Catholic Encyclopedia: Gnosticism • Gnosticism at DMOZ

CHAPTER 8. GNOSTICISM

Chapter 9

Kabbalah For specific Kabbalistic traditions see Christian Cabala, as well as engaging its flourishing emergence and historHermetic Qabalah, and Practical Kabbalah. For other ical re-emphasis through newly established academic intraditions with some similarities see Cabala. vestigation.

Kabbalah (Hebrew: ‫ ַק ָ ּבלָה‬, literally“receiving/tradition” * [1]) is an esoteric method, discipline, and school of 9.1 Overview thought that originated in Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist in Judaism is called a Mekubbal (Hebrew: ‫)מְקו ּ ּבָל‬. According to the Zohar, a foundational text for kabbalKabbalah's definition varies according to the tradition istic thought, Torah study can proceed along four levels * * and aims of those following it,* [2] from its religious ori- of interpretation (exegesis). [6] [7] These four levels are gin as an integral part of Judaism, to its later Christian, called pardes from their initial letters (PRDS Hebrew: New Age, and Occultist syncretic adaptations. Kabbalah ‫פרדס‬, orchard). is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal, and mysterious Ein Sof (infinity)* [3] and the mortal and finite universe (God's creation). While it is heavily used by some denominations, it is not a religious denomination in itself. It forms the foundations of mystical religious interpretation.

Kabbalah seeks to define the nature of the universe and the human being, the nature and purpose of existence, and various other ontological questions. It also presents methods to aid understanding of the concepts and thereby attain spiritual realisation.

Kabbalah originally developed within the realm of Jewish tradition, and kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain and demonstrate its esoteric teachings.

These teachings are held by followers in Judaism to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew Bible and traditional Rabbinic literature and their formerly concealed transmitted dimension, as well as to explain the significance of Jewish religious observances.* [4] Traditional practitioners believe its earliest origins predate world religions, forming the primordial blueprint for Creation's philosophies, religions, sciences, arts, and political systems.* [5] Historically, Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of Jewish mysticism, in 12th- to 13th-century Southern France and Spain, becoming reinterpreted in the Jewish mystical renaissance of 16thcentury Ottoman Palestine. It was popularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th century onwards. Twentieth-century interest in Kabbalah has inspired cross-denominational Jewish renewal and contributed to wider non-Jewish contemporary spirituality,

• Peshat (Hebrew: ‫ פשט‬lit. “simple”): the direct interpretations of meaning.

• Remez (Hebrew: ‫ רמז‬lit. “hint[s]"): the allegoric meanings (through allusion).

• Derash (Hebrew: ‫ דרש‬from Heb. darash:“inquire” or“seek”): midrashic (Rabbinic) meanings, often with imaginative comparisons with similar words or verses.

• Sod (Hebrew: ‫ סוד‬lit. “secret”or“mystery”): the inner, esoteric (metaphysical) meanings, expressed in kabbalah.

Kabbalah is considered by its followers as a necessary part of the study of Torah – the study of Torah (the Tanakh and Rabbinic literature) being an inherent duty of observant Jews.* [8] Modern academic-historical study of Jewish mysticism reserves the term “kabbalah”to designate the particular, distinctive doctrines that textually emerged fully expressed in the Middle Ages, as distinct from the earlier Merkabah mystical concepts and methods.* [9] According to this descriptive categorisation, both versions of Kabbalistic theory, the medieval-Zoharic and the earlymodern Lurianic together comprise the theosophical tradition in Kabbalah, while the meditative-ecstatic Kabbalah incorporates a parallel inter-related Medieval tradition. A third tradition, related but more shunned, involves the magical aims of Practical Kabbalah. Moshe Idel, for example, writes that these 3 basic models can be

77

78

CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH

discerned operating and competing throughout the whole abstract concepts that at best can only be understood inhistory of Jewish mysticism, beyond the particular Kab- tuitively.* [16] balistic background of the Middle Ages.* [10] They can be readily distinguished by their basic intent with respect to God: • The Theosophical tradition of Theoretical Kabbalah (the main focus of the Zohar and Luria) seeks to understand and describe the divine realm. As an alternative to rationalist Jewish philosophy, particularly Maimonides' Aristotelianism, this speculation became the central component of Kabbalah

9.1.1 Difference between Jewish and nonJewish Kabbalah

• The Ecstatic tradition of Meditative Kabbalah (exemplified by Abulafia and Isaac of Acre) strives to achieve a mystical union with God. Abraham Abulafia's “Prophetic Kabbalah”was the supreme example of this, though marginal in Kabbalistic development, and his alternative to the program of theosophical Kabbalah • The Magico-theurgical tradition of Practical Kabbalah (in often unpublished manuscripts) endeavours to alter both the Divine realms and the World.

While some interpretations of prayer see its role as manipulating heavenly forces, Practical Kabbalah properly involved white-magical acts, and was censored by kabbalists for only those completely pure of intent. Consequently, it formed a separate minor tradition shunned from Kabbalah According to traditional belief, early kabbalistic knowledge was transmitted orally by the Patriarchs, prophets, and sages (hakhamim in Hebrew), eventually to be “interwoven”into Jewish religious writings and culture. According to this view, early kabbalah was, in around the 10th century BC, an open knowledge practiced by over a million people in ancient Israel.* [11] Foreign conquests drove the Jewish spiritual leadership of the time (the Sanhedrin) to hide the knowledge and make it secret, fearing that it might be misused if it fell into the wrong hands.* [12] It is hard to clarify with any degree of certainty the exact concepts within kabbalah. There are several different schools of thought with very different outlooks; however, all are accepted as correct.* [13] Modern halakhic authorities have tried to narrow the scope and diversity within kabbalah, by restricting study to certain texts, notably Zohar and the teachings of Isaac Luria as passed down through Hayyim ben Joseph Vital.* [14] However, even this qualification does little to limit the scope of understanding and expression, as included in those works are commentaries on Abulafian writings, Sefer Yetzirah, Albotonian writings, and the Berit Menuhah,* [15] which is known to the kabbalistic elect and which, as described more recently by Gershom Scholem, combined ecstatic with theosophical mysticism. It is therefore important to bear in mind when discussing things such as the sephirot and their interactions that one is dealing with highly

Latin translation of Gikatilla's Shaarei Ora

From the Renaissance onwards Jewish Kabbalah texts entered non-Jewish culture, where they were studied and translated by Christian Hebraists and Hermetic occultists.* [17] Syncretic traditions of Christian Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah developed independently of Jewish Kabbalah, reading the Jewish texts as universal ancient wisdom. Both adapted the Jewish concepts freely from their Judaic understanding, to merge with other theologies, religious traditions and magical associations.

With the decline of Christian Cabala in the Age of Reason, Hermetic Qabalah continued as a central underground tradition in Western esotericism. Through these non-Jewish associations with magic, alchemy and divination, Kabbalah acquired some popular occult connotations forbidden within Judaism, where Jewish theurgic Practical Kabbalah was a minor, permitted tradition restricted for a few elite. Today, many publications on Kabbalah belong to the non-Jewish New Age and occult traditions of Cabala, rather than giving an accurate picture of Judaic Kabbalah.* [18] Instead, academic and traditional publications now translate and study Judaic Kabbalah for wide readership.

9.2. HISTORY OF JEWISH MYSTICISM

79

9.2 History of Jewish mysticism 9.2.1

Origins of Judaic mysticism

According to the traditional understanding, Kabbalah dates from Eden.* [19] It came down from a remote past as a revelation to elect Tzadikim (righteous people), and, for the most part, was preserved only by a privileged few.

Talmudic Judaism records its view of the proper protocol for teaching this wisdom, as well as many of its concepts, in the Talmud, Tractate Hagigah, 11b-13a.

Contemporary scholarship suggests that various schools of Jewish esotericism arose at different periods of Jewish history, each reflecting not only prior forms of mysticism, but also the intellectual and cultural milieu of that historical period. Answers to questions of transmission, lineage, influence, and innovation vary greatly and cannot be easily summarised.

Ezekiel and Isaiah had prophetic visions of the angelic Chariot and Divine Throne.

teraction of these supernatural entities with the Serpent which leads to disaster when they eat the forbidden fruit, as recorded in Genesis 3.* [23]

The Bible provides ample additional material for mythic and mystical speculation. The prophet Ezekiel's visions Origins of terms in particular attracted much mystical speculation, as did Isaiah's Temple vision—Isaiah, Ch.6. Jacob's vision of Originally, Kabbalistic knowledge was believed to be an the ladder to heaven provided another example of esoteric integral part of the Oral Torah, given by God to Moses experience. Moses' encounters with the Burning bush and on Mount Sinai around the 13th century BCE, although God on Mount Sinai are evidence of mystical events in the there is a view that Kabbalah began with Adam.

Torah that form the origin of Jewish mystical beliefs.

When the Israelites arrived at their destination and set- The 72 letter name of God which is used in Jewish mystitled in Canaan, for a few centuries the esoteric knowl- cism for meditation purposes is derived from the Hebrew edge was referred to by its aspect practice—meditation verbal utterance Moses spoke in the presence of an anHitbonenut (Hebrew: ‫)התבוננות‬,* [20] Rebbe Nachman of gel, while the Sea of Reeds parted, allowing the Hebrews Breslov's Hitbodedut (Hebrew: ‫)התבודדות‬, translated as to escape their approaching attackers. The miracle of the “being alone”or “isolating oneself”, or by a different Exodus, which led to Moses receiving the Ten Commandterm describing the actual, desired goal of the practice— ments and the Jewish Orthodox view of the acceptance prophecy ("NeVu'a" Hebrew: ‫)נבואה‬. of the Torah at Mount Sinai, preceded the creation of the During the 5th century BCE, when the works of the Tanakh were edited and canonised and the secret knowledge encrypted within the various writings and scrolls ( “Megilot”), the knowledge was referred to as Ma'aseh Merkavah (Hebrew: ‫[ *)מעשה מרכבה‬21] and Ma'aseh B'reshit (Hebrew: ‫)מעשה בראשית‬,* [22] respectively “the act of the Chariot”and“the act of Creation”. Merkavah mysticism alluded to the encrypted knowledge within the book of the prophet Ezekiel describing his vision of the “Divine Chariot”. B'reshit mysticism referred to the first chapter of Genesis (Hebrew: ‫ ) בראשית‬in the Torah that is believed to contain secrets of the creation of the universe and forces of nature. These terms are also mentioned in the second chapter of the Talmudic tractate Haggigah.

first Jewish nation approximately three hundred years before King Saul.

9.2.2 Mystical doctrines in the Talmudic era

In early rabbinic Judaism (the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE), the terms Ma'aseh Bereshit (“Works of Creation”) and Ma'aseh Merkabah (“Works of the Divine Throne/Chariot”) clearly indicate the Midrashic nature of these speculations; they are really based upon Genesis 1 and Book of Ezekiel 1:4–28, while the names Sitrei Torah (Hidden aspects of the Torah) (Talmud Hag. 13a) and Razei Torah (Torah secrets) (Ab. vi. 1) indicate their character as secret lore. An additional term also Mystic elements of the Torah expanded Jewish esoteric knowledge, namely Chochmah When read by later generations of Kabbalists, the Torah's Nistara (Hidden wisdom). description of the creation in the Book of Genesis reveals Talmudic doctrine forbade the public teaching of esoteric mysteries about God himself, the true nature of Adam doctrines and warned of their dangers. In the Mishnah and Eve, the Garden of Eden, the Tree of Knowledge of (Hagigah 2:1), rabbis were warned to teach the mystical Good and Evil and the Tree of Life, as well as the in- creation doctrines only to one student at a time.* [24] To

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9.2.3 Pre-Kabbalistic schools The mystical methods and doctrines of Hekhalot (Heavenly“Chambers”) and Merkabah (Divine“Chariot”) texts, named by modern scholars from these repeated motifs, lasted from the 1st century BCE through to the 10th century, before giving way to the documented manuscript emergence of Kabbalah. Initiates were said to “descend the chariot”, possibly a reference to internal introspection on the Heavenly journey through the spiritual realms. The ultimate aim was to arrive before the transcendent awe, rather than nearness, of the Divine. From the 8th to 11th centuries, the Hekhalot texts, and the proto-Kabbalistic early Sefer Yetzirah (“Book of Creation”) made their Grave of Rabbi Akiva in Tiberias. He features in Hekhalot mys- way into European Jewish circles. tical literature, and as one of the four who entered the Pardes

Another, separate influential mystical movement, shortly before the arrival there of Kabbalistic theory, was the "Chassidei Ashkenaz" (‫ )חסידי אשכנז‬or Medieval German Pietists from 1150 to 1250. This ethical-ascetic movement arose mostly among a single scholarly family, the Kalonymus family of the French and German Rhineland.

9.2.4 Medieval emergence of the Kabbalah

The grave of Shimon bar Yochai in Meron before 1899. A Talmudic Tanna, he is the mystical teacher in the central Kabbalistic work, the Zohar

highlight the danger, in one Jewish aggadic (“legendary” ) anecdote, four prominent rabbis of the Mishnaic period (1st century CE) are said to have visited the Orchard (that is, Paradise, pardes, Hebrew: ‫ פרדס‬lit., orchard): “Four men entered pardes —Ben Azzai, Ben Zoma, Acher (Elisha ben Abuyah),* [25] and Akiba. Ben Azzai looked and died; Ben Zoma looked and went mad; Acher destroyed the plants; Akiba entered in peace and departed in peace.”* [26] In notable readings of this legend, only Rabbi Akiba was fit to handle the study of mystical doctrines. The Tosafot, medieval commentaries on the Talmud, say that the four sages “did not go up literally, but it appeared to them as if they went up”.* [27] On the other hand, Rabbi Louis Ginzberg, writes in the Jewish Encyclopedia (1901–1906) that the journey to paradise “is to be taken literally and not allegorically”.* [28]

The 13th-century eminence of Nachmanides, a classic Rabbinic figure, gave Kabbalah mainstream acceptance through his Torah commentary

Modern scholars have identified several mystical brotherhoods that functioned in Europe starting in the 12th century. Some, such as the“Iyyun Circle”and the“Unique Maimonides interprets pardes as physics and not mysti- Cherub Circle”, were truly esoteric, remaining largely cism.* [29] anonymous.

9.2. HISTORY OF JEWISH MYSTICISM There were certain Rishonim (“Elder Sages”) of exoteric Judaism who are known to have been experts in Kabbalah. One of the best known is Nahmanides (the Ramban) (1194–1270) whose commentary on the Torah is considered to be based on Kabbalistic knowledge. Bahya ben Asher (the Rabbeinu Behaye) (died 1340) also combined Torah commentary and Kabbalah. Another was Isaac the Blind (1160–1235), the teacher of Nahmanides, who is widely argued to have written the first work of classic Kabbalah, the Bahir (Book of “Brightness”).

Many Orthodox Jews reject the idea that Kabbalah underwent significant historical development or change such as has been proposed above. After the composition known as the Zohar was presented to the public in the 13th century, the term “Kabbalah”began to refer more specifically to teachings derived from, or related to, the Zohar. At an even later time, the term began to generally be applied to Zoharic teachings as elaborated upon

by Isaac Luria Arizal. Historians generally date the start of Kabbalah as a major influence in Jewish thought and practice with the publication of the Zohar and climaxing with the spread of the Arizal's teachings. The majority of Haredi Jews accept the Zohar as the representative of the Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'aseh B'reshit that are referred to in Talmudic texts.* [30]

9.2.5

Early modern era: balah

81 Following the upheavals and dislocations in the Jewish world as a result of anti-Judaism during the Middle Ages, and the national trauma of the expulsion from Spain in 1492, closing the Spanish Jewish flowering, Jews began to search for signs of when the long-awaited Jewish Messiah would come to comfort them in their painful exiles. In the 16th century, the community of Safed in the Galilee became the centre of Jewish mystical, exegetical, legal and liturgical developments. The Safed mystics responded to the Spanish expulsion by turning Kabbalistic doctrine and practice towards a messianic focus. Moses Cordovero and his school popularized the teachings of the Zohar which had until then been only a restricted work. Cordovero's comprehensive works achieved the systemisation of preceding Kabbalah. The author of the Shulkhan Arukh (the normative Jewish “Code of Law”), Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488–1575), was also a scholar of Kabbalah who kept a personal mystical diary. Moshe Alshich wrote a mystical commentary on the Torah, and Shlomo Alkabetz wrote Kabbalistic commentaries and poems.

The messianism of the Safed mystics culminated in Kabbalah receiving its biggest transformation in the Jewish world with the explication of its new interpretation from Rabbi Isaac Luria (1534–1572), by his disciples Hayim Vital and Israel Sarug. Both transcribed Luria's teachings (in variant forms) gaining them widespread popularity, Sarug taking Lurianic Kabbalah to Europe, Vital Lurianic Kab- authoring the latterly canonical version. Luria's teachings came to rival the influence of the Zohar and Luria stands, alongside Moses de Leon, as the most influential mystic in Jewish history.

Ban on studying Kabbalah “I have seen it written that the prohibition from Above to refrain from open study in the wisdom of truth was only for a limited period, until the end of 1490, but from then on the prohibition has been lifted and permission was granted to study the Zohar. Since 1540 it has been a great Mitzva (commandment) for the masses to study in public, old and young... and that is because the Messiah will come because of that and not because of any other reason. Therefore, we must not be negligent.”

Rabbi Abraham Ben Mordechai Azulai, Introduction to the book, Ohr HaChama [Light of the Sun] * [31] The ban on studying Kabbalah was lifted by the efforts of the 16th-century kabbalist Rabbi Avraham Azulai (1570–1643).

The leading scholars in 16th-century Safed invigorated mainstream Judaism through new legal, liturgical, exegetical and Lurianic-mythological developments

“I have found it written that all that has been decreed Above forbidding open involvement in the Wisdom of Truth [Kabbalah] was [only meant for] the limited time period until the year 5,250 (1490 C.E.). From then on after is called the“Last Generation”, and what was forbidden is [now] allowed. And permis-

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CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH sion is granted to occupy ourselves in the [study of] Zohar. And from the year 5,300 (1540 C.E.) it is most desirable that the masses both those great and small [in Torah], should occupy themselves [in the study of Kabbalah], as it says in the Raya M'hemna [a section of the Zohar].

And because in this merit King Mashiach will come in the future—and not in any other merit —it is not proper to be discouraged [from the study of Kabbalah].”* [32]

The question, however, is whether the ban ever existed in the first place. Concerning the above quote by Avraham Azulai, it has found many versions in English, another is this “From the year 1540 and onward, the basic levels of Kabbalah must be taught publicly to everyone, young and old. Only through Kabbalah will we forever eliminate war, destruction, and man's inhumanity to his fellow man.” * [33] The lines concerning the year 1490 are also missing from the Hebrew edition of Hesed L'Avraham, the source work that both of these quote from. Furthermore, by Azulai's view the ban was lifted thirty years before his birth, a time that would have corresponded with Haim Vital's publication of the teaching of Isaac Luria. Moshe Isserles understood there to be only a minor restriction, in his words, “One's belly must be full of meat and wine, discerning between the prohibited and the permitted.”* [34] He is supported by the Bier Hetiv, the Pithei Teshuva as well as the Vilna Gaon. The Vilna Gaon says, “There was never any ban or enactment restricting the study of the wisdom of Kabbalah. Any who says there is has never studied Kabbalah, has never seen PaRDeS, and speaks as an ignoramus.”* [35] Sefardi and Mizrahi The Kabbalah of the Sefardi (Iberian Peninsula) and Mizrahi (Middle East, North Africa, and the Caucasus) Torah scholars has a long history. Kabbalah in various forms was widely studied, commented upon, and expanded by North African, Turkish, Yemenite, and Asian scholars from the 16th century onward. It flourished among Sefardic Jews in Tzfat (Safed), Israel even before the arrival of Isaac Luria. Yosef Karo, author of the Shulchan Arukh was part of the Tzfat school of Kabbalah. Shlomo Alkabetz, author of the hymn Lekhah Dodi, taught there.

Synagogue Beit El Jerusalem. Oriental Judaism has its own chain of Kabbalah

Rabbi Moshe's disciple Eliyahu De Vidas authored the classic work, Reishit Chochma, combining kabbalistic and mussar (moral) teachings. Chaim Vital also studied under Cordovero, but with the arrival of Luria became his main disciple. Vital claimed to be the only one authorised to transmit the Ari's teachings, though other disciples also His disciple Moses ben Jacob Cordovero (or Cordoeiro) published books presenting Luria's teachings. authored Pardes Rimonim, an organised, exhaustive com- The Oriental Kabbalist tradition continues until today pilation of kabbalistic teachings on a variety of subjects among Sephardi and Mizrachi Hakham sages and study up to that point. Cordovero headed the academy of Tz- circles. Among leading figures were the Yemenite fat until his death, when Isaac Luria rose to prominence. Shalom Sharabi (1720–1777) of the Beit El Synagogue,

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83

the Jerusalemite Hida (1724–1806), the Baghdad leader many following the devastation and mass killings of the Ben Ish Chai (1832–1909), and the Abuhatzeira dynasty. pogroms that followed in the wake of the Chmielnicki Uprising (1648–1654), the largest single massacre of Jews until the Holocaust, and it was at this time that a conMaharal troversial scholar by the name of Sabbatai Zevi (1626– 1676) captured the hearts and minds of the Jewish masses of that time with the promise of a newly minted messianic Millennialism in the form of his own personage.

His charisma, mystical teachings that included repeated pronunciations of the holy Tetragrammaton in public, tied to an unstable personality, and with the help of his greatest enthusiast, Nathan of Gaza, convinced the Jewish masses that the Jewish Messiah had finally come. It seemed that the esoteric teachings of Kabbalah had found their “champion”and had triumphed, but this era of Jewish history unravelled when Zevi became an apostate to Judaism by converting to Islam after he was arrested by the Ottoman Sultan and threatened with execution for attempting a plan to conquer the world and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. Unwilling to give up their messianic expectations, a minority of Zvi's Jewish followers converted to Islam along with him.

Many of his followers, known as Sabbatians, continued to worship him in secret, explaining his conversion not as an effort to save his life but to recover the sparks of the holy in each religion, and most leading rabbis were always on guard to root them out. The Dönmeh movement in modern Turkey is a surviving remnant of the Sabbatian schism.

The 16th-century Maharal of Prague articulated a mystical exegesis in philosophical language

Due to the chaos caused in the Jewish world, the Rabbinic prohibition against studying Kabbalah established itself firmly within the Jewish religion. One of the conditions allowing a man to study and engage himself in the Kabbalah was to be at least forty years old. This age requirement came about during this period and is not Talmudic in origin but Rabbinic. Many Jews are familiar with this ruling, but are not aware of its origins.* [37] Moreover, the prohibition is not halakhic in nature. According to Moses Cordovero, halakhically, one must be of age twenty to engage in the Kabbalah. Many famous kabbalists, including the ARI, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Yehuda Ashlag, were younger than twenty when they began.

One of the most innovative theologians in early-modern Judaism was Judah Loew ben Bezalel (1525–1609) known as the “Maharal of Prague”. Many of his written works survive and are studied for their unusual combination of the mystical and philosophical approaches in Judaism. While conversant in Kabbalistic learning, he expresses Jewish mystical thought in his own individual approach without reference to Kabbalistic terms.* [36] The Maharal is most well known in popular culture for the legend of the golem of Prague, associated with him in folklore. However, his thought influenced Hasidism, for example being studied in the introspective Przysucha school. During the 20th century, Isaac Hutner (1906– 1980) continued to spread the Maharal's works indirectly through his own teachings and publications within the Frankism non-Hasidic yeshiva world.

The Sabbatian movement was followed by that of the Frankists who were disciples of Jacob Frank (1726– 1791) who eventually became an apostate to Judaism by The spiritual and mystical yearnings of many Jews re- apparently converting to Catholicism. This era of disapmained frustrated after the death of Isaac Luria and pointment did not stem the Jewish masses' yearnings for his disciples and colleagues. No hope was in sight for “mystical”leadership.

Sabbatian mysticism

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CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH hand over and destroy many of his most precious unpublished kabbalistic writings, and go into exile in the Netherlands. He eventually moved to the Land of Israel. Some of his most important works, such as Derekh Hashem, survive and are used as a gateway to the world of Jewish mysticism.

Rabbi Elijah of Vilna (Vilna Gaon) (1720–1797), based in Lithuania, had his teachings encoded and publicised by his disciples, such as Rabbi Chaim Volozhin, who (poshumously) published the mystical-ethical work Nefesh HaChaim.* [38] He staunchly opposed the new Hasidic movement and warned against their public displays of religious fervour inspired by the mystical teachings of their rabbis. Although the Vilna Gaon did not look with favor on the Hasidic movement, he did not prohibit the study and engagement in the Kabbalah. This is evident from his writings in the Even Shlema. “He that is able to understand secrets of the Torah and does not try to understand them will be judged harshly, may God have mercy”. (The Vilna Gaon, Even Shlema, 8:24).“The Redemption will only come about through learning Torah, and the essence of the Redemption depends upon learning Kabbalah”(The Vilna Gaon, Even Shlema, 11:3).

Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, a leading Italian kabbalist, also wrote secular works, which the Haskalah see as the start of modern Hebrew literature

In the Oriental tradition of Kabbalah, Shalom Sharabi (1720–1777) from Yemen was a major esoteric clarifier of the works of the Ari. The Beit El Synagogue, “yeshivah of the kabbalists”, which he came to head, was one of the few communities to bring Lurianic meditation into communal prayer.* [39]* [40] In the 20th century, Yehuda Ashlag (1885 —1954) in Mandate Palestine became a leading esoteric kabbalist in the traditional mode, who translated the Zohar into Hebrew with a new approach in Lurianic Kabbalah.

Hasidic Judaism

The Vilna Gaon, 18th-century leader of Rabbinic opposition to Hasidism - a Kabbalist who opposed Hasidic doctrinal and practical innovations

Modern-era traditional Kabbalah Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (1707–1746), based in Italy, was a precocious Talmudic scholar who deduced a need for the public teaching and study of Kabbalah. He established a yeshiva for Kabbalah study and actively recruited students. He wrote copious manuscripts in an appealing clear Hebrew style, all of which gained the attention of both admirers and rabbinical critics, who feared another “Shabbetai Zevi (false messiah) in the making” . His rabbinical opponents forced him to close his school,

Synagogue of the Baal Shem Tov, founder of Hasidism, in Medzhybizh Ukraine. It gave a new phase to Jewish mysticism, seeking its popularisation through internal correspondence

Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer Baal Shem Tov (1698–1760), founder of Hasidism in the area of the Ukraine, spread

9.3. CONCEPTS

85

teachings based on Lurianic Kabbalah, but adapted to a have informed Holocaust theologians.* [42] different aim of immediate psychological perception of Divine Omnipresence amidst the mundane. The emotional, ecstatic fervour of early Hasidism developed from 9.3 Concepts previous Nistarim circles of mystical activity, but instead sought communal revival of the common folk by reframing Judaism around the central principle of devekut 9.3.1 Concealed and Revealed God (mystical cleaving to God) for all. This new approach turned formerly esoteric elite kabbalistic theory into a popular social mysticism movement for the first time, with its own doctrines, classic texts, teachings and customs. From the Baal Shem Tov sprang the wide ongoing schools of Hasidic Judaism, each with different approaches and thought. Hasidism instituted a new concept of Tzadik leadership in Jewish mysticism, where the elite scholars of mystical texts now took on a social role as embodiments and intercessors of Divinity for the masses. With the 19th-century consolidation of the movement, leadership became dynastic. Among later Hasidic schools: Rebbe Nachman of Breslov (1772–1810), the greatgrandson of the Baal Shem Tov, revitalised and further expanded the latter's teachings, amassing a following of thousands in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. In a unique amalgam of Hasidic and Mitnagid approaches, Rebbe Nachman emphasised study of both Kabbalah and serious Torah scholarship to his disciples. His teachings also differed from the way other Hasidic groups were developing, as he rejected the idea of hereditary Hasidic dynasties and taught that each Hasid must “search for the tzaddik ('saintly/righteous person')" for himself and within himself.

The Habad-Lubavitch intellectual school of Hasidism broke away from General-Hasidism's emotional faith orientation, by making the mind central as the route to the internal heart. Its texts combine what they view as rational investigation with explanation of Kabbalah through articulating unity in a common Divine essence. In recent times, the messianic element latent in Hasidism has come to the fore in Habad.

20th-century influence Jewish mysticism has influenced the thought of some major Jewish theologians in the 20th century, outside of Kabbalistic or Hasidic traditions. The first Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook was a mystical thinker who drew heavily on Kabbalistic notions through his own poetic terminology. His writings are concerned with fusing the false divisions between sacred and secular, rational and mystical, legal and imaginative. Students of Joseph B. Soloveitchik, figurehead of American Modern Orthodox Judaism have read the influence of Kabbalistic symbols in his philosophical works.* [41] Neo-Hasidism, rather than Kabbalah, shaped Martin Buber's philosophy of dialogue and Abraham Joshua Heschel's Conservative Judaism. Lurianic symbols of Tzimtzum and Shevirah

Metaphorical scheme of emanated spiritual worlds within the Ein Sof

The nature of the Divine prompted kabbalists to envision two aspects to God: (a) God in essence, absolutely transcendent, unknowable, limitless Divine simplicity, and (b) God in manifestation, the revealed persona of God through which He creates and sustains and relates to mankind. Kabbalists speak of the first as Ein/Ayn Sof (‫“אין סוף‬the infinite/endless”, literally“that which has no limits”). Of the impersonal Ein Sof nothing can be grasped. The second aspect of Divine emanations, however, are accessible to human perception, dynamically interacting throughout spiritual and physical existence, reveal the Divine immanently, and are bound up in the life of man. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but complement one another, emanations revealing the concealed mystery from within the Godhead.

The Zohar reads the first words of Genesis BeReishit Bara Elohim – In the beginning God created as“With the level of "Reishit-Beginning" the Ein Sof created Elohim-God's manifestation in Creation: “At the very beginning the King made engravings in the supernal purity. A spark of blackness emerged in the sealed within the sealed, from the mystery of the Ayn Sof, a mist within matter, implanted in a ring, no white, no black, no red, no yellow, no colour at all. When He measured with the standard of measure,

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CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH He made colours to provide light. Within the spark, in the innermost part, emerged a source, from which the colours are painted below; it is sealed among the sealed things of the mystery of Ayn Sof. It penetrated, yet did not penetrate its air. It was not known at all until, from the pressure of its penetration, a single point shone, sealed, supernal. Beyond this point nothing is known, so it is called reishit (beginning): the first word of all...”* [43] "

The structure of emanations has been described in various ways: Sephirot (Divine attributes) and Partzufim (Divine “faces”), Ohr (spiritual light and flow), Names of God and the supernal Torah, Olamot (Spiritual Worlds), a Divine Tree and Archetypal Man, Angelic Chariot and Palaces, male and female, enclothed layers of reality, inwardly holy vitality and external Kelipot shells, 613 channels (“limbs”of the King) and the Divine souls in man.

These symbols are used to describe various parts and aspects of the model.

9.3.2

Sephirot and the Divine Feminine

Main articles: Sephirot and Shekhinah The Sephirot (also spelled “sephiroth”) (singular sefirah) are the ten emanations and attributes of God with which he continually sustains the universe in existence.

The Zohar and other formative texts elaborate on their emergence from concealment and potential in the infinite unity of the Ein Sof. Cordovero systemises them as one light poured into ten created vessels. Comparison of his counting with Luria's, describes dual rational and unconscious aspects of Kabbalah. Two metaphors are used to describe the sephirot, their theocentric manifestation as the Trees of Life and Knowledge, and their anthropocentric correspondence in man, exemplified as Adam Kadmon. This dual-directional perspective embodies the cyclical, inclusive nature of the divine flow, where alternative divine and human perspectives have validity. The central metaphor of man allows human understanding of the sephirot, as they correspond to the psychological faculties of the soul, and incorporate masculine and feminine aspects after Genesis 1:27 (“God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him, male and female He created them”). Corresponding to the last sefirah in Creation is the indwelling shekhinah (Feminine Divine Presence). Downward flow of divine Light in Creation forms the supernal Four Worlds; Atziluth, Beri'ah, Yetzirah and Assiah manifesting the dominance of successive sephirot towards action in this world. The acts of man unite or divide the Heavenly masculine and feminine aspects of the sephirot, their anthropomorphic harmony completing Creation. As the spiritual foundation of Creation, the sephirot correspond to the names of God in Judaism and the particular nature of any entity.

Scheme of descending Sephirot in 3 columns, as a tree with roots above and branches below

Ten Sephirot as process of Creation According to Lurianic cosmology, the sephirot correspond to various levels of creation (ten sephirot in each of the Four Worlds, and four worlds within each of the larger four worlds, each containing ten sephirot, which themselves contain ten sephirot, to an infinite number of possibilities),* [44] and are emanated from the Creator for the purpose of creating the universe. The sephirot are considered revelations of the Creator's will (ratzon),* [45] and they should not be understood as ten different“gods”but as ten different ways the one God reveals his will through the Emanations. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes.

Altogether, eleven sephirot are named. However, Keter and Daat are unconscious and conscious dimensions of one principle, conserving 10 forces. The names of the

9.3. CONCEPTS

87

sephirot in descending order are: • • • • • • • • • •

there were no righteous humans, the blessings of God would become completely hidden, and creation would Keter (supernal crown, representing above- cease to exist. While real human actions are the “Foundation”(Yesod) of this universe (Malchut), these actions conscious will) must accompany the conscious intention of compassion.

Chochmah (the highest potential of thought) Compassionate actions are often impossible without faith (Emunah), meaning to trust that God always supports Binah (the understanding of the potential) compassionate actions even when God seems hidden. Ultimately, it is necessary to show compassion toward oneDaat (intellect of knowledge) self too in order to share compassion toward others. This Chesed (sometimes referred to as Gedolah- “selfish”enjoyment of God's blessings but only in order greatness) (loving-kindness) to empower oneself to assist others is an important aspect Gevurah (sometimes referred to as Din-justice or of“Restriction”, and is considered a kind of golden mean in kabbalah, corresponding to the sefirah of Adornment Pachad-fear) (severity/strength) (Tiferet) being part of the “Middle Column”.

Rachamim also known as Tiphereth (mercy) Moses ben Jacob Cordovero, wrote Tomer Devorah (Palm Tree of Deborah), in which he presents an ethical Netzach (victory/eternity) teaching of Judaism in the kabbalistic context of the ten Hod (glory/splendour) sephirot. Tomer Devorah has become also a foundational Musar text.* [46] Yesod (foundation)

• Malkuth (kingdom) Ten Sephirot as process of ethics

9.3.3 Descending spiritual Worlds Medieval Kabbalists believed that all things are linked to God through these emanations, making all levels in creation part of one great, gradually descending chain of being. Through this any lower creation reflects its particular characteristics in Supernal Divinity.

Hasidic thought extends the Divine immanence of Kabbalah by holding that God is all that really exists, all else being completely undifferentiated from God's perspective. This view can be defined as monistic panentheism.

According to this philosophy, God's existence is higher than anything that this world can express, yet he includes all things of this world within his Divine reality in perfect unity, so that the Creation effected no change in him at all. This paradox is dealt with at length in Chabad texts.* [47]

In the 16-17th centuries Kabbalah was popularised through a new genre of ethical literature, related to Kabbalistic meditation

Divine creation by means of the Ten Sephirot is an ethical process. They represent the different aspects of Morality.

Loving-Kindness is a possible moral justification found in Chessed, and Gevurah is the Moral Justification of Justice and both are mediated by Mercy which is Rachamim.

However, these pillars of morality become immoral once they become extremes. When Loving-Kindness becomes extreme it can lead to sexual depravity and lack of Justice to the wicked. When Justice becomes extreme, it can lead to torture and the Murder of innocents and unfair punishment.

“Righteous”humans (tzadikim) ascend these ethical qualities of the ten sephirot by doing righteous actions. If

9.3.4 Origin of evil Among problems considered in the Hebrew Kabbalah is the theological issue of the nature and origin of evil. In the views of some Kabbalists this conceives 'evil' as a 'quality of God', asserting that negativity enters into the essence of the Absolute. In this view it is conceived that the Absolute needs evil to 'be what it is', i.e., to exist.* [49] Foundational texts of Medieval Kabbalism conceived evil as a demonic parallel to the holy, called the Sitra Achra (the“Other Side”), and the Kelipot/Qliphoth (the “Shells/Husks”) that cover and conceal the holy, are nurtured from it, and yet also protect it by limiting its revelation. Scholem termed this element of the Spanish Kabbalah a “Jewish gnostic”motif, in the sense of dual powers in the divine realm of manifestation. In a radical notion, the root of evil is found within the 10 holy

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Amulet from the 15th century. Theosophical kabbalists, especially Luria, censored contemporary Practical Kabbalah, but allowed amulets by Sages* [48]

Sephirot, through an imbalance of Gevurah, the power of “Strength/Judgement/Severity”.

Gevurah is necessary for Creation to exist as it counterposes Chesed (“loving-kindness”), restricting the unlimited divine bounty within suitable vessels, so forming the Worlds. However, if man sins (actualising impure judgement within his soul), the supernal Judgement is reciprocally empowered over the Kindness, introducing disharmony among the Sephirot in the divine realm and exile from God throughout Creation. The demonic realm, though illusory in its holy origin, becomes the real apparent realm of impurity in lower Creation.

9.3.5

Role of Man

Kabbalistic doctrine gives man the central role in Creation, as his soul and body correspond to the supernal divine manifestations. In the Christian Kabbalah this scheme was universalised to describe harmonia mundi, the harmony of Creation within man.* [50] In Judaism, it gave a profound spiritualisation of Jewish practice.

While the kabbalistic scheme gave a radically innovative, though conceptually continuous, development of mainstream Midrashic and Talmudic Rabbinic notions, kabbalistic thought underscored and invigorated conservative Jewish observance. The esoteric teachings of kabbalah gave the traditional mitzvot observances the central role in spiritual creation, whether the practitioner was learned in this knowledge or not. Accompanying normative Jewish observance and worship with elite mystical kavanot intentions gave them theurgic power, but sincere observance by common folk, especially in the Hasidic popularisation of kabbalah, could replace esoteric abilities. Many kabbalists were also leading legal figures in Judaism, such as Nachmanides and Joseph Karo.

Medieval kabbalah elaborates particular reasons for each Biblical mitzvah, and their role in harmonising the supernal divine flow, uniting masculine and feminine forces on High. With this, the feminine Divine presence in this

Joseph Karo's role as both legalist and mystic underscores Kabbalah's spiritualisation of normative Jewish observance

world is drawn from exile to the Holy One Above. The 613 mitzvot are embodied in the organs and soul of man.

Lurianic kabbalah incorporates this in the more inclusive scheme of Jewish messianic rectification of exiled divinity. Jewish mysticism, in contrast to Divine transcendence rationalist human-centred reasons for Jewish observance, gave Divine-immanent providential cosmic significance to the daily events in the worldly life of man in general, and the spiritual role of Jewish observance in particular.

9.3.6 Levels of the soul The Kabbalah posits that the human soul has three elements, the nefesh, ru'ach, and neshamah. The nefesh is found in all humans, and enters the physical body at birth.

It is the source of one's physical and psychological nature.

The next two parts of the soul are not implanted at birth, but can be developed over time; their development depends on the actions and beliefs of the individual. They are said to only fully exist in people awakened spiritually.

A common way of explaining the three parts of the soul is as follows: • Nefesh (‫)נפש‬: the lower part, or “animal part”, of the soul. It is linked to instincts and bodily cravings.

This part of the soul is provided at birth.

• Ruach (‫)רוח‬: the middle soul, the“spirit”. It contains the moral virtues and the ability to distinguish

9.3. CONCEPTS

89 or extra states of the soul, play no part in any afterlife scheme, but are mentioned for completeness: • Ruach HaKodesh (‫“( )רוח הקודש‬spirit of holiness” ): a state of the soul that makes prophecy possible.

Since the age of classical prophecy passed, no one (outside of Israel) receives the soul of prophecy any longer.

• Neshamah Yeseira: The “supplemental soul”that a Jew can experience on Shabbat. It makes possible an enhanced spiritual enjoyment of the day. This exists only when one is observing Shabbat; it can be lost and gained depending on one's observance.

• Neshamah Kedosha: Provided to Jews at the age of maturity (13 for boys, 12 for girls) and is related to the study and fulfillment of the Torah commandments. It exists only when one studies and follows the Torah; it can be lost and gained depending on one's study and observance.

9.3.7 Reincarnation Main article: Gilgul Building on Kabbalah's conception of the soul, Abraham Abulafia's meditations included the “inner illumination of”the human form* [51]

between good and evil.

• Neshamah (‫)נשמה‬: the higher soul, or “super-soul” . This separates man from all other life-forms. It is related to the intellect and allows man to enjoy and benefit from the afterlife. It allows one to have some awareness of the existence and presence of God. The Raaya Meheimna, a section of related teachings spread throughout the Zohar, discusses fourth and fifth parts of the human soul, the chayyah and yehidah (first mentioned in the Midrash Rabbah). Gershom Scholem writes that these “were considered to represent the sublimest levels of intuitive cognition, and to be within the grasp of only a few chosen individuals”. The Chayyah and the Yechidah do not enter into the body like the other three—thus they received less attention in other sections of the Zohar.

• Chayyah (‫)חיה‬: The part of the soul that allows one to have an awareness of the divine life force itself.

• Yehidah (‫)יחידה‬: The highest plane of the soul, in which one can achieve as full a union with God as is possible.

Both rabbinic and kabbalistic works posit that there are a few additional, non-permanent states of the soul that people can develop on certain occasions. These extra souls,

Reincarnation, the transmigration of the soul after death, was introduced into Judaism as a central esoteric tenet of Kabbalah from the Medieval period onwards, called Gilgul neshamot (“Cycles of the soul”). The concept does not appear overtly in the Hebrew Bible or classic Rabbinic literature, and was rejected by various Medieval Jewish philosophers. However, the Kabbalists explained a number of scriptural passages in reference to Gilgulim.

The concept became central to the later Kabbalah of Isaac Luria, who systemised it as the personal parallel to the cosmic process of rectification. Through Lurianic Kabbalah and Hasidic Judaism, reincarnation entered popular Jewish culture as a literary motif.

9.3.8 Tzimtzum, Shevirah and Tikkun After publication of the Zohar in the late 13th century, attempts were made to interpret and systemise the doctrines within its imagery. This culminated in the successive, comprehensive expositions of Cordovero and Luria in 16th-century Safed. While Cordovero systemised Medieval kabbalah in a rationally influenced linear scheme, this was subsequently superseded by the mythological, dynamic scheme of Isaac Luria, recorded by Chaim Vital and his other disciples. Lurianic theosophy became the foundation of modern kabbalah, incorporating Medieval theosophy within its wider explanation. The suprarational Lurianic doctrines of Tzimtzum, Shevirah and Tikkun reorganised Kabbalistic doctrine around crisiscatharsis Divine exile and redemption, explaining Jewish messianism in Kabbalah.

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9.3.9 Linguistic mysticism of Hebrew

16th-century graves of Safed, Galilee. The messianic focus of its mystical renaissance culminated in Lurianic thought

Kabbalistic painting of the supernal illumination of Hebrew letters in Creation

Tzimtzum (Constriction/Concentration) is the primordial cosmic act whereby God“contracted”His infinite light, leaving a “void”into which the light of existence was poured. This allowed the emergence of independent existence that would not become nullified by the pristine Infinite Light, reconciling the unity of the Ein Sof with the plurality of creation. This changed the first creative act into one of withdrawal/exile, the antithesis of the ultimate Divine Will. In contrast, a new emanation after the Tzimtzum shone into the vacuum to begin creation, but led to an initial instability called Tohu (Chaos), leading to a new crisis of Shevirah (Shattering) of the sephirot vessels. The shards of the broken vessels fell down into the lower realms, animated by remnants of their divine light, causing primordial exile within the Divine Persona before the creation of man. Exile and enclothement of higher divinity within lower realms throughout existence requires man to complete the Tikkun olam (Rectification) process. Rectification Above corresponds to the reorganization of the independent sephirot into relating Partzufim (Divine Personas), previously referred to obliquely in the Zohar. From the catastrophe stems the possibility of self-aware Creation, and also the Kelipot (Impure Shells) of previous Medieval kabbalah. The metaphorical anthropomorphism of the partzufim accentuates the sexual unifications of the redemption process, while Gilgul reincarnation emerges from the scheme. Uniquely, Lurianism gave formerly private mysticism the urgency of Messianic social involvement.

According to interpretations of Luria, the catastrophe stemmed from the “unwillingness”of the residue imprint after the Tzimtzum to relate to the new vitality that began creation. The process was arranged to shed and harmonise the Divine Infinity with the latent potential of evil.* [52] The creation of Adam would have redeemed existence, but his sin caused new shevirah of Divine vitality, requiring the Giving of the Torah to begin Messianic rectification. Historical and individual history becomes the narrative of reclaiming exiled Divine sparks.

Kabbalistic thought extended Biblical and Midrashic notions that God enacted Creation through the Hebrew language and through the Torah into a full linguistic mysticism. In this, every Hebrew letter, word, number, even accent on words of the Hebrew Bible contain esoteric meanings, describing the spiritual dimensions within exoteric ideas, and it teaches the hermeneutic methods of interpretation for ascertaining these meanings. Names of God in Judaism have further prominence, though fluidity of meaning turns the whole Torah into a Divine name.

As the Hebrew name of things is the channel of their lifeforce, parallel to the sephirot, so concepts such as “holiness”and "mitzvot" embody ontological Divine immanence, as God can be known in manifestation as well as transcendence. The infinite potential of meaning in the Torah, as in the Ein Sof, is reflected in the symbol of the two trees of the Garden of Eden; the Torah of the Tree of Knowledge is the external, Halachic Torah, through which mystics can perceive the unlimited Torah of the Tree of Life. In Lurianic expression, each of the 600,000 souls of Israel find their own interpretation in Torah.

“The reapers of the Field are the Comrades, masters of this wisdom, because Malkhut is called the Apple Field, and She grows sprouts of secrets and new meanings of Torah. Those who constantly create new interpretations of Torah are the ones who reap Her.” * [53] As early as the 1st century BCE Jews believed that the Torah and other canonical texts contained encoded messages and hidden meanings. Gematria is one method for discovering its hidden meanings. Each letter in Hebrew also represents a number; Hebrew, unlike many other languages, never developed a separate numerical alphabet.

By converting letters to numbers, Kabbalists were able to find a hidden meaning in each word. This method of interpretation was used extensively by various schools.

9.5. SCHOLARSHIP

9.4 Primary texts

91 lation in the works of the Maharal, and Lurianic rectification in Etz Chayim. Subsequent interpretation of Lurianic Kabbalah was made in the writings of Shalom Sharabi, in Nefesh HaChaim and the 20th-century Sulam. Hasidism interpreted kabbalistic structures to their correspondence in inward perception.* [55] The Hasidic development of kabbalah incorporates a successive stage of Jewish mysticism from historical kabbalistic metaphysics.* [56]

9.5 Scholarship Main article: List of Jewish mysticism scholars The first modern-academic historians of Judaism, the "Wissenschaft des Judentums" school of the 19th century, framed Judaism in solely rational terms in the emancipatory Haskalah spirit of their age. They opposed kabbalah and restricted its significance from Jewish historiography. In the mid-20th century, it was left to Gershom Scholem to overturn their stance, establishing the flourishing present-day academic investigation of Jewish mysticism, and making Heichalot, Kabbalistic and Hasidic texts the objects of scholarly critical-historical study. In Scholem's opinion, the mythical and mystical components of Judaism were at least as important as the rational ones, and he thought that they, rather than the exoteric Halakha, were the living current in historical Jewish development.

Title page of first printed edition of the Zohar, main sourcebook of Kabbalah, from Mantua, Italy in 1558

Main article: Kabbalah: Primary texts

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been a centre of this research, including Scholem and Isaiah Tishby, and more recently Joseph Dan, Yehuda Liebes, Rachel Elior, and Moshe Idel.* [57] Scholars across the eras of Jewish mysticism in America and Britain have included Arthur Green, Lawrence Fine, Elliot Wolfson, Daniel Matt* [58] and Ada Rapoport-Albert.

Like the rest of the Rabbinic literature, the texts of kabMoshe Idel has opened up research on the Ecstatic Kabbalah were once part of an ongoing oral tradition, though, balah alongside the theosophical, and has called for over the centuries, much of the oral tradition has been new multi-disciplinary approaches, beyond the philologwritten down. ical and historical that have dominated until now, to Jewish forms of esotericism existed over 2,000 years include phenomenology, psychology, anthropology and ago. Ben Sira (born c. 170 BCE) warns against comparative studies.* [59] it, saying: “You shall have no business with secret things”.* [54] Nonetheless, mystical studies were undertaken and resulted in mystical literature, the first being 9.5.1 Claims for authority the Apocalyptic literature of the second and first preChristian centuries and which contained elements that Historians have noted that most claims for the authority carried over to later kabbalah. of kabbalah involve an argument of the antiquity of auThroughout the centuries since, many texts have been produced, among them the ancient descriptions of Sefer Yetzirah, the Heichalot mystical ascent literature, the Bahir, Sefer Raziel HaMalakh and the Zohar, the main text of Kabbalistic exegesis. Classic mystical Bible commentaries are included in fuller versions of the Mikraot Gedolot (Main Commentators). Cordoveran systemisation is presented in Pardes Rimonim, philosophical articu-

thority (see, e.g., Joseph Dan's discussion in his Circle of the Unique Cherub). As a result, virtually all early foundational works pseudepigraphically claim, or are ascribed, ancient authorship. For example, Sefer Raziel HaMalach, an astro-magical text partly based on a magical manual of late antiquity, Sefer ha-Razim, was, according to the kabbalists, transmitted by the angel Raziel to Adam after he was evicted from Eden.

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Another famous work, the early Sefer Yetzirah, supposedly dates back to the patriarch Abraham. This tendency toward pseudepigraphy has its roots in apocalyptic literature, which claims that esoteric knowledge such as magic, divination and astrology was transmitted to humans in the mythic past by the two angels, Aza and Azaz'el (in other places, Azaz'el and Uzaz'el) who fell from heaven (see Genesis 6:4).

9.6 Criticism 9.6.1

Dualistic cosmology

Although Kabbalah propounds the Unity of God, one of the most serious and sustained criticisms is that it may lead away from monotheism, and instead promote dualism, the belief that there is a supernatural counterpart to God. The dualistic system holds that there is a good power versus an evil power. There are two primary models of Gnostic-dualistic cosmology: the first, which goes back to Zoroastrianism, believes creation is ontologically divided between good and evil forces; the second, found largely in Greco-Roman metaphysics like Neo-Platonism, argues that the universe knew a primordial harmony, but that a cosmic disruption yielded a second, evil, dimension to reality. This second model influenced the cosmology of the Kabbalah.

According to Kabbalistic cosmology, the Ten Sephirot correspond to ten levels of creation. These levels of creation must not be understood as ten different“gods”but as ten different ways of revealing God, one per level. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes.

While God may seem to exhibit dual natures (masculinefeminine, compassionate-judgmental, creator-creation), all adherents of Kabbalah have consistently stressed the ultimate unity of God. For example, in all discussions of Male and Female, the hidden nature of God exists above it all without limit, being called the Infinite or the “No End”(Ein Sof)—neither one nor the other, transcending any definition. The ability of God to become hidden from perception is called“Restriction”(Tzimtzum). Hiddenness makes creation possible because God can become “revealed”in a diversity of limited ways, which then form the building blocks of creation.

Kabbalistic texts, including the Zohar, appear to affirm dualism, as they ascribe all evil to the separation from holiness known as the Sitra Achra* [60] (“the other side” ) which is opposed to Sitra D'Kedushah, or the Side of Holiness.* [61] The “left side”of divine emanation is a negative mirror image of the “side of holiness”with which it was locked in combat. [Encyclopaedia Judaica, Volume 6, “Dualism”, p. 244]. While this evil aspect exists within the divine structure of the Sephirot, the Zohar indicates that the Sitra Ahra has no power over Ein

Sof, and only exists as a necessary aspect of the creation of God to give man free choice, and that evil is the consequence of this choice. It is not a supernatural force opposed to God, but a reflection of the inner moral combat within mankind between the dictates of morality and the surrender to one's basic instincts.

Rabbi Dr. David Gottlieb notes that many Kabbalists hold that the concepts of, e.g., a Heavenly Court or the Sitra Ahra are only given to humanity by God as a working model to understand His ways within our own epistemological limits. They reject the notion that a satan or angels actually exist. Others hold that non-divine spiritual entities were indeed created by God as a means for exacting his will.

According to Kabbalists, humans cannot yet understand the infinity of God. Rather, there is God as revealed to humans (corresponding to Zeir Anpin), and the rest of the infinity of God as remaining hidden from human experience (corresponding to Arich Anpin).* [62] One reading of this theology is monotheistic, similar to panentheism; another reading of the same theology is that it is dualistic.

Gershom Scholem writes: It is clear that with this postulate of an impersonal basic reality in God, which becomes a person—or appears as a person—only in the process of Creation and Revelation, Kabbalism abandons the personalistic basis of the Biblical conception of God....It will not surprise us to find that speculation has run the whole gamut—from attempts to re-transform the impersonal En-Sof into the personal God of the Bible to the downright heretical doctrine of a genuine dualism between the hidden Ein Sof and the personal Demiurge of Scripture.

—Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism Shocken Books (p.11–12)

9.6.2 Distinction between Jews and nonJews According to Isaac Luria (1534–72) and other commentators on the Zohar, righteous Gentiles do not have this demonic aspect and are in many ways similar to Jewish souls. A number of prominent Kabbalists, e.g., Rabbi Pinchas Eliyahu of Vilna, the author of Sefer ha-Brit, held that only some marginal elements in the humanity represent these demonic forces. On the other hand, the souls of Jewish heretics have much more satanic energy than the worst of idol worshippers; this view is popular in some Hasidic circles, especially Satmar Hasidim.

On the other hand, many prominent Kabbalists rejected this idea and believed in essential equality of all human souls. Menahem Azariah da Fano (1548–1620), in his book Reincarnations of souls, provides many examples of non-Jewish Biblical figures being reincarnated into Jews

9.6. CRITICISM and vice versa; the contemporary Habad Rabbi and mystic Dov Ber Pinson teaches that distinctions between Jews and non-Jews in works such as the Tanya are not to be understood as literally referring to the external properties of a person (what religious community they are born into), but rather as referring to the properties of souls as they can be re-incarnated in any religious community.* [63] But one point of view is represented by the Hasidic work Tanya (1797), in order to argue that Jews have a different character of soul: while a non-Jew, according to the author Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (born 1745), can achieve a high level of spirituality, similar to an angel, his soul is still fundamentally different in character, but not value, from a Jewish one.* [64] A similar view is found in Kuzari, an early medieval philosophical book by Yehuda Halevi (1075–1141 AD) Another prominent Habad Rabbi, Abraham Yehudah Khein (born 1878), believed that spiritually elevated Gentiles have essentially Jewish souls,“who just lack the formal conversion to Judaism”, and that unspiritual Jews are “Jewish merely by their birth documents”.* [65] The great 20th-century Kabbalist Yehuda Ashlag viewed the terms “Jews”and “Gentile”as different levels of perception, available to every human soul.

David Halperin* [66] argues that the collapse of Kabbalah's influence among Western European Jews over the course of the 17th and 18th century was a result of the cognitive dissonance they experienced between the negative perception of Gentiles found in some exponents of Kabbalah, and their own positive dealings with non-Jews, which were rapidly expanding and improving during this period due to the influence of the Enlightenment.

93 He believed that Kabbalah can reconcile the differences between the world religions, which represent different facets and stages of the universal human spirituality. In his writings, Benamozegh interprets the New Testament, Hadith, Vedas, Avesta and pagan mysteries according to the Kabbalistic theosophy.* [68] For a different perspective, see Wolfson.* [69] He provides numerous examples from the 17th to the 20th centuries, which would challenge the view of Halperin cited above as well as the notion that “modern Judaism”has rejected or dismissed this “outdated aspect”of the religion and, he argues, there are still Kabbalists today who harbor this view. He argues that, while it is accurate to say that many Jews do and would find this distinction offensive, it is inaccurate to say that the idea has been totally rejected in all circles. As Wolfson has argued, it is an ethical demand on the part of scholars to continue to be vigilant with regard to this matter and in this way the tradition can be refined from within.

However, as explained above, many well known Kabbalists rejected the literal interpretation of these seemingly discriminatory views. They argued that the term “Jew”was to be interpreted metaphorically, as referring to the spiritual development of the soul, rather than the superficial denomination of the individual, and they added a chain of intermediary states between“Jews”and idol worshippers, or spiritualised the very definition of “Jews”and “non-Jews”and argued that a soul can be re-incarnated in different communities (whether Jewish or not) as much as within a single one.* [63]

9.6.3 Medieval views

However, a number of renowned Kabbalists claimed the exact opposite, stressing universality of all human souls and providing universal interpretations of the Kabbalistic tradition, including its Lurianic version. In their view, Kabbalah transcends the borders of Judaism and can serve as a basis of inter-religious theosophy and a universal religion. Rabbi Pinchas Elijah Hurwitz, a prominent Lithuanian-Galician Kabbalist of the 18th century and a moderate proponent of the Haskalah, called for brotherly love and solidarity between all nations, and believed that Kabbalah can empower everyone, Jews and Gentiles alike, with prophetic abilities.* [67] The works of Abraham Cohen de Herrera (1570–1635) are full of references to Gentile mystical philosophers.

Such approach was particularly common among the Renaissance and post-Renaissance Italian Jews. Late medieval and Renaissance Italian Kabbalists, such as Yohanan Alemanno, David Messer Leon and Abraham Yagel, adhered to humanistic ideals and incorporated teachings of various Christian and pagan mystics.

A prime representative of this humanist stream in Kabbalah was Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, who explicitly Golden age of Spanish Judaism on the Knesset Menorah, praised Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, as Maimonides holding Aristotle's work well as a whole range of ancient pagan mystical systems.

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CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH Rabbi Leone di Modena, a 17th-century Venetian critic of Kabbalah, wrote that if we were to accept the Kabbalah, then the Christian trinity would indeed be compatible with Judaism, as the Trinity closely resembles the kabbalistic doctrine of the sephirot. This critique was in response to the knowledge that some European Jews of the period addressed individual sephirot in some of their prayers, although the practice was apparently uncommon. Apologists explain that Jews may have been praying for and not necessarily to the aspects of Godliness represented by the sephirot.

Yaakov Emden, 1697–1776, wrote the Mitpaḥath Sfarim (Veil of the Books), a detailed critique of the Zohar in which he concludes that certain parts of the Zohar contain heretical teaching and therefore could not have been written by Shimon bar Yochai.

Kabbalah mysticism on the Knesset Menorah, which shared some similarities of theory with Jewish Neoplatonists

9.6.4 Orthodox Judaism The idea that there are ten divine sephirot could evolve over time into the idea that “God is One being, yet in that One being there are Ten”which opens up a debate about what the “correct beliefs”in God should be, according to Judaism. Rabbi Saadia Gaon teaches in his book Emunot v'Deot that Jews who believe in reincarnation have adopted a non-Jewish belief.

Maimonides (12th century) rejected many of the texts of the Hekalot, particularly Shi'ur Qomah whose starkly anthropomorphic vision of God he considered heretical.* [70] Nachmanides (13th century) provides background to many kabbalistic ideas. His works offer in-depth of various concepts. In fact, an entire book, entitled Gevuras Aryeh, was authored by Rabbi Yaakov Yehuda Aryeh Leib Frenkel and originally published in 1915, specifically to explain and elaborate on the kabbalistic concepts addressed by Nachmanides in his commentary to the Five books of Moses.

Rabbi Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, in the spirit of his father Maimonides, Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, and other predecessors, explains at length in his Milḥamot HaShem that God is in no way literally within time or space nor physically outside time or space, since time and space simply do not apply to his being whatsoever. This is in contrast to certain popular understandings of modern Kabbalah which teach a form of panentheism, that his 'essence' is within everything.

Tikkun for reading through the night of Shavuot, a popular JewAround the 1230s, Rabbi Meir ben Simon of Nar- ish custom from the Safed Kabbalists bonne wrote an epistle (included in his Milḥemet Mitzvah) against his contemporaries, the early Kabbalists, charac- Rabbi Yiḥyeh Qafeḥ, a 20th-century Yemenite Jewish terizing them as blasphemers who even approach heresy. leader and Chief Rabbi of Yemen, spearheaded the Dor He particularly singled out the Sefer Bahir, rejecting the Deah (“generation of knowledge”) movement* [71] to attribution of its authorship to the tanna R. Neḥunya ben counteract the influence of the Zohar and modern Kabha-Kanah and describing some of its content as truly balah.* [72] He authored critiques of mysticism in general heretical. and Lurianic Kabbalah in particular; his magnum opus

9.6. CRITICISM

95

was Milḥamoth ha-Shem (Wars of Hashem)* [73] against what he perceived as neo-platonic and gnostic influences on Judaism with the publication and distribution of the Zohar since the 13th Century. Rabbi Yiḥyah founded yeshivot, rabbinical schools, and synagogues that featured a rationalist approach to Judaism based on the Talmud and works of Saadia Gaon and Maimonides (Rambam).

Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1903–1994), an ultra-rationalist Modern Orthodox philosopher and brother of Nechama Leibowitz, publicly shared views expressed in Rabbi Yiḥyeh Qafeḥ's book Milḥamoth HaShem against mysticism. For example, Leibowitz called Kabbalah “a collection of “pagan superstitions”and “idol worship”in remarks given after receiving the Yakir Yerushalayim Award (English: worthy citizen of Jerusalem) in 1990.* [74] In modern times, rationalists holding similar views aligned with the rationalism of Dor Daim have described themselves as “talmide ha-Rambam”(disciples of Maimonides) rather than Dor Daim, and are more theologically aligned with the rationalism of Modern Orthodox Judaism than with Orthodox Ḥasidic or Ḥaredi communities.* [75] There is dispute among modern Haredim as to the status of Isaac Luria's, the Arizal's Kabbalistic teachings. While a portion of Modern Orthodox Rabbis, Dor Daim and many students of the Rambam, completely reject Arizal's Kabbalistic teachings, as well as deny that the Zohar is authoritative, or from Shimon bar Yohai, all three of these groups completely accept the existence and validity of Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'aseh B'resheet mysticism.

Their only disagreement concerns whether the Kabbalistic teachings promulgated today are accurate representations of those esoteric teachings to which the Talmud refers. Within the Haredi Jewish community one can find both rabbis who sympathise with such a view, while not necessarily agreeing with it,* [76] as well as rabbis who consider such a view absolute heresy. Rabbis Eliyahu Dessler and Gedaliah Nadel maintained that it is acceptable to believe that the Zohar was not written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai and that it had a late authorship.* [77]

9.6.5

Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism

A version of Lekhah Dodi song to welcome the Shabbat, a cross denomination Jewish custom from Kabbalah

did not accept Kabbalah as teaching literal truths.

According to Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson (Dean of the Conservative Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies in the American Jewish University) Many western Jews insisted that their future and their freedom required shedding what they perceived as parochial orientalism. They fashioned a Judaism that was decorous and strictly rational (according to 19th-century European standards), denigrating Kabbalah as backward, superstitious, and marginal.* [78] However, in the late 20th century and early 21st century there has been a revival in interest in Kabbalah in all branches of liberal Judaism. The Kabbalistic 12thcentury prayer Anim Zemirot was restored to the new Conservative Sim Shalom siddur, as was the B'rikh Shmeh passage from the Zohar, and the mystical Ushpizin service welcoming to the Sukkah the spirits of Jewish forbearers. Anim Zemirot and the 16th-century mystical poem Lekhah Dodi reappeared in the Reform Siddur Gates of Prayer in 1975. All Rabbinical seminaries now teach several courses in Kabbalah—in Conservative Judaism, both the Jewish Theological Seminary and the Ziegler School of Rabbinical Studies of the University of Judaism in Los Angeles have full-time instructors in Kabbalah and Hasidut, Eitan Fishbane and Pinchas Geller, respectively. In the Reform movement Sharon Koren teaches at the Hebrew Union College. Reform Rabbis like Herbert Weiner and Lawrence Kushner have renewed interest in Kabbalah among Reform Jews. At the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, the only accredited seminary that has curricular requirements in Kabbalah, Joel Hecker is the full-time instructor teaching courses in Kabbalah and Hasidut.

Kabbalah tended to be rejected by most Jews in the Conservative and Reform movements, though its influences were not completely eliminated. While it was generally not studied as a discipline, the Kabbalistic Kabbalat Shabbat service remained part of liberal liturgy, as did the Yedid Nefesh prayer. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, Rabbi Saul Lieberman of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America is reputed to have introduced a lecture by Scholem on Kabbalah with a statement that Kabbalah itself was“nonsense”, but the academic study of Kabbalah was According to Artson: “scholarship”. This view became popular among many Ours is an age hungry for meaning, for Jews, who viewed the subject as worthy of study, but who

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CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH a sense of belonging, for holiness. In that search, we have returned to the very Kabbalah our predecessors scorned. The stone that the builders rejected has become the head cornerstone (Psalm 118:22)... Kabbalah was the last universal theology adopted by the entire Jewish people, hence faithfulness to our commitment to positive-historical Judaism mandates a reverent receptivity to Kabbalah.* [23]

The Reconstructionist movement, under the leadership of Arthur Green in the 1980s and 1990s, and with the influence of Zalman Schachter Shalomi, brought a strong openness to Kabbalah and hasidic elements that then came to play prominent roles in the Kol ha-Neshamah siddur series.

9.7 Contemporary study

Rosicrucianism and the Golden Dawn, although hundreds of similar societies claim a kabbalistic lineage. These derive from syncretic combinations of Jewish kabbalah with Christian, occultist or contemporary New Age spirituality. As a separate spiritual tradition in Western esotericism since the Renaissance, with different aims from its Jewish origin, the non-Jewish traditions differ significantly and do not give an accurate representation of the Jewish spiritual understanding (or vice versa).* [79] • Fourthly, since the mid-20th century, historicalcritical scholarly investigation of all eras of Jewish mysticism has flourished into an established department of university Jewish studies. Where the first academic historians of Judaism in the 19th century opposed and marginalised kabbalah, Gershom Scholem and his successors repositioned the historiography of Jewish mysticism as a central, vital component of Judaic renewal through history.

Cross-disciplinary academic revisions of Scholem's and others' theories are regularly published for wide readership.

Teaching of classic esoteric kabbalah texts and practice remained traditional until recent times, passed on in Judaism from master to disciple, or studied by leading rabbinic scholars. This changed in the 20th century, through conscious reform and the secular openness of knowledge. 9.7.1 Universalist Jewish organisations In contemporary times kabbalah is studied in four very The two, unrelated organisations that translate the middifferent, though sometimes overlapping, ways: 20th-century teachings of Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag into a • The traditional method, employed among Jews since contemporary universalist message, have given kabbalah the 16th century, continues in learned study cir- a public cross-religious profile: cles. Its prerequisite is to either be born Jewish or be a convert and to join a group of kabbalists un• Bnei Baruch is a group of Kabbalah students, based der the tutelage of a rabbi, since the 18th century in Israel. Study materials are available in over 25 more likely a Hasidic one, though others exist among languages for free online or at printing cost. Michael Sephardi-Mizrachi, and Lithuanian Rabbinic scholLaitman established Bnei Baruch in 1991, followars. Beyond elite, historical esoteric kabbalah, the ing the passing of his teacher, Rabbi Ashlag's son public-communally studied texts of Hasidic thought Rav Baruch Ashlag. Laitman named his group explain kabbalistic concepts for wide spiritual apBnei Baruch (sons of Baruch) to commemorate the plication, through their own concern with popular memory of his mentor. The teaching strongly sugpsychological perception of Divine Panentheism. In gests restricting one's studies to 'authentic sources', recent times, many Orthodox Jewish outreach orkabbalists of the direct lineage of master to disciganisations for secular Jews teach Kabbalistic and ple.* [80]* [81] Hasidic texts.

• The Kabbalah Centre was founded in the United • A second, new universalist form, is the method of States in 1965 as The National Research Instimodern-style Jewish organisations and writers, who tute of Kabbalah by Philip Berg and Rav Yehuda seek to disseminate kabbalah to every man, woman Tzvi Brandwein, disciple of Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag's. and child regardless of race or class, especially since Later Philip Berg and his wife re-established the orthe Western interest in mysticism from the 1960s. ganisation as the worldwide Kabbalah Centre.* [82] These derive from various cross-denominational In recent times its outreach teaching in New Age Jewish interests in kabbalah, and range from considstyle has attracted a cross-religious celebrity followered theology to popularised forms that often adopt ing and media profile, though the organisation is led New Age terminology and beliefs for wider commuby Orthodox Jewish teachers.* [83] nication. These groups highlight or interpret kabbalah through non-particularist, universalist aspects. Other prominent Jewish universalist organisations: • A third way are non-Jewish organisations, mystery schools, initiation bodies, fraternities and secret societies, the most popular of which are Freemasonry,

• The Kabbalah Society, run by Warren Kenton, an organisation based instead on pre-Lurianic Medieval

9.8. SEE ALSO Kabbalah presented in universalist New Age syncretic style. In contrast, traditional kabbalists read earlier kabbalah through later Lurianism and the systemisations of 16th-century Safed.

97 the advantage of matter when it is purified, and the advantage of form when integrated with matter. The two are to be unified so one cannot detect where either begins or ends, for 'the Divine beginning is implanted in the end and the end in the beginning' (Sefer Yetzira 1:7). The One God created both for one purpose – to reveal the holy light of His hidden power. Only both united complete the perfection desired by the Creator.”* [86]

• The New Kabbalah, website and books by Sanford L. Drob, is a scholarly intellectual investigation of the Lurianic symbolism in the perspective of modern and postmodern intellectual thought. It seeks a “new kabbalah”rooted in the historical tradition through its academic study, but universalised through dialogue with modern philosophy and psychology. This approach seeks to enrich the secu- 9.7.4 Rav Kook lar disciplines, while uncovering intellectual insights formerly implicit in kabbalah's essential myth:* [84] The writings of Abraham Isaac Kook (1864–1935), first Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine and visionary, incorporate kabbalistic themes through his own poetic lan“By being equipped with the nonlinear conguage and concern with human and divine unity. His incepts of dialectical, psychoanalytic, and deconfluence is in the Religious-Zionist community, who follow structive thought we can begin to make sense his aim that the legal and imaginative aspects of Judaism of the kabbalistic symbols in our own time. So should interfuse: equipped, we are today probably in a better position to understand the philosophical aspects of the kabbalah than were the kabbalists them“Due to the alienation from the 'secret of selves.”* [85] God' [i.e. Kabbalah], the higher qualities of

9.7.2

Neo-Hasidic

From the early 20th century, Neo-Hasidism expressed a non-Orthodox Jewish interest in Jewish mysticism, becoming organisational among Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionalist Jewish denominations from the 1960s, through Jewish Renewal and the Chavurah movement. The writings and teachings of Zalman SchachterShalomi, Arthur Green, Lawrence Kushner, Herbert Weiner and others, has sought a Kabbalistic and Hasidic study and spirituality among modernist Jews. Arthur Green's translations from the religious writings of Hillel Zeitlin conceive the latter to be a precursor of contemporary neo-Hasidism.

9.7.3

Hasidic

Since the 18th century, Jewish mystical development has continued in Hasidic Judaism, turning kabbalah into a social revival with texts that internalise mystical thought.

Among different schools, Chabad-Lubavitch and Breslav with related organisations, give outward looking spiritual resources and textual learning for secular Jews. The Intellectual Hasidism of Chabad most emphasises the spread and understanding of kabbalah through its explanation in Hasidic thought, articulating the Divine meaning within kabbalah through human rational analogies, uniting the spiritual and material, esoteric and exoteric in their Divine source: “Hasidic thought instructs in the predominance of spiritual form over physical matter,

the depths of Godly life are reduced to trivia that do not penetrate the depth of the soul.

When this happens, the most mighty force is missing from the soul of nation and individual, and Exile finds favor essentially... We should not negate any conception based on rectitude and awe of Heaven of any form—only the aspect of such an approach that desires to negate the mysteries and their great influence on the spirit of the nation. This is a tragedy that we must combat with counsel and understanding, with holiness and courage.”* [87]

9.8 See also • Abraham Abulafia • Aggadah • Ayin and Yesh • Jewish mysticism • Ka-Bala board game • Kabbalah: Primary texts • List of Jewish Kabbalists • Mussar literature • Notaricon • Temurah (Kabbalah) • The Four Who Entered Paradise

98

CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH

9.9 Notes [1]

."‫"ַקָּבָלה‬Morfix .‫™ ™מורפיקס‬,Melingo Ltd. Retrieved 19 November 2014.

[2] Kabbalah: A very short introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 “The term and its uses” [3] ."‫"אינסוף‬Morfix .‫™ ™מורפיקס‬,Melingo Ltd. Retrieved 19 November 2014.

[4] “Imbued with Holiness” - The relationship of the esoteric to the exoteric in the fourfold Pardes interpretation of Torah and existence. From www.kabbalaonline.org [5] “The Freedom | Yehuda Leib HaLevi Ashlag (Baal HaSulam) | Kabbalah Library - Bnei Baruch Kabbalah Education & Research Institute”. Kabbalah.info. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[6] Shnei Luchot HaBrit, R. Isaiah Horowitz, Toldot Adam, Beit haChokhma, 14 [7] “ZOHAR”. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 201509-27.

[8] “The Written Law - Torah”. Jewish Virtual Library.

Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[20] Archived January 24, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.

[21] “The Kaballah: Ma’aseh merkavah”. SparkNotes. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[22] “The Kaballah: Ma’aseh bereshit”. SparkNotes. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[23] Artson, Bradley Shavit. From the Periphery to the Centre: Kabbalah and the Conservative Movement, United Synagogue Review, Spring 2005, Vol. 57 No. 2 [24] Urbach, The Sages, pp.184ff.

[25] Later, Elisha came to be considered heretical by his fellow Tannaim and the rabbis of the Talmud referred to him as Acher (‫“אחר‬The Other One”).

[26] Babylonian Talmud Hagigah 14b, Jerusalem Talmud Hagigah 2:1. This translation based on Braude, Ginzberg, Rodkinson, and Streane.

[27] A. W. Streane, A Translation of the Treatise Chagigah from the Babylonian Talmud Cambridge University Press, 1891. p. 83.

[28] Louis Ginzberg, Elisha ben Abuyah", Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906.

[29] Mishneh Torah, Yesodei Torah, Chapters 2-4.

[9] Kabbalah: A very short introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford [30] “The Zohar”. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2015University Press, Chapters on “the emergence of Me09-27. dieval Kabbalah”and“doctrines of Medieval Kabbalah” [31] Rabbi Abraham Ben Mordechai Azulai, Introduction to [10] Moshe Idel, Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, p. 31 the book, Ohr HaChama [Light of the Sun] [11] Megillah 14a, Shir HaShirim Rabbah 4:22, Ruth Rabbah 1:2, Aryeh Kaplan Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide pp.44–48 [12] Yehuda Ashlag; Preface to the Wisdom of Truth p.12 section 30 and p.105 bottom section of the left column as preface to the “Talmud Eser HaSfirot” [13] See Shem Mashmaon by Rabbi Shimon Agasi. It is a commentary on Otzrot Haim by Haim Vital. In the introduction he list five major schools of thought as to how to understand the Haim Vital's understanding of the concept of Tzimtzum.

[14] See Yechveh Daat Vol 3, section 47 by Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef [15] See Ktavim Hadashim published by Rabbi Yaakov Hillel of Ahavat Shalom for a sampling of works by Haim Vital attributed to Isaac Luria that deal with other works.

[16] Wagner, Matthew. “Kabbala goes to yeshiva - Magazine - Jerusalem Post”. Jpost.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[17] Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press 2007. Chapters: 5 Modern Times-I The Christian Kabbalah, 9 Some Aspects of Contemporary Kabbalah [18] The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Louis Jacobs, Oxford University Press 1995. Entry: Kabbalah [19] Introduction to Raziel Hamalach.

[32] Rabbi Avraham Azulai quoted in Erdstein, Baruch Emanuel. The Need to Learn Kabbala [33] Archived November 6, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.

[34] Shulhan Arukh YD 246:4 [35] Shulhan Arukh 246:4 S"K 19 [36] The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Louis Jacobs, Oxford University Press 1995: entry on Judah Loew [37] “News”. myJLI.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[38] “The Soul of Life: The Complete Neffesh Ha-chayyim: Rav Chayyim of Volozhin, Eliezer Lipa (Leonard) Moskowitz: 9780615699912: Amazon.com: Books”.

Amazon.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[39] “Theology on Tap Winter 2014 under way in Mandeville: Keeping the Faith”. NOLA.com. 2014-01-29. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[40] “Jews of Ponte Vedra/Jacksonville Beaches Address Relevance of Judaism in Modern Society”. PR.com. 201401-08. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[41] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, chapter on the Contemporary Era [42] Such as the theological novel The Town Beyond The Wall by Elie Wiesel. Norman Lamm gives a Biblical, Midrashic and Kabbalistic exegesis of it in Faith and Doubt: Studies in Traditional Jewish Thought, Ktav pub.

9.9. NOTES

[43] Zohar I, 15a English translation from Jewish Mysticism – An Anthology, Dan Cohn-Sherbok, Oneworld pub, p.120121 [44] See Otzrot Haim: Sha'ar TNT"A for a short explanation.

The vast majority of the Lurianic system deals only with the complexities found in the world of Atzilut as is explained in the introductions to both Otzrot Haim and Eitz Haim.

[45] The Song of the Soul, Yechiel Bar-Lev, p.73 [46] J.H.Laenen, Jewish Mysticism, p.164 [47] Wineberg, chs. 20–21 [48] “Beginner Level Kabbalah: What is Practical Kabbalah? |". Inner.org. 2014-02-24. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[49] Piero Cantoni,“Demonology and Praxis of Exorcism and of the Liberation Prayers”, in Fides Catholica 1 (2006. ) [50] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford, chapter on “Christian Kabbalah” [51] (Otzar Eden Ganuz, Oxford Ms. 1580, fols. 163b-164a; see also Hayei Haolam Haba, Oxford 1582, fol. 12a) [52] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, tentative analysis of Gershom Scholem and Isaiah Tishby of Luria's scheme [53] Moshe Cordovero, Or Ha-Hammah on Zohar III, 106a [54] Sirach iii. 22; compare Talmud, Hagigah, 13a; Midrash Genesis Rabbah, viii.

[55] “Overview of Chassidut (Chassidus) |". Inner.org. 201402-12. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[56] The Founder of Hasidism, the Baal Shem Tov, cautioned against the layman learning Kabbalah without its Hasidic explanation. He saw this as the cause of the contemporary mystical heresies of Sabbatai Zevi and Jacob Frank. Cited in The Great Maggid by Jacob Immanuel Schochet, quoting Derech Mitzvosecha by Menachem Mendel Schneersohn [57] Archived September 21, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.

[58] http://www.srhe.ucsb.edu/lectures/info/matt.html#bio [59] Moshe Idel, Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, p.28 [60] Archived October 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.

[61] Dovid, Nissan. “Kelipot and Sitra Achra - Kabbalah, Chassidism and Jewish Mysticism”. Chabad.org. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[62] Archived January 24, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.

[63] Dov Ber Pinson, Reincarnation and Judaism [64] ‫ שער אכילת מצה‬,‫סידור הרב‬ [65] ‫ ביהדות התורה‬,‫ר' אברהם חן‬ [66] article, The Seductiveness of Jewish Myth

99

[67] Love of one's Neighbour in Pinhas Hurwitz's Sefer haBerit, Resianne Fontaine, Studies in Hebrew Language and Jewish Culture, Presented to Albert van der Heide on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday, p.244-268.

[68] Israel and Humanity, Elijah Benamozegh, Paulist Press, 1995 [69] Wolfson, E.R. Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford University Press, 2006, ch.1.

[70] Maimonides' responsa siman (117 (Blau) / 373 (Freimann)), translated by Rabbi Yosef Qafih and reprinted in his Collected Papers, Volume 1, footnote 1 on pages 475-476; see also pages 477–478 where a booklet found in Maimonides' Genizah with the text of Shi'ur Qomah appears with an annotation, possibly

by Maimonides, cursing believers of Shi'ur Qomah (Hebrew: ‫ )ארור המאמינו‬and praying that God be elevated exceedingly beyond that which the heretics say (Judeo-Arabic: ‫;תע' ת'ם תע' עמא יקולון אלכאפרון‬ Hebrew: ‫)יתעלה לעילא לעילא ממה שאומרים הכופרים‬.

[71] Encyclopedia of Yemenite Sages (Heb. ‫אנציקלופדיה‬ ‫)לחכמי תימן‬, ed. Moshe Gavra, vol. 1, Benei Barak 2001, p. 545, s.v. ‫ יחיא בן שלמה‬,‫( קאפח‬Hebrew) ‫שהקים את‬ ‫ דור דעה‬...‫( תנועת‬he established the Dor Deah movement).

[72] A Spark of Enlightenment Among the Jews of Yemen, Amram Gamliel, In: Hebrew Studies Vol. 25, (1984), pp.

82-89 Published by: National Association of Professors of Hebrew (NAPH) Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor. org/stable/27908885 [73] http://www.yahadut.org.il/zohar/milhamot-hashem.pdf [74] “Idol Worship is Still Within Us- Yesayahu Leibowitz”.

Scribd.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[75] “halacha - Is one allowed to become a Talmid HaRambam? - Mi Yodeya”. Judaism.stackexchange.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[76] E.g., Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, who ruled that it is “impossible”to consider dardaim as heretics: ‫לגבי הדרדעים "אי‬ ‫"אפשר לדונם ככופרים‬ ‫)מעין אומר סימן צג עמ' עדר‬available at http://hydepark.hevre.co.il/topic.asp?topic_id= 2503514&whichpage=4&forum_id=20067#R_3) [77] An Analysis of the Authenticity of the Zohar (2005), p.

39, with“Rav E”and“Rav G”later identified by the author as Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler and Rabbi Gedaliah Nadel, respectively (Rabbi Dr. Marc Shapiro in Milin Havivin Volume 5 [2011], Is there an obligation to believe that Rebbe Shimon bar Yochai wrote the Zohar?, p. ‫[ יב‬PDF page 133]): “I approached Rav A [Aryeh Carmell] with some of the questions on the Zohar, and he responded to me - 'and what about nikud? Nikud is also mentioned in the Zohar despite the fact that it [is] from Geonic times!' he said.

I later found this comment in the Mitpachas Seforim. I would just add that not only is nikud mentioned, but only the Tiberian Nikkud - the norm in Europe of the middle ages - is mentioned and not the Yerushalmi nikud or

100

the Babylonian one —which was used then in the Middle East, and is still used by Yemenites today. Also the Taamay Hamikrah - the trop - are referred to in the Zohar only by their Sefardi Names. Rav A told me a remarkable piece of testimony: 'My rebbe (this is how he generally refers to Rav E [Elijah Dessler]) accepted the possibility that the Zohar was written sometime in the 13th century.'"

“Rav G [Gedaliah Nadel] told me that he was still unsure as to the origin and status of the Zohar, but told me it was my absolute right to draw any conclusions I saw fit regarding both the Zohar and the Ari.” [78] http://judaism.ajula.edu/Content/ContentUnit.asp?

CID=1525&u=5504&t=0 [79] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, chapters on Christian Kabbalah and the Contemporary Era [80] “On Authentic Sources”. Laitman.com. 2008-07-08.

Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[81] “The Teaching of the Kabbalah and Its Essence | Yehuda Leib HaLevi Ashlag (Baal HaSulam) | Kabbalah Library - Bnei Baruch Kabbalah Education & Research Institute” . Kabbalah.info. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[82] “The Kabbalah Centre - learn transform connect”. kabbalah.com. Retrieved 5 October 2015.

[83] “Rabbi Philip Berg”. Daily Telegraph. 2013-09-20.

Retrieved 2013-09-21.

[84] “Kabbalah”. New Kabbalah. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

[85] Sanford Drob, Symbols of the Kabbalah: Philosophical and Psychological Perspectives, Jason Aronson publishers, p.xvi-xvii. Comparisons of the Lurianic scheme to Hegel, Freud and Jung are treated in respective chapters of Sanford Drob, Kabbalistic Metaphors: Jewish Mystical Themes in Ancient and Modern Thought, Aronson.

The modern disciplines are explored as particular intellectual/emotional perspectives into the inclusive suprarational Lurianic symbolism, from which both emerge enriched [86] HaYom Yom, Kehot publications, p. 110 [87] Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak HaCohen Kook (Orot 2)

9.10 References • Bodoff, Lippman; "Jewish Mysticism: Medieval Roots, Contemporary Dangers and Prospective Challenges"; The Edah Journal 2003 3.1 • Dan, Joseph; The Early Jewish Mysticism, Tel Aviv: MOD Books, 1993.

• Dan, Joseph; The Heart and the Fountain: An Anthology of Jewish Mystical Experiences, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

• Dan, Joseph; “Samael, Lilith, and the Concept of Evil in Early Kabbalah”, AJS Review, vol. 5, 1980.

CHAPTER 9. KABBALAH • Dan, Joseph; The 'Unique Cherub' Circle, Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1999.

• Dan, J. and Kiener, R.; The Early Kabbalah, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1986.

• Dennis, G.; The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism, St. Paul: Llewellyn Worldwide, 2007.

• Fine, Lawrence, ed. Essential Papers in Kabbalah, New York: NYU Press, 1995.

• Fine, Lawrence; Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and his Kabbalistic Fellowship, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003.

• Fine, Lawrence; Safed Spirituality, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1989.

• Fine, Lawrence, ed., Judaism in Practice, Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001.

• Green, Arthur; EHYEH: A Kabbalah for Tomorrow.

Woodstock: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2003.

• Grözinger, Karl E., Jüdisches Denken Band 2: Von der mittelalterlichen Kabbala zum Hasidismus, (Campus) Frankfurt /New York, 2005 • Hecker, Joel; Mystical Bodies, Mystical Meals: Eating and Embodiment in Medieval Kabbalah. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2005.

• Levy, Patrick, HaKabbalist, edi. Yael, Tel Aviv 2010.Author's website.

• Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1988.

• Idel, Moshe; The Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions on the Artificial Anthropoid, New York: SUNY Press, 1990.

• Idel, Moshe; Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, New York: SUNY Press, 1995.

• Idel, Moshe; Kabbalistic Prayer and Color, Approaches to Judaism in Medieval Times, D. Blumenthal, ed., Chicago: Scholar's Press, 1985.

• Idel, Moshe; The Mystica Experience in Abraham Abulafia, New York, SUNY Press, 1988.

• Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1988.

• Idel, Moshe; Magic and Kabbalah in the 'Book of the Responding Entity'; The Solomon Goldman Lectures VI, Chicago: Spertus College of Judaica Press, 1993.

• Idel, Moshe; “The Story of Rabbi Joseph della Reina"; Behayahu, M. Studies and Texts on the History of the Jewish Community in Safed.

9.11. EXTERNAL LINKS • Kaplan, Aryeh; Inner Space: Introduction to Kabbalah, Meditation and Prophecy. Moznaim Publishing Corp 1990.

• McGiney, John W.; 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly • Samuel, Gabriella; “The Kabbalah Handbook: A Concise Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts in Jewish Mysticism”. Penguin Books 2007.

• Scholem, Gershom; Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, 1941.

• Scholem, Gershom; Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1960.

• Scholem, Gershom; Sabbatai Zevi, the Mystical Messiah, 1973.

• Scholem, Gershom; Kabbalah, Jewish Publication Society, 1974.

• Wineberg, Yosef; Lessons in Tanya: The Tanya of R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi (5 volume set). Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch, 1998.

• Wirszubski, Chaim; Pico della Mirandola's Encounter with Jewish Mysticism, Harvard University Press, 1989.

• Wolfson, Elliot; Through a Speculum That Shines: Vision and Imagination in Medieval Jewish Mysticism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.

• Wolfson, Elliot; Language, Eros Being: Kabbalistic Hermeneutics and Poetic Imagination, New York: Fordham University Press, 2005.

• Wolfson, Elliot; Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

• Wolfson, Elliot; Alef, Mem, Tau: Kabbalistic Musings on Time, Truth, and Death, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.

• Wolfson, Elliot; Luminal Darkness: Imaginal Gleanings From Zoharic Literature, London: Onworld Publications, 2007.

• The Wisdom of The Zohar: An Anthology of Texts, 3 volume set, Ed. Isaiah Tishby, translated from the Hebrew by David Goldstein, The Littman Library.

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds.

(1901–1906). "* article name needed". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.

101

9.11 External links • From the Depth of the Well: An Anthology of Jewish Mysticism • Cabala - the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia's academic view • Don Karr's Bibliographic Surveys of contemporary academic scholarship on all traditions of Kabbalah • “What is Kabbalah?" - Article from ChabadLubavitch Hasidism at Chabad.org • Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism - Kabbalah article at JewFaq.org

Chapter 10

Hermeticism This article is about religious and occult teachings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus. For related terms, see Hermetic (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Hermit.

Hermeticism, also called Hermetism,* [1]* [2] is a religious, philosophical, and esoteric tradition based primarily upon writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Thrice Great”).* [3] These writings have greatly influenced the Western esoteric tradition and were considered to be of great importance during both the Renaissance* [4] and the Reformation.* [5] The tradition claims descent from a prisca theologia, a doctrine that affirms the existence of a single, true theology that is present in all religions and that was given by God to man in antiquity.* [6]* [7] Many writers, including Lactantius, Cyprian of Carthage,* [8]Augustine,* [9] Thomas Aquinas, Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Giordano Bruno, Campanella, Sir Thomas Browne, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, considered Hermes Trismegistus to be a wise pagan prophet who foresaw the coming of Christianity.* [10]* [11] An account of how Hermes Trismegistus received the name “Thrice Great”is derived from the The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus, wherein it is stated that he knew the three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe.* [12] The three parts of the wisdom are alchemy, astrology, and theurgy.

it was the practical aspects of Hermetic writings that attracted the attention of scientists.* [15] Isaac Newton placed great faith in the concept of an unadulterated, pure, ancient doctrine, which he studied vigorously to aid his understanding of the physical world.* [16] Many of Newton's manuscripts —most of which are still unpublished* [16]—detail his thorough study of the Corpus Hermeticum, writings said to have been transmitted from ancient times, in which the secrets and techniques of influencing the stars and the forces of nature were revealed.

10.1 Etymology The term Hermetic is from the medieval Latin hermeticus, which is derived from the name of the Greek god, Hermes. In English, it has been attested since the 17th century, as in “Hermetic writers”(e.g., Robert Fludd).

The word Hermetic was used by Dr. Everard in his English translation of The Pimander of Hermes (1650).* [17] Mary Anne Atwood mentioned the use of the word Hermetic by Dufresnoy in 1386.* [18]* [19]

The synonymous term Hermetical is also attested in the 17th century. Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici of 1643 wrote: “Now besides these particular and divided Spirits, there may be (for ought I know) a universal and common Spirit to the whole world. It was the opinion of Plato, and is yet of the Hermeticall Philosophers.”(R. M. The Poimandres, from which Marsilio Ficino formed his Part 1:2) opinion, states that “They called him Trismegistus because he was the greatest philosopher and the greatest priest and the greatest king.”* [13] The Suda (10th century) states that“He was called Trismegistus on account 10.2 History of his praise of the trinity, saying there is one divine nature in the trinity.”* [14] Main article: Hermetica Much of the importance of Hermeticism arises from its connection with the development of science during the time from 1300 to 1600 AD. The prominence that it 10.2.1 Late Antiquity gave to the idea of influencing or controlling nature led many scientists to look to magic and its allied arts (e.g., Further information: Hellenistic religion and Decline of alchemy, astrology) which, it was thought, could put NaHellenistic polytheism ture to the test by means of experiments. Consequently,

102

10.3. PHILOSOPHY

103 monasteries for lost ancient writings.* [24] In 1614, Isaac Casaubon, a Swiss philologist, analyzed the Greek Hermetic texts for linguistic style. He concluded that the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus were not the work of an ancient Egyptian priest but in fact dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.* [25]* [26] Even in light of Casaubon's linguistic discovery (and typical of many adherents of Hermetic philosophy in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries), Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici (1643) confidently stated: “The severe schools shall never laugh me out of the philosophy of Hermes, that this visible world is but a portrait of the invisible.”(R. M. Part 1:12) In the 19th century, Walter Scott placed the date of the Hermetic texts shortly after 200 AD, but W. Flinders Petrie placed their origin between 200 and 500 BC.* [27]

10.2.3 Modern era The caduceus, a symbol of Hermeticism.

In 1945, Hermetic texts were found near the Egyptian town Nag Hammadi. One of these texts had the form of a conversation between Hermes and Asclepius. A second text (titled On the Ogdoad and Ennead) told of the Hermetic mystery schools. It was written in the Coptic language, the latest and final form in which the Egyptian language was written.* [28]

In Late Antiquity, Hermetism* [20] emerged in parallel with early Christianity, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the Chaldaean Oracles, and late Orphic and Pythagorean literature. These doctrines were “characterized by a resistance to the dominance of either pure rationality or doc- According to Geza Vermes, Hermeticism was a Hellenistrinal faith.”* [21] tic mysticism contemporaneous with the Fourth Gospel, The books now known as the Corpus Hermeticum were and Hermes Tresmegistos was “the Hellenized reincarpart of a renaissance of syncretistic and intellectualized nation of the Egyptian deity Thoth, the source of wisdom, pagan thought that took place from the 3rd to the 7th cen- who was believed to deify man through knowledge (gnotury AD. These post-Christian Greek texts dwell upon sis).”* [29] the oneness and goodness of God, urge purification of Gilles Quispel says “It is now completely certain that the soul, and defend pagan religious practices such as the there existed before and after the beginning of the Chrisveneration of images. Their predominant literary form is tian era in Alexandria a secret society, akin to a Mathe dialogue: Hermes Trismegistus instructs a perplexed sonic lodge. The members of this group called themdisciple upon various teachings of the hidden wisdom. selves 'brethren,' were initiated through a baptism of the Many lost Greek texts and many surviving vulgate books Spirit, greeted each other with a sacred kiss, celebrated contained discussions of alchemy clothed in philosophical a sacred meal and read the Hermetic writings as edifying metaphor. One of these, known as The Asclepius (lost treatises for their spiritual progress.”* [30] in Greek but partially preserved in Latin), contained a bloody prophecy of the end of Roman rule in Egypt and the resurgence of paganism in Egypt.

10.3 Philosophy

10.2.2

Renaissance

Plutarch's mention of Hermes Trismegistus dates back to the 1st century AD, and Tertullian, Iamblichus, and Porphyry were all familiar with Hermetic writings.* [22]

In Hermeticism, the ultimate reality is referred to variously as God, the All, or the One. God in the Hermetica is unitary and transcendent: he is one and exists apart from the material cosmos. Hermetism is therefore profoundly monotheistic although in a deistic and unitarian understanding of the term. “For it is a ridiculous thing to confess the World to be one, one Sun, one Moon, one Divinity, and yet to have, I know not how many gods.” * [31]

After centuries of falling out of favor, Hermeticism was reintroduced to the West when, in 1460, a man named Leonardo de Candia Pistoia* [23] brought the Corpus Hermeticum to Pistoia. He was one of many agents sent out

by Pistoia's ruler, Cosimo de' Medici, to scour European Its philosophy teaches that there is a transcendent God, or

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Absolute, in which we and the entire universe participate. W. Hauck from The Emerald Tablet of Hermes TrismegisIt also subscribes to the idea that other beings, such as tus, is: “That which is Below corresponds to that which aeons, angels and elementals, exist within the universe. is Above, and that which is Above corresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish the miracle of the One Thing.”* [35] Thus, whatever happens on any level of 10.3.1 Prisca theologia reality (physical, emotional, or mental) also happens on every other level.

Hermeticists believe in a prisca theologia, the doctrine This principle, however, is more often used in the sense that a single, true theology exists, that it exists in all of the microcosm and the macrocosm. The microcosm is religions, and that it was given by God to man in anoneself, and the macrocosm is the universe. The macrotiquity.* [6]* [7] In order to demonstrate the truth of the cosm is as the microcosm and vice versa; within each lies prisca theologia doctrine, Christians appropriated the the other, and through understanding one (usually the miHermetic teachings for their own purposes. By this accrocosm) a man may understand the other.* [36] count, Hermes Trismegistus was (according to the fathers of the Christian church) either a contemporary of Moses* [32] or the third in a line of men named Hermes— 10.3.3 The three parts of the wisdom of the Enoch, Noah, and the Egyptian priest-king who is known whole universe to us as Hermes Trismegistus.* [33]* [34] Alchemy (the operation of the Sun): Alchemy is not merely the changing of lead into gold.* [37] It is an inves10.3.2 “As above, so below.” tigation into the spiritual constitution, or life, of matter and material existence through an application of the mysSee also: As above, so below * The actual text of that maxim, as translated by Dennis teries of birth, death, and resurrection. [38] The various stages of chemical distillation and fermentation, among other processes, are aspects of these mysteries that, when applied, quicken nature's processes in order to bring a natural body to perfection.* [39] This perfection is the accomplishment of the magnum opus (Latin for “Great Work”).

Astrology (the operation of the stars): Hermes claims that Zoroaster discovered this part of the wisdom of the whole universe, astrology, and taught it to man.* [40] In Hermetic thought, it is likely that the movements of the planets have meaning beyond the laws of physics and actually hold metaphorical value as symbols in the mind of The All, or God. Astrology has influences upon the Earth, but does not dictate our actions, and wisdom is gained when we know what these influences are and how to deal with them.

Theurgy (the operation of the gods): There are two different types of magic, according to Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's Apology, completely opposite of each other.

The first is Goëtia (Greek: γοητεια), black magic reliant upon an alliance with evil spirits (i.e., demons). The second is Theurgy, divine magic reliant upon an alliance with divine spirits (i.e., angels, archangels, gods).* [41] Theurgy translates to “The Science or Art of Divine Works”and is the practical aspect of the Hermetic art of alchemy.* [42] Furthermore, alchemy is seen as the“key” to theurgy,* [43] the ultimate goal of which is to become united with higher counterparts, leading to the attainment of Divine Consciousness.* [42]

10.3.4 Posthumous lives The Magician displaying the Hermetic concept of“As above, so below.”

Reincarnation is mentioned in Hermetic texts. Hermes

10.4. AS A RELIGION Trismegistus asked: O son, how many bodies have we to pass through, how many bands of demons, through how many series of repetitions and cycles of the stars, before we hasten to the One alone?* [44]

10.3.5

Good and evil

105 The God then created androgynous man, in God's own image, and handed over his creation.

Man carefully observed the creation of nous and received from God man's authority over all creation. Man then rose up above the spheres' paths in order to better view creation. He then showed the form of the All to Nature.

Nature fell in love with the All, and man, seeing his reflection in water, fell in love with Nature and wished to dwell in it. Immediately, man became one with Nature and became a slave to its limitations, such as gender and sleep. In this way, man became speechless (having lost “the Word”) and he became "double", being mortal in body yet immortal in spirit, and having authority over all creation yet subject to destiny.* [50]

Hermes explains in Book 9 of the Corpus Hermeticum that nous (reason and knowledge) brings forth either good or evil, depending upon whether one receives one's perceptions from God or from demons. God brings forth good, but demons bring forth evil. Among the evils brought forth by demons are:“adultery, murder, violence to one's father, sacrilege, ungodliness, strangling, suicide from a Alternative account cliff and all such other demonic actions.”* [45] This provides evidence that Hermeticism includes a sense of morality. However, the word “good”is used very strictly. It is restricted to references to God.* [46] It is only God (in the sense of the nous, not in the sense of the All) who is completely free of evil. Men are prevented from being good because man, having a body, is consumed by his physical nature, and is ignorant of the Supreme Good.* [47]

An alternative account of the fall of man, preserved in the Discourses of Isis to Horus, is as follows: God, having created the universe, then created the divisions, the worlds, and various gods and goddesses, whom he appointed to certain parts of the universe. He then took a mysterious transparent substance, out of which he created human souls. He appointed the souls to the astral region, which is just above the physical region.

A focus upon the material life is said to be the only thing He then assigned the souls to create life on Earth. He that offends God: handed over some of his creative substance to the souls and commanded them to contribute to his creation. The As processions passing in the road cansouls then used the substance to create the various animals not achieve anything themselves yet still oband forms of physical life. Soon after, however, the souls struct others, so these men merely process began to overstep their boundaries; they succumbed to through the universe, led by the pleasures of pride and desired to be equal to the highest gods. the body.* [48] God was displeased and called upon Hermes to create physical bodies that would imprison the souls as a punishOne must create, one must do something positive in one's ment for them. Hermes created human bodies on earth, life, because God is a generative power. Not creating any- and God then told the souls of their punishment. God thing leaves a person“sterile”(i.e., unable to accomplish decreed that suffering would await them in the physical anything).* [49] world, but he promised them that, if their actions on Earth were worthy of their divine origin, their condition would improve and they would eventually return to the heavenly 10.3.6 Cosmogony world. If it did not improve, he would condemn them to repeated reincarnation upon Earth.* [51] A creation story is told by God to Hermes in the first book of the Corpus Hermeticum. It begins when God, by an act of will, creates the primary matter that is to constitute the cosmos. From primary matter God separates the 10.4 As a religion four elements (earth, air, fire, and water). Then God orders the elements into the seven heavens (often held to Tobias Churton, Professor of Western Esotericism at be the spheres of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the University of Exeter, states, “The Hermetic tradithe Sun, and the Moon, which travel in circles and govern tion was both moderate and flexible, offering a tolerdestiny). ant philosophical religion, a religion of the (omnipresent) "The Word" then leaps forth from the materializing four elements, which were unintelligent. Nous then makes the seven heavens spin, and from them spring forth creatures without speech. Earth is then separated from water, and animals (other than man) are brought forth.

mind, a purified perception of God, the cosmos, and the self, and much positive encouragement for the spiritual seeker, all of which the student could take anywhere.” * [52] Lutheran Bishop James Heiser recently evaluated the writings of Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della

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Mirandola as an attempted “Hermetic Reformation” .* [53]

10.4.1

Religious and philosophical texts

Hermeticists generally attribute 42 books to Hermes Trismegistus, although many more have been attributed to him. Most of them, however, are said to have been lost when the Great Library of Alexandria was destroyed.

There are three major texts that contain Hermetic doctrines:

called themselves the “Three Initiates”. It lacks anything that could be considered Hermetic and is more of an example of the New Thought movement.

• A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy was written by Mary Anne Atwood and originally published anonymously in 1850. This book was withdrawn from circulation by Atwood but was later reprinted, after her death, by her longtime friend Isabelle de Steiger. Isabelle de Steiger was a member of the Golden Dawn.

A Suggestive Inquiry was used for the study of Hermeti• The Corpus Hermeticum is the most widely known cism and resulted in several works being published by Hermetic text. It has 18 chapters, which contain di- members of the Golden Dawn:* [57] alogues between Hermes Trismegistus and a series of other men. The first chapter contains a dialogue • Arthur Edward Waite, a member and later the head between Poimandres (who is identified as God) and of the Golden Dawn, wrote The Hermetic Museum Hermes. This is the first time that Hermes is in conand The Hermetic Museum Restored and Enlarged. tact with God. Poimandres teaches the secrets of He edited The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of the universe to Hermes. In later chapters, Hermes Paracelsus, which was published as a two-volume teaches others, such as his son Tat and Asclepius. set. He considered himself to be a Hermeticist and was instrumental in adding the word“Hermetic”to • The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus is the official title of the Golden Dawn.* [58] a short work which contains a phrase that is well known in occult circles:“As above, so below.”The • William Wynn Westcott, a founding member of the actual text of that maxim, as translated by Dennis Golden Dawn, edited a series of books on HerW. Hauck, is: “That which is Below corresponds meticism titled Collectanea Hermetica. The series to that which is Above, and that which is Above was published by the Theosophical Publishing Socicorresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish * * ety.

[59] the miracle of the One Thing”. [35] The Emerald Tablet also refers to the three parts of the wisdom of • Initiation Into Hermetics is the title of the English the whole universe. Hermes states that his knowltranslation of the first volume of Franz Bardon's edge of these three parts is the reason why he rethree-volume work dealing with self-realization ceived the name Trismegistus (“Thrice Great”or within the Hermetic tradition.

“Ao-Ao-Ao”[which mean“greatest"]). As the story is told, the Emerald Tablet was found by Alexander the Great at Hebron, supposedly in the tomb of Hermes.* [54] 10.5 Societies • The Perfect Sermon (also known as The Asclepius, The Perfect Discourse, or The Perfect Teaching) was written in the 2nd or 3rd century AD and is a Hermetic work similar in content to The Corpus Hermeticum.

When Hermeticism was no longer endorsed by the Christian church, it was driven underground, and several Hermetic societies were formed. The western esoteric tradition is now steeped in Hermeticism. The work of such writers as Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who attempted Other important original Hermetic texts include the Dis- to reconcile Jewish kabbalah and Christian mysticism, courses of Isis to Horus,* [55] which consists of a long brought Hermeticism into a context more easily underdialogue between Isis and Horus on the fall of man stood by Europeans during the time of the Renaissance. and other matters; the Definitions of Hermes to Ascle- A few primarily Hermetic occult orders were founded in pius;* [56] and many fragments, which are chiefly pre- the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. served in the anthology of Stobaeus.

Hermetic magic underwent a 19th-century revival in There are additional works that, while not as historically Western Europe,* [60] where it was practiced by groups significant as the works listed above, have an important such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aurum place in neo-Hermeticism: Solis, and Ragon. It was also practiced by individual persons, such as Eliphas Lévi, William Butler Yeats, Arthur • The Kybalion: Hermetic Philosophy is a book anony- Machen, Frederick Hockley, and Kenneth M. Mackenmously published in 1912 by three people who zie.* [61]

10.6. SEE ALSO

107

Many Hermetic, or Hermetically influenced, groups exist Its secrecy was broken first by Aleister Crowley in 1905 today. Most of them are derived from Rosicrucianism, and later by Israel Regardie in 1937. Regardie gave a Freemasonry, or the Golden Dawn. detailed account of the Order's teachings to the general public.* [65]

10.5.1

Rosicrucianism

Main article: Rosicrucianism Rosicrucianism is a movement which incorporates the Hermetic philosophy. It dates back to the 17th century.

The sources dating the existence of the Rosicrucians to the 17th century are three German pamphlets: the Fama, the Confessio Fraternitatis, and The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz.* [62] Some scholars believe these to be hoaxes and say that later Rosicrucian organizations are the first actual appearance of a Rosicrucian society.* [63] This argument is hard to sustain given that original copies are in existence, including a Fama Fraternitatis at the University of Illinois and another in the New York Public Library.

Regardie had once claimed that there were many occult orders which had learned whatever they knew of magic from what had been leaked from the Golden Dawn by those whom Regardie deemed “renegade members”.

The Stella Matutina was a successor society of the Golden Dawn.

10.5.3 Esoteric Christianity Hermeticism remains influential within esoteric Christianity, especially in Martinism. Influential 20th century and early 21st century writers in the field include Valentin Tomberg and Sergei O. Prokofieff.

10.5.4 Mystical Neopaganism

The Rosicrucian Order consists of a secret inner body and a public outer body that is under the direction of the inner Hermeticism remains influential within Neopaganism, esbody. It has a graded system in which members move up pecially in Hellenism. in rank and gain access to more knowledge. There is no fee for advancement. Once a member has been deemed able to understand the teaching, he moves on to the next 10.6 See also higher grade.

The Fama Fraternitatis states that the Brothers of the Fraternity are to profess no other thing than“to cure the sick, and that gratis”.

10.7 References

The Rosicrucian spiritual path incorporates philosophy, kabbalah, and divine magic.

[1] Audi, Robert (1999). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 378. ISBN 0521637228.

The Order is symbolized by the rose (the soul) and the cross (the body). The unfolding rose represents the human soul acquiring greater consciousness while living in a body on the material plane.

[2] Reese, William L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion. Sussex: Harvester Press. pp. 108 and 221.

ISBN 0855271477.

[3] Churton p. 4

10.5.2

Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn

Main article: Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Unlike the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was open to both sexes and treated them as equals. The Order was a specifically Hermetic society that taught alchemy, kabbalah, and the magic of Hermes, along with the principles of occult science.

The Golden Dawn maintained the tightest of secrecy, which was enforced by severe penalties for those who disclosed its secrets. Overall, the general public was left oblivious of the actions, and even of the existence, of the Order, so few if any secrets were disclosed.* [64]

[4]“Hermeticism”The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions [5] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press, Texas: 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4 [6] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, pp 14–18 and pp. 433–434 [7] Hanegraaff, W. J., New Age Religion and Western Culture, SUNY, 1998, p 360.

[8] Jafar, Imad (2015). “Enoch in the Islamic Tradition”.

Sacred Web: A Journal of Tradition and Modernity 36: 53.

[9] Augustine, City of God, 4.8.23, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/ schaff/npnf102.iv.VIII.23.html

108

[10] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, pp 9–15 and pp 61–66 and p.

413 [11] Heiser, J.,“Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century”, Repristination Press, Texas, 2011 [ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4]

CHAPTER 10. HERMETICISM

[33] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, p52 [34] Copenhaver, B.P., “Hermetica”, Cambridge University Press, 1992, p xlviii.

[35] Scully p. 321.

[36] Garstin p. 35.

[12] Scully p. 322.

[13] Copenhaver, Hermetica, p. xlviii

[37] Hall The Hermetic Marriage p. 227.

[38] Eliade The Forge and the Crucible p. 149 and p. 155–157

[14] Copenhaver, Hermetica, p. xli

[39] Geber Summa Perfectionis

[15] Tambiah (1990), Magic, Science, Religion, and the scope of Rationality, pp. 25–26

[40] Powell pp. 19–20.

[16] Tambiah (1990), 28

[41] Garstin p. v [42] Garstin p. 6

[17] Collectanea Hermetica Edited by W. Wynn. Westcott Volume 2.

[43] Garstin p. vi

[18] See Dufresnoy, Histoire del' Art Hermetique, vol. iii. Cat. Gr. MSS.

[45] The Way of Hermes p. 42.

[19] A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy by Mary Anne Atwood 1850.

[20] van den Broek and Hanegraaff (1997) distinguish Hermetism in late antiquity from Hermeticism in the Renaissance revival.

[44] The Way of Hermes p. 33.

[46] The Way of Hermes p. 28.

[47] The Way of Hermes p. 47.

[48] The Way of Hermes pp. 32–3.

[49] The Way of Hermes p. 29.

[50] The Poimandres

[21] van den Broek and Hanegraaff (1997), p. vii.

[22] Stephan A. Hoeller, On the Trail of the Winged God— Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Age, Gnosis: A Journal of Western Inner Traditions (Vol. 40, Summer 1996).

[23] This Leonardo di Pistoia was a monk , not to be confused with the artist Leonardo da Pistoia who was not born until c. 1483 CE.

[51] Hermetica Volume 1, pg 457 ff [52] Churton p. 5.

[53] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press: Texas, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4 [54] Abel & Hare p. 12.

[55] Walter Scott, Hermetica Volume 1, pg 457

[24] Salaman, Van Oyen, Wharton and Mahé,The Way of Hermes, p. 9

[56] Salaman, Van Oyen, Wharton and Mahé, The Way of Hermes

[25] Tambiah (1990), Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, pp. 27–28.

[57]“A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy”with an introduction by Isabelle de Steiger

[26] The Way of Hermes, p. 9.

[58]“Hermetic Papers of A. E. Waite: the Unknown Writings of a Modern Mystic”Edited by R. A. Gilbert.

[27] Abel and Hare p. 7.

[28] The Way of Hermes, pp. 9–10.

[59] "'The Pymander of Hermes' Volume 2, Collectanea Hermetica”published by The Theosophical Publishing Society in 1894.

[29] Vermes, Geza (2012). Christian Beginnings. Allen Lane the Penguin Press. p. 128.

[60] Regardie p. 17.

[30] Quispel, Gilles (2004). Preface to The Way of Hermes: New Translations of The Corpus Hermeticum and The Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius. Translated by Salaman, Clement; van Oyen, Dorine; Wharton, William D.; Mahé, Jean-Pierre. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions.

[31] http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/pym/pym11.htm [32] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, p 27 and p 293

[61] Regardie pp. 15–6.

[62] Yates, Frances (1972). The Rosicrucian Enlightenment.

London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-73801.

[63] Prof. Carl Edwin Lindgren, “The Rose Cross, A Historical and Philosophical View”—http://users.panola.com/ lindgren/rosecross.html [64] Regardie pp. 15–7.

[65] Regardie p. ix.

10.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

10.8 Bibliography • Abel, Christopher R. and Hare, William O. (1997).

Hermes Trismegistus: An Investigation of the Origin of the Hermetic Writings. Sequim: Holmes Publishing Group.

• Anonymous (2002). Meditations on the Tarot: A Journey into Christian Hermeticism. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin.

• Budge, E. A. Wallis (1895). The Egyptian Book of the Dead: (The Papyrus of Ani) Egyptian Text Transliteration and Translation. New York: Dover Publications.

• Churton, Tobias. The Golden Builders: Alchemists, Rosicrucians, and the First Freemasons. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2002.

• Copenhaver, Brian P. (1992). Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius in a new English translation, with notes and introduction (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42543-3.

• Garstin, E.J. Langford (2004). Theurgy or The Hermetic Practice. Berwick: Ibis Press. Published Posthumously • Heiser, James D. (2011). Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century.

Texas: Repristination Press. ISBN 978-1-46109382-4.

• Hoeller, Stephan A. On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages, Gnosis: A Journal of Western Inner Traditions (Vol. 40, Summer 1996). Also at“Hermes and Hermeticism” . Gnosis.org. Retrieved 2009-11-09.

• Powell, Robert A. (1991). Christian Hermetic Astrology: The Star of the Magi and the Life of Christ.

Hudson: Anthroposohic Press.

• Regardie, Israel (1940). The Golden Dawn. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications.

• Salaman, Clement and Van Oyen, Dorine and Wharton, William D. and Mahé, Jean-Pierre (2000). The Way of Hermes: New Translations of The Corpus Hermeticum and The Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius. Rochester: Inner Traditions.

• Scully, Nicki (2003). Alchemical Healing: A Guide to Spiritual, Physical, and Transformational Medicine. Rochester: Bear & Company.

• Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja (1990). Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

109 • Yates, Frances (1964). Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. University of Chicago Press.

ISBN 0-226-95007-7.

10.9 External links • Online Version of the Corpus Hermeticum, version translated by John Everard in 1650 CE from Latin version • Online Version of The Virgin of the World of Hermes Trismegistus, version translated by Anna Kingsford and Edward Maitland in 1885 A.D. • Online version of The Kybalion (1912) • The Kybalion Resource Page • Hermetics Resource Site—Many Hermetic texts • The Hermetic Library—A collection of texts and sites relating to Hermeticism • Hermetic Library Hermetic Library from Hermetic International

Chapter 11

Theosophy 11.2 Traditional theosophy

See also: Theosophical Society Theosophy (from Greek θεοσοφία theosophia, a combination of the words θεός theos, God * [1] + σοφία sophia, wisdom; literally “God's wisdom”) refers to schools of esoteric philosophy concerning, or seeking direct knowledge of, presumed mysteries of being and nature, particularly of the nature of divinity. Theosophy is considered part of the broader field of esotericism, which posits that hidden knowledge or wisdom may offer a path to enlightenment and salvation. The practitioner of theosophy seeks to understand presumed mysteries of the universe, and its relationship with humanity and the divine.

The goal of theosophy is to explore the origin of divinity, humanity and the world: from investigation of these topics, theosophy seeks to arrive at a coherent description of the origin and purpose of the universe.

From the late 19th century onwards, the term Theosophy has been generally used to refer to the religio-philosophic doctrines of the Theosophical Society, founded in New York City in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky, William Quan Judge, and Henry Steel Olcott. Blavatsky's magnum opus, The Secret Doctrine, one of the major foundational works of modern Theosophy, was published in 1888.* [2] As of 2015, organizations descended from, or related to, the Theosophical Society were active in more than 52 countries around the world.* [lower-alpha 1] Modern Theosophy has also given rise to, or influenced, the development of other mystical, philosophical, and religious movements.* [3]

11.1 Etymology The term theosophia appeared (in both Greek and Latin) in the works of early Church Fathers, as a synonym for theology: * [4] the theosophoi are“those who know divine matters.”* [5] The derived term theosophy was originally also a synonym for theology; * [6] however, it acquired various other meanings throughout its history.* [7]

and

Christian

See also: Transcendent theosophy, Christian theosophy and Western occultism

11.2.1 Antiquity and Medieval ending c.

1450 CE The term theosophy was used as a synonym for theology as early as the 3rd century CE* [4] The 13th century work Summa philosophiae attributed to Robert Grosseteste made a distinction between theosophers and theologians. In Summa, theosophers were described as authors only inspired by the holy books, while theologians like Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Origen were described as persons whose task was to explain theosophy. Therefore, the terms were the opposite of the present-day meaning.* [6] In Jewish mysticism, the theosophical* [8] doctrinal system of Kabbalah (Hebrew: “received tradition”) emerged in late 12th-century southern France (the book Bahir), spreading to 13th-century Spain (culminating in the late 13th-century book Zohar). Kabbalah became the basis of later Jewish mystical development. The theosophical Kabbalah in Judaism was recast into its second version, Lurianic Kabbalah, in 16th-century Ottoman Palestine. From the Renaissance onwards, syncretic nonJewish traditions of theological Christian Cabala and magical Hermetic Qabalah studied the Judaic texts, incorporating its system into their different philosophies, where it remains a central component of Western esotericism. Gershom Scholem, the founder of Jewish mysticism academia, saw Medieval and Lurianic Kabbalah as the incorporation into Judaism of Gnostic motifs,* [9] though interpreted strictly monotheistically. At the centre of Kabbalah are the 10 Sephirot powers in the divine realm, their unification being the task of man. In Lurianism, man redeems the sparks of holiness in materiality, rectifying the divine persona from its primordial exile.

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11.2. TRADITIONAL AND CHRISTIAN THEOSOPHY

11.2.2

16th and 17th century

During the Renaissance, use of the term diverged to refer to gnostic knowledge that offers the individual enlightenment and salvation through a knowledge of the bonds that are believed to unite her or him to the world of divine or intermediary spirits.* [5] By the 16th century the word theosophy was being used in at least one of its current meanings.* [5]. Christian theosophy arose in Germany in the 16th century. Inspired to a considerable extent by the works of Paracelsus (1493–1541),* [10] theosophy flourished in the works of Aegidius Gutmann (1490–1584), Valentin Weigel (1533–1588), Heinrich Khunrath (1560–1605), Johann Arndt (1555–1621), and Kaspar Schwenckfeld (1490–1584). The term had not yet reached a settled meaning, however, as the mid-16th century Theosophia by Johannes Arboreus provided a lengthy exposition that included no mention of esotericism.* [11] The work of the 17th-century German Christian mystic Jakob Boehme (1575–1624) strongly contributed to spread the use of the word “theosophy”, even though Boehme rarely used the word in his writings. It is on account of the title of some of his works, but these titles appear to have been chosen more by the editors than by Boehme himself.* [12] Moreover, Boehme gave the word “theosophy”a limited meaning, making it clear that he was not conflating nature with God.* [13]

111 teenth century.* [18] Theosophers themselves used the word theosophy sparingly, at least up until the middle of the nineteenth century.* [19] Johann Jakob Brucker (1696–1770) included a long chapter on theosophy in his monumental work Historia critica philosophia. (1741).

He included theosophers alongside other currents in esotericism in what was then a standard reference in the history of philosophy. German philosophers produced major works of Christian theosophy during this period: Theophilosophia theoritica et practica. (1710) by Samuel Richter (pseudo. Sincerus Renatus) and Opus magocabalsticum et theosophicum. (1721) by Georg von Welling (pseudo. Salwigt, 1655-1727). Other notable theosophers of the period include Johann George Gichtel (1638–1710), Gottfried Arnold (1666–1714), Friedrich Christoph Oetinger (1702–1782), William Law (1686– 1761), and Dionysius Andreas Freher (1649–1728) . By the 18th century, the word theosophy was often used in conjunction with panosophy, i.e., a knowledge of divine things that is acquired by deciphering the supposed hieroglyphics of the concrete universe. The term theosophy is more properly reserved for the reverse process of contemplating the divine in order to discover the content of the concrete universe.* [20]

In England, Robert Hindmarsh, a printer with a Methodist background, formed a “Theosophical Society”in 1783, for translating, printing and distributing the writings of Swedenborg.* [21] This society was renamed in 1785 as “The British Society for the PropaThere were relatively few theosophers in the 17th century, gation of the Doctrines of the New Church", consisting * but many of them were prolific. [14] Outside of Gerof Swedenborgian based beliefs.* [22]* [lower-alpha 2] many, there were also theosophers from Holland, England, and France. This group is represented by Jan Baptist In France, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin (1743–1803) van Helmont (1618–1699), Robert Fludd (1574–1637), and Jean-Philippe Dutoit-Membrini (alias Keleph Ben John Pordage (1608–1681), Jane Leade (1623–1704), Nathan, 1721-1793) contributed to a resurgence of theosHenry More (1614–1687), Pierre Poiret (1646–1719), ophy in the late 18th century. Other theosophical thinkers and Antoinette Bourignon (1616–1680).* [15] Theoso- of this period include Karl von Eckartshausen (1752– phers of this period often inquired into nature using a 1803), Johann Heinrich Jung (1740–1817), Frédéricmethod of interpretation founded upon a specific myth Rodolphe Saltzmann (1749–1821), Johann Michael or revelation, applying active imagination in order to Hahn (1758–1819), and Franz von Baader (1765–1841). draw forth symbolic meanings and further their pursuit . Denis Diderot gave the word theosophie more attenof knowledge toward a complete understanding of these tion than other encyclopedias of this period by including an article on it in his Encyclopédie, published during the mysteries.* [5]* [16] French Enlightenment.* [23] The article dealt mostly with In Athanasius Kircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1652), Paracelsus and essentially plagiarized Brucker's “HistoKircher assigned the word theosophy to the methaphysics ria”.* [24] of the Egyptians and to Neo-Platonism, and thus he gave once again the word one of its most generally accepted meanings, that of divine methaphysics.* [17] 11.2.4 19th century

11.2.3

18th century

In the 18th century, the word theosophy came into more widespread use among some philosophers. However, the term “theosophy”was still “practically absent” throughout the entire eighteenth century in dictionaries and encyclopedias, where it only appeared more and more frequently beginning in the second half of the nine-

Groups such as the Martinist Order founded by Papus in 1891, followed the theosophical current closely linked to the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition and Western esotericism. Theosophers outside of the initiate societies included people such as Vladimir Solovyov (1853–1900), whose views have been described as follows: “although empiricism and rationalism rest on false principles, their respective objective contents, external experience, qua the foundation of natural science, and logical thought, qua

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CHAPTER 11. THEOSOPHY

the foundation of pure philosophy, are to be synthesized or encompassed along with mystical knowledge in 'integral knowledge,' what Solovyov terms 'theosophy.'"* [25]

11.2.5

Common characteristics

Theosophy actually designates a specific flow of thought or tradition within the modern study of esotericism.

Thus, it follows the path starting from the more modern period of the 15th century onward. Faivre describes the “theosophic current”or theosophy as a single esoteric current among seven other esoteric currents in early modern Western thought (i.e., alchemy, astrology, NeoAlexandrian hermetism, Christian Kabbalah, Paracelsism, philosophia occulta and Rosicrucianism).* [26] Christian theosophy is an under-researched area, a general history of it has never been written.* [27] Faivre noted that there are “obvious similarities”between earlier theosophy and modern Theosophy as both play an important part in Western esotericism and both claim to deal with wisdom from a gnostic perspective.

But he says there are also differences, since they do not actually rely on the same reference works; and their style is different. The referential corpus of earlier theosophy “belongs essentially to the Judeo-Christian type”, while that of modern Theosophy“reveals a more universal aspect”.* [28] Although there are many differences between Christian theosophy and the Theosophical movement begun by Helena Blavatsky, the differences“are not important enough to cause an insurmountable barrier.”* [29] When referring to the ideas related to Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society, the word“Theosophy”is capitalized; otherwise it is not. Theosophy and theosophists refer to Blavatsky's philosophy while theosophy and theosophers refer to Christian theosophy. Some Theosophists were also theosophers.* [6] Blavatsky linked her use of the word theosophy to the Neoplatonists and Ammonius Saccas, rather than to the later Christian theosophers.* [30]

intradivine within; the origin, death and placement of the human relating to Divinity and Nature; Nature as alive, the external, intellectual and material.

All three complex correlations synthesize via the intellect and imaginative processes of Mind.

2. Primacy of the Mythic: The creative Imagination, an external world of symbols, glyphs, myths, synchronicities and the myriad, along with image, all as a universal reality for the interplay conjoined by creative mind.

3. Access to Supreme Worlds: The awakening within, inherently possessing the faculty to directly connect to the Divine world(s). The existence of a special human ability to create this connection. The ability to connect and explore all levels of reality; copenetrate the human with the divine; to bond to all reality and experience a unique inner awakening.

11.3 Blavatskyan Theosophy and The Theosophical Society

Theosophers engage in analysis of the universe, humanity, divinity, and the reciprocal effects of each on the other. The starting point for theosophers may be knowledge of external things in the world or inner experiences and the aim of the theosopher is to discover deeper meanings in the natural or divine realm. Antoine Faivre notes, “the theosophist dedicates his energy to inventing (in the word's original sense of 'discovering') the articulation of The emblem of the Theosophical Society all things visible and invisible, by examining both divin* ity and nature in the smallest detail.” [5] The knowledge See also: Theosophical Society and Theosophical mystithat is acquired through meditation is believed to change cism * the being of the meditator. [31] Faivre identified three characteristics of theosophy.* [32] The Theosophical Society was founded in New York City The three characteristics of theosophy are listed below. in 1875 with the motto, “There is no Religion higher Theosophy: than Truth”.* [33] Its principal founding members were Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831–1891), Henry Steel 1. Divine/Human/Nature Triangle: The inspired anal- Olcott (1832–1907), and William Quan Judge (1851– ysis which circles through these three angles. The 1896).

11.4. POST-BLAVATSKYAN THEOSOPHY AND NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

113

After several changes and iterations its declared objec- contributed to the development of this Theosophy, protives became the following:* [34] ducing works that at times expanded on the original concepts.* [lower-alpha 4] Through the various Theosophical 1. To form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Societies and Organizations, Theosophy remains an acHumanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, tive philosophical school with presences in more than 50 countries around the world. caste, or color.

2. To encourage the study of Comparative Religion, Philosophy, and Science.

11.3.1

The World Teacher Project

3. To investigate the unexplained laws of Nature and Main articles: Maitreya (Theosophy) and Order of the the powers latent in man.

Star in the East The emblem of the Theosophical Society includes seven symbols of particular importance to the Society's symbology: 1) the motto of the Society; 2) a serpent biting its tail (ouroboros); 3) the swastika; 4) the hexagram; 5) the cruxansata (Ankh); 6) the pin of the Society, composed of cruxansata and serpent entwined, forming together “T.S.”, and 7) Om (or aum). The seal of the Society contains all of these symbols, except aum, and thus contains, in symbolic form, the doctrines its members follow.* [35] The Society was organized as a non-proselytizing, nonsectarian entity.* [36] Blavatsky and Olcott (the first President of the Society) moved from New York to Bombay, India in 1878. The International Headquarters of the Society was eventually established in Adyar, a suburb of Madras. The original organization, after splits and realignments has (as of 2011) several offshoots; all of them accept the three objectives above, and the precepts put forth by Blavatsky. Blavatsky was influential on spiritualism and related subcultures: “The western esoteric tradition has no more important figure in modern times.”* [37] Helena Blavatsky was a charismatic, unconventional and controversial woman of mixed Russian and German descent, who had reputedly travelled extensively; she became the major proponent of both theoretical and practical Theosophy.* [38] Since its inception, and through doctrinal assimilation or divergence, Theosophy has also given rise to or influenced the development of other mystical, philosophical, and religious movements.* [3] Following Blavatsky's death, disagreements among prominent Theosophists caused a series of splits and several Theosophical organizations emerged.* [lower-alpha 3] The formal successor of the original Society is as of 2011 known as the Theosophical Society Adyar. After a split in 1895, William Quan Judge established a new Theosophical organization in New York City which later eventually moved to Pasadena, California. It is known as of 2011 as the Theosophical Society Pasadena. The latter split yet again; another Theosophical organization, the United Lodge of Theosophists was the result, formed by Robert Crosbie in 1909.

During the 1890s and 1900s, the international leadership of the Society and their circle became increasingly convinced that the appearance of an “emissary”from the Spiritual Hierarchy was imminent; the expected emissary was further identified as the so-called World Teacher or Maitreya, originally by Leadbeater, who “discovered”fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986) as the entity's probable “vehicle”.* [39] Krishnamurti was groomed extensively for his expected messianic role, and a new organization, the Order of the Star in the East (OSE), was formed in 1911 to support him in this mission. The project received widespread publicity and enjoyed worldwide following, chiefly among Theosophists.

It also encountered opposition within and without the Theosophical Society, and contributed or led to years of upheaval, power struggles and doctrinal schism within Theosophy.* [40] Additional negative repercussions occurred in 1929, when Krishnamurti repudiated the messianic status claimed on his behalf and dissolved the OSE; soon after he severed ties with the Society and Theosophy in general. The adverse reactions and mixed publicity generated by the entire World Teacher Project, and especially by its demise and aftermath, damaged the standing of Theosophy and of its institutions. However, Krishnamurti eventually established a worldwide reputation as an original and respected independent speaker and thinker on spiritual and philosophical issues.* [41]

11.4 Post-Blavatskyan Theosophy and new religious movements Main article: Neo-Theosophy

Contemporaries of Blavatsky, as well as later theosophists, contributed to the development of this school of theosophical thought, producing works that at times sought to elucidate the ideas she presented (see Gottfried de Purucker), and at times to expand upon them.* [lower-alpha 5] Since its inception, and through doctrinal assimilation or divergence, Theosophy has also Contemporaries of Blavatsky, including William Quan given rise to or influenced the development of other Judge and Alfred Percy Sinnett, and later exponents have mystical, philosophical, and religious movements.* [42]

114 During the two decades that followed the death of Blavatsky, a number of leading Theosophists expanded or reinterpreted her own and other theosophical works.

Prominent among them were Charles Webster Leadbeater (1854–1934), then considered the Society's main occult investigator, and Annie Besant (1847–1933), who became the International President of the Society in 1907, following the death of Olcott. Some of their (and others') prolific commentaries and newly introduced concepts became subjects of doctrinal debate and dispute; dissidents charged them with straying from Theosophical orthodoxy and derisively labeled such works NeoTheosophy.* [43] However, in later usage the term came to signify presumed theosophical or quasi-theosophical thought advanced by people not directly connected to the Theosophical movement or its institutions, especially former Theosophist Alice Bailey and groups associated with her; and also the people and organizations mentioned below under the heading New Age Movement.

G.R.S. Mead was an early Theosophist. In 1909 he resigned from the Theosophical Society which was Orientalist. Prior to his break from the Society Mead had already begun emphasizing sources from the Western esoteric tradition in his writing. Mead was among the first Theosophists to explicate a "'Western' theosophy deriving from Alexandrian and Hellenistic sources in the early centuries A.D.”* [44]

CHAPTER 11. THEOSOPHY to have around 13,000 members while in the US the 2008 membership was reported at around 3,900.* [46] India and Sri Lanka The Theosophical Society Adyar was closely linked to the Indian independence movement: the Indian National Congress was founded across the street in 1885 during a Theosophical conference, and many of its leaders, including M. K. Gandhi were associated with Theosophy. However Hindu spiritual teacher and leader Swami Vivekananda has criticized Theosophy and Theosophists.* [47] Some early members of the Theosophical Society were closely linked to the Indian independence movement, including Allan Octavian Hume, Annie Besant and others.

Hume was particularly involved in the founding of the Indian National Congress.* [48] The Theosophical Society had a major influence on Buddhist modernism* [49] and Hindu reform movements, and the spread of those modernised versions in the west.* [49] Main article: Buddhist modernism

Blavatsky and Olcott took part in Anagarika Dharmapala's revival of Theravada Buddhism in CeyRecently it was shown in “Point on I” that the Essence lon.* [50]* [51] of all Theosophical theories can be summarized by principle: Love, Happiness, Interests. It is called Univer- Anthroposophy sal Understanding. It has its origin in Agni Yoga books written by Nicholas Roerich and Helena Roerich.

Rudolf Steiner, head of the German branch of the Theosophical Society in the early part of the 20th-century, disagreed with the Adyar-based international leadership 11.4.1 Influence of the Society over several doctrinal matters including the so-called World Teacher Project (see above). Steiner left the Theosophical Society in 1913 to promote his own theosophy-influenced philosophy,* [52]* [53] which he called Anthroposophy, through a new organization, the Anthroposophical Society; the great majority of Germanspeaking members of the Theosophical Society joined the newly formed Anthroposophical Society.

New Age movement

The book The Voice of the Silence presented by Blavatsky to Leo Tolstoy

Following

The present-day New Age movement is said to be based to a considerable extent on original Theosophical tenets and ideas.“No single organization or movement has contributed so many components to the New Age Movement as the Theosophical Society. ... It has been the major force in the dissemination of occult literature in the West in the twentieth century.”* [54]

Other organizations loosely based on Theosophical texts and doctrines include the Agni Yoga, and a group of reDuring the 1920s the Theosophical Society Adyar had ligions based on Theosophy called the Ascended Master around 7,000 members in the USA.* [45] According to a Teachings: the “I AM”Activity, The Bridge to FreeTheosophical source, the Indian section in 2008 was said dom and The Summit Lighthouse, which evolved into the

11.5. REFERENCES Church Universal and Triumphant. These various offshoots dispute the authenticity of their rivals.

Scholarship Scholar Alvin Boyd Kuhn wrote his thesis, Theosophy: A Modern Revival of Ancient Wisdom, on the subject – the first instance in which an individual obtained his doctorate with a thesis on Theosophy.* [55] Art, music, literature Artists and authors who investigated Theosophy include Talbot Mundy, Charles Howard Hinton, Geoffrey Hodson, James Jones,* [56] H. P. Lovecraft, and L. Frank Baum. Composer Alexander Scriabin was a Theosophist whose beliefs influenced his music, especially by providing a justification or rationale for his chromatic language.

Scriabin devised a quartal synthetic chord, often called his“mystic”chord, and before his death Scriabin planned a multimedia work to be performed in the Himalayas that would bring about the armageddon; “a grandiose religious synthesis of all arts which would herald the birth of a new world.”* [57] This piece, Mysterium, was never realized, due to his death in 1915. Leonid Sabaneyev, in his book Reminiscences about Scriabin (1925), wrote that The Secret Doctrine and journals“Bulletin of theosophy” constantly were on Scriabin's work table.* [58] Scriabin reread The Secret Doctrine very carefully and marked the most important places by a pencil.* [59]* [lower-alpha 6] Artists reported to be Theosophists were Wassily Kandinsky and Piet Mondrian.

115

[4] Some of the later works have become the focus of, or have contributed to, lively discussion among leading proponents of Theosophy, and on occasion have led to serious doctrinal disputes. See Neo-Theosophy.

[5] Some of the later works have become the focus of, or have contributed to, lively discussion among leading proponents of Theosophy, and on occasion have led to serious doctrinal disputes. See Neo-Theosophy.

[6] For more about how Scriabin was influenced by Blavatsky, see Adamenko, Victoria (2007) [2006]. Neo-mythologism in music : from Scriabin and Schoenberg to Schnittke and Crumb. Interplay series 5. Hillsdale, NY: Pendagon Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 9781576471258.

11.5.2 Citations [1] LIddell and Scott: Greek-English Lexicon.

[2] Blavatsky 1888 [3] Melton 1990, xxv–xxvi [4] Lobel 2007, p. 27 [5] Faivre 1987 [6] Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism.

State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791421783.

[7] Faivre 2000, p. 4 [8] The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Louis Jacobs, Oxford University Press 1995; entry on Kabbalah [9] Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Ox-

Blavatsky presented her book The Voice of the Silence, ford University Press; chapters on Medieval and Lurianic The Seven gates, Two Paths to Leo Tolstoy. In his works, Kabbalah Tolstoy used the dicta from the theosophical journal Theosophischer Wegweiser.* [60] In his diary, he wrote on [10] Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism.

State University of New York Press. p. 8. ISBN 12 February 1903,“I am reading a beautiful theosophical 0791421783. journal and find many common with my understanding.” * [61] [11] Faivre 1987, p. 465 [12] Faivre 2000, p. 13, see also p.19

11.5 References 11.5.1

Notes

[1] Societies and Organizations include, but are not limited to: The Theosophical Society, Adyar , The Theosophical Society, Pasadena , The United Lodge of Theosophists [2] For mention of the 1783 Theosophical Society, see Odhner, Carl T., ed. (1898). Annals of the New Church.

Philadelphia: Academy of the New Church. pp. 119– 120, 122–123, 125, 127, 140, 219, 297, 314, 330, 405.

OCLC 680808382.

[3] Some of the later works have become the focus of, or have contributed to, lively discussion among leading proponents of Theosophy, and on occasion have led to serious doctrinal disputes.

[13] Faivre 2000, p. 13 [14] Faivre 2000, pp. 10–11 Faivre's list of 17th century theosophers in North-Western Europe (including Germany) consists of roughly ten names.

[15] Faivre 2000, p. 10-11 Henry More is added to the list by Faivre with some reservations [16] OED 1989 v. XVII, p. 903.

[17] Faivre 2000, p. 14 [18] Faivre 2000, p. 47 (Diderot is the one exception Faivre mentions) [19] Faivre 2000, p. 24 [20] Faivre 1987, p. 467

116

[21] Hindmarsh, Robert, Rise and Progress of The New Jerusalem Church In England, America and Other Parts, Hoderson and Sons, London 1861; ISBN 1-4021-3146-1.

Online [22] Rix 2007, p. 98; Goodick-Clarke 2008, pp. 168–169

CHAPTER 11. THEOSOPHY

[43] Thomas c. 1930s.

[44] Goodrick-Clarke, Claire and Nicholas (2005). G. R. S. Mead and the Gnostic Quest. North Atlantic Books. pp.

9, 19 and 32. ISBN 155643572X.

[23] Faivre 1987, p. 466

[45] Tillet 1986, pp. 942–947 [Volume III: “Appendix 4: Membership of the Theosophical Society"].

[24] Faivre 2000, pp. 18–19

[46] TIS 2009

[25] Nemeth IEP

[47] STRAY REMARKS ON THEOSOPHY

[26] Faivre 2000, p. 32

[48] Кранстон 1999, sect. 5/1.

[27] Faivre 2000, p. 31, also xxx.(Preface)

[49] McMahan 2008.

[28] Faivre 2000, pp. 4–5

[50] Gombrich 1996, pp. 185–188.

[29] Faivre 2000, p. 5 Faivre quotes and agrees with JeanLouis Siémons.

[51] Fields 1992, pp. 83–118.

[30] Blavatsky, H.P. (1889). The Key to Theosophy. p. Section 1 “The name Theosophy dates from the third century of our era, and began with Ammonius Saccas and his disciples (1), who started the Eclectic Theosophical system.” .

[31] Williamson, Lola (2010). Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements (HIMM) as New Religion. New York, NY: New York University Press. p.

31. ISBN 978-0-8147-9449-4.

[32] Faivre 2000, pp. 7–8 [33] Blavatsky 1888, p. xli [Volume I: Introduction]. “In other words—'THERE IS NO RELIGION (OR LAW) HIGHER THAN TRUTH' —'SATYÂT NÂSTI PARO DHARMAH'—the motto of the Maharajah of Benares, adopted by the Theosophical Society.”

[34] Blavatsky 2002, pp. 39–41 [35] Nilakant 1886.

[36] Olcott 1891. “Article I: Constitution: 4. The Theosophical Society is absolutely unsectarian, and no assent to any formula of belief, faith or creed shall be required as a qualification of membership; but every applicant and member must lie in sympathy with the effort to create the nucleus of a Universal Brotherhood of Humanity.”

[37] Johnson 1994.

[38] Davenport-Hines 2004 [39] Wood 1964. Eyewitness account of Krishnamurti's“discovery”, and comments on related events and controversies, by one of Leadbeater's close associates.

[40] Tillet 1986, pp. 506–553 [Volume I: “Chapter 15: Conflict over Krishnamurti"]. Information on the contemporary controversies regarding Krishnamurti, inside and outside the Theosophical Society. See also Anthroposophy in this page.

[41] Campbell 1980, p. 130; Vernon 2001, pp. 188–189, 268– 270; see also alpheus 2001.

[42] Melton 1990, xxv–xxvi.

[52] Rudolf Steiner's book Theosophy, An Introduction to Supersensible Knowledge of the World and the Destination of Man (published in German as,“Theosophie. Einfuerung in uebersinnliche Welterkenntnis und Menschenbestimmung”), first appeared in 1904 [53] Rudolf Steiner, Theosophy of the Rosicrucian, lectures given in 1907 [54] Melton 1990, pp. 458–461. Note “Chronology of the New Age Movement”pp. xxxv–xxxviii in same work, starts with the formation of the Theosophical Society in 1875; see also Lewis & Melton 1992, xi.

[55] Kuhn 1992 [56] Carter 1998.

[57] Minderovic 2011; Кранстон 1999, sect. 7/4-6 [58] Сабанеев, Леонид Л., ed. (2000). Воспоминания о Скрябине. Москва: Классика-XXI. pp. 63, 173, 241.

[59] Schloezer, Boris de (1923). A. Skrjabin 1. Berlin: Grani. p. 27. OCLC 723767921. Цит. по: Бандура А. И. А. Н. Скрябин и Е. П. Блаватская // 175 лет со дня рождения Е. П. Блаватской. Материалы Международной научно-общественной конференции.

– СанктПетербургское отделение Международного Центра Рерихов, Санкт-Петербург, 2006 г. – С. 120 (А. И. Бандура – кандидат искусствоведения, председатель музыкально-философского общества имени А. Н. Скрябина, Москва) [60] Толстой 1955, p. 67.

[61] Толстой 1935, p. 155.

11.5.3 Bibliography • Blavatsky, Helena (1888). The Secret Doctrine: The Synthesis of Science, Religion, and Philosophy. London: The Theosophical Publishing Company.

• Blavatsky, Helena (1889). The Key to Theosophy.

London: The Theosophical Publishing Company.

11.5. REFERENCES

117

• Faivre, Antoine (1987). “Theosophy”. In 11.5.4 Further reading Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. The encyclopedia of religion 14. New York: Macmillan. ISBN • Antes, Peter; Geertz, Armin W.; Warne, Randi 9780029094808.

Ruth, eds. (2004). New approaches to the study of religion: regional, critical, and historical approaches. Religion and reason 42. Berlin; New • Faivre, Antoine (2000). Theosophy, imagination, York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017698tradition : studies in western esotericism. SUNY se8. ries in Western esoteric traditions. Translated by Christine Rhone. Albany, NY: State University of • Ellwood, Robert S. (1986). Theosophy : a modern New York Press. ISBN 9780791444351. expression of the wisdom of the ages. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publishing House. p. 237. ISBN 0• Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2008). The Western Es8356-0607-4. oteric Traditions. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Hammer, Olav (2004) [2001]. Claiming knowledge : strategies of epistemology from theosophy to the New • Godwin, Joscelyn (1994). The theosophical enlightAge. Studies in the history of religions 90. Leiden: enment. SUNY series in Western esoteric tradiBrill.

ISBN 9789004136380. tions. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791421512.

• Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2006). “Esotericism”. In Hanegraaff, Wouter J. The dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Leiden [u.a.]: Brill.

• Lobel, Diane (2007). A Sufi-Jewish dialogue: philosophy and mysticism in Baḥya Ibn Paqūda's“Duties of the heart”. Jewish culture and contexts.

Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8122-3953-9.

• Nemeth, Thomas.“Vladimir Solovyov”. In Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley Harris. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Martin, TN: University of Tennessee at Martin. ISSN 2161-0002. Archived from the original on 2014-11-08.

• Oxford English Dictionary 17. Oxford University Press. 1989. p. 903.

• McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276 • Rix, Robert (2007). William Blake and the cultures of radical Christianity. Burlington, VT [u.a.]: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754656005.

• Santucci, James A. (2005). “The Theosophical Society”. In Lewis, James R.; Aagaard Petersen, Jesper.

Controversial new religions. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/019515682X.003.0012.

ISBN 9780195156829.

• Sellon, Emily (1987).“Blavatsky, H. P.”. In Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. The encyclopedia of religion 2. New York: Macmillan. pp. 245–246. ISBN 9780029094808.

• Judge, William Q. (1893). The ocean of theosophy (2nd ed.). New York: The Path. OCLC 262627129. Also republished, with errors corrected, as“The ocean of theosophy”(PDF). theosociety.org (online ed.). Pasedena: Theosophical University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-1-55700-213-6.

• Carlson, Maria. No Religion Higher than Truth: A History of the Theosophical Movement in Russia, 1875-1922. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-691-05682-X • Ellwood, Robert S. (1986). Theosophy: a Modern Expression of the Wisdom of the Ages. Wheaton, Illinois: Theosophical Publishing House. ISBN 9780835606073.

• Campbell, Bruce F. (1980). Ancient Wisdom Revived: History of the Theosophical Movement.

Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

ISBN 0-520-03968-8.

• Dixon, Joy (2003) [2001]. Divine feminine : theosophy and feminism in England. Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science.

Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

ISBN 9780801864995.

• Lavoie, Jeffrey D. (2012). The Theosophical Society: The History of a Spiritualist Movement.

• Greenwalt, Emmett A. (1978). California utopia: Point Loma, 1897-1942.

• Schuon, Frithjof. Esoterism as a Principle and as a way. London: Perennial Books, 1990. ISBN-13: 978-0900588235 • Schuon, Frithjof. Survey of Metaphysics and Esoterism. Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2003.

ISBN-13: 978-0941532273

118

11.6 External links • Blavatsky Study Center – Online Blavatsky Archive.

• Theosophical History – Website associated with the independent, peer-reviewed journal of the same name.

• International Theosophical Centre, Naarden, The Netherlands • Modern Theosophy Large collection of Theosophy related articles • “Theosophy” – Entry from the online version of the Skeptics Dictionary.

• Theosophy Library Online – Associated with the United Lodge of Theosophists, Phoenix, Arizona.

• Theosophical University Press Online Literature – Associated with the Theosophical Society Pasadena.

• Theosophical History • Theosophy Network Library and Resources

CHAPTER 11. THEOSOPHY

Chapter 12

Rosicrucianism its preference for dogma over empiricism, similar to texts authored by the Protestant Reformer Martin Luther.

They traced their philosophy and science to the Moors, asserting that it had been kept secret for 120 years until the intellectual climate might receive it.

Early seventeenth-century occult philosophers such as Michael Maier, Robert Fludd and Thomas Vaughan interested themselves in the Rosicrucian world view.* [4] According to historian David Stevenson it was also influential to Freemasonry as it was emerging in Scotland.* [1] In later centuries, many esoteric societies have claimed to derive their doctrines, in whole or in part, from the original Rosicrucians. Several modern societies have been formed for the study of Rosicrucianism and allied subjects.

12.1 Origins The Temple of the Rose Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618.

Rosicrucianism is a philosophical secret society said* [1] to have been founded in late medieval Germany by Christian Rosenkreuz. It holds a doctrine or theology “built on esoteric truths of the ancient past”, which, “concealed from the average man, provide insight into nature, the physical universe and the spiritual realm.”* [2] Rosicrucianism is symbolized by the Rosy Cross or Rose Cross.

Between 1607 and 1616, two anonymous manifestos were published, first in Germany and later throughout Europe.* [3] These were the Fama Fraternitatis RC (The Fame of the Brotherhood of RC) and the Confessio Fraternitatis (The Confession of the Brotherhood of RC). The influence of these documents, presenting a “most laudable Order”of mystic-philosopher-doctors and promoting a“Universal Reformation of Mankind”, gave rise to an enthusiasm called by its historian Dame Frances Yates the “Rosicrucian Enlightenment”.* [4]

The Fama Fraternitatis presented the legend of a German doctor and mystic philosopher referred to as“Frater C.R.C.”(later identified in a third manifesto as Christian Rosenkreuz, or “Rose-cross”). The year 1378 is presented as being the birth year of “our Christian Father” , and it is stated that he lived 106 years. After studying in the Middle East under various masters, possibly adhering to Sufism,* [5] he was unable to spread the knowledge he had acquired to any prominent European figures. Instead, he gathered a small circle of friends/disciples and founded the Rosicrucian Order (this can be deduced to have occurred around 1407).

During Rosenkreuz's lifetime, the Order was said to consist of no more than eight members, each a doctor and a sworn bachelor. Each member undertook an oath to heal the sick without payment, to maintain a secret fellowship, and to find a replacement for himself before he died.

Three such generations had supposedly passed between c.1500 and c.1600, a time when scientific, philosophical and religious freedom had grown so that the public might benefit from the Rosicrucians' knowledge, so that Rosicrucian manifestos opposed Roman Catholicism and they were now seeking good men.* [6] 119

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12.2 Reception The manifestos were and are not taken literally by many but rather regarded either as hoaxes or as allegorical statements. The manifestos directly state: “We speak unto you by parables, but would willingly bring you to the right, simple, easy, and ingenuous exposition, understanding, declaration, and knowledge of all secrets.”

It is evident that the first Rosicrucian manifesto was influenced by the work of the respected hermetic philosopher Heinrich Khunrath, of Hamburg, author of the Amphitheatrum Sapientiae Aeternae (1609), who was in turn influenced by John Dee, author of the Monas Hieroglyphica (1564). The invitation to the royal wedding in the Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz opens with Dee's philosophical key, the Monas Hieroglyphica symbol. The writer also claimed the brotherhood possessed a book that resembled the works of Paracelsus.

Their literature announced them as moral and religious reformers. They used the techniques of chemistry (alchemy) and of the sciences generally as media through which to publicize their opinions and beliefs.

In his autobiography, Johann Valentin Andreae (1586– 1654) claimed that the anonymously published Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz was one of his works, and he subsequently described it as a ludibrium. In his later works, he makes alchemy an object of ridicule and places it along with music, art, theater and astrology in the category of less serious sciences. According to some The publication of the Fama Fraternitatis Rosae Crucis (1614) sources, his role in the origin of the Rosicrucian legend is controversial.* [7] However, it was generally accepted Crucis, (1614) inspired the works of Michael Maier according to others.* [8] (1568–1622) of Germany; Robert Fludd (1574–1637) and Elias Ashmole (1617–1692) of England; Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, Gotthardus Arthusius, Julius Sperber, Henricus Madathanus, Gabriel Naudé, Thomas 12.3 Rosicrucian Enlightenment Vaughan and others.* [10] In Elias Ashmole's Theatrum Chimicum britannicum (1650) he defends the RosicruIn the early 17th century, the manifestos caused excitecians. Some later works impacting Rosicrucianism were ment throughout Europe by declaring the existence of the Opus magocabalisticum et theosophicum by George a secret brotherhood of alchemists and sages who were von Welling (1719)--of alchemical and paracelsian inspipreparing to transform the arts, sciences, religion, and ration—and the Aureum Vellus oder Goldenes Vliess by political and intellectual landscape of Europe. Wars of Hermann Fictuld in 1749. politics and religion ravaged the continent. The works were re-issued several times, followed by numerous pam- Michael Maier was appointed Pfalzgraf (Count Palatine) phlets, favorable or otherwise. Between 1614 and 1620, by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Hungary about 400 manuscripts and books were published which and King of Bohemia. He also was one of the most prominent defenders of the Rosicrucians, clearly transdiscussed the Rosicrucian documents. mitting details about the “Brothers of the Rose Cross” The peak of the “Rosicrucianism furore”was reached in his writings. Maier made the firm statement that the when two mysterious posters appeared on the walls of Brothers of R.C. exist to advance inspired arts and sciParis in 1622 within a few days of each other. The first ences, including alchemy. Researchers of Maier's writsaid, “We, the Deputies of the Higher College of the ings point out that he never claimed to have produced Rose-Croix, do make our stay, visibly and invisibly, in gold, nor did Heinrich Khunrath or any of the other ′Rosithis city (...)", and the second ended with the words“The crucianists′. Their writings point toward a symbolic and thoughts attached to the real desire of the seeker will lead spiritual alchemy, rather than an operative one. In a comus to him and him to us.”* [9] bination of direct and veiled styles, these writings conThe legendary first manifesto, Fama Fraternitatis Rosae veyed the nine stages of the involutive-evolutive transmu-

12.4. ROSE-CROSS DEGREES IN FREEMASONRY

121

tation of the threefold body of the human being, the three- The idea of such an order, exemplified by the network fold soul and the threefold spirit, among others esoteric of astronomers, professors, mathematicians, and natural knowledge related to the “Path of Initiation”. philosophers in 16th-century Europe promoted by such In his 1618 pamphlet, Pia et Utilissima Admonitio de men as Johannes Kepler, Georg Joachim Rheticus, John Fratribus Rosae Crucis, Henrichus Neuhusius wrote that Dee and Tycho Brahe, gave rise to the Invisible Colthe Rosicrucians departed for the east due to European in- lege. This* was the precursor to the Royal Society founded stability caused by the start of the Thirty Years' War. In in 1660. [13] It was constituted by a group of scien1710, Sigmund Richter, founder of the secret society of tists who began to hold regular meetings to share and develop knowledge acquired by experimental investigathe Golden and Rosy Cross, also suggested the Rosicrucians had migrated eastward. In the first half of the 20th tion. Among these were Robert Boyle, who wrote: “the cornerstones of the Invisible (or as they term themselves century, René Guénon, a researcher of the occult, predo now and then honour me * sented this same idea in some of his works. [11] An em- the Philosophical) College, with their company...";* [14] John Wilkins and John Walinent author of the 19th century, Arthur Edward Waite, presented arguments contradicting this idea.* [12] It was lis, who described those meetings in the following terms: the year 1645, while I lived in London (at a time in this fertile field of discourse that many Rosicrucian so- “About when, by our civil wars, academical studies were much cieties arose. They were based on the occult, inspired by interrupted in both our Universities), ... I had the opporthe mystery of this “College of Invisibles”. tunity of being acquainted with divers worthy persons, inquisitive natural philosophy, and other parts of human learning; and particularly of what hath been called the New Philosophy or Experimental Philosophy. We did by agreements, divers of us, meet weekly in London on a certain day and hour, under a certain penalty, and a weekly contribution for the charge of experiments, with certain rules agreed amongst us, to treat and discourse of such affairs...”* [15]

12.4 Rose-Cross Freemasonry

Degrees

in

According to Jean Pierre Bayard,* [16] two Rosicrucianinspired Masonic rites emerged toward the end of 18th century, the Rectified Scottish Rite, widespread in Central Europe where there was a strong presence of the “Golden and Rosy Cross”, and the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, first practised in France, in which the 18th degree is called Knight of the Rose Croix.

The change from“operative”to“speculative”Masonry occurred between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 18th century. Two of the earliest speculative Masons for whom a record of initiation exists were Sir Robert Moray and Elias Ashmole. Robert Vanloo states that earlier 17th century Rosicrucianism had a considerFrater C.R.C. – Christian Rose Cross (symbolical representation) able influence on Anglo-Saxon Masonry. Hans Schick sees in the works of Comenius (1592–1670) the ideal of The literary works of the 16th and 17th centuries were the newly born English Masonry before the foundation full of enigmatic passages containing references to the of the Grand Lodge in 1717. Comenius was in England Rose Cross, as in the following (somewhat modernized): during 1641.

For what we do presage is not in grosse, For we are brethren of the Rosie Crosse; We have the Mason Word and second sight, Things for to come we can foretell aright.

—Henry Adamson, The Muses' Threnodie (Perth, 1638).

The Gold und Rosenkreuzer (Golden and Rosy Cross) was founded by the alchemist Samuel Richter who in 1710 published Die warhhaffte und vollkommene Bereitung des Philosophischen Steins der Brüderschaft aus dem Orden des Gülden-und Rosen-Creutzes (The True and Complete Preparation of the Philosopher's Stone by the Brotherhood from the Order of the Golden and Rosy

122

CHAPTER 12. ROSICRUCIANISM Golden and Rosy Cross, without success.

After 1782, this highly secretive society added Egyptian, Greek and Druidic mysteries to its alchemy system.* [18] A comparative study of what is known about the Gold and Rosenkreuzer appears to reveal, on the one hand, that it has influenced the creation of some modern Initiatic groups and, on the other hand, that the Nazis (see The Occult Roots of Nazism) may have been inspired by this German group.

According to the writings of the Masonic historian E.J. Marconis de Negre,* [19] who together with his father Gabriel M. Marconis is held to be the founder of the "Rite of Memphis-Misraim" of Freemasonry, based on earlier conjectures (1784) by a Rosicrucian scholar Baron de Westerode* [20] and also promulgated by the 18th century secret society called the "Golden and Rosy Cross", the Rosicrucian Order was created in the year 46 when an Alexandrian Gnostic sage named Ormus and his six followers were converted by one of Jesus' disciples, Mark.

Their symbol was said to be a red cross surmounted by a rose, thus the designation of Rosy Cross. From this conversion, Rosicrucianism was supposedly born, by purifying Egyptian mysteries with the new higher teachings of early Christianity.* [21]

18° Knight of the Rose Croix jewel (from the Masonic Scottish Rite)

Cross) in Breslau under the pseudonym Sincerus Renatus* [17] in Prague in the early 18th century as a hierarchical secret society composed of internal circles, recognition signs and alchemy treatises. Under the leadership of Hermann Fictuld the group reformed itself extensively in 1767 and again in 1777 because of political pressure. Its members claimed that the leaders of the Rosicrucian Order had invented Freemasonry and only they knew the secret meaning of Masonic symbols. The Rosicrucian Order had been founded by Egyptian "Ormusse" or "LichtWeise" who had emigrated to Scotland with the name “Builders from the East”. In 1785 and 1788 the Golden and Rosy Cross group published the Geheime Figuren or “The Secret Symbols of the 16th and 17th century Rosicrucians”.

Led by Johann Christoph von Wöllner and General Johann Rudolf von Bischoffwerder, the Masonic lodge (later: Grand Lodge) Zu den drei Weltkugeln (The Three Globes) was infiltrated and came under the influence of the Golden and Rosy Cross. Many Freemasons became Rosicrucianists and Rosicrucianism was established in many lodges. In 1782 at the Convent of Wilhelmsbad the Alte schottische Loge Friedrich zum goldenen Löwen (Old Scottish Lodge Friedrich at the Golden Lion) in Berlin strongly requested Ferdinand, Duke of BrunswickLüneburg and all other Freemasons to submit to the

According to Maurice Magre (1877–1941) in his book Magicians, Seers, and Mystics, Rosenkreutz was the last descendant of the Germelshausen, a German family from the 13th century. Their castle stood in the Thuringian Forest on the border of Hesse, and they embraced Albigensian doctrines. The whole family was put to death by Landgrave Conrad of Thuringia, except for the youngest son, then five years old. He was carried away secretly by a monk, an Albigensian adept from Languedoc, and placed in a monastery under the influence of the Albigenses, where he was educated and met the four Brothers later to be associated with him in the founding of the Rosicrucian Brotherhood. Magre's account supposedly derives from oral tradition.

Around 1530, more than eighty years before the publication of the first manifesto, the association of cross and rose already existed in Portugal in the Convent of the Order of Christ, home of the Knights Templar, later renamed Order of Christ. Three bocetes were, and still are, on the abóboda (vault) of the initiation room. The rose can clearly be seen at the center of the cross.* [22]* [23] At the same time, a minor writing by Paracelsus called Prognosticatio Eximii Doctoris Paracelsi (1530), containing 32 prophecies with allegorical pictures surrounded by enigmatic texts, makes reference to an image of a double cross over an open rose; this is one of the examples used to prove the “Fraternity of the Rose Cross”existed far earlier than 1614.* [24]

12.6. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF GROUPS FORMED FOR THE STUDY OF ROSICRUCIANISM AND RELATED SUBJECTS123 According to Masonic writers, the Order of the Rose Cross is expounded in a major Christian literary work that molded the subsequent spiritual views of the western civilisation, The Divine Comedy (ca. 1308–1321) by Dante Alighieri.* [28]* [29]* [30] Other Christian-Rosicrucian oriented bodies include: • Lectorium Rosicrucianum, 1924 • Archeosophical Society, 1968 Freemasonic Rosicrucian bodies providing preparation either through direct study and/or through the practice of symbolic-initiatic journey.

• Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 1801 • Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, 1866, in Scotia (SRIS; Scotland), in Civitatibus Foederatis (MSRICF/SRICF; United States) etc. This Masonic esoteric society reprinted the Rosicrucian manifestos in 1923. A well-known member was Arthur Edward Waite.

Centro de Estudios Rosacruz (Zaragoza).

Initiatory groups which follow a degree system of study and initiation include:

12.5 Modern groups During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various groups styled themselves Rosicrucian. The diverse groups who link themselves to a“Rosicrucian Tradition” can be divided into three categories: Esoteric Christian Rosicrucian groups, which profess Christ; Masonic Rosicrucian groups such as Societas Rosicruciana; and initiatory groups such as the Golden Dawn and the Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis (AMORC).

Esoteric Christian Rosicrucian schools provide esoteric knowledge related to the inner teachings of Christianity.* [25] • The Rosicrucian Fellowship, 1909/11. Teachings present the mysteries, in the form of esoteric knowledge, of which Christ spoke in Matthew 13:11 and Luke 8:10. The Fellowship seeks to prepare the individual through harmonious development of mind and heart in a spirit of unselfish service to mankind and an all-embracing altruism. According to it the Rosicrucian Order was founded in 1313* [26] and is composed of twelve exalted Beings gathered around a thirteenth, Christian Rosenkreuz. These great Adepts have already advanced far beyond the cycle of rebirth; their mission is to prepare the whole wide world for a new phase in religion—which includes awareness of the inner worlds and the subtle bodies, and to provide safe guidance in the gradual awakening of man's latent spiritual faculties during the next six centuries toward the coming Age of Aquarius.* [27]

• The Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis (AMORC), incorporated in the U.S. in 1915 • Rosicrucian Order of the Golden Dawn, U.S. based Order, 2008 • The Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose + Cross, established in the Philippines in 1930

12.6 Chronological list of groups formed for the study of Rosicrucianism and related subjects Many of these groups generally speak of a lineal descent from earlier branches of the ancient Rosicrucian Order in England, France, Egypt, or other countries. However, some groups speak of a spiritual affiliation with a true and invisible Rosicrucian Order. Note there are other Rosicrucian groups not listed here. Some do not use the name “Rosicrucian”to name themselves. Some groups listed may have been dissolved and are no longer operating.

• Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross, 1750s • Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 1776 • Fraternitas Rosae Crucis, 1861

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CHAPTER 12. ROSICRUCIANISM

• Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (SRIA). ca. 1860– 1865* [31] • Societas Rosicruciana 1878* [31]

in

America

(SRIA),

• Fraternity of the Hidden Light, 1982 • ConFraternity Rosae + Crucis (CR+C), 1989* [31] • Ancient Rosae Crucis (ARC), ?* [31]

• Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (SRICF), 1879* [31] • Cabalistic Order of the Rosicrucian (Kabbalistique de la Rose Croix), 1888 • Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, 1888* [31]

• Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose+Cross, a.k.a. Christian Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose+Cross, established in the Philippines in 2002 by former members of the defunct AMORC Pronaos of the Philippines* [34]

• Rose Cross Order, 1889

• Rosicrucian Order of the Golden Dawn, 2008

• Order of the Temple & the Graal and of the Catholic Order of the Rose-Croix (l'Ordre de la Rose Croix Catholique et Esthetique, du Temple et du Graal) (CRC) ('Catholic', as in 'Universal'), 1890* [31]

• The Knights of the Militia Crucifera Evangelica (KMCE), Alchemical Order dela Rosé-Croix * [35]

• Alchemical Rose-Croix Society Alchimique de France), 1896

(Association

• Rose-Croix de l'Orient (Rose-Cross of the East) (RCO) ?

• The Elder Brothers of the Rose-Croix (Les Freres Aînés de la Rose-Croix)

12.7 See also • Anthroposophy • Ashrama Hall and Christchurch Garden Theatre • Behmenism

• Antiquus Arcanus Ordo Rosæ Rubæ Aureæ Crucis (AAORRAC) ?

• Bogomilism

• Ordo Aureæ & Rosæ Crucis (Antique Arcanæ Ordinis Rosæ Rubeæ et Aureæ Crucis)(OARC) ?

• Brethren of Purity

• Rosicrucian Fellowship (Association of Christian Mystics) 1909* [32] • Anthroposophical Society, 1912

• Catharism • Druzism • Essenes

• Order of the Temple of the Rosy Cross, 1912 [31] *

• Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis (AMORC), 1915* [33]

• Gnosticism • Manichaeism

• Fellowship of the Rosy Cross, 1915

• Martinism

• Corona Fellowship of Rosicrucians (CFR), c.

1918* [31]

• Michał Sędziwój

• Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship, 1924

• Neoplatonism

• Lectorium Rosicrucianum, 1924* [31]

• Numerology

• Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua (FRA), 1927 • The Saint Paul Rosicrucian Fellowship (Fraternidade Rosacruciana São Paulo), 1929

• Parabola Allegory • Pythagoreanism

• Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose+Cross, established in the Philippines in 1930

• Rosicrucian cipher

• Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua, 1932

• Western esotericism

• Archeosophical Society, 1968

• Western Esotericism (academic field)

12.8. REFERENCES

12.8 References 12.8.1

Footnotes

[1] “The Catholic Historical Review, Vol. 5, No. 2/3 (Jul. - Oct., 1919), pp. 265-270 by Joseph A. Murray; Review of New England and the Bavarian Illuminati by Vernon Stauffer; Vol. LXXXII of Studies in History, Economics and Public Law by The Faculty of Political Science; Columbia University Press (1918)" (PDF). Catholic University of America Press. Retrieved 1 February 2015.

[2] Lindgren, Carl Edwin, The way of the Rose Cross; A Historical Perception, 1614–1620. Journal of Religion and Psychical Research, Volume 18, Number 3:141–48.

1995.

[3] Philalethes, Eugenius (1997). Fame and Confession of the Fraternity of the Rosy Cross. City: Kessinger Publishing. p. 9ff. ISBN 1-56459-257-X. [4] Yates, Frances A. (1972), The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, London

125

[17] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism, p. 59 [18] Bayard, Jean-Pierre, Les Rose-Croix, M.A.Édition, Paris 1986 [19] de Negre, E.J. Marconis (1849), Brief History of Masonry [20] Nesta Webster's, Secret Societies and Subversive Movements, London, 1924, p. 87 and note 37 [21] Further research in Legend and Mythology: Ormus by Sol, The Book of THoTH, 2004 [22] Macedo, António de (2000), Instruções Iniciáticas – Ensaios Espirituais, 2nd edition, Hughin Editores, Lisbon, ISBN 972-8534-00-0, p.55 [23] Gandra, J. Manuel (1998), Portugal Misterioso (Os Templários), Lisbon, pp. 348–349 [24] Stanislas de Guaita (1886), Au seuil du Mystère

[5] http://www.nthposition.com/lususserius.php [6] Gorceix, Bernard (1970), La Bible des Rose-Croix, Paris: a work of reference, containing translations of the three Rosicrucian Manifestos, recommended in Accès de l'Ésoterisme Occidental (1986, 1996) by Antoine Faivre (École Pratique des Hautes Études, Sorbonne) [7] Cf. Yates, Frances A. (1972), The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, London & Edighoffer, Roland (I-1982, II-1987), Rose-Croix et Société Idéale selon Johann Valentin Andreae, Paris [8] Cf. Dickson, Donald R. (1996), “Johann Valentin Andreae's Utopian Brotherhoods”, Renaissance Quarterly 22 Dec. 1996 [9] Cited by Sédir in Les Rose-Croix, Paris (1972), pp. 65–66 [10] Sédir (1972), Les Rose-Croix, Paris, p. 59 to 68

[25] Skogstrom, Jan (2001), Some Comparisons Between Exoteric & Esoteric Christianity, a table comparing exoteric and esoteric Christian beliefs [26] The Rosicrucian Interpretation of Christianity by The Rosicrucian Fellowship [27] The Rosicrucian Mysteries by Max Heindel. Accessed 29 March 2006 [28] Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, “XXX: Knight Kadosh”, p. 822, 1872 [29] René Guénon, El Esoterismo de Dante, pp. 5–6, 14, 15– 16, 18–23, 1925

[11] Guénon, René, Simboles de la Science Sacrée″, Paris 1962, p.95ff

[30] Manly Palmer Hall, The Secret Teachings of All Ages: The Fraternity of The Rose Cross, p. 139, 1928

[12] Waite, Arthur E. (1887), The Real History of the Rosicrucians – founded on their own Manifestos, and on facts and documents collected from the writings of Initiated Brethren, London, p.408

[31] Frater Melchior.“Manifestations of the Neo-Rosicrucian Current”

[13]“The origins of the Royal Society lie in an 'invisible college' of natural philosophers who began meeting in the mid-1640s to discuss the new philosophy of promoting knowledge of the natural world through observation and experiment, which we now call science.”http: //royalsociety.org/about-us/history accessed 2 May 2014 [14] Cited by R Lomas (2002) in The Invisible College, London [15] Cited by H. Lyons (1944) in The Royal Society 1660– 1940, Cambridge [16] Jean-Pierre Bayard, Les Rose-Croix, M. A. Éditions, Paris, 1986

[32] 8 August 1909, in Seattle, Washington, at 3:00 p.m; cf. http://mount_ecclesia.tripod.com/chronology_ about_max_heindel.htm [33] Not 1909: a Charter forming this organization is dated from 1 April 1915 in New York, after a previous document titled “American Pronunziamento Number One” or “First American Manifesto”by H. Spencer Lewis issued in February, 1915; cf. http://www.parareligion.ch/ sunrise/vanloo/ameng.htm [34] cf. http://www.rosecrossohgrc.com [35] cf. http://www.knightsofmceglobal.com

126

12.8.2

CHAPTER 12. ROSICRUCIANISM

Bibliography

Old editions • Among the treasures of the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam are books on the Gnosis and the Corpus Hermeticum as published in Florence in 1471.

• The University of Wisconsin–Madison Digital Collections Center has a digital edition of the Geheime Figuren der Rosenkreuzer, aus dem 16ten und 17ten Jahrhundert (1785–1788).

Publications • Bayard, Jean-Pierre (1986) Les Rose-Croix M. A. Éditions, Paris, ISBN 2-86676-229-0, in French • Bayard, Jean-Pierre (1990) La Spiritualité de la Rose-Croix: Histoire, Tradition et Valeur Initiatique Dangles, Saint-Jean-de-Braye, France, ISBN 2-7033-0353-X, in French • Bernard, Christian (2001) Rosicrucian Order AMORC: Questions and Answers Grand Lodge of the English Language Jurisdiction, AMORC, San Jose, California, ISBN 978-1-893971-02-8; based upon the earlier versions by Harve Spencer Lewis 1929 and following, and Heindel, Max (1910) 'The Rosicrucian philosophy in questions and answers M.A. Donohue & Company, Chicago, OCLC 67395149 • Clymer, R. Swinburne (1916) The Rose Cross order: a short sketch of the history of the Rose Cross order in America, together with a sketch of the life of Dr. P. B. Randolph, the founder of the order Philosophical Publishing Company, Allentown, Pennsylvania, OCLC 6671066 • Churton, Tobias (2009) The Invisible History of the Rosicrucians: The World's Most Mysterious Secret Society Inner Traditions, Rochester, Vermont, ISBN 978-1-59477-255-9 • Dietzfelbinger, K. (2005) Rosicrucians through the ages (translation of Dietzfelbinger, K. (1998) Rozenkruisers toen en nu Rozekruis Pers, Haarlem, Netherlands, ISBN 90-6732-199-0) Rozekruis Pers, Haarlem, Netherlands, ISBN 90-6732-323-3 • Edighoffer, Roland (1982) Rose-Croix et Société Idéale selon Johann Valentin Andreae (volume 1) Arma Artis, Neuilly-sur-Seine, OCLC 39787480, in French • Edighoffer, Roland (1987) Rose-Croix et Société Idéale selon Johann Valentin Andreae (volume 2) Arma Artis, Neuilly-sur-Seine, OCLC 311787409, in French

• Frietsch, Wolfram (1999) Die Geheimnisse der Rosenkreuzer Rowohlt, Reinbeck bei Hamburg, ISBN 3-499-60495-7, in German • Gorceix, Bernard (1970) La Bible des Rose-Croix: traduction et commentaire des trois premiers écrits rosicruciens (1614–1615–1616) PUF, Paris, OCLC 64751560, in French • Hall, Manly Palmer (1929) “Chapter 19: Rosicrucian and Masonic Origins”Lectures on Ancient Philosophy: An Introduction to the Study and Application of Rational Procedure Hall Publishing Company, Los Angeles, OCLC 2028728; full text from The Mystic Light • Hall, Manly Palmer (1928) The Secret Teachings of All Ages: An Encyclopedic Outline of Masonic, Hermetic, Quabbalistic and Rosictucian Symbolical PhilosophyPhilosophical Research Society, Los Angeles, OCLC 1358719; see full text from The Internet Sacred Text Archive • Heindel, Max (1909) The Rosicrucian CosmoConception or Christian Occult Science, An Elementary Treatise Upon Man's Past Evolution, Present Constitution and Future Development Independent Book Company, Chicago, OCLC 7466633; full text of updated version entitled 'The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception or Mystic Christianity, An Elementary Treatise Upon Man's Past Evolution, Present Constitution and Future Development from The Rosicrucian Fellowship • Jennings, Hargrave (1870) The Rosicrucians: Their Rites and Mysteries John Camden Hotten, London, OCLC 301465719; reprinted in 1976 by Arno Press, New York, ISBN 0-405-07957-5 • Lindgren, Carl Edwin as “Neophyte”(1996) Spiritual Alchemists: Rosicrucians, the Brotherhood of Light Ars Latomorum Publications, New Orleans, Louisiana, ISBN 1-885591-18-7 • Lindgren, Carl Edwin The Rose Cross Order: A Historical and Philosophical View full text from Professor Lindgren’s web site • Macedo, António de (2000) Instruções Iniciáticas – Ensaios Espirituais (2nd edition) Hughin Editores, Lisbon; see partial view from Hughin Editores, in Portuguese • Matthews, John (1999) The Rosicrucian Enlightenment Revisited Lindisfarne Books, Hudson, New York, ISBN 0-940262-84-3 • McIntosh, Christopher (1992) The Rose Cross and the Age of Reason: Eighteenth-century Rosicrucianism in Central Europe and its relationship to the Enlightenment, E.J. Brill, New York, ISBN 90-0409502-0

12.8. REFERENCES

127

• Palou, Jean (1964) La franc-Maçonnerie (The French Masons) Payot, Paris, OCLC 417482551, in French

the Golden Dawn Arthur Edward Waite ISBN 9780-9783883-4-8 book description from Ishtar Publishing

• Pincus-Witten, Robert (1976) Occult Symbolism in France: Joséphin Péladan and the Salons de la RoseCroix Garland Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-82402003-0

• Westcott, William Wynn (1885) Rosicrucian Thoughts on the Ever-Burning Lamps of the Ancients (pamphlet) G. Kenning, London; reprinted in 1979 by David Medina, London, ISBN 09505859-2-0; see full text from The Alchemy Web Site

• Rebisse, Christian (2005) Rosicrucian History and Mysteries (translation of Rebisse, Christian (2003) Rose-croix histoire et mysteres) Supreme Grand Lodge of AMORC, San Jose, California, ISBN 1893971-05-8

• Williamson, Benedict J. (editor) (2002) The Rosicrucian Manuscripts Invisible College Press, Arlington, Virginia, ISBN 1-931468-12-5

• Yates, Frances (1972) The Rosicrucian Enlighten• Silberer, Herbert (1917) Problems of mysticism ment Routledge, London, ISBN 0-7100-7380-1; and its symbolism (translation of Silberer, Herreprinted in 2002 by Routledge, New York, ISBN bert (1914) Probleme der mystik und ihrer symbolik 0-415-26769-2 Heller, Vienna, OCLC 4943853) Moffat, Yard and Company, New York, OCLC 538149; reprinted in 1970 by S. Weiser, New York, ISBN 0-87728-038- Essays X • Alexandre David, Fama Fraternitatis – Introduction • Steiner, Rudolf (1984) Esoteric Christianity and www the Mission of Christian Rosenkreutz: Thirteen lec• Corinne Heline, The Seven Jewels and the Seven tures given in various European cities in the years Stages of Initiation www 1911 and 1912 (a partial translation of Steiner, Rudolf (1962) Das esoterische Christentum und die • Prinke, Rafal T. Michael Sendivogius and Christian geistige Führung der Menschheit: dreiundzwanzig Rosenkreutz, The Unexpected Possibilities, The HerVorträge, gehalten in den Jahr. 1911 und 1912 in metic Journal, 1990, 72-98 verschiedenen Städten Verlag der Rudolf SteinerNachlassverwaltung, Dornach, Switzerland) Rudolf Steiner Press, London, OCLC 264715257; see full Fictional literature text from the Rudolf Steiner Archive • St. Leon: A Tale of the Sixteenth Century by • Steiner, Rudolf (1965) Rosicrucianism and ModWilliam Godwin, 1799 ern Initiation: Mystery Centres of the Middle Ages: • St. Irvyne; or, The Rosicrucian by Percy Bysshe Six lectures given in Dornach, 4–13 January 1924 Shelley, 1811, London, John Joseph Stockdale (translation of Steiner, Rudolf (1950) Mepterienstätte des Mittelalters: Rosenkreuzertum und Mod• Wolfstein; or, The Mysterious Bandit by Percy ernes Einweihungsprinzip, printed as volume two of Bysshe Shelley, circa 1815, J. Bailey, London, a The Mission of Christian Rozenkreuz) R. Steiner, chapbook reduction of St. Irvyne London, OCLC 7209265; see full text from the Rudolf Steiner Archive • Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Zanoni: A Rosicrucian Tale • Waite, Arthur Edward (1887) The Real History of the Rosicrucians G. Redway, London OCLC 7080058; reprinted in 1960 by Society of Metaphysicians, Hastings, England, ISBN 1-85228-7055; reprinted in 2000 by Garber Communications, Blauvelt, New York, ISBN 0-89345-018-9; see full text from The Internet Sacred Text Archive • Waite, Arthur Edward (1916–1918) Complete Rosicrucian Initiations of the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross ; reprinted in 2005 ISBN 978-0-9735931-7-4 and 2007 ISBN 978-0-9783883-4-8 by Ishtar Publishing, Burnaby, British Columbia; renamed in 2008 Rosicrucian Rites and Ceremonies of the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross by Founder of the Holy Order of

(1842), www • Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Vril: The Power of the Coming Race (1870) www • Franz Hartmann, With the Adepts: An Adventure Among the Rosicrucians (1910) www • Hermann Hesse, Journey to the East (1932, also “Journey to the Land of the Morning/of the Tomorrow”(Die Morgenlandfahrt)) • Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game (1943), also known as “Magister Ludi”(Master of the Game) • Prentiss Tucker, In the Land of the Living Dead: an Occult Story (1929) www

128 • Antal Szerb, "The Pendragon Legend" (1934) (Translated by Len Rix).

Conspiracy literature • Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, Holy Blood, Holy Grail (1982), advanced a pseudohistorical relation of Rosicrucianism with a secret society called Priory of Sion.

• Umberto Eco, Foucault's Pendulum (1988), Serendipities: Language and Lunacy (1998).

• Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code (2003), follows the Holy Blood, Holy Grail's conspiracy theories line.

• Dan Brown, The Lost Symbol (2009)

12.9 External links • Accessible magazine (2006): The Portugal Code: the Knights Templar, the Rosicrucian Order and the Holy Grail • Alchemy Web Site (The): Rosicrucianism • Catholic Encyclopedia: Rosicrucians • CESNUR: 2005 International Conference – Spiritual filiation or doctrinal conflicts in modern Rosicrucian movements • Orthodox America: The Rosicrucians • Reverse Spins: The Mysterious Rosicrucian...

• Rosie: Speculum Sophicum Rhodo-Stauroticum • Straight Dope (The): What is Rosicrucianism all about?

• textfiles.com – Occult (The): Rosicrucianism • Secret Symbols of the Rosicrucians in hi-rez full color • Harvey Spencer Lewis, Rosicrucian Credo in Rosicrucian Digest January 1932 • Michael Sendivogius and Christian Rosenkreutz, The Unexpected Possibilities, The Hermetic Journal, 1990, 72-98, online

CHAPTER 12. ROSICRUCIANISM

Chapter 13

Spiritualism This article is about the religion. For the Spiritualist doctrine of Allan Kardec, see Spiritism. For the general concept of spiritual experiences, see Spirituality. For other uses of spiritualism, see Spiritualism (disambiguation).

Spiritualism is a belief that spirits of the dead have

branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec and today found mostly in Continental Europe and Latin America, especially Brazil, emphasizes reincarnation.

Spiritualism developed and reached its peak growth in membership from the 1840s to the 1920s, especially in English-speaking countries.* [2]* [3] By 1897, spiritualism was said to have more than eight million followers in the United States and Europe,* [4] mostly drawn from the middle and upper classes.

Spiritualism flourished for a half century without canonical texts or formal organization, attaining cohesion through periodicals, tours by trance lecturers, camp meetings, and the missionary activities of accomplished mediums. Many prominent spiritualists were women, and like most spiritualists, supported causes such as the abolition of slavery and women's suffrage.* [2] By the late 1880s the credibility of the informal movement had weakened due to accusations of fraud perpetrated by mediums, and formal spiritualist organizations began to appear.* [2] Spiritualism is currently practiced primarily through various denominational spiritualist churches in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.

13.1 Beliefs Although various spiritualist traditions have their own beliefs, known as“principles”, there are some shared concepts: By 1853, when the popular song Spirit Rappings was published, spiritualism was an object of intense curiosity.

both the ability and the inclination to communicate with the living. The afterlife, or "spirit world", is seen by spiritualists, not as a static place, but as one in which spirits continue to evolve. These two beliefs: that contact with spirits is possible, and that spirits are more advanced than humans, leads spiritualists to a third belief, that spirits are capable of providing useful knowledge about moral and ethical issues, as well as about the nature of God. Some spiritualists will speak of a concept they refer to as a "spirit guides"–specific spirits, often contacted, who are relied upon for spiritual guidance.* [1]* [2] Spiritism, a 129

• A belief in spirit communication • A belief that the soul exists after the death of the physical body • Personal responsibility for life circumstances • Even after death it is possible for the soul to learn and improve • A belief in a god, often referred to as “infinite intelligence” • The natural world considered as an expression of said intelligence

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13.1.1

CHAPTER 13. SPIRITUALISM

Mediumship and spirits

Protestant Christianity

Spiritualists may believe in the possibility of communication with the spirits of dead people, whom they regard as “discarnate humans”. They believe that spirit mediums are gifted to carry on such communication, but that anyone may become a medium through study and practice. They believe that spirits are capable of growth and perfection, progressing through higher spheres or planes, and that the afterlife is not a static state, but one in which spirits evolve. The two beliefs—that contact with spirits is possible, and that spirits may dwell on a higher plane— lead to a third belief, that spirits can provide knowledge about moral and ethical issues, as well as about God and the afterlife. Many believers therefore speak of "spirit guides"—specific spirits, often contacted, and relied upon for worldly and spiritual guidance.* [1]* [2]

As spiritualism emerged in a Protestant Christian environment, it acquired features in common with Protestantism, ranging from its moral system to practices such as Sunday services and the singing of hymns. Nevertheless, on significant points Christian Protestantism and spiritualism are different. Spiritualists do not believe that the works or faith of a mortal during a brief lifetime can serve as a basis for assigning a soul to an eternity of Heaven or Hell; they view the afterlife as containing hierarchical “spheres,”through which each spirit can progress. Spiritualists differ from Protestant Christians in that the Judeo-Christian Bible is not the primary source from which they derive knowledge of God and the afterlife: for them, their personal contacts with spirits provide that.* [1]* [2]

According to spiritualists, anyone may receive spirit messages, but formal communication sessions (séances) are held by mediums, who claim thereby to receive information about the afterlife.* [1]

Also, Christianity, following the Council of Nicaea and the teachings of Paul (“And though worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh shall I see God”- Job 19:26), has traditionally asserted that there will be a bodily resurrection of the dead, and a physical, not merely spiritual, afterlife. This view is self-evidently incompatible with spiritualism, where the merely spiritual existence is superior to the embodied one.

13.1.2

Comparisons with other religions

There are quite a number of spiritualist churches which are explicitly Christian in theology, forms of worship and praise, and liturgical orientation. Among these Christian spiritualist groups are the historically African American denominations collectively known as the "Spiritual Church Movement", a group which includes multichurch organizations such as the Metropolitan Spiritual Churches of Christ,* [5] and Pentecostal Spiritual Assemblies of Christ International.* [6] Judaism It is held by some adherents of the Jewish religion that spiritualism is strictly forbidden by the Bible (Old Testament). In Leviticus, one of the books concerning God's laws to Moses, it is written that God says: “I will set my face against the person who turns to mediums and spiritists to prostitute himself by following them, and I will cut him off from his people.”(Leviticus 20:6).

However, among Jews who are inclined toward spiritualism it is common to refer to trance mediumship as “prophecy,”a “vision,”or a “dream,”and to cite as a counter-text the verse from Numbers 12:6 in which God says, “Hear my words: If there be among you a prophet of the Lord, I will appear to him in a vision, or I will speak to him in a dream.”* [7] Islam Spiritualism was equated by some Christians with witchcraft.

This 1865 broadsheet, published in the United States, also blamed spiritualism for causing the U.S. Civil War.

Within Islam, only rarely do some traditions - notably Sufism, consider communication with human spirits possible.* [8] Most Muslims deem it impossible.

13.2. ORIGINS Despite this, the majority of the followers of Islam believe in the existence of spirits as a fundamental aspect of their religion. However, these spirits are not those of humans but of a third sapient creation said to be made by God (other than the creation of man and angels) called the jinn. Jinn are spirits made from smokeless fire, in a realm not visible to the eyes of people, who are also subject to follow the laws of God and, alike to people, may enter either Heaven or Hell. A famous jinn in the Muslim tradition is Satan, as opposed to the Christian belief that he is a fallen angel. Communication with these 'spirits', whether the spirit is good or evil in nature, is generally not encouraged in Islam.

131

13.2 Origins Spiritualism first appeared in the 1840s in the "Burnedover District" of upstate New York, where earlier religious movements such as Millerism and Mormonism had emerged during the Second Great Awakening.

This region of New York State was an environment in which many thought direct communication with God or angels was possible, and that God would not behave harshly —for example, that God would not condemn unbaptised infants to an eternity in Hell.* [1]

Additionally, the concept of Tawassul recognises the exis- 13.2.1 tence of good spirits on a higher plane of existence closer to God, and thus people may ask something from God through their virtue.

Swedenborg and Mesmer

Spiritism Spiritism, the branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec and today found mostly in Brazil, has emphasised reincarnation. According to Arthur Conan Doyle, most British spiritualists of the early 20th century were indifferent to the doctrine of reincarnation, a few supported it, while a significant minority were opposed, since it had never been mentioned by spirits contacted in séances.

Thus, according to Doyle, it is the empirical bent of Anglophone spiritualism—its effort to develop religious views from observation of phenomena, that kept spiritu- Hypnotic séance. Painting by Swedish artist Richard Bergh, alists of this period from embracing reincarnation.* [9] 1887.

Occult

In this environment, the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) and the teachings of Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) provided an example for those seeking direct personal knowledge of the afterlife. Swedenborg, who claimed to communicate with spirits while awake, described the structure of the spirit world. Two features of his view particularly resonated with the early spiritualists: first, that there is not a single Hell and a single Heaven, but rather a series of higher and lower heavens and hells; second, that spirits are intermediates between God and humans, so that the divine sometimes uses them as a means of communication.* [1] Although Swedenborg warned against seeking out spirit contact, his works seem to have inspired in others the desire to do so.

Spiritualism also differs from occult movements, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn or the contemporary wiccan covens, in that spirits are not contacted to obtain magical powers (with the exception of power for healing). For example, Madame Blavatsky (1831–91), the founder of the Theosophical Society, only practiced mediumship to contact powerful spirits capable of conferring esoteric knowledge. Blavatsky did not believe these spirits were deceased humans, and held beliefs in reincarnation different from the views of most spiritualists.* [2] Spiritualists at that time viewed theosophy as unscientific and both occultist and cult-like. Theosophists viewed Mesmer did not contribute religious beliefs, but he spiritualism as unsophisticated and uncosmopolitan.* [10] brought a technique, later known as hypnotism, that it was Modern day spiritualism claimed could induce trances and cause subjects to report In the 21st century an awakening of souls took place. contact with supernatural beings. There was a great deal Spiritualists of a modern persuasion hold highly the be- of professional showmanship inherent to demonstrations lief that the spirit is ultimate. Our only true being. Our of Mesmerism, and the practitioners who lectured in midmortal bodies are only vehicles which drive our under- 19th-century North America sought to entertain their aumethods for personal standing. Allowing us to learn and grow. The belief that diences as well as to demonstrate * [1] contact with the divine. life and time are both existing and non existing. The soul decided all before accepting the life lived

Perhaps the best known of those who combined Swe-

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CHAPTER 13. SPIRITUALISM

denborg and Mesmer in a peculiarly North American synthesis was Andrew Jackson Davis, who called his system the “harmonial philosophy”. Davis was a practicing Mesmerist, faith healer and clairvoyant from Poughkeepsie, New York. His 1847 book, The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to Mankind,* [11] dictated to a friend while in a trance state, eventually became the nearest thing to a canonical work in a spiritualist movement whose extreme individualism precluded the development of a single coherent worldview.* [1]* [2] • Emanuel Swedenborg • Franz Mesmer • Andrew Jackson Davis, about 1860

“contact”with the spirit was a hoax. Shortly afterward they recanted that admission.* [1]* [2] Amy and Isaac Post, Hicksite quakers from Rochester, New York, had long been acquainted with the Fox family, and took the two girls into their home in the late spring of 1848. Immediately convinced of the veracity of the sisters' communications, they became early converts and introduced the young mediums to their circle of radical quaker friends.

It therefore came about that many of the early participants in spiritualism were radical quakers and others involved in the reforming movement of the mid-nineteenth century. These reformers were uncomfortable with established churches, because they did little to fight slavery and even less to advance the cause of women's rights.* [2]

Cora L. V. Scott

The Fox sisters

13.2.2

Reform-movement links

The most popular trance lecturer prior to the American Civil War was Cora L. V. Scott (1840–1923). Young and beautiful, her appearance on stage fascinated men. Her audiences were struck by the contrast between her physical girlishness and the eloquence with which she spoke of spiritual matters, and found in that contrast support for the notion that spirits were speaking through her. Cora married four times, and on each occasion adopted her husband's last name. During her period of greatest activity, she was known as Cora Hatch.* [2] Another famous woman spiritualist was Achsa W. Sprague, who was born November 17, 1827, in Plymouth Notch, Vermont. At the age of 20, she became ill with rheumatic fever and credited her eventual recovery to intercession by spirits. An extremely popular trance lecturer, she traveled about the United States until her death in 1861. Sprague was an abolitionist and an advocate of women's rights.* [2]

Spiritualists often set March 31, 1848, as the beginning of their movement. On that date, Kate and Margaret Fox, of Hydesville, New York, reported that they had made contact with a spirit. The spirit was said to have communicated through rapping noises, audible to onlookers. The evidence of the senses appealed to practicallyminded Americans, and the Fox sisters became a sensation. However, the Fox sisters in 1888 admitted that this Yet another prominent spiritualist and trance medium

13.2. ORIGINS

133

Paschal Beverly Randolph

prior to the civil war was Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825–1875), of mixed race, who also played a part in the abolitionist movement.* [12] Nevertheless, many abolitionists and reformers held themselves aloof from the movement; among the skeptics was the famous abolition- Audiences paid to see Houdini expose the tricks of fraudulent ist, Frederick Douglass.* [13] mediums

13.2.3

Believers and skeptics

President Abraham Lincoln.* [13] The surge of spiritualism during this time, and later during World War I, In the years following the sensation that greeted the was a direct response to those massive battlefield casuFox sisters, demonstrations of mediumship (séances and alties.* [17] automatic writing, for example) proved to be a profitable venture, and soon became popular forms of entertain- In addition, the movement appealed to reformers, who fortuitously found that the spirits favored such causes ment and spiritual catharsis.* [14] The Fox sisters were to earn a living this way and others would follow their du jour* as abolition of slavery, and equal rights for women. [2] It also appealed to some who had a lead.* [1]* [2] Showmanship became an increasingly important part of spiritualism, and the visible, audible, and materialist orientation and rejected organized religion.

The influential socialist Robert Owen embraced religion tangible evidence of spirits escalated as mediums competed for paying audiences. As independent investigat- following his experiences in spiritualist circles. ing commissions repeatedly established, most notably the Many scientists who investigated the phenomenon also 1887 report of the Seybert Commission,* [15] fraud was became converts. They included chemist and physicist widespread, and some of these cases were prosecuted in William Crookes (1832–1919), evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913)* [18] Nobel laureate the courts.* [16] interest in the Despite numerous instances of chicanery, the appeal of Pierre Curie took a very serious scientific * work of medium Eusapia Palladino.

[19] Other promispiritualism was strong. Prominent in the ranks of its nent adherents included journalist and pacifist William T. adherents were those grieving the death of a loved one. * (1849–1912) [20] and physician and author Arthur Stead Many families during the time of the American Civil War * Conan Doyle (1859–1930).

[17] had seen their men go off and never return, and images of the battlefield, produced through the new medium of photography, demonstrated that their loved ones had not only died in overwhelmingly huge numbers, but horribly as well. One well known case is that of Mary Todd Lincoln who, grieving the loss of her son, organized séances in the White House which were attended by her husband,

Doyle, who lost his son as a result of the war, was also a member of the Ghost Club. Founded in London in 1862, its focus was the scientific study of alleged paranormal activities in order to prove (or refute) the existence of paranormal phenomena. Famous members of the club include Charles Dickens, Sir William Crookes, Sir William

134 F. Barrett and Harry Price.* [21] Pioneering American psychologist William James studied spiritualism, publishing supportive conclusions. The séances of Eusapia Palladino were attended by investigators including Pierre and Marie Curie. The celebrated New York City physician, John Franklin Gray, was also a well-known and prominent spiritualist in New York City.* [22] The claims of spiritualists and others as to the reality of ghosts were investigated by the Society for Psychical Research, founded in London in 1882. The society set up the Committee on Haunted Houses and a literary committee which looked at the literature on the subject.* [23] Prominent investigators who exposed cases of fraud came from a variety of backgrounds, including professional researchers such as Frank Podmore of the Society for Psychical Research and Harry Price of the National Laboratory of Psychical Research, and professional conjurers such as John Nevil Maskelyne. Maskelyne exposed the Davenport brothers by appearing in the audience during their shows and explaining how the trick was done. During the 1920s, professional magician Harry Houdini undertook a well-publicised campaign to expose fraudulent mediums. He was adamant that “Up to the present time everything that I have investigated has been the result of deluded brains.”* [24]

CHAPTER 13. SPIRITUALISM newspaper called The Light, featuring articles such as “Evenings at Home in Spiritual Séance”, “Ghosts in Africa”and “Chronicles of Spirit Photography”, advertisements for “Mesmerists” and patent medicines, and letters from readers about personal contact with ghosts.* [29] In Britain, by 1853, invitations to tea among the prosperous and fashionable often included tableturning, a type of séance in which spirits were said to communicate with people seated around a table by tilting and rotating the table. One prominent convert was the French pedagogist Allan Kardec (1804–1869), who made the first attempt to systematise the movement's practices and ideas into a consistent philosophical system. Kardec's books, written in the last 15 years of his life, became the textual basis of spiritism, which became widespread in Latin countries. In Brazil, Kardec's ideas are embraced by many followers today.* [1]* [2]* [30] In Puerto Rico, Kardec's books were widely read by the upper classes, and eventually gave birth to a movement known as mesa blanca (white table).

The psychical researcher Hereward Carrington exposed the tricks of fraudulent mediums such as those used in slate-writing, table-turning, trumpet mediumship, materializations, sealed-letter reading and spirit photography.* [25] The skeptic Joseph McCabe documented many mediums who had been caught in fraud and the tricks they used in his book Is Spiritualism Based on Fraud?

(1920).* [26] Magicians have a long history of exposing the fraudulent methods of mediumship. Early debunkers include Chung Ling Soo, Henry Evans and Julien Proskauer.* [27] Later magicians to reveal fraud were Fulton Oursler, Joseph Dunninger, and Joseph Rinn.* [28]

Middle-class Chicago women discuss spiritualism (1906)

The movement quickly spread throughout the world; though only in the United Kingdom did it become as widespread as in the United States.* [3] Spiritualist organizations were formed in America and Europe, such as the London Spiritualist Alliance, which published a

A number of spiritualist periodicals appeared in the nineteenth century, and these did much to hold the movement together. Among the most important were the weeklies the Banner of Light (Boston), the Religio-Philosophical Journal (Chicago), Mind and Matter (Philadelphia), the

Spiritualism was mainly a middle- and upper-class movement, and especially popular with women. American spiritualists would meet in private homes for séances, at lecture halls for trance lectures, at state or national conIn February 1921 Thomas Lynn Bradford committed sui- ventions, and at summer camps attended by thousands. cide in an experiment designed to ascertain the existence Among the most significant of the camp meetings were of an afterlife. No further communications were received Camp Etna, in Etna, Maine; Onset Bay Grove, in Onset, from him after that date.

Massachusetts; Lily Dale, in western New York State; Camp Chesterfield, in Indiana; the Wonewoc Spiritualist Camp, in Wonewoc, Wisconsin; and Lake Pleasant, in • Frank Podmore, ca. 1895.

Montague, Massachusetts. In founding camp meetings, • William Crookes. Photo published 1904. the spiritualists appropriated a form developed by U.S. Protestant denominations in the early nineteenth century.

• Harry Price, 1922.

Spiritualist camp meetings were located most densely in New England, but were also established across the upper Midwest. Cassadaga, Florida, is the most notable spiritu13.2.4 Unorganized movement alist camp meeting in the southern states.* [1]* [2]* [31]

13.2. ORIGINS

135

Spiritualist (London), and the Medium (London). Other influential periodicals were the Revue Spirite (France), Le Messager (Belgium), Annali dello Spiritismo (Italy), El Criterio Espiritista (Spain), and the Harbinger of Light (Australia). By 1880, there were about three dozen monthly spiritualist periodicals published around the world.* [32] These periodicals differed a great deal from each other, reflecting the great differences among spiritualists. Some, such as the British Spiritual Magazine were Christian and conservative, openly rejecting the reform currents so strong within spiritualism. Others, such as Human Nature, were pointedly non-Christian and supportive of socialism and reform efforts. Still others, such as the Spiritualist, attempted to view spiritualist phenomena from a scientific perspective, eschewing discussion on both theological and reform issues.* [33] Books on the supernatural were published for the growing middle class, such as 1852's Mysteries, by Charles Elliott, which contains “sketches of spirits and spiritual things”, including accounts of the Salem witch trials, the Cock Lane Ghost, and the Rochester rappings.* [34] The Night Side of Nature, by Catherine Crowe, published in 1853, provided definitions and accounts of wraiths, doppelgangers, apparitions and haunted houses.* [35] Mainstream newspapers treated stories of ghosts and haunting as they would any other news story. An account in the Chicago Daily Tribune in 1891,“sufficiently bloody to suit the most fastidious taste”, tells of a house believed to be haunted by the ghosts of three murder victims seeking revenge against their killer's son, who was eventually driven insane. Many families,“having no faith in ghosts” , thereafter moved into the house, but all soon moved out again.* [36] In the 1920s many“psychic”books were published of varied quality. Such books were often based on excursions initiated by the use of Ouija boards. A few of these popular books displayed unorganized spiritualism, though most were less insightful.* [37]

Eusapia Palladino

feats were exposed as tricks.* [38]* [39]

William Stainton Moses (1839–92) was an Anglican clergyman who, in the period from 1872 to 1883, filled 24 notebooks with automatic writing, much of which was said to describe conditions in the spirit world. However, Frank Podmore was skeptical of his alleged ability to communicate with spirits and Joseph McCabe described Moses as a“deliberate impostor”, suggesting his apports The movement was extremely individualistic, with each and all of his feats were the result of trickery.* [40]* [41] person relying on his or her own experiences and readLondon-born Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–99) moved ing to discern the nature of the afterlife. Organisation to the United States in 1855 and was active in spiritualwas therefore slow to appear, and when it did it was reist circles as a trance lecturer and organiser. She is best sisted by mediums and trance lecturers. Most members known as a chronicler of the movement's spread, espewere content to attend Christian churches, and particucially in her 1884 Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits larly universalist churches harbored many spiritualists. and their Work in Every Country of the Earth, and her As the spiritualism movement began to fade, partly 1870 Modern American Spiritualism, a detailed account through the publicity of fraud accusations and partly of claims and investigations of mediumship beginning through the appeal of religious movements such as with the earliest days of the movement.

Christian science, the Spiritualist Church was organised.

Eusapia Palladino (1854–1918) was an Italian spiritualThis church can claim to be the main vestige of the moveist medium from the slums of Naples who made a cament left today in the United States.* [1]* [2] reer touring Italy, France, Germany, Britain, the United States, Russia and Poland. Palladino was said by believers to perform spiritualist phenomena in the dark: levitating 13.2.5 Other mediums tables, producing apports, and materializing spirits. On all these things were found to be products In the late 19th century the British medium William investigation, * * [42] [43] of trickery.

Eglinton claimed to perform spiritualist phenomena such as movement of objects and materializations. All of his Adelma Vay (1840–1925), Hungarian (by origin) spiritis-

136

CHAPTER 13. SPIRITUALISM ity of the spirit, for if humans had not been created by God, it was scarcely plausible that they would be specially endowed with spirits. This led to spiritualists embracing spiritual evolution.* [51] The spiritualists' view of evolution did not stop at death.

Spiritualism taught that after death spirits progressed to spiritual states in new spheres of existence. According to spiritualists evolution occurred in the spirit world “at a rate more rapid and under conditions more favourable to growth”than encountered on earth.* [52]

In a talk at the London Spiritualist Alliance, John Page Hopps (1834–1911) supported both evolution and spiritualism. Hopps claimed humanity had started off imperfect “out of the animal's darkness”but would rise into Helen Duncan the “angel's marvellous light”. Hopps claimed humans were not fallen but rising creatures and that after death tic medium, homeopath and clairvoyant, authored many they would evolve on a number of spheres of existence to books about spiritism, written in German and translated perfection.* [52] into English.

Theosophy is in opposition to the spiritualist interpretaMina Crandon a spiritualist medium in the 1920s was tion of evolution. Theosophy teaches a metaphysical theknown for producing an ectoplasm hand during her ory of evolution mixed with human devolution. Spirituséances. The hand was later exposed as a trick when bi- alists do not accept the devolution of the theosophists. ologists found it to be made from a piece of carved ani- To theosophy humanity starts in a state of perfection (see mal liver.* [44] In 1934, the psychical researcher Walter Golden age) and falls into a process of progressive mateFranklin Prince described the Crandon case as“the most rialization (devolution), developing the mind and losing ingenious, persistent, and fantastic complex of fraud in the spiritual consciousness. After the gathering of experithe history of psychic research.”* [45] ence and growth through repeated reincarnations humanThe American voice medium Etta Wriedt was exposed as ity will regain the original spiritual state, which is now one a fraud by the physicist Kristian Birkeland when he dis- of self-conscious perfection. Theosophy and spiritualism covered the noises produced by her trumpet were caused were both very popular metaphysical schools of thought by chemical explosions induced by potassium and water especially in the early 20th century and thus were always clashing in their different beliefs. Madame Blavatsky and in other cases by lycopodium powder.* [46] was critical of spiritualism; she distanced theosophy from Another well known medium was the Scottish material- spiritualism as far as she could and allied herself with ization medium Helen Duncan. In 1928 the photogra- eastern occultism.* [53] pher Harvey Metcalfe attended a series of séances at the house of Duncan. During a séance he took various flash The spiritualist Gerald Massey, claimed that Darwin's photographs of Duncan and her alleged “materializa- theory of evolution was incomplete: tion”spirits including her spirit guide “Peggy”.* [47] The theory contains only one half the exThe photographs that were taken reveal the“spirits”to be planation of man's origins and needs spiritualfraudulently produced, such as a doll made from a painted * ism to carry it through and complete it. For papier-mâché mask draped in an old sheet. [48] Duncan while this ascent on the physical side has been was later tested by Harry Price at the National Laboraprogressing through myriads of ages, the Ditory of Psychical Research. Photographs of Duncan in vine descent has also been going on – man behis laboratory revealed her ectoplasm to be made from ing spiritually an incarnation from the Divine cheesecloth, rubber gloves and cut-out heads from maga* * as well as a human development from the anizine covers. [49] [50] mal creation. The cause of the development is spiritual. Mr. Darwin's theory does not in the least militate against ours – we think it neces13.3 Evolution sitates it; he simply does not deal with our side of the subject. He can not go lower than the Spiritualists reacted with an uncertainty to the theories of dust of the earth for the matter of life; and for evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century. Broadly us, the main interest of our origin must lie in speaking the concept of evolution fitted the spiritualist the spiritual domain.* [54] thought of the progressive development of humanity. At the same time however, the belief in the animal origins Spiritualists believed that without spiritualism “the docof humanity threatened the foundation of the immortal- trine of Darwin is a broken link”. Gerald Massey said

13.4. AFTER THE 1920S

137 Alfred Russel Wallace believed qualitative novelties could arise through the process of spiritual evolution, in particular the phenomena of life and mind. Wallace attributed these novelties to a supernatural agency.* [57] Later in his life, Wallace was an advocate of spiritualism and believed in an immaterial origin for the higher mental faculties of humans, he believed that evolution suggested that the universe had a purpose, and that certain aspects of living organisms are not explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes, in a 1909 magazine article entitled “The World of Life”, which he later expanded into a book of the same name.* [58] Wallace argued in his 1911 book World of Life for a spiritual approach to evolution and described evolution as “creative power, directive mind and ultimate purpose”. Wallace believed natural selection could not explain intelligence or morality in the human being so suggested that nonmaterial spiritual forces accounted for these. Wallace believed the spiritual nature of humanity could not have come about by natural selection alone, the origins of the spiritual nature must originate “in the unseen universe of spirit”.* [59]* [60]

Gerald Massey

“Spiritualism will accept evolution, and carry it out and make both ends meet in the perfect circle”.* [55]

Oliver Lodge also promoted a version of spiritual evolution in his books Man and the Universe (1908), Making of Man (1924) and Evolution and Creation (1926). The spiritualist element in the synthesis was most prominent in Lodge's 1916 book Raymond, or Life and Death which revived a large interest for public in the paranormal.* [61]

13.4 After the 1920s

A famous medium who rejected evolution was Cora L. V. Scott, she dismissed evolution in her lectures and instead Main articles: Spiritualist Church, Spiritualists' National supported a type of pantheistic spiritualism.* [56] Union, Survivalism (life after death) and Spiritualist Association of Great Britain After the 1920s, spiritualism evolved in three different directions, all of which exist today.

13.4.1 Syncretism

Alfred Russel Wallace

The first of these continued the tradition of individual practitioners, organised in circles centered on a medium and clients, without any hierarchy or dogma. Already by the late 19th century spiritualism had become increasingly syncretic, a natural development in a movement without central authority or dogma.* [2] Today, among these unorganised circles, spiritualism is similar to the new age movement. However, theosophy with its inclusion of Eastern religion, astrology, ritual magic and reincarnation is an example of a closer precursor of the 20th century new age movement.* [10] Today's syncretic spiritualists are quite heterogeneous in their beliefs regarding issues such as reincarnation or the existence of God. Some appropriate new age and neo-pagan beliefs, while others call themselves “Christian spiritualists”, contin-

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uing with the tradition of cautiously incorporating spiri- in 1957 between those who held the movement to be a retualist experiences into their Christian faith. ligion sui generis (of its own with unique characteristics), and a minority who held it to be a denomination within Christianity. In the United States, this distinction can be 13.4.2 Spiritualist church seen between the less Christian National Spiritualist Association of Churches and the more Christian spiritual Main articles: Spiritualist church, Spiritualists' National church movement.

Union, Spiritualist Association of Great Britain and The practice of organized spiritualism today resembles Spiritual church movement The second direction taken has been to adopt formal or- that of any other religion, having discarded most showmanship, particularly those elements resembling the conjurer's art. There is thus a much greater emphasis on “mental”mediumship and an almost complete avoidance of the apparently miraculous“materializing”mediumship that so fascinated early believers such as Arthur Conan Doyle.* [31] The first spiritualist church in Australia was the United Stanmore & Enmore Spiritualist Church established in 1913. In 1921 Doyle gave a farewell to Australia speech there.

13.4.3 Psychical research Main article: Parapsychology Already as early as 1882, with the founding of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), parapsychologists emerged to investigate spiritualist claims.* [62] The SPR's investigations into spiritualism exposed many fraudulent mediums which contributed to the decline of interest in physical mediumship.* [63]

13.5 See also • Camp Chesterfield • List of Spiritualist organizations Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of Sherlock Holmes

• Spiritism

ganization, patterned after Christian denominations, with established liturgies and a set of seven principles, and training requirements for mediums. In the United States the spiritualist churches are primarily affiliated either with the National Spiritualist Association of Churches or the loosely allied group of denominations known as the spiritual church movement; in the U.K. the predominant organization is the Spiritualists' National Union, founded in 1890.

• Spiritualism in fiction

Formal education in spiritualist practice emerged in 1920s, with organizations like the William T. Stead Center in Chicago, Illinois, and continue today with the Arthur Findlay College at Stansted Hall in England, and the Morris Pratt Institute in Wisconsin, United States.

Diversity of belief among organized spiritualists has led to a few schisms, the most notable occurring in the U.K.

13.6 Notes [1] Carroll, Bret E. (1997). Spiritualism in Antebellum America. (Religion in North America.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0-253-33315-6.

[2] Braude, Ann Braude (2001). Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America, Second Edition. Indiana University Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-253-21502-1.

[3] Britten, Emma Hardinge (1884). Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits and their Work in Every Country of the Earth.

New York: William Britten. ISBN 0-7661-6290-7.

13.6. NOTES

139

[4] Times, New York (29 November 1897). “THREE [24] A Magician Among the Spirits, Harry Houdini, Arno Press FORMS OF THOUGHT; M.M. Mangassarian Addresses (June 1987), ISBN 0-405-02801-6 the Society for Ethical Culture at Carnegie Music Hall.”

[25] Hereward Carrington. (1907). The Physical Phenomena . The New York Times: 200. of Spiritualism. Herbert B. Turner & Co. [5] “Metropolitan Spiritual Churches of Christ”. Retrieved [26] Joseph McCabe. (1920). Is Spiritualism based on Fraud?: 2011-05-15.

The Evidence Given by Sir A.C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co. [6] “Pentecostal Spiritual Assemblies of Christ International” . Retrieved 2011-05-15.

[27] Chung Ling Soo. (1898). Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena. Munn & Company. Henry Evans. (1897).

[7] “House of Prophecy Spiritual Church”. Retrieved 2011Hours With the Ghosts Or Nineteenth Century Witchcraft.

05-15.

Kessinger Publishing. Julien Proskauer. (1932). Spook [8] Noor Muhammad Kalachvi 1999: Irfan crooks! Exposing the secrets of the prophet-eers who conduct our wickedest industry. New York, A. L. Burt.

[9] Doyle, Arthur Conan (1926). The History of Spiritualism, volume 2. New York: G.H. Doran. ISBN 1-4101-0243-2. [28] Fulton Oursler. (1930). Spirit Mediums Exposed. New [10] Hess, David J. (June 15, 1993). Science In The New Age: The Paranormal, Its Defenders & Debunkers. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-299-13820-8.

[11] The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to Mankind, Andrew Jackson Davis, 1847.

[12] Deveney, John Patrick (1997). Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician. Sunny Press.

ISBN 0-7914-3119-3.

[13] Telegrams from the Dead (a PBS television documentary in the "American Experience" series, first aired October 19, 1994).

[14] Natale, Simone (2016). Supernatural Entertainments: Victorian Spiritualism and the Rise of Modern Media Culture. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-07104-6.

[15] Preliminary Report of the Commission Appointed by the University of Pennsylvania, The Seybert Commission, 1887. 2004-04-01.

[16] Williams, Montagu Stephen. 1891. Later Leaves: Being the Further Reminiscences of Montagu Williams. Macmillan. See chapter 8.

[17] Arthur Conan Doyle, The History of Spiritualism Vol I, Arthur Conan Doyle, 1926.

[18] “The Scientific Aspect of the Supernatural, by Alfred Russel Wallace”. wku.edu.

[19] Anna Hurwic, Pierre Curie, translated by Lilananda Dasa and Joseph Cudnik, Paris, Flammarion, 1995, pp. 65, 66, 68, 247-48.

[20] “W.T. Stead and Spiritualism - The W.T. Stead Resource Site”. attackingthedevil.co.uk.

[21] Underwood, Peter (1978) “Dictionary of the Supernatural”, Harrap Ltd., ISBN 0-245-52784-2, Page 144 [22] “The spiritual magazine”. 1871.

[23] John Fairley, Simon Welfare (1984). Arthur C. Clarke's world of strange powers, Volume 3. Putnam. ISBN 0399-13066-7.

York: Macfadden Publications. Joseph Dunninger.

(1935). Inside the Medium's Cabinet. New York, D. Kemp and Company. Joseph Rinn. (1950). Sixty Years Of Psychical Research: Houdini And I Among The Spiritualists.

Truth Seeker.

[29] The Light: A Journal Devoted to the Highest Interests of Humanity, both Here and Hereafter, Vol I, January to December 1881, London Spiritualist Alliance, Eclectic Publishing Company: London, 1882.

[30] Hess, David (1987). “Spiritism and Science in Brazil”.

Ph.D thesis, Dept. of Anthropology, Cornell University.

[31] Guthrie, John J. Jr.; Phillip Charles Lucas; Gary Monroe (2000). Cassadaga: the South's Oldest Spiritualist Community. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1743-2.

[32] (Harrison 1880: 6) [33] (Alvarado, Biondi, and Kramer 2006: 61–63) [34] Charles Wyllys Elliott, Mysteries, or Glimpses of the Supernatural, Harper & Bros: New York, 1852.

[35] Catherine Crowe, The Night Side of Nature, or Ghosts and Ghost-seers, Redfield: New York, 1853.

[36]“Dreadful Tale of a Haunted Man in Newton County, Missouri”, Chicago Daily Tribune, January 4, 1891.

[37] White, Stewart Edward (March 1943). The Betty Book.

USA: E. P. Dutton & CO., Inc. pp. 14–15. ISBN 089804-151-1.

[38] Montague Summers. (2010). Physical Phenomena of Mysticism. Kessinger Publishing. p. 114. ISBN 9781161363654. Also see Barry Wiley. (2012). The Thought Reader Craze: Victorian Science at the Enchanted Boundary. McFarland. p. 35. ISBN 978-0786464708 [39] Simeon Edmunds. (1966). Spiritualism: A Critical Survey. Aquarian Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0850300130 “1876 also saw the first of several exposures of another physical medium, William Eglington, in whose trunk a false beard and a quantity of muslin were found by Archdeacon Colley. He was exposed again in 1880, after which he turned to slate-writing. In this he was exposed by Richard Hodgson and S. J. Davey of the SPR

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in 1885. Davey a clever conjuror, was able to duplicate all Eglington's phenomena so perfectly that some spiritualists, notably Alfred Russel Wallace, insisted that he too was really a genuine medium.”

[40] Frank Podmore. (1902). Modern Spiritualism: A History and a Criticism. Volume 2. Methuen & Company. pp.

283-287 “It seems reasonable to conclude that all the marvels reported at [Moses] seances were, in fact, produced by the medium's own hands: that it was he who tilted the table and produced the raps, that the scents, the seed pearls, and the Parian statuettes were brought into the room in his pockets: and that the spirit lights were, in fact, nothing more than bottles of phosphorised oil. Nor would the feats described have required any special skill on the medium's part.”

[41] Joseph McCabe. (1920). Spiritualism: A Popular History From 1847. Dodd, Mead and Company. pp. 151-173 [42] Joseph Jastrow. (1918). The Psychology of Conviction.

Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 101-127 [43] Walter Mann. (1919). The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co. pp.

115-130 [44] Brian Righi. (2008). Ghosts, Apparitions and Poltergeists: An Exploration of the Supernatural through History.

Llewellyn Publications. p. 52. ISBN 978-0738713632 “One medium of the 1920s, Mina Crandon, became famous for producing ectoplasm during her sittings. At the height of the séance, she was even able to produce a tiny ectoplasmic hand from her navel, which waved about in the darkness. Her career ended when Harvard biologists were able to examine the tiny hand and found it to be nothing more than a carved piece of animal liver.”

[45] C. E. M. Hansel. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. p.

245. ISBN 978-0879755331 [46] Joseph McCabe. (1920). Is Spiritualism based on Fraud?: The Evidence Given by Sir A.C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co. p. 126 [47] Malcolm Gaskill. (2001). Hellish Nell: Last of Britain's Witches. Fourth Estate. p. 100. ISBN 978-1841151090 [48] Jason Karl. (2007). An Illustrated History of the Haunted World. New Holland Publishers. p. 79. ISBN 9781845376871 [49] Simeon Edmunds. (1966). Spiritualism: A Critical Survey. Aquarian Press. pp. 137-144.ISBN 9780850300130 [50] Paul Kurtz. (1985). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. p. 599. ISBN 0-87975300-5 [51] Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914, 1988, p. 267 [52] Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914, 1988, p. 270 [53] G. Baseden Butt, Madame Blavatsky, p. 120

[54] Gerald Massey, Concerning evolution, p. 55 [55] Gerald Massey, Concerning evolution, pp. 60–61 [56] Frank Podmore, Bob Gilbert, Modern spiritualism: a history and a criticism: Volume 2, 2001, pp. 135–136 [57] Debora Hammond, The Science of Synthesis: Exploring the Social Implications of General Systems Theory, 2003, p. 39 [58] Wallace, Alfred Russel. “World of Life”. The Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University. Retrieved 2011-03-23.

[59] Martin Fichman, An elusive Victorian: the evolution of Alfred Russel Wallace, 2004, p. 159 [60] Edward Clodd, Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism, p. 300 [61] Peter J. Bowler, Science for all: the popularization of science in early twentieth-century, 2009, p. 44 [62] Ray Hyman. (1985). A Critical Historical Overview of Parapsychology. In Paul Kurtz. A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 3-96. ISBN 087975-300-5 [63] Rosemary Guiley. (1994). The Guinness Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits. Guinness Publishing. p. 311. ISBN 978-0851127484

13.7 References • Brandon, Ruth (1983). The Spiritualists: The Passion for the Occult in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

• Braude, Ann (2001). Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America.

Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253-21502-1.

• Britten, Emma Hardinge (1884). Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits and their Work in Every Country of the Earth. New York: William Britten. ISBN 0-7661-6290-7.

• Brown, Slater (1970). The Heyday of Spiritualism.

New York: Hawthorn Books.

• Buescher, John B. (2003). The Other Side of Salvation: Spiritualism and the Nineteenth-Century Religious Experience. Boston: Skinner House Books.

ISBN 1-55896-448-7.

• Carroll, Bret E. (1997). Spiritualism in Antebellum America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

ISBN 0-253-33315-6.

• Chapin, David. Exploring Other Worlds: Margaret Fox, Elisha Kent Kane, and the Antebellum Culture of Curiosity, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004.

13.8. FURTHER READING • Davenport, Reuben Briggs (1888). The Death-Blow to Spiritualism. New York: G.W. Dillingham.

• Deveney, John Patrick; Franklin Rosemont (1996).

Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3120-7.

• Doyle, Arthur Conan (1926). The History of Spiritualism, volume 1. New York: G.H. Doran. ISBN 1-4101-0243-2.

• Doyle, Arthur Conan (1926). The History of Spiritualism, volume 2. New York: G.H. Doran. ISBN 1-4101-0243-2.

• Fodor, Nandor (1934). An Encyclopaedia of Psychic Science.

• Guthrie, John J. Jr.; Phillip Charles Lucas; Gary Monroe (2000). Cassadaga: the South's Oldest Spiritualist Community. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1743-2.

• Harrison, W.H. 1880. Psychic Facts, a Selection from Various Authors. London: Ballantyne Press.

• Hess, David (1987). “Spiritism and Science in Brazil”. Ph.D thesis, Dept. of Anthropology, Cornell University.

• Lindgren, Carl Edwin (January 1994). “Spiritualism: Innocent Beliefs to Scientific Curiosity”. Journal of Religion and Psychical Research 17 (1): 8–15.

ISSN 2168-8621.

• Lindgren, Carl Edwin (March 1994).“Scientific investigation and Religious Uncertainty 1880–1900”.

Journal of Religion and Psychical Research 17 (2): 83–91. ISSN 2168-8621.

• Moore, William D. (1997). "'To Hold Communion with Nature and the Spirit-World:' New England's Spiritualist Camp Meetings, 1865–1910”. In Annmarie Adams and Sally MacMurray (editors).

Exploring Everyday Landscapes: Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture, VII. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 0-87049-983-1.

• Natale, Simone (2016) Supernatural Entertainments: Victorian Spiritualism and the Rise of Modern Media Culture. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-07104-6.

141 • Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita (1969).

Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości (Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: a Calendar of [His] Life and Work). Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy.

• Weisberg, Barbara (2004). Talking to the Dead. San Francisco: Harper.

• Wicker, Christine (2004). Lily Dale: the True Story of the Town that talks to the Dead. San Francisco: Harper.

13.8 Further reading • Clodd, Edward. (1917). The Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism. Grant Richards, London.

• Hall, Trevor H. (1963). The Spiritualists: The Story of Florence Cook and William Crookes. Helix Press.

• Kurtz, Paul. (1985). Spiritualists, Mediums and Psychics: Some Evidence of Fraud. In Paul Kurtz (ed.). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology.

Prometheus Books. pp. 177-223. ISBN 0-87975300-5 • Lehman, Amy (2009). Victorian Women and the Theatre of Trance: Mediums, Spiritualists and Mesmerists in Performance. McFarland. ISBN 0-78643479-1.

• Mann, Walter. (1919). The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co. • McCabe, Joseph. (1920). Is Spiritualism Based On Fraud? The Evidence Given By Sir A. C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co. • Mercier, Charles Arthur. (1917). Spiritualism and Sir Oliver Lodge. London: Mental Culture Enterprise.

• Moreman, Christopher M. (2013). The Spiritualist Movement: Speaking with the Dead in America and around the World 3 Vols. Praeger. ISBN 978-0313-39947-3.

• Podmore, Frank. (1911). The Newer Spiritualism.

Henry Holt and Company.

• Salter, William H., Zoar; or the Evidence of Psychical Research Concerning Survival, Sidgwick, 1961.

• Price, Harry; Dingwall, Eric. (1975). Revelations of a Spirit Medium. Arno Press. Reprint of 1891 edition by Charles F. Pidgeon. This rare, overlooked, and forgotten, book gives the“insider's knowledge” of 19th century deceptions.

• Telegrams from the Dead (a PBS television documentary in the "American Experience" series, first aired October 19, 1994).

• Rinn, Joseph. (1950). Sixty Years Of Psychical Research: Houdini And I Among The Spiritualists.

Truth Seeker.

• Podmore, Frank, Mediums of the 19th Century, 2 vols., University Books, 1963.

142

13.9 External links • “American Spirit: A History of the Supernatural” - An hour-long history public radio program exploring American spiritualism.

• Open Directory Project page for “Spiritualism” • Video and Images of the original Fox Family historic home site.

•“Investigating Spirit Communications”- Joe Nickell • “Spiritualism Exposed: Margaret Fox Kane Confesses Fraud” - Skeptic Report

CHAPTER 13. SPIRITUALISM

Chapter 14

Spirit For other uses, see Spirit (disambiguation). of "ghost", i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased The English word spirit, from Latin spiritus "breath", has person.

The term may also refer to any incorporeal or immaterial being, such as demons or deities.* [3] In the Bible, “the Spirit”(with a capital“S”), specifically denotes the Holy Spirit.

14.1 Etymology The English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning "breath", but also“spirit, soul, courage, vigor”, ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European *(s)peis. It is distinguished from Latin anima, "soul" (which nonetheless also derives from an Indo-European root meaning “to breathe”, earliest form *h2 enh1 - * [4]). In Greek, this distinction exists between pneuma (πνεῦμα), “breath, motile air, spirit,”and psykhē (ψυχή),“soul”* [3] (even though the latter term, ψῡχή = psykhē/psūkhē, is also from an Indo-European root meaning “to breathe": *bhes-, zero grade *bhs- devoicing in proto-Greek to *phs-, resulting in historical-period Greek ps- in psūkhein,“to breathe”, whence psūkhē,“spirit”,“soul” * [5]).

The word “spirit”came into Middle English via Old French. The distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions: Arabic nafs (‫)نفس‬ opposite rúħ (‫ ;)روح‬Hebrew neshama (‫ ְנָׁשָמה‬nəšâmâh) or nephesh (in Hebrew neshama comes from the root NŠM or“breath”) opposite ruach (‫ רּוַח‬rûaħ). (Note, however, that in Semitic just as in Indo-European, this dichotomy Theodor von Holst, Bertalda, Assailed by Spirits, c. 1830 has not always been as neat historically as it has come to be taken over a long period of development: Both ‫ֶ֫נֶפׁש‬ many different meanings and connotations, most of them (root ‫ )נפׁש‬and ‫( רּוַח‬root ‫)רוח‬, as well as cognate words relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the in various Semitic languages, including Arabic, also prematerial body. It can also refer to a“subtle”as opposed serve meanings involving misc. air phenomena:“breath” to“gross”material substance, as in the famous last para- , “wind”, and even “odour”.* [6]* [7]* [8]) graph of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica.* [1] In a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, The word spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. The notions of a person's spirit and soul often also overlap, as both contrast with body and both are believed to survive bodily death in some religions,* [2] and“spirit”can also have the sense

October 20, 1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit,” C. G. Jung, expressed: “The connection between spirit and life is one of those problems involving factors of such complexity that we have to be on our guard lest we ourselves get caught in the net of words in which we seek to

143

144 ensnare these great enigmas. For how can we bring into the orbit of our thought those limitless complexities of life which we call “Spirit”or “Life”unless we clothe them in verbal concepts, themselves mere counters of the intellect? The mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. “Spirit”and “Life”are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have been pushed back and forth on the thinker's chessboard. The problem must have begun in the grey dawn of time, when someone made the bewildering discovery that the living breath which left the body of the dying man in the last deathrattle meant more than just air in motion. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach, ruch, roho (Hebrew, Arabic, Swahili ) mean‘spirit’no less clearly than the Greek πνεύμα and the Latin spiritus.”* [9]

14.2 Spiritual and metaphysical usage In spiritual and metaphysical terms,“spirit”has acquired a number of meanings: • An incorporeal but ubiquitous, non-quantifiable substance or energy present individually in all living things. Unlike the concept of souls (often regarded as eternal and sometimes believed to pre-exist the body) a spirit develops and grows as an integral aspect of a living being.* [10] This concept of the individual spirit occurs commonly in animism. Note the distinction between this concept of spirit and that of the pre-existing or eternal soul: belief in souls occurs specifically and far less commonly, particularly in traditional societies. One might more properly term this type/aspect of spirit“life”(bios in Greek) or "aether" rather than“spirit”(pneuma in Greek).

• A daemon, sprite, or ghost. People usually conceive of a ghost as a wandering spirit from a being no longer living, having survived the death of the body yet maintaining at least vestiges of mind and consciousness.

• In religion and spirituality, the respiration of a human has for obvious reasons become seen as strongly linked with the very occurrence of life. A similar significance has become attached to human blood.

Spirit, in this sense, means the thing that separates a living body from a corpse—and usually implies intelligence, consciousness, and sentience.

• Latter-day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. taught that the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance was incorrect: “There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes.”* [11]

CHAPTER 14. SPIRIT • In some Native American spiritual traditions the Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka is a term for the Supreme Being.

• Various forms of animism, such as Japan's Shinto and African traditional religion, focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals (sometimes called "Animal Fathers"), or landforms (kami): translators usually employ the English word “spirit”when trying to express the idea of such entities.

• Individual spirits envisaged as interconnected with all other spirits and with “The Spirit”(singular and capitalized). This concept relates to theories of a unified spirituality, to universal consciousness and to some concepts of Deity. In this scenario all separate “spirits”, when connected, form a greater unity, the Spirit, which has an identity separate from its elements plus a consciousness and intellect greater than its elements; an ultimate, unified, non-dual awareness or force of life combining or transcending all individual units of consciousness. The experience of such a connection can become a primary basis for spiritual belief.

The term spirit occurs in this sense in (to name but a few) Anthroposophy, Aurobindo, A Course In Miracles, Hegel, Ken Wilber, and Meher Baba (though in his teachings, “spirits”are only apparently separate from each other and from “The Spirit.”)* [12] In this use, the term seems conceptually identical to Plotinus's "The One" and Friedrich Schelling's "Absolute". Similarly, according to the panentheistic/pantheistic view, Spirit equates to essence that can manifest itself as mind/soul through any level in pantheistic hierarchy/holarchy, such as through a mind/soul of a single cell (with very primitive, elemental consciousness), or through a human or animal mind/soul (with consciousness on a level of organic synergy of an individual human/animal), or through a (superior) mind/soul with synergetically extremely complex/sophisticated consciousness of whole galaxies involving all sub-levels, all emanating (since the superior mind/soul operates non-dimensionally, or trans-dimensionally) from the one Spirit.

• Christian spiritual theology can use the term“Spirit” to describe God, or aspects of God —as in the "Holy Spirit", referring to a Triune God (Trinity) (cf Gospel of Matthew 28:19).

•“Spirit”forms a central concept in pneumatology (note that pneumatology studies“pneuma”(Greek for “spirit”) not “psyche”(Greek for “soul”) —as studied in psychology).

• Christian Science uses“Spirit”as one of the seven synonyms for God, as in: “Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love”* [13]

14.5. SEE ALSO

145

• Harmonism reserves the term“spirit”for those that regard nephesh as one of the five parts of the Jewish soul, collectively control and influence an individual from where nephesh (animal) refers to the physical being and the realm of the mind. its animal instincts. Similarly, Scandinavian, Baltic, and Slavic languages, as well as Chinese (气 qi), use the words • Psychical research, “In all the publications of for “breath”to express concepts similar to “the spirit” the Society for Psychical Research the term 'spirit' .* [3] stands for the personal stream of consciousness whatever else it may ultimately be proved to imply or require,”wrote James H. Hyslop Ph.D, LL.D secretary-treasurer of the American Society for Psy- 14.5 See also chical Research in 1919.* [14] • Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul

14.3 Metaphorical usage Metaphorical use of the term “spirit”likewise groups several related meanings: • The loyalty and feeling of inclusion in the social history or collective essence of an institution or group, as in "school spirit" or in esprit de corps.

• A closely related meaning refers to the worldview of a person, place, or time, as in “The Declaration of Independence was written in the spirit of John Locke and his notions of liberty”, or to the concept of zeitgeist, meaning “spirit of the age”.

• As a synonym for“vivacity”, as in“She performed the piece with spirit”or “She put up a spirited defense”or “that breed of horse shows spirit”.

• The underlying intention of a text as distinguished from its literal meaning, especially in law; see letter and spirit of the law • As a term for alcoholic beverages—often in the plural, as in "ardent spirits".

• In mysticism: existence in unity with Godhead. Soul may also equate with spirit, but the soul involves a certain individual human consciousness, while spirit comes from beyond that. Compare the psychological teaching of Al-Ghazali.

14.4 Related concepts in other languages

• Angel • Astral projection • Brahman • Daemon (classical mythology) • Deva • Ekam • Geisteswissenschaft • Jinn • Non-physical entity • Philosophy of religion • Soul dualism • Spiritualism • Spiritism • Spirit world

14.6 References [1] Burtt, Edwin A. (2003). Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 275.

[2] OED“spirit 2.a.: The soul of a person, as commended to God, or passing out of the body, in the moment of death.”

[3] François 2008, p.187-197.

Similar concepts in other languages include Greek [4] anə-, from *ə2 enə1 -. Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Heritage* ® Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, secpneuma and Sanskrit akasha/atman* [3] (see also prana). ond edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., p.4. Also Some languages use a word for“spirit”often closely reavailable online. (NB: Watkins uses ə1 , ə2 , ə3 as fully lated (if not synonymous) to "mind". Examples include equivalent variants for h1 , h2 , h3 , respectively, for the nothe German Geist (related to the English word “ghost” tation of Proto-Indo-European laryngeal segments.) ) or the French 'l'esprit'. English versions of the Bible most commonly translate the Hebrew word“ruach”(‫[ ;רוח‬5] bhes-2 . Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Her“wind”) as “the spirit”, whose essence is divine* [15] itage* ® Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, second edi(see Holy Spirit and ruach hakodesh). Alternatively, Hetion. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 2000, p.11. Also brew texts commonly use the word nephesh. Kabbalists available online

146

[6] Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J. (1999). The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament (electronic ed.) (711). Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill.

[7] Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (659). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)

[8] Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (924ff.). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)

[9] Hull, R. F. C. (1960). THE COLLECTED WORKS OF C. G. JUNG Vol 8 Chapter “Spirit and Life”. New York, New York: Pantheon Books for Bollinger Series XX. pp.

319, 320.

[10] “Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence”.

[11] Doctrine and Covenants 131:7 [12] Kalchuri, Bhau: Meher Prabhu: Lord Meher, Volume Eighteen, Manifestation, Inc., 1986, p. 5937.

[13] Eddy, Mary Baker (1875). “Glossary”. Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures (TXT). p. 587. Retrieved 2009-03-11. GOD. The great I AM; the allknowing, all-seeing, all-acting, all-wise, all-loving, and eternal; Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love; all substance; intelligence. — “Glossary”entry for“GOD” .

[14] Hyslop, James Hervey (1919). Contact With The Other World (First ed.). New York: The Century Co. p. 11.

[15] RUACH: Spirit or Wind or ??? at BiblicalHeritage.org

14.7 Further reading • François, Alexandre (2008), “Semantic maps and the typology of colexification: Intertwining polysemous networks across languages”, in Vanhove, Martine, From Polysemy to Semantic change: Towards a Typology of Lexical Semantic Associations, Studies in Language Companion Series 106, Amsterdam, New York: Benjamins, pp. 163–215 • Baba, Meher (1967). Discourses. San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented. ISBN 1-880619-09-1.

14.8 External links • The dictionary definition of spirit at Wiktionary • Quotations related to Spirit at Wikiquote

CHAPTER 14. SPIRIT

Chapter 15

Mysticism This article is about mystical traditions. For mystical ex- Infinite, or God”.* [web 2] This limited definition has perience, see mystical experience. been applied to a wide range of religious traditions and Mysticism is “a constellation of distinctive practices, practices,* [web 2] valuing “mystical experience”as a key element of mysticism.

Since the 1960s scholars have debated the merits of perennial and constructionist approaches in the scientific research of“mystical experiences";* [3]* [4] the perennial position is now “largely dismissed by scholars”.* [5]

15.1 Etymology “Mysticism”is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning“I conceal”,* [web 1] and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an initiate'.

15.2 Definitions Parson warns that “what might at times seem to be a straightforward phenomenon exhibiting an unambiguous commonality has become, at least within the academic study of religion, opaque and controversial on multiple levels”.* [6] The definition, or meaning, of the term Votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, dis- “mysticism”has changed through the ages.* [web 2] covered in the sanctuary at Eleusis (mid-4th century BC)

discourses, texts, institutions, traditions, and experiences 15.2.1 Spiritual life and re-formation aimed at human transformation, variously defined in different traditions.”* [web 1] Main article: Spirituality The term “mysticism”has Ancient Greek origins with various historically determined meanings.* [web 2]* [web According to Evelyn Underhill, mysticism is“the science 1] Derived from the Greek word μυω, meaning“to con- or art of the spiritual life.”* [7] It is ceal”,* [web 1] mysticism referred to the biblical liturgical, spiritual, and contemplative dimensions of early and ...the expression of the innate tendency of medieval Christianity.* [1] During the early modern pethe human spirit towards complete harmony riod, the definition of mysticism grew to include a broad with the transcendental order; whatever be the range of beliefs and ideologies related to “extraordinary * theological formula under which that order is experiences and states of mind”. [2] understood.* [8]* [note 1]* [note 2] In modern times, “mysticism”has acquired a limited definition,* [web 2] with broad applications,* [web 2] as meaning the aim at the “union with the Absolute, the Parson stresses the importance of distinguishing between 147

148

CHAPTER 15. MYSTICISM ...episodic experience and mysticism as a process that, though surely punctuated by moments of visionary, unitive, and transformative encounters, is ultimately inseparable from its embodied relation to a total religious matrix: liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals, practice and the arts.* [9]

According to Gellmann, Typically, mystics, theistic or not, see their mystical experience as part of a larger undertaking aimed at human transformation (See, for example, Teresa of Avila, Life, Chapter 19) and not as the terminus of their efforts. Thus, in general,‘mysticism’would best be thought of as a constellation of distinctive practices, discourses, texts, institutions, traditions, and experiences aimed at human transformation, variously defined in different traditions.* [web 1]* [note 3]

15.2.2 Enlightenment Main article: Enlightenment (spiritual) Some authors emphasize that mystical experience involves intuitive understanding and the resolution of life problems. According to Larson, A mystical experience is an intuitive understanding and realization of the meaning of existence – an intuitive understanding and realization which is intense, integrating, selfauthenticating, liberating – i.e., providing a sense of release from ordinary self-awareness – and subsequently determinative – i.e., a primary criterion – for interpreting all other experience whether cognitive, conative, or affective.* [15] And James R. Horne notes:

McGinn argues that “presence”is more accurate than “union”, since not all mystics spoke of union with God, and since many visions and miracles were not necessarily related to union. He also argues that we should speak of “consciousness”of God's presence, rather than of “experience”, since mystical activity is not simply about the sensation of God as an external object, but more broadly about

[M]ystical illumination is interpreted as a central visionary experience in a psychological and behavioural process that results in the resolution of a personal or religious problem. This factual, minimal interpretation depicts mysticism as an extreme and intense form of the insight seeking process that goes in activities such as solving theoretical problems or developing new inventions.* [3]* [note 4]* [note 5]</ref>

...new ways of knowing and loving based on states of awareness in which God becomes present in our inner acts.* [12]

15.2.3 Mystical experience and union with the Divine

D.J. Moores too mentions “love”as a central element:

William James, who popularized the use of the term “religious experience”* [note 6] in his The Varieties Mysticism, then, is the perception of the of Religious Experience,* [18]* [19]* [web 1] influenced universe and all of its seemingly disparate enthe understanding of mysticism as a distinctive expetities existing in a unified whole bound together rience which supplies knowledge of the transcendenby love.* [13] tal.* [20]* [web 1] He considered the “personal religion” * [21] to be “more fundamental than either theology or Related to the idea of “presence”instead of “experi- ecclesiasticism”,* [21] and states: ence”is the transformation that occurs through mystical activity: In mystic states we both become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneThis is why the only test that Christianity ness. This is the everlasting and triumphant has known for determining the authenticity of mystical tradition, hardly altered by differa mystic and her or his message has been that ences of clime or creed. In Hinduism, in Neoof personal transformation, both on the mysplatonism, in Sufism, in Christian mysticism, in tic's part and—especially—on the part of those Whitmanism, we find the same recurring note, whom the mystic has affected.* [12] so that there is about mystical utterances an eternal unanimity which ought to make a critic Belzen and Geels also note that mysticism is stop and think, and which bring it about that the mystical classics have, as been said, neither birthday nor native land.* [22] ...a way of life and a 'direct consciousness of the presence of God' [or] 'the ground of beAccording to McClenon, mysticism is ing' or similar expressions.* [14]

15.3. HISTORY The doctrine that special mental states or events allow an understanding of ultimate truths. Although it is difficult to differentiate which forms of experience allow such understandings, mental episodes supporting belief in “other kinds of reality”are often labeled mystical [...] Mysticism tends to refer to experiences supporting belief in a cosmic unity rather than the advocation of a particular religious ideology.* [web 3] According to Blakemore and Jennett, Mysticism is frequently defined as an experience of direct communion with God, or union with the Absolute,* [note 7] but definitions of mysticism (a relatively modern term) are often imprecise and usually rely on the presuppositions of the modern study of mysticism — namely, that mystical experiences involve a set of intense and usually individual and private psychological states [...] Furthermore, mysticism is a phenomenon said to be found in all major religious traditions.* [web 4]* [note 8]

149 This threefold meaning of “mystical”continued in the Middle Ages.* [1] Under the influence of PseudoDionysius the Areopagite the mystical theology came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the Bible.* [1] Pseudo-Dionysius' Apophatic theology, or “negative theology”, exerted a great influence on medieval monastic religiosity, although it was mostly a male religiosity, since women were not allowed to study.* [25] It was influenced by Neo-Platonism, and very influential in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology. In western Christianity it was a counter-current to the prevailing Cataphatic theology or “positive theology”. It is best known nowadays in the western world from Meister Eckhart and John of the Cross.

15.3.3 Early modern meaning See also: Early modern period In the sixteenth and seventeenth century mysticism came

15.3 History 15.3.1

Early Christianity

Main articles: Greco-Roman mysteries, Early Christianity and Esoteric Christianity The Appearance of the Holy Spirit before Saint Teresa of Ávila,

In the Hellenistic world, 'mystical' referred to “secret” Peter Paul Rubens religious rituals* [web 1] The use of the word lacked any * direct references to the transcendental.* [24] A “mys- to be used as a substantive. [24] This shift was linked to * a new discourse, [24] in which science and religion were tikos”was an initiate of a mystery religion. separated.* [26] In early Christianity the term“mystikos”referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the Luther dismissed the allegorical interpretation of the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contempla- bible, and condemned Mystical theology, which he saw * tive.* [1] The biblical dimension refers to “hidden”or as more Platonic than Christian. [27] “The mystical”, * * allegorical interpretations of Scriptures. [web 1] [1] The as the search for the hidden meaning of texts, became secliturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the ularised, and also associated with literature, as opposed * Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist.* [web to science and prose. [28] * 1] [1] The third dimension is the contemplative or expe- Science was also distinguished from religion. By the riential knowledge of God.* [1] middle of the 17th century, “the mystical”is increasThe link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation.* [24]

15.3.2

Medieval meaning

See also: Middle Ages

ingly applied exclusively to the religious realm, separating religion and“natural philosophy”as two distinct approaches to the discovery of the hidden meaning of the universe.* [29] The traditional hagiographies and writings of the saints became designated as “mystical”, shifting from the virtues and miracles to extraordinary experiences and states of mind, thereby creating a newly coined “mystical tradition”.* [2] A new understanding developed of the Divine as residing within human, an essence beyond the varieties of religious expressions.* [24]

150

CHAPTER 15. MYSTICISM

15.3.4

Contemporary meaning

traditions as pointing to one universal transcendental reality, for which those experiences offer the prove.

See also: Western esotericism, Theosophy, Syncretism, The perennial position is “largely dismissed by scholSpirituality and New Age ars”,* [5] but“has lost none of its popularity”.* [36] Instead, a constructionist approach is favored, which states In the 19th century the meaning of mysticism was con- that mystical experiences are mediated by pre-existing frames of reference. Critics of the term“religious expesiderably narrowed:* [web 2] rience”note that the notion of“religious experience”or “mystical experience”as marking insight into religious The competition between the perspectives truth is a modern development,* [37] and contemporary of theology and science resulted in a comproresearchers of mysticism note that mystical experiences mise in which most varieties of what had tradiare shaped by the concepts “which the mystic brings to, tionally been called mysticism were dismissed and which shape, his experience”.* [38] What is being as merely psychological phenomena and only experienced is being determined by the expectations and one variety, which aimed at union with the Abthe conceptual background of the mystic.* [39] solute, the Infinite, or God—and thereby the perception of its essential unity or oneness— was claimed to be genuinely mystical. The historical evidence, however, does not support such a narrow conception of mysticism.* [web 2] Under the influence of Perennialism, which was popularised in both the west and the east by Unitarianism, Transcendentalists and Theosophy, mysticism has acquired a broader meaning, in which all sorts of esotericism and religious traditions and practices are joined together.* [30]* [31]* [19]

15.5 Forms of mysticism within world religions Based on various definitions of mysticism, namely mysticism as a way of transformation, mysticism as “enlightenment”or insight, and mysticism as an experience of union, “mysticism”can be found in all major world religions.

The term mysticism has been extended to comparable 15.5.1 Western mysticism phenomena in non-Christian religions,* [web 2] where it influenced Hindu and Buddhist responses to colo- Mystery religions nialism, resulting in Neo-Vedanta and Buddhist modMain article: Greco-Roman mysteries ernism.* [31]* [32] In the contemporary usage “mysticism”has become an umbrella term for all sorts of non-rational world views.* [33] William Harmless even states that mysticism has become “a catch-all for religious weirdness” .* [34] Within the academic study of religion the apparent“unambiguous commonality”has become“opaque and controversial”.* [24] The term“mysticism”is being used in different ways in different traditions.* [24] Some call to attention the conflation of mysticism and linked terms, such as spirituality and esotericism, and point at the differences between various traditions.* [35]

15.4 Mystical experience

The Eleusinian Mysteries, (Greek: Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια) were annual initiation ceremonies in the cults of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone, held in secret at Eleusis (near Athens) in ancient Greece.* [40] The mysteries began in about 1600 B.C. in the Mycenean period and continued for two thousand years, becoming a major festival during the Hellenic era, and later spreading to Rome.* [41] Christian mysticism Main articles: Christian mysticism, Mystical theology, Apophatic theology and German mysticism

Main article: Mystical experience

The Apophatic theology, or “negative theology”, of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite exerted a great influSince the 19th century, “mystical experience”has ence on medieval monastic religiosity.* [25] evolved as a distinctive concept. It is closely related to The High Middle Ages saw a flourishing of mystical “mysticism,”but lays sole emphasis on the experiential practice and theorization corresponding to the flouraspect, be it spontaneous or induced by human behavior. ishing of new monastic orders, with such figures as Two distinct approaches can be discerned in the study of Guigo II, Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the mystical experience. Perennialists regard those various Victorines, all coming from different orders, as well as

15.5. FORMS OF MYSTICISM WITHIN WORLD RELIGIONS

151

mer predated the latter, and was focused on visions, particularly those mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel. It gets its name from the Hebrew word meaning “chariot”, a reference to Ezekiel's vision of a fiery chariot composed of heavenly beings.

Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation). Inside Judaism, it forms the foundations of mystical religious interpretation.

Kabbalah originally developed entirely within the realm of Jewish thought. Kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain and demonstrate its esoteric teachings.

These teachings are thus held by followers in Judaism to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew Bible and Life of Francis of Assisi by José Benlliure y Gil traditional Rabbinic literature, their formerly concealed transmitted dimension, as well as to explain the signifithe first real flowering of popular piety among the laypeo- cance of Jewish religious observances.* [42] ple.

Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of Jewish mystiThe Late Middle Ages saw the clash between the cism, in 12th to 13th century Southern France and Spain, Dominican and Franciscan schools of thought, which was becoming reinterpreted in the Jewish mystical renaisalso a conflict between two different mystical theologies: sance of 16th-century Ottoman Palestine. It was popon the one hand that of Dominic de Guzmán and on ularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th the other that of Francis of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, century forward. 20th-century interest in Kabbalah has Bonaventure, and Angela of Foligno. This period also inspired cross-denominational Jewish renewal and consaw such individuals as John of Ruysbroeck, Catherine tributed to wider non-Jewish contemporary spirituality, of Siena and Catherine of Genoa, the Devotio Moderna, as well as engaging its flourishing emergence and historand such books as the Theologia Germanica, The Cloud ical re-emphasis through newly established academic inof Unknowing and The Imitation of Christ. vestigation.

Moreover, there was the growth of groups of mystics centered around geographic regions: the Beguines, such Islamic mysticism as Mechthild of Magdeburg and Hadewijch (among others); the Rhineland mystics Meister Eckhart, Johannes Main article: Sufism Tauler and Henry Suso; and the English mystics Richard Rolle, Walter Hilton and Julian of Norwich. The Spanish mystics included Teresa of Avila, John of the Cross and Sufism is said to be Islam's inner and mystical dimension.* [43]* [44]* [45] Classical Sufi scholars have defined Ignatius Loyola.

Sufism as The later post-reformation period also saw the writings of lay visionaries such as Emanuel Swedenborg and William [A] science whose objective is the reparaBlake, and the foundation of mystical movements such tion of the heart and turning it away from all as the Quakers. Catholic mysticism continued into the else but God.* [46] modern period with such figures as Padre Pio and Thomas Merton.

The philokalia, an ancient method of Eastern Ortho- A practitioner of this tradition is nowadays known as a ُ or, in earlier usage, a dervish. The origin of ّ ‫)ﺻﻮﻓ‬, dox mysticism, was promoted by the twentieth cen- ṣūfī (‫ِﻲ‬ tury Traditionalist School. The inspired or "channeled" the word “Sufi”is ambiguous. One understanding is work A Course in Miracles represents a blending of non- that Sufi means wool-wearer- wool wearers during early Islam were pious ascetics who withdrew from urban life. denominational Christian and New Age ideas.

Another explanation of the word “Sufi”is that it means 'purity'.* [47] Jewish mysticism Sufis generally belong to a khalqa, a circle or group, led by a Sheikh or Murshid. Sufi circles usually belong to Main articles: Jewish mysticism and Kabbalah a Tariqa which is the Sufi order and each has a Silsila, which is the spiritual lineage, which traces its succession In the common era, Judaism has had two main kinds of back to notable Sufis of the past, and often ultimately to mysticism: Merkabah mysticism and Kabbalah. The for- the prophet Muhammed or one of his close associates.

152 The turuq (plural of tariqa) are not enclosed like Christian monastic orders; rather the members retain an outside life. Membership of a Sufi group often passes down family lines. Meetings may or may not be segregated according to the prevailing custom of the wider society. An existing Muslim faith is not always a requirement for entry, particularly in Western countries.

CHAPTER 15. MYSTICISM modern era, led by such figures as Inayat Khan and Idries Shah (both in the UK), Rene Guenon (France) and Ivan Aguéli (Sweden). Sufism has also long been present in Asian countries that do not have a Muslim majority, such as India and China.* [48]

15.5.2 Indian religions Buddhism Main article: Buddhism The main aim of Buddhism is liberation from the cycle of rebirth, by enlarging self-awareness and self-control.

The Buddhist tradition rejects the notion of a permanent self, but does have a strong tradition of metaphysical essentialism, especially Yogacara and the Buddhanature doctrine. The Madhyamaka tradition lends itself to both a non-metaphysical interpretation, as exemplified by the rangtong philosophy of Tsongkhapa, but also to a “mystical”interpretation, as exemplified by Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey the shentong philosophy of both the Dzogchen tradition and Dolpopa. The Two truths doctrine reconciles absoSufi practice includes lute and relative reality, but is likewise differently interpreted. Chinese and Japanese is grounded on the Chinese • Dhikr, or remembrance (of God), which often takes understanding of the Buddha-nature and the Two truths the form of rhythmic chanting and breathing exerdoctrine.* [49]* [50] It was the Japanese Zen-scholar D.T. cises.

Suzuki who noted similarities between Buddhism and • Sema, which takes the form of music and dance — Christian mysticism.* [51] the whirling dance of the Mevlevi dervishes is a form well known in the West.

Hinduism • Muraqaba or meditation.

• Visiting holy places, particularly the tombs of Sufi Main article: Hinduism saints, in order to remember death and the greatness of those who have passed.

Hinduism has a number of interlinked ascetic traditions and philosophical schools which aim at moksha* [52] The aims of Sufism include: the experience of ecstatic and the acquisition of higher powers.* [53] With the onstates (hal), purification of the heart (qalb), overcoming set of the British colonisation of India, those traditions the lower self (nafs), extinction of the individual person- came to be interpreted in western terms such as “mystiality (fana), communion with God (haqiqa), and higher cism”, drawing equivalents with western terms and pracknowledge (marifat). Some sufic beliefs and practices tices.* [54] have been found unorthodox by other Muslims; for in- Yoga is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices stance Mansur al-Hallaj was put to death for blasphemy or disciplines which aim to attain a state of permaafter uttering the phrase Ana'l Haqq, “I am the Truth” nent peace.* [55] Various traditions of yoga are found in (i.e. God) in a trance.

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.* [56]* [57]* [58]* [57] Notable classical Sufis include Jalaluddin Rumi, Fariduddin Attar, Sultan Bahoo, Saadi Shirazi and Hafez, all major poets in the Persian language. Omar Khayyam, Al-Ghazzali and Ibn Arabi were renowned scholars. Abdul Qadir Jilani, Moinuddin Chishti, and Bahauddin Naqshband founded major orders, as did Rumi. Rabia Basri was the most prominent female Sufi.

The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali defines yoga as “the stilling of the changing states of the mind,”* [59] which is attained in samadhi.

Classical Vedanta gives philosophical interpretations and commentaries of the Upanishads, a vast collection of ancient hymns. At least ten schools of Vedanta are known,* [60] of which Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, Sufism first came into contact with the Judea-Christian and Dvaita are the best known.* [61] Advaita Vedanta, as world during the Moorish occupation of Spain. An inter- expounded by Adi Shankara, states that there is no difest in Sufism revived in non-Muslim countries during the ference between Atman and Brahman. The best-known

15.5. FORMS OF MYSTICISM WITHIN WORLD RELIGIONS

153

subschool is Kevala Vedanta or mayavada as expounded

by Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.* [62] In contrast Bhedabheda-Vedanta emphasizes that Atamn and Brahman are both the same and not the same,* [63] while Dvaita Vedanta states that Atman and God are fundamentally different.* [63] In modern times, the Upanishads have been interpreted by Neo-Vedanta as being “mystical”.* [54] Various Shaivist traditions are strongly nondualistic, such as Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta.

Tantra Main article: Tantra Tantra is the name given by scholars to a style of meditation and ritual which arose in India no later than the fifth century AD.* [64] Tantra has influenced the Hindu, Bön, Buddhist, and Jain traditions and spread with Buddhism to East and Southeast Asia.* [65] Tantric ritual seeks to access the supra-mundane through the mundane, identifying the microcosm with the macrocosm.* [66] The Tantric aim is to sublimate (rather than negate) reality.* [67] The Tantric practitioner seeks to use prana (energy flowing through the universe, including one's body) to attain goals which may be spiritual, material or both.* [68] Tantric practice includes visualisation of deities, mantras and mandalas. It can also include sexual and other (antinomian) practices.

Guru Nanak and Bhai Mardana

Taoism Main article: Taoism

Taoist philosophy is centered on the Tao, usually translated “Way”, an ineffable cosmic principle. The contrasting yet interdependent concepts of yin and yang also symbolise harmony, with Taoist scriptures often emphasing the Yin virtues of femininity, passivity and yieldingness.* [75] Taoist practice includes exercises and rituals aimed at manipulating the life force Qi, and obtaining Sikhism health and longevity.* [note 9] These have been elaborated Mysticism in the Sikh dharm began with its founder, into practices such as Tai chi, which are well known in the Guru Nanak, who as a child had profound mystical ex- west. periences.* [69] Guru Nanak stressed that God must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being.* [70] Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, added reli- 15.5.4 Western esotericism gious mystics belonging to other religions into the holy scriptures that would eventually become the Guru Granth Main article: Western esotericism Sahib.

The goal of Sikhism is to be one with God.* [71] Sikhs meditate as a means to progress towards enlightenment; it is devoted meditation simran that enables a sort of communication between the Infinite and finite human consciousness.* [72] There is no concentration on the breath but chiefly the remembrance of God through the recitation of the name of God* [73] and surrender themselves to Gods presence often metaphorized as surrendering themselves to the Lord's feet.* [74]

15.5.3

East-Asian mysticsm

The Fourth Way The Fourth Way is a term used by George Gurdjieff to describe an approach to self-development he learned over years of travel in the East* [76] that combined what he saw as three established traditional “ways,”or “schools” into a fourth way,* [77] namely the schools of the body, the mind and the emotions. The Fourth Way emphasizes that people live their lives in a state of “waking sleep” , but that higher levels of consciousness and various inner abilities are possible.* [78] The Fourth Way teaches people how to increase and focus their attention and en-

154

CHAPTER 15. MYSTICISM

ergy in various ways, and to minimize daydreaming and absentmindedness.* [79]* [80] The Fourth Way is an “in the world”practice, which rejects retreats and other forms of seclusion. Its central concentrative technique, self remembering, is to be practised, as far as possible, under all circumstances. According to fourth way teaching, inner development in oneself is the beginning of a possible further process of change, whose aim is to transform a man into what Gurdjieff taught he ought to be.* [81]

15.6 Mysticism and morality A philosophical issue in the study of mysticism is the relation of mysticism to morality. Albert Schweitzer presented the classic account of mysticism and morality being incompatible.* [82] Arthur Danto also argued that morality is at least incompatible with Indian mystical beliefs.* [83] Walter Stace, on the other hand, argued not only are mysticism and morality compatible, but that mysticism is the source and justification of morality.* [84] Others studying multiple mystical traditions have concluded that the relation of mysticism and morality is not as simple as that.* [85] Richard King also points to disjunction between “mystical experience”and social justice:* [86] The privatisation of mysticism – that is, the increasing tendency to locate the mystical in the psychological realm of personal experiences – serves to exclude it from political issues as social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the world, serve to accommodate the individual to the status quo through the alleviation of anxiety and stress.* [86]

15.7 See also • Eduard von Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious • Jewish mysticism • Henology • Ludus amoris • Michael Eigen • Numinous • Persian mysticism • Theosophy • Transpersonal psychology

15.8 Notes [1] Original quote in “Evelyn Underhill (1930), Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness.* [7] [2] Underhill: “One of the most abused words in the English language, it has been used in different and often mutually exclusive senses by religion, poetry, and philosophy: has been claimed as an excuse for every kind of occultism, for dilute transcendentalism, vapid symbolism, religious or aesthetic sentimentality, and bad metaphysics. on the other hand, it has been freely employed as a term of contempt by those who have criticized these things. It is much to be hoped that it may be restored sooner or later to its old meaning, as the science or art of the spiritual life.”* [7] [3] According to Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of re-formation which “aims to recover the original shape of man, the image of God. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity Christ, in Buddhism Buddha, in the Islam Muhammad.”* [10] Waaijman uses the word“omvorming”,* [10] “to change the form”. Different translations are possible: transformation, re-formation, transmutation. Waaijman points out that“spirituality”is only one term of a range of words which denote the praxis of spirituality.* [11] Some other terms are “Hasidism, contemplation, kabbala, asceticism, mysticism, perfection, devotion and piety”.* [11] [4] Compare the use of the terms bodhi, kensho and satori in Buddhism, commonly translated as“enlightenment”, and vipassana, which all point to cognitive processes of intuition and comprehension, in contrast to the mind-calming techniques of samatha and samadhi.

[5] According to Evelyn Underhill, illumination is a generic English term for the phenomenon of mysticism. The term illumination is derived from the Latin illuminatio, applied to Christian prayer in the 15th century. Translated as enlightenment it is adopted in English translations of Buddhist texts, but used loosely to describe the state of mystical attainment regardless of faith.* [16]* [lower-alpha 1] See also Enlightenment (spiritual).

[6] The term“mystical experience”has become synonymous with the terms“religious experience”, spiritual experience and sacred experience.* [17] [7] According to W.F. Cobb, mysticism is the pursuit of communion with, identity with, or conscious awareness of an ultimate reality, divinity, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition, instinct or insight. Mysticism usually centers on practices intended to nurture those experiences.* [23] According to Cobb, mysticism may be dualistic, maintaining a distinction between the self and the divine, or may be nondualistic.* [23] [8] blakemore and Jennett add: "[T]he common assumption that all mystical experiences, whatever their context, are the same cannot, of course, be demonstrated.”They also

15.9. REFERENCES

state: “Some have placed a particular emphasis on certain altered states, such as visions, trances, levitations, locutions, raptures, and ecstasies, many of which are altered bodily states. Margery Kempe's tears and Teresa of Avila's ecstasies are famous examples of such mystical phenomena. But many mystics have insisted that while these experiences may be a part of the mystical state, they are not the essence of mystical experience, and some, such as Origen, Meister Eckhart, and John of the Cross, have been hostile to such psycho-physical phenomena. Rather, the essence of the mystical experience is the encounter between God and the human being, the Creator and creature; this is a union which leads the human being to an‘absorption’or loss of individual personality. It is a movement of the heart, as the individual seeks to surrender itself to ultimate Reality; it is thus about being rather than knowing. For some mystics, such as Teresa of Avila, phenomena such as visions, locutions, raptures, and so forth are by-products of, or accessories to, the full mystical experience, which the soul may not yet be strong enough to receive. Hence these altered states are seen to occur in those at an early stage in their spiritual lives, although ultimately only those who are called to achieve full union with God will do so.”* [web 4] [9] Extending to physical immortality: the Taoist pantheon includes Xian, or immortals.

155

[14] Belzen 2003, p. 7.

[15] Lidke 2005, p. 144.

[16] Evelyn Underhill. Practical Mysticism. Wilder Publications, new edition 2008. ISBN 978-1-60459-508-6 [17] Samy 1998, p. 80.

[18] Hori 1999, p. 47.

[19] Sharf 2000.

[20] Harmless 2007, pp. 10–17.

[21] James 1982 (1902), p. 30.

[22] Harmless 2007, p. 14.

[23] Cobb 2009.

[24] Parsons 2011, p. 3.

[25] King 2002, p. 195.

[26] King 2002, pp. 16–18.

[27] King 2002, p. 16.

[28] King 2002, pp. 16–17.

[29] King 2002, p. 17.

[1] According to Wright, the use of the western word enlightenment is based on the supposed resemblance of bodhi with Aufklärung, the independent use of reason to gain insight into the true nature of our world. As a matter of fact there are more resemblances with Romanticism than with the Enlightenment: the emphasis on feeling, on intuitive insight, on a true essence beyond the world of appearances.<ref name='FOOTNOTEWright2000181– 183'>Wright 2000, pp. 181–183.

[30] Hanegraaff 1996.

[31] King 2002.

[32] McMahan 2010.

[33] Parson 2011, p. 3-5.

[34] Harmless 2007, p. 3.

[35] Parsons 2011, pp. 3–4.

15.9 References

[36] McMahan 2010, p. 269, note 9.

[37] Sharf 1995-B.

[1] King 2002, p. 15.

[2] King 2002, pp. 17–18.

[3] Horne 1996, p. 9.

[4] Paden 2009, p. 332.

[5] McMahan 2008, p. 269, note 9.

[6] Parsoon 2011, p. 3.

[7] Underhill 2012, p. xiv.

[8] Bloom 2010, p. 12.

[9] Parson 2011, pp. 4–5.

[10] Waaijman 2000, p. 460.

[11] Waaijman 2002, p. 315.

[12] McGinn 2006.

[13] Moores 2005, p. 34.

[38] Katz 2000, p. 3.

[39] Katz 2000, pp. 3–4.

[40] Kerényi, Karoly, “Kore,”in C.G. Jung and C. Kerényi, Essays on a Science of Mythology: The Myth of the Divine Child and the Mysteries of Eleusis. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963: pages 101–55.

[41] Eliade, Mircea, A History of Religious Ideas: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.

[42] “Imbued with Holiness” – The relationship of the esoteric to the exoteric in the fourfold Pardes interpretation of Torah and existence. From www.kabbalaonline.org [43] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism's Many Paths, 2000, University of Georgia [44] Nuh Ha Mim Keller, “How would you respond to the claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at: Masud.co.uk

156

[45] Zubair Fattani, “The meaning of Tasawwuf”, Islamic Academy. Islamicacademy.org [46] Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson —"The Principles of Sufism”. Amal Press. 2008.

[47] Seyyedeh Dr. Nahid Angha. “origin of the Wrod Tasawouf”. Ias.org. Retrieved 2013-11-06.

[48] Xinjiang Sufi Shrines [49] Dumoulin 2005-A.

CHAPTER 15. MYSTICISM

[75] Mysticism: A guide for the Perplexed. Oliver, P. [76] P.D. Ouspensky (1949), In Search of the Miraculous, Chapter 2 [77] P.D. Ouspensky (1949), In Search of the Miraculous, Chapter 15 [78] G. I. Gurdjieff and His School by Jacob Needleman Professor of Philosophy

[50] Dumoulin 2005-B.

[79] G.I. Gurdjieff (first privately printed in 1974). Life is Real Only Then, When 'I Am'

[51] D.T. Suzuki. Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0-415-28586-5

[80] Olga de Hartmann (1973). Views from the Real World, Energy and Sleep

[52] Raju 1992.

[81] G.I. Gurdjieff (1950). Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson

[53] White 2012.

[82] Schweitzer 1936

[54] King 2001.

[83] Danto 1987

[55] Bryant 2009, p. 10, 457.

[84] Stace 1960, pp. 323-343.

[56] Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68.

[85] Barnard and Kripal 2002; Jones 2004.

[57] Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 1–2.

[86] King 2002, p. 21.

[58] Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102

15.10 Sources

[59] Bryant 2009, p. 10.

15.10.1 Published sources

[60] Raju 1992, p. 177.

[61] Sivananda 1993, p. 217.

[62] King 1999.

[63] Nicholson 2010.

[64] Einoo, Shingo (ed.) (2009). Genesis and Development of Tantrism. University of Tokyo. p. 45.

[65] White 2000, p. 7.

[66] Harper (2002), p. 2.

[67] Nikhilanada (1982), pp. 145–160 [68] Harper (2002), p. 3.

[69] Kalra, Surjit (2004). Stories Of Guru Nanak. Pitambar Publishing. ISBN 9788120912755.

[70] Lebron, Robyn (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...can There be Common Ground?: A Basic Internet Guide to Forty World Religions & Spiritual Practices. CrossBooks. p. 399. ISBN 9781462712618.

[71] Sri Guru Granth Sahib. p. Ang 12.

[72] “The Sikh Review” 57 (7-12). Sikh Cultural Centre.

2009: 35.

[73] Sri Guru Granth Sahib. p. Ang 1085.

[74] Sri Guru Granth Sahib. p. Ang 1237.

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• King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and “The Mystic East” , Routledge • King, Sallie B. (1988), Two Epistemological Models for the Interpretation of Mysticism, Journal for the American Academy for Religion, volume 26, pp.

257-279 • Klein, Anne Carolyn; Tenzin Wangyal (2006), Unbounded Wholeness : Dzogchen, Bon, and the Logic of the Nonconceptual: Dzogchen, Bon, and the Logic of the Nonconceptual, Oxford University Press • Klein, Anne Carolyn (2011), Dzogchen. In: Jay L. Garfield, William Edelglass (eds.)(2011), The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Oxford University Press • Kraft, Kenneth (1997), Eloquent Zen: Daitō and Early Japanese Zen, University of Hawaii Press • Leuba, J.H. (1925), The psychology of religious mysticism, Harcourt, Brace • Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon (1992), Perspectives on the New Age, SUNY Press, ISBN 07914-1213-X • Lidke, Jeffrey S. (2005), Interpreting across Mystical Boundaries: An Analysis of Samadhi in the TrikaKaula Tradition. In: Jacobson (2005),“Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson”, pp 143–180, BRILL

• Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part Two, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited • Newberg, Andrew; d'Aquili, Eugene (2008), Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief, Random House LLC • Newberg, Andrew and Mark Robert Waldman (2009), How God Changes Your Brain, New York: Ballantine Books • Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press • Paden, William E. (2009), Comparative religion. In: John Hinnells (ed.)(2009),“The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion”, pp. 225–241, Routledge • Parsons, William B. (2011), Teaching Mysticism, Oxford University Press • Picard, Fabienne (2013), “State of belief, subjective certainty and bliss as a product of cortical dysfuntion”, Cortex 49 (2013) pp.2494-2500 • Picard, Fabienne; Kurth, Florian (2014), “Ictal alterations of consciousness during ecstatic seizures” , Epilepsy & Behavior 30 (2014) 58-61 • Presinger, Michael A. (1987), Neuropsychological Bases of God Beliefs, New York: Praeger

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• Proudfoot, Wayne (1985), Religious Experiences, Berkeley: University of California Press

• MacInnes, Elaine (2007), The Flowing Bridge: Guidance on Beginning Zen Koans, Wisdom Publications

• Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New York: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.

• Maezumi, Taizan; Glassman, Bernie (2007), The Hazy Moon of Enlightenment, Wisdom Publications • McGinn, Bernard (2006), The Essential Writings of Christian Mysticism, New York: Modern Library • McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276 • Mohr, Michel (2000), Emerging from Nonduality.

Koan Practice in the Rinzai Tradition since Hakuin.

In: steven Heine & Dale S. Wright (eds.)(2000), “The Koan. texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism”, Oxford: Oxford University Press

• Raju, P.T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited • Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press • Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip • Samy, AMA (1998), Waarom kwam Bodhidharma naar het Westen? De ontmoeting van Zen met het Westen, Asoka: Asoka

15.11. FURTHER READING • Sawyer, Dana (2012), Afterword: The Man Who Took Religion Seriously: Huston Smith in Context.

In: Jefferey Pane (ed.)(2012), “The Huston Smith Reader: Edited, with an Introduction, by Jeffery Paine”, pp 237–246, University of California Press • Schopenhauer, Arthur (1844), Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung 2 • Sekida, Katsuki (1985), Zen Training. Methods and Philosophy, New York, Tokyo: Weatherhill • Sharf, Robert H. (1995-B), “Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience”(PDF), NUMEN, vol.42 (1995) Check date values in: |date= (help) • Sharf, Robert H. (2000), The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion. In: Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, No. 11-12, 2000, pp. 267–87 (PDF) • Sivananda, Swami (1993), All About Hinduism, The Divine Life Society • Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice, London: Century Paperbacks • Spilka e.a. (2003), The Psychology of Religion. An Empirical Approach, New York: The Guilford Press • Stace, W.T. (1960), Mysticism and Philosophy, London: Macmillan • Schweitzer, Albert (1938), Indian Thought and its Development, New York: Henry Holt • Takahashi, Shinkichi (2000), Triumph of the Sparrow: Zen Poems of Shinkichi Takahashi, Grove Press • Taves, Ann (2009), Religious Experience Reconsidered, Princeton: Princeton University Press • Underhill, Evelyn (2012), Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness, Courier Dover Publications • Waaijman, Kees (2000), Spiritualiteit.

Vormen, grondslagen, methoden, Kampen/Gent: Kok/Carmelitana

159 • White, David Gordon (2012), The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, University of Chicago Press • Wilber, Ken (1996), The Atman Project: A Transpersonal View of Human Development, Quest Books • Wright, Dale S. (2000), Philosophical Meditations on Zen Buddhism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press • Om, Swami (2014), If Truth Be Told: A Monk's Memoir, Harper Collins

15.10.2 Web-sources [1] “Gellman, Jerome,“Mysticism”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2013-11-06.

[2] Dan Merkur, Mysticism, Encyclopedia Britannica [3] James McClenon, Mysticism, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society [4] Colin Blakemore and Shelia Jennett (2001), The Oxford Companion to the Body

15.11 Further reading • Baba, Meher (1995). Discourses. Myrtle Beach, S.C.: Sheriar Foundation.

• Bailey, Raymond. Thomas Merton On Mysticism.

DoubleDay, New York. 1975.

• Daniels, P., Horan A. Mystic Places. Alexandria, Time-Life Books, 1987.

• Dasgupta, S. N. Hindu Mysticism. New York: F. Ungar Publishing Co., 1927, “republished 1959”. xx, 168 p.

• Dinzelbacher, Peter. Mystik und Natur. Zur Geschichte ihres Verhältnisses vom Altertum bis zur Gegenwart. (Theophrastus Paracelsus Studien, 1) Berlin, 2009.

• Waaijman, Kees (2002), Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, Peeters Publishers

• Elior, Rachel, Jewish Mysticism: The Infinite Expression of Freedom, Oxford. Portland, Oregon: The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2007.

• Waddell, Norman (2010), Foreword to “Wild Ivy: The Spiritual Autobiography of Zen Master Hakuin” , Shambhala Publications

• Fanning, Steven., Mystics of the Christian Tradition.

New York: Routledge Press, 2001.

• Wainwright, William J. (1981), Mysticism, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press • White, David Gordon (ed.) (2000), Tantra in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-69105779-6

• Jacobsen, Knut A. (Editor); Larson, Gerald James (Editor) (2005). Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. Brill Academic Publishers (Studies in the History of Religions, 110). Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)

160 • Harmless, William, Mystics. Oxford, 2008.

• Harvey, Andrew.

The Essential Gay Mystic. HarperSanFrancisco-Harper Collins Publishers.

1997.

CHAPTER 15. MYSTICISM • Wilber, Ken (2000), Sex, Ecology, Spirituality, Shambhala Publications

15.12 External links

• King, Ursula. Christian Mystics: Their Lives and Legacies Throughout the Ages. London: Routledge Encyclopedias 2004.

• Kroll, Jerome, Bernard Bachrach. The Mystic Mind: The Psychology of Medieval Mystics and Ascetics.

New York and London: Routledge, 2005.

• Langer, Otto. Christliche Mystik im Mittelalter. Mystik und Rationalisierung – Stationen eines Konflikts.

Darmstadt, 2004.

• Encyclopedia Britannica, Mysticism • Jerome Gellmann, Mysticism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy • James McClenon, Mysticism, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society

• Encyclopedia.com, Mysticism • Louth, Andrew., The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Specific • Masson, Jeffrey and Terri C. Masson. Buried Memories on the Acropolis. Freud's Relation to Mysticism and Anti-Semitism. International Journal of PsychoAnalysis, Volume 59, 1978, pages 199–208.

• McColman, Carl. The Big Book of Christian Mysticism. Hampton Roads Publishing Company, Inc. 2010.

• McKnight, C.J. Mysticism, the Experience of the Divine: Medieval Wisdom. Chronicle Books, 2004.

• McGinn, Bernard, The Presence of God: A History of Western Christian Mysticism'.' Volumes 1 – 4. (The Foundations of Mysticism; The Growth of Mysticism; The Flowering of Mysticism) New York, Crossroad, 1997–2005.

• Merton, Thomas, An Introduction to Christian Mysticism: Initiation into the Monastic Tradition, 3. Kalamazoo, 2008.

• Nelstrop, Louise, Kevin Magill and Bradley B. Onishi, Christian Mysticism: An Introduction to Contemporary Theoretical Approaches. Aldershot, 2009.

• Otto, Rudolf (author); Bracy, Bertha L. (translator) & Payne, Richenda C. 1932, 1960. Mysticism East and West: A Comparative Analysis of the Nature of Mysticism. New York, N. Y., USA: The Macmillan Company • Stace, W. T. Mysticism and Philosophy. 1960.

• Stace, W. T. The Teachings of the Mystics, 1960.

• Underhill, Evelyn. Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness. 1911 • Stark, Ryan J.“Some Aspects of Christian Mystical Rhetoric, Philosophy, and Poetry,”Philosophy and Rhetoric 41 (2008): 260–77.

• Resources – Medieval Jewish History – Jewish Mysticism The Jewish History Resource Center, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem • Shaku soens influence on western notions of mysticism • “Self-transcendence enhanced by removal of portions of the parietal-occipital cortex” Article from the Institute for the Biocultural Study of Religion

Chapter 16

Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn This article is about the historical organization of the 16.1.1 Cipher Manuscripts late 19th century. For other meanings, see Golden Dawn.

Main article: Cipher Manuscripts The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (Latin: Or- The foundational documents of the original Order of do Hermeticus Aurorae Aureae; or, more commonly, The Golden Dawn (Aurora Aurea)) was an organization devoted to the study and practice of the occult, metaphysics, and paranormal activities during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known as a magical order, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was active in Great Britain and focused its practices on theurgy and spiritual development. Many present-day concepts of ritual and magic that are at the centre of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca* [1]* [2] and Thelema, were inspired by the Golden Dawn, which became one of the largest single influences on 20th-century Western occultism.* [3]* [4] The three founders, William Robert Woodman, William Wynn Westcott, and Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, were Freemasons and members of Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A.).* [5] Westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn.

The Golden Dawn system was based on hierarchy and initiation like the Masonic Lodges; however women were admitted on an equal basis with men. The “Golden Dawn”was the first of three Orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as the “Golden Dawn” . The First Order taught esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four Classical Elements as well as the basics of astrology, tarot divination, and geomancy. The Second or “Inner”Order, the Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis (the Ruby Rose and Cross of Gold), taught proper magic, including scrying, astral travel, and alchemy. The Third Order was that of the "Secret Chiefs", who were said to be highly skilled; they supposedly directed the activities of the lower two orders by spirit communication with the Chiefs of the Second Order.

16.1 History

Folio 13 of the Cipher Manuscripts

the Golden Dawn, known as the Cipher Manuscripts, are written in English using the Trithemius cipher. The manuscripts give the specific outlines of the Grade Rituals of the Order and prescribe a curriculum of graduated teachings that encompass the Hermetic Qabalah, astrology, occult tarot, geomancy, and alchemy.

According to the records of the Order, the manuscripts passed from Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie, a Masonic scholar, to the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, whom British occult writer Francis King describes as the fourth founder* [6] (although Woodford died shortly after the

161

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CHAPTER 16. HERMETIC ORDER OF THE GOLDEN DAWN

Order was founded).* [7] The documents did not excite Woodford, and in February 1886 he passed them on to Freemason William Wynn Westcott, who managed to decode them in 1887.* [6] Westcott, pleased with his discovery, called on fellow Freemason Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers for a second opinion. Westcott asked for Mathers' help to turn the manuscripts into a coherent system for lodge work. Mathers in turn asked fellow Freemason William Robert Woodman to assist the two, and he accepted.* [6] Mathers and Westcott have been credited with developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscripts into a workable format.* [8] Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis (“Ruby Rose and Golden Cross”or the RR et AC).* [9]

the manuscripts.* [10]* [11] In 1888, the Isis-Urania Temple was founded in London.* [10] In contrast to the S.R.I.A. and Masonry,* [11] women were allowed and welcome to participate in the Order in “perfect equality”with men.

The Order was more of a philosophical and metaphysical teaching order in its early years. Other than certain rituals and meditations found in the Cipher manuscripts and developed further,* [12] “magical practices”were generally not taught at the first temple.

For the first four years, the Golden Dawn was one cohesive group later known as “the Outer Order”or “First Order.”An“Inner Order”was established and became active in 1892. The Inner Order consisted of members known as“adepts,”who had completed the entire course of study for the Outer Order. This group of adepts eventually became known as the Second Order.

Eventually, the Osiris temple in Weston-super-Mare, the Horus temple in Bradford (both in 1888), and the AmenRa temple in Edinburgh (1893) were founded. In 1893 Mathers founded the Ahathoor temple in Paris.* [10]

16.1.3 Secret Chiefs Main article: Secret Chiefs

Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers in Egyptian setup performing a ritual in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn

16.1.2

Founding of first temple

In 1891, Westcott's alleged correspondence with Anna Sprengel suddenly ceased. He claimed to have received word from Germany that she was either dead or that her companions did not approve of the founding of the Order and no further contact was to be made. If the founders were to contact the Secret Chiefs, apparently, it had to be done on their own.* [10] In 1892, Mathers professed that a link to the Secret Chiefs had been established. Subsequently, he supplied rituals for the Second Order, calling them the Red Rose and Cross of Gold.* [10] The rituals were based on the tradition of the tomb of Christian Rosenkreuz, and a Vault of Adepts became the controlling force behind the Outer Order.* [13] Later in 1916, Westcott claimed that Mathers also constructed these rituals from materials he received from Frater Lux ex Tenebris, a purported Continental Adept.* [14] Some followers of the Golden Dawn tradition believe that the Secret Chiefs were not human or supernatural beings but, rather, symbolic representations of actual or legendary sources of spiritual esotericism. The term came to stand for a great leader or teacher of a spiritual path or practice that found its way into the teachings of the Order.* [15]

In October 1887, Westcott claimed to have written to a German countess and prominent Rosicrucian named Anna Sprengel, whose address was said to have been found in the decoded Cipher Manuscripts. According to Westcott, Sprengel claimed the ability to contact certain supernatural entities, known as the Secret Chiefs, that were considered the authorities over any magical order or esoteric organization. Westcott purportedly received a reply from Sprengel granting permission to establish a 16.1.4 Golden Age Golden Dawn temple and conferring honorary grades of Adeptus Exemptus on Westcott, Mathers, and Woodman. By the mid-1890s, the Golden Dawn was well established The temple was to consist of the five grades outlined in in Great Britain, with over one hundred members from

16.1. HISTORY

163

every class of Victorian society.* [7] Many celebrities be- Order.* [21] longed to the Golden Dawn, such as the actress Florence Farr, the Irish revolutionary Maud Gonne, the Irish poet William Butler Yeats, the Welsh author Arthur Machen, and the English authors Evelyn Underhill and Aleister Splinters Crowley.

In 1896 or 1897, Westcott broke all ties to the Golden In 1901, W. B. Yeats privately published a pamphlet tiof R. R. & A. C. to Remain a MagDawn, leaving Mathers in control. It has been speculated tled Is the Order * [22] After the Isis-Urania temple claimed ical Order? that his departure was due to his having lost a number its independence, there were even more disputes, leadof occult-related papers in a hansom cab. Apparently, * ing to Yeats resigning.

[23] A committee of three was when the papers were found, Westcott's connection to to temporarily govern, which included P.W. Bullock, the Golden Dawn was discovered and brought to the atM.W. Blackden and J. W. Brodie-Innes.

After a short tention of his employers. He may have been told to eitime, Bullock resigned, and Dr. Robert Felkin took his ther resign from the Order or to give up his occupation * place.

[24] * as coroner. [16] After Westcott's departure, Mathers appointed Florence Farr to be Chief Adept in Anglia. Dr. In 1903, A.E. Waite and Blackden joined forces to reHenry B. Pullen Burry succeeded Westcott as Cancellar- tain the name Isis-Urania, while Felkin and other London ius—one of the three Chiefs of the Order. members formed the Stella Matutina. Yeats remained in conMathers was the only active founding member after West- the Stella Matutina until 1921, while Brodie-Innes * tinued his Amen-Ra membership in Edinburgh.

[25] cott's departure. Due to personality clashes with other members and frequent absences from the center of Lodge activity in Great Britain, however, challenges to Mathers's authority as leader developed among the members of the 16.1.6 Second Order.* [17]

16.1.5

Revolt

Toward the end of 1899, the Adepts of the Isis-Urania and Amen-Ra temples had become dissatisfied with Mathers' leadership, as well as his growing friendship with Aleister Crowley. They had also become anxious to make contact with the Secret Chiefs themselves, instead of relying on Mathers as an intermediary.* [18] Within the Isis-Urania temple, disputes were arising between Farr's The Sphere, a secret society within the Isis-Urania, and the rest of the Adepti Minores.* [18] Crowley was refused initiation into the Adeptus Minor grade by the London officials. Mathers overrode their decision and quickly initiated him at the Ahathoor temple in Paris on January 16, 1900.* [19] Upon his return to the London temple, Crowley requested from Miss Cracknell, the acting secretary, the papers acknowledging his grade, to which he was now entitled. To the London Adepts, this was the final straw. Farr, already of the opinion that the London temple should be closed, wrote to Mathers expressing her wish to resign as his representative, although she was willing to carry on until a successor was found.* [19] Mathers believed Westcott was behind this turn of events and replied on February 16. On March 3, a committee of seven Adepts was elected in London, and requested a full investigation of the matter. Mathers sent an immediate reply, declining to provide proof, refusing to acknowledge the London temple, and dismissing Farr as his representative on March 23.* [20] In response, a general meeting was called on March 29 in London to remove Mathers as chief and expel him from the

Reconstruction

Once Mathers realised that reconciliation was impossible, he made efforts to reestablish himself in London.

The Bradford and Weston-super-Mare temples remained loyal to him, but their numbers were few.* [26] He then appointed Edward Berridge as his representative.* [27] According to Francis King, historical evidence shows that there were “twenty three members of a flourishing Second Order under Berridge-Mathers in 1913.”* [27] J.W. Brodie-Innes continued leading the Amen-Ra temple, deciding that the revolt was unjustified. By 1908, Mathers and Brodie-Innes were in complete accord.* [28] According to sources that differ regarding the actual date, sometime between 1901 and 1913 Mathers renamed the branch of the Golden Dawn remaining loyal to his leadership to Alpha et Omega.* [29]* [30]* [31]* [32] BrodieInnes assumed command of the English and Scottish temples, while Mathers concentrated on building up his Ahathoor temple and extending his American connections.* [30] According to occultist Israel Regardie, the Golden Dawn had spread to the United States of America before 1900 and a Thoth-Hermes temple had been founded in Chicago.* [28]* [30] By the beginning of the First World War in 1914, Mathers had established two to three American temples.

Most temples of the Alpha et Omega and Stella Matutina closed or went into abeyance by the end of the 1930s, with the exceptions of two Stella Matutina temples: Hermes Temple in Bristol, which operated sporadically until 1970, and the Smaragdum Thallasses Temple (commonly referred to as Whare Ra) in Havelock North, New Zealand, which operated regularly until its closure in 1978.* [33]* [34]

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16.2 Structure and grades

• Magus 9=2 • Ipsissimus 10=1 The paired numbers attached to the Grades relate to positions on the Tree of Life. The Neophyte Grade of“0=0” indicates no position on the Tree. In the other pairs, the first numeral is the number of steps up from the bottom (Malkuth), and the second numeral is the number of steps down from the top (Kether).

The First Order Grades were related to the four elements of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire, respectively. The Aspirant to a Grade received instruction on the metaphysical meaning of each of these Elements and had to pass a written examination and demonstrate certain skills to receive admission to that Grade.

The Portal Grade was an“Invisible”or in-between grade separating the First Order from the Second Order.* [36] The Circle of existing Adepts from the Second Order had to consent to allow an Aspirant to be initiated as an Adept and join the Second Order.

Rosy Cross of the Golden Dawn

Much of the hierarchical structure for the Golden dawn came from the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, which was itself derived from the Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross.* [35] First Order • Introduction—Neophyte 0=0 • Zelator 1=10

The Second Order was not, properly, part of the“Golden Dawn”, but a separate Order in its own right, known as the R.R. et A.C. The Second Order directed the teachings of the First Order and was the governing force behind the First Order.

After passing the Portal, the Aspirant was instructed in the techniques of practical magic. When another examination was passed, and the other Adepts consented, the Aspirant attained the Grade of Adeptus Minor (5=6).

There were also four sub-Grades of instruction for the Adeptus Minor, again relating to the four Outer Order grades.

A member of the Second Order had the power and authority to initiate aspirants to the First Order, though usually not without the permission of the Chiefs of his or her Lodge.

• Theoricus 2=9 • Practicus 3=8 • Philosophus 4=7 • Intermediate—Portal Grade

16.3 The Golden Dawn book The encyclopedic text The Golden Dawn, by Israel Regardie, has been the most intensively used source for modern western occult and magical practice.* [37]

Second Order • Adeptus Minor 5=6 • Adeptus Major 6=5 • Adeptus Exemptus 7=4 Third Order • Magister Templi 8=3

16.4 Known or alleged members • Sara Allgood (1879–1950), Irish stage actress and later film actress in America • Charles Henry Allan Bennett (1872–1923), best known for introducing Buddhism to the West • Arnold Bennett (1867–1931), British novelist* [38]

16.5. CONTEMPORARY GOLDEN DAWN ORDERS

165

• Edward W. Berridge (ca. 1843–1923), British homeopathic physician* [1]* :148–149

Order, including The Golden Dawn, The Tree Of Life, Middle Pillar, and A Garden of Pomegranates.

• Algernon Blackwood (1869–1951), English writer and radio broadcaster of supernatural stories* [39]

• Sax Rohmer, novelist, creator of the Fu Manchu character

• Anna de Brémont, American-born singer and writer.* [40] • Paul Foster Case was not an original member of the Golden Dawn, but was a member of the successor organization, Alpha et Omega. He was an American occultist and founder of the Builders of the Adytum.

• Charles Rosher (1885–1974), British cinematographer • Pamela Colman Smith (1878–1951), BritishAmerican artist and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck

• Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), occultist, writer and mountaineer, founder of his own magical society.* [39]

• William Sharp (1855–1905), poet and author; alias Fiona MacLeod

• Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930), author of Sherlock Holmes, doctor, scientist, and Spiritualist.* [41]

• Bram Stoker* [43]* [44] (1847–1912), Irish writer best-known today for his 1897 horror novel Dracula

• Florence Farr (1860–1917), London stage actress and musician* [39]

• John Todhunter (1839–1916), Aktis Heliou Irish poet and playwright who wrote seven volumes of poetry, and several plays

• Robert Felkin (1853–1925), medical missionary, explorer and anthropologist in Central Africa, author

• Violet Tweedale (1862–1936), author.

• Dion Fortune was not an original member of the Golden Dawn, rather a member of the offshoot Golden Dawn order the Stella Matutina. Dion Fortune Founded the Society of Inner Light.

• Evelyn Underhill (1875–1941), British Christian mystic, author of Mysticism: A Study in Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness

• Frederick Leigh Gardner (1857–1930), British stock broker and occultist; published three-volume bibliography Catalogue Raisonné of Works on the Occult Sciences (1912)* [42]

• Charles Williams (1886–1945), British poet, novelist, theologian, and literary critic

• Maud Gonne (1866–1953), Irish revolutionary, actress.

• Annie Horniman (1860–1937), British repertory theatre producer and pioneer; member of the wealthy Horniman family of tea-traders* [39]

• A. E. Waite (1857–1942), British-American author, Freemason and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck* [39] • W. B. Yeats (1865–1939), Irish poet, dramatist, writer and Freemason.

• Arthur Machen (1863–1947), leading London 16.5 Contemporary Golden Dawn writer of the 1890s, author of acclaimed works of orders imaginative and occult fiction, such as “The Great God Pan”, “The White People”and “The Hill of Dreams”. Welsh by birth and upbringing.

While no temples in the original chartered lineage of the * * • Gustav Meyrink (1868–1932), Austrian author, sto- Golden Dawn survived past the 1970s, [33] [34] several ryteller, dramatist, translator, banker, and Buddhist organizations have since revived its teachings and rituals.

Among these, the following are notable: • E. Nesbit (1858–1924), real name Edith Bland; English author and political activist • The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Inc. • Israel Regardie was not a member of the original • The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn Golden Dawn, but rather of the Stella Matutina, which he claimed was as close to the original order • Sodalitas Rosae+Crucis et Solis Alati as could be found in the early 1930s (when he was initiated). Regardie wrote many respected and ac• Orden Hermética de la Aurora Dorada claimed books about magic and the Golden Dawn

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CHAPTER 16. HERMETIC ORDER OF THE GOLDEN DAWN

16.6 See also

[16] King, 1989, page 48 [17] Raine, Kathleen (1976) [1972]. Liam Miller, ed. Yeats, the Tarot and the Golden Dawn. New Yeats Papers II (second ed.). Dublin: Dolmen Press. p. 6.

• A∴A∴ • Hermeticism

[18] King, 1989, page 66

• Tattva

[19] King, 1989, page 67

• Tattva vision

[20] King, 1989, page 68-69 [21] King, 1989, page 69

16.7 References [1] Colquhoun, Ithell (1975) The Sword of Wisdom: MacGregor Mathers & the Golden Dawn. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.

[2] Phillips, Julia (1991) History of Wicca in England: 1939 - present day. Lecture at the Wiccan Conference in Canberra, 1991.

[3] Jenkins, Phillip (2000) Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History, pg. 74. “Also in the 1880s, the tradition of ritual magic was revived in London by a group of Masonic adepts, who formed the Order of the Golden Dawn, which would prove an incalculable influence on the whole subsequent history of occultism.”

USA: Oxford University Press.

[4] Smoley, Richard (1999) Hidden Wisdom: A Guide to the Western Inner Traditions, ppg 102-103. “Founded in 1888, the Golden Dawn lasted a mere twelve years before it was shattered by personal conflicts. At its height it probably had no more than a hundred members. Yet its influence on magic and esoteric thought in the Englishspeaking world would be hard to overestimate.”USA: Quest Books.

[5] Regardie, 1993, page 10

[22] Melton, J. Gordon, editor, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, v. 2 p. 1327, Gale Group, 2001 ISBN 0-8103-9489-8 [23] King, 1989, page 78 [24] King, 1989, page 94 [25] King, 1989, pages 95-96 [26] King, 1989, page 109 [27] King, 1989, page 110 [28] Regardie, 1993, page 33 [29] King, 1971, p. 110-111 [30] King, 1989, page 111 [31]“The Golden Dawn ceased to exist by that name after October, 1901, replaced by Mathers' Alpha et Omega and the London group’s Order of the Morgan Rothe. No longer associated with the SRIA after 1902, Mathers continued to oversee a few temples until his death, when his wife, Moina, assumed supervision.”Samuel Liddel MacGregor Mathers biography, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, February 26, 2001 [32] Golden Dawn Time Line, Chic Cicero and Sandra Tabatha Cicero, Llewellyn Encyclopedia

[6] King, 1989, page 42-43 [7] King, 1989, page 47 [8] Golden Dawn researcher R. A. Gilbert has found evidence which suggests that Westcott was instrumental in developing the Order's rituals from the Cipher Manuscripts.

See Gilbert's article, From Cipher to Enigma: The Role of William Wynn Westcott in the Creation of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, from Carroll Runyon's book Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cypher Manuscripts.

[9] Regardie, 1993, page 92

[33] Gilbert, R. A. Golden Dawn Companion. Aquarian Press, 1986. ISBN 0-85030-436-9 [34] Llewellyn Encyclopedia: “Golden Dawn Time Line” [35] The masonic career of A.E. Waite by Bro. R. A. Gilbert [36] Golden Dawn Research Center - What is the Golden Dawn?

[10] King, 1989, page 43

[37] Weschcke, Carl L., Publisher, Publishers Preface (1982) The Golden Dawn

[11] Regardie, 1993, page 11.

[38] Regardie, 1982, page 16

[12] King, 1997, page 35

[39] Regardie, 1982, foreword - page ix

[13] King, 1989, page 44

[40] Moyle, Franny (2011). Constance: The Tragic and Scandalous Life of Mrs Oscar Wilde. Hachette UK. p. 118.

ISBN 9781848544611.

[14] King, 1989, page 46 [15] Penczak, Christopher. Spirit Allies, p. 27.

Wheel/Weiser Books. ISBN 1-57863-214-5

Red

[41] http://moreintelligentlife.com/story/ conan-doyle-spiritualism

16.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

167

[42] “Frederick Leigh Gardner”, Biographies: Fringe freemasons, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon (Freemasons) web site. Retrieved November 2008.

• King, Francis, ed. (1997). Ritual Magic of the Golden Dawn: Works by S. L. MacGregor Mathers and Others. Destiny Books. ISBN 0-89281-617-1

[43] Ravenscroft, Trevor (1982). The occult power behind the spear which pierced the side of Christ. Red Wheel. p. 165.

ISBN 0-87728-547-0.

• Kuntz, Darcy, ed. (1996). The Complete Golden Dawn Manuscript. Introduction by R.A. Gilbert.

Deciphered, Translated and Preface by Darcy Kuntz. (Golden Dawn Studies No 1.) Holmes Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1558183254

[44] Picknett, Lynn (2004). The Templar Revelation: Secret Guardians of the True Identity of Christ. Simon and Schuster. p. 201. ISBN 0-7432-7325-7.

16.8 Bibliography • Fra. A.o.C. (2002). A Short Treatise on the History, Culture and Practices of The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Retrieved August 3, 2007.

• Armstrong, Allan & R. A. Gilbert, eds. (1997).

Golden Dawn: The Proceedings of the Golden Dawn Conference, London - 1997. Hermetic Research Trust.

• Cicero, Chic and Tabatha Cicero (1991). The New Golden Dawn Ritual Tarot. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-139-3 • Colquhoun, Ithell (1975). Sword of Wisdom: Macgregor Mathers and the Golden Dawn. Neville Spearman. ISBN 0-85435-092-6.

• Greer, Mary K. (1994). Women of the Golden Dawn. Park Street. ISBN 0-89281-516-7.

• Greer, Mary K. & Darcy Kuntz (1999) The Chronology of the Golden Dawn. Holmes Publishing Group.

ISBN 1-55818-354-X • Gilbert, Robert A. (1983). The Golden Dawn: Twilight of the Magicians. The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-278-1 • Gilbert, Robert A. (1986). The Golden Dawn Companion. Weiser Books. ISBN 0-85030-436-9 • Gilbert, Robert A. Golden Dawn Scrapbook - The Rise and Fall of a Magical Order. Weiser Books (1998) ISBN 1-57863-037-1 • Howe, Ellic (1978). The Magicians of the Golden Dawn: A Documentary History of a Magical Order 1887-1923. Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-369-9.

• Jenkins, Phillip (2000) Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512744-7 • King, Francis (1971). The Rites of Modern Occult Magic. New York: Macmillan Company. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 76-158-933 • King, Francis (1989). Modern Ritual Magic: The Rise of Western Occultism. ISBN 1-85327-032-6

• Regardie, Israel, et al., eds. (1982). The Golden Dawn. Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-6646 • Israel Regardie|Regardie, Israel, et al., eds. (1989).

The Golden Dawn: A Complete Course in Practical Ceremonial Magic. Llewellyn. ISBN 0-87542-6638 • Regardie, Israel (1993). What You Should Know About the Golden Dawn (6th ed.). ISBN 1-56184064-5 • Runyon, Carroll (1997). Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cipher Manuscripts. C.H.S. ISBN 0-9654881-2-8 • Smoley, Richard (1999). Hidden Wisdom: A Guide to the Western Inner Traditions. Quest Books. ISBN 978-0-8356-0844-2 • Suster, Gerald (1990). Crowley's Apprentice: The Life and Ideas of Israel Regardie. Weiser Books.

ISBN 0-87728-700-7 • Wasserman, James (2005). The Mystery Traditions: Secret Symbols and Sacred Art. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books. ISBN 1-59477-088-3

16.9 External links • The Golden Dawn FAQ (original from 1990s Usenet groups) • The Golden Dawn Library Project • Golden Dawn entries in Llewellyn Encyclopedia • Golden Dawn Tradition, by co-founder Dr. W. Wynn Westcott • Photocopies and the translation of the original Cipher Manuscripts • Lots of GD material on display in Yeats exhibition including Ritual Notebooks.

• The Golden Dawn Roll Call • Golden Dawn at DMOZ

Chapter 17

Wicca This article is about the duotheistic religion. For other Wicca is typically duotheistic, worshipping a Goddess uses, see Wicca (disambiguation). and a God. These are traditionally viewed as the Moon Wicca (English pronunciation: /ˈwɪkə/), also termed Pa- Goddess and the Horned God, respectively. These deities may be regarded in a henotheistic way, as having many different divine aspects which can in turn be identified with many diverse pagan deities from different historical pantheons. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as the“Great Goddess”and the“Great Horned God” , with the adjective “great”connoting a deity that contains many other deities within their own nature. These two deities are sometimes viewed as facets of a greater pantheistic divinity, which is regarded as an impersonal force or process rather than a personal deity. While duotheism or bitheism is traditional in Wicca, broader Wiccan beliefs range from polytheism to pantheism or monism, even to Goddess monotheism.

This pentacle, worn as a pendant, depicts a pentagram, or fivepointed star, used as a symbol of Wicca by many adherents.

gan Witchcraft, is a contemporary Pagan new religious movement. It was developed in England during the first half of the 20th century and was introduced to the public in 1954 by Gerald Gardner, a retired British civil servant.

Wicca draws upon a diverse set of ancient pagan and 20th century hermetic motifs for its theological structure and ritual practice.

Wicca has no central authority. Its traditional core beliefs, principles and practices were originally outlined in the 1940s and 1950s by Gardner and Doreen Valiente, both in published books as well as in secret written and oral teachings passed along to their initiates. There are many variations on the core structure, and the religion grows and evolves over time. It is divided into a number of diverse lineages, sects and denominations, referred to as traditions, each with its own organizational structure and level of centralisation. Due to its decentralized nature, there is some disagreement over what actually constitutes Wicca. Some traditions, collectively referred to as British Traditional Wicca, strictly follow the initiatory lineage of Gardner and consider the term Wicca to apply only to similar traditions, but not to newer, eclectic traditions.

Wiccan celebrations encompass both the cycles of the Moon, known as Esbats and commonly associated with the Goddess, and the cycles of the Sun, seasonally based festivals known as Sabbats and commonly associated with the Horned God. An unattributed statement known as the Wiccan Rede is a popular expression of Wiccan morality, although it is not accepted by all Wiccans. Wicca often involves the ritual practice of magic, though it is not always necessary.

17.1 Definition and terminology Main article: Etymology of Wicca Scholars of religious studies classify Wicca as a new religious movement,* [1] and more specifically as a form of modern Paganism.* [2] Cited as the largest,* [3] best known,* [4] most influential,* [5] and most extensively academically studied form of Paganism,* [6] within the movement it has been identified as sitting on the former end of the eclectic to reconstructionist spectrum.* [7] Several academics have also categorised Wicca as a form of nature religion, a term that is also embraced by many of the faith's practitioners.* [8] However, given that Wicca also incorporates the practice of magic, several scholars have referred to it as a “magico-religion” .* [9] Wicca is also a form of Western esotericism, and

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17.2. BELIEFS more specifically a part of the esoteric current known as occultism.* [8] Although recognised as a religion by academics, some evangelical Christians have attempted to deny it legal recognition as such, while some Wiccan practitioners themselves eschew the term “religion”– associating the latter purely with organised religion – instead favouring "spirituality" or“way of life”.* [10] Although Wicca as a religion is distinct from other forms of contemporary Paganism, there has been much “crossfertilization”between these different Pagan faiths; accordingly, Wicca has both influenced and been influenced by other Pagan religions, thus making clear-cut distinctions between them more difficult for religious studies scholars to make.* [11] The terms wizard and warlock are generally discouraged in the community.* [12] In Wicca, denominations are referred to as traditions,* [10] while non-Wiccans are often termed cowans.* [13]

Wiccan event in Minnesota, with practitioners carrying a pentagram symbol, 2006

When the religion first came to public attention, it was commonly called “Witchcraft”.* [14]* [lower-alpha 1] For instance, the prominent“Father of Wicca”, Gerald Gardner, referred to it as the “Craft of the Wise”, “witchcraft”, and“the witch-cult”during the 1950s.* [16] It is unclear if he ever called it “Wicca”, although he did refer to the collective community of Pagan Witches as “the Wica”(with one c).* [16] As a name for the religion, “Wicca”developed in Britain during the 1960s.* [10] It is not known who precisely invented the term “Wicca” in reference to the religion, although one possibility is that it might have been Gardner's rival Charles Cardell, who was referring to it as the “Craft of the Wiccens” by 1958.* [17]* [18] The first recorded use of the word “Wicca”appears in 1962,* [19] and it had been popularised to the extent that several British practitioners founded a newsletter called The Wiccan in 1968.* [20] Although pronounced differently, the Modern English term “Wicca”is derived from Middle English wicche, which itself comes from Old English wicca (/ˈwɪttʃɑː/) and wicce (/ˈwɪttʃeɪ/), the masculine term for wizard/sorcerer and the feminine term for witch, respectively, that was used in Anglo-Saxon England.* [21] By adopting it for modern usage, Wiccans were both sym-

169 bolically cementing their connection to the ancient, preChristian past,* [22] and adopting a self-designation that would be less controversial than “Witchcraft”.* [23] In early sources “Wicca”referred to the entirety of the religion rather than specific traditions.* [24] In ensuing decades, members of certain traditions – those known as British Traditional Wicca – began claiming that only they should be termed “Wiccan”, and that other forms of the religion must not use it.* [25] From the late 1980s onwards various books propagating Wicca were published that again used the former, broader definition of the word.* [26] Thus, by the 1980s, there were two competing definitions of the word “Wicca”in use among the Pagan and esoteric communities, one broad and inclusive, the other smaller and exclusionary.* [10] Although there are exceptions, among scholars of Pagan studies it is the older, inclusive use of the term which has gained wider usage.* [10] Conversely, in various forms of popular culture, such as television programs Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Charmed, the word “Wicca”has been used as a synonym for witchcraft more generally, including in non-religious and non-Pagan forms.* [27]* [28] Alongside“Wicca”, two other names often used for the religion by its practitioners are “Witchcraft”and “the Craft”.* [29] However, the Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White noted that the use of the word“Witchcraft” in this context was problematic because the term resulted in the religion being easily confused both with other, nonreligious forms of witchcraft as well as other religions – such as Satanism and Luciferianism – whose practitioners sometimes describe themselves as“Witches”.* [14] Another term that is at times used as a synonym for“Wicca” is“Pagan Witchcraft”,* [14] although Doyle White again critiqued the utility of this term by noting that there were forms of modern Paganism – such as types of Heathenry – which also practiced magic and thus could also be described as “Pagan Witchcraft”.* [30] From the 1990s onward, various Wiccans began describing themselves as "Traditional Witches", although problematically that was a term also employed by practitioners of other magicoreligious traditions such as Luciferianism.* [31]

17.2 Beliefs 17.2.1 Theology Main article: Wiccan views of divinity Theological views within Wicca are diverse, and the religion encompasses theists, atheists, and agnostics, with some viewing the religion's deities as entities with a literal existence and others viewing them as Jungian archetypes or symbols.* [32] Even among theistic Wiccans, there are divergent beliefs, and Wicca includes pantheists, monotheists, duotheists, and polytheists.* [33] Common to these divergent perspectives, however, is that Wicca's deities are viewed as forms of ancient, pre-Christian di-

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CHAPTER 17. WICCA trayed as a Triple Goddess, thereby being a triadic deity comprising a Maiden goddess, a Mother goddess, and a Crone goddess, each of whom has different associations, namely virginity, fertility and wisdom.* [41]* [43] Other Wiccan conceptualisations have portrayed her as a Moon Goddess and as a Mensturating Goddess.* [41]* [44] The Gods are real, not as persons, but as vehicles of power. Briefly, it may be explained that the personification of a particular type of cosmic power in the form of a God or Goddess, carried out by believers and worshippers over many centuries, builds that God-form or Magical Image into a potent reality on the Inner Planes, and makes it a means by which that type of cosmic power may be contacted.

Altar statues of the Horned God and Mother Goddess crafted

by Bel Bucca and owned by the “Mother of Wicca”, Doreen Valiente

vinities by its practitioners.* [34] Most early Wiccan groups adhered to a duotheistic system focused around a Horned God of fertility and a Mother Goddess, with practitioners typically believing that these had been the ancient deities worshipped by the hunter-gatherers of the Old Stone Age, whose veneration had been passed down in secret right to the present.* [32] This theology derived from Margaret Murray's claims about the witch-cult; she claimed that whereas the cult as recorded in the Early Modern witch trials had venerated a Horned God, centuries before it had also worshipped a Mother Goddess.* [34] This duotheistic Horned God/Mother Goddess structure was embraced by Gardner – who claimed that it had Stone Age roots – and remains the underlying theological basis to his Gardnerian tradition.* [35] Gardner claimed that the names of these deities were to be kept secret within the tradition, although in 1964 they were publicly revealed to be Cernunnos and Aradia; the secret Gardnerian deity names were subsequently changed.* [36]

Gerald Gardner (1959)* [41] Gardner stated that beyond Wicca's two deities was the “Supreme Deity”or "Prime Mover", an entity that was too complex for humans to understand.* [45] This belief has been endorsed by other prominent practitioners, who have referred to it as “the Cosmic Logos”, “Supreme Cosmic Power”, or “Godhead”.* [45] Gardner envisioned this Supreme Deity as a deist entity who had created the“Under-Gods”, among them the God and Goddess, but who was not otherwise involved in the world; alternately, other Wiccans have interpreted such an entity as a pantheistic being, of whom the God and Goddess are facets.* [46]

Although Gardner criticised monotheism, citing the Problem of Evil,* [45] explicitly monotheistic forms of Wicca developed in the 1960s, when the U.S.-based Church of Wicca developed a theology rooted in the worship of what they described as “one deity, without gender”.* [47] In the 1970s, Dianic Wiccan groups developed which were devoted to a singular, monotheistic Goddess; this approach was often criticised by members of British Traditional Wiccan groups, who lambasted such Goddess monotheism as an inverted imitation of Christian theology.* [48] As in other forms of Wicca, some Goddess monotheists have expressed the view that Although different Wiccans attribute different traits to the Goddess is not an entity with a literal existence, but the Horned God, he is most often associated with anirather a Jungian archetype.* [49] mals and the natural world, but also with the afterlife, and he is furthermore often viewed as an ideal role model for As well as pantheism and duotheism, many Wiccans acmen.* [37] The Mother Goddess has been associated with cept the concept of polytheism, thereby believing that life, fertility, and the springtime, and has been described there are many different deities. Some accept the view as an ideal role model for women.* [38] Wicca's duothe- espoused by the occultist Dion Fortune that “all gods ism has been compared to the Taoist system of yin and are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess”– that yang.* [34] As such they are often interpreted as being is that the gods and goddesses of all cultures are, re“embodiments of a life-force manifest in nature”.* [39] spectively, aspects of one supernal God and Goddess.

With this mindset, a Wiccan may regard the Germanic Other Wiccans have adopted the original Gardnerian Ēostre, Hindu Kali, and Christian Virgin Mary each as God/Goddess duotheistic structure but have adopted demanifestations of one supreme Goddess and likewise, the ity forms other than that of the Horned God and Mother Celtic Cernunnos, the ancient Greek Dionysus and the * Goddess. [40] For instance, the God has been interpreted Judeo-Christian Yahweh as aspects of a single, archetyas the Oak King and the Holly King, as well as the Sun pal god. A more strictly polytheistic approach holds the * God, Son/Lover God, and Vegetation God. [41] He has various goddesses and gods to be separate and distinct enalso been seen in the roles of the Leader of the Wild Hunt tities in their own right. The Wiccan writers Janet Farrar * and the Lord of Death. [42] The Goddess is often por-

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Beltane altar

to benefit from the process, and so one may as well concentrate on the present”.* [57] Although there are practitioners who do not believe in any form of afterlife,* [58] it is nevertheless a common belief among Wiccans that human beings have a spirit or soul that survives bodily death.* [55] Understandings of what this soul constitutes vary among different traditions, with Feri Wicca for instance having adopted a belief from Hawaiian religion Sculpture of the Horned God of Wicca found in the Museum of that the human being has three souls.* [55] Witchcraft in Boscastle, Cornwall

and Gavin Bone have postulated that Wicca is becoming more polytheistic as it matures, tending to embrace a more traditionally pagan worldview.* [50] Some Wiccans conceive of deities not as literal personalities but as metaphorical archetypes or thoughtforms, thereby technically allowing them to be atheists.* [51] Such a view was purported by the High Priestess Vivianne Crowley, herself a psychologist, who considered the Wiccan deities to be Jungian archetypes that existed within the subconscious that could be evoked in ritual. It was for this reason that she said that “The Goddess and God manifest to us in dream and vision.”* [52]

Although not accepted by all Wiccans, a belief in reincarnation is the dominant afterlife belief within Wicca, having been originally espoused by Gardner.* [55] Understandings of how the cycle of reincarnation operates differ among practitioners; the prominent Wiccan Raymond Buckland for instance insisted that the souls of humans would only ever incarnate into human bodies, whereas other Wiccans believe that the soul of a human can incarnate into any other life form.* [59] There is also a common Wiccan belief that any Witches will come to be reincarnated as future Witches, an idea originally expressed by Gardner.* [59] Gardner also articulated the view that the human soul rested for a period between bodily death and its incarnation, with this resting place commonly being referred to as The Summerland among the Wiccan community.* [55] This allows many Wiccans to believe that mediums are able to contact the spirits of the deceased, a belief that it adopted from Spiritualism.* [55]

Many Wiccans also adopt a more explicitly polytheistic or animistic world-view of the universe as being replete with spirit-beings.* [53] In many cases these spirits are associated with the natural world, for instance as genius loci, fairies, and elementals.* [54] In other cases, such beliefs are more idiosyncratic and atypical; the prominent Wiccan Sybil Leek for instance endorsed a belief in 17.2.3 Magic angels.* [54] Many Wiccans believe in magic, a manipulative force exercised through the practice of witchcraft or sorcery.

17.2.2 Afterlife Many Wiccans agree with the definition of magic offered by ceremonial magicians,* [60] such as Aleister Crowley, * * Belief in the afterlife varies among Wiccans [55] [56] who declared that magic was“the science and art of causand does not occupy a central place within the reli- ing change to occur in conformity with will”, while angion.* [55] As the historian Ronald Hutton remarked, other prominent ceremonial magician, MacGregor Math“the instinctual position of most [Wiccans]... seems to ers stated that it was “the science of the control of the be that if one makes the most of the present life, in all secret forces of nature”.* [60] Many Wiccans believe respects, then the next life is more or less certainly going magic to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood or dis-

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regarded by contemporary science,* [60] and as such they do not view it as being supernatural, but a part of what Leo Martello calls the “super powers that reside in the natural”.* [61] Some Wiccans believe that magic is simply making full use of the five senses in order to achieve surprising results,* [61] whilst other Wiccans do not claim to know how magic works, merely believing that it does because they have observed it to be so.* [62] Some spell it “magick”, a variation coined by the influential occultist Aleister Crowley, though this spelling is more commonly associated with Crowley's religion of Thelema than with Wicca.

The point [of magic in Witchcraft] is to make the“bendable”world bend to your will ... Unless you possess a rock-firm faith in your own powers and in the operability of your spell, you will not achieve the burning intensity of will and imagination which is requisite to make the magic work.

Paul Huson (1970)* [63] During ritual practices, which are often staged in a sacred circle, Wiccans cast spells or “workings”intended to bring about real changes in the physical world. Common Wiccan spells include those used for healing, for protection, fertility, or to banish negative influences.* [64] Many early Wiccans, such as Alex Sanders, Sybil Leek and Alex Winfield, referred to their own magic as "white magic", which contrasted with "black magic", which they associated with evil and Satanism. Sanders also used the similar terminology of "left hand path" to describe malevolent magic, and "right hand path" to describe magic performed with good intentions;* [65] terminology that had originated with the occultist Helena Blavatsky in the 19th century. Some modern Wiccans however have stopped using the white-black magic and left-right hand path dichotomies, arguing for instance that the colour black should not necessarily have any associations with evil.* [66] Scholars of religion Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge claimed in 1985 that Wicca had “reacted to secularisation by a headlong plunge back into magic”and that it was a reactionary religion which would soon die out. This view was heavily criticised in 1999 by the historian Ronald Hutton who claimed that the evidence displayed the very opposite: that “a large number [of Wiccans] were in jobs at the cutting edge [of scientific culture], such as computer technology.”* [67]

Lady Gwen Thompson* [68] There exists no dogmatic moral or ethical code followed universally by Wiccans of all traditions, however a majority follow a code known as the Wiccan Rede, which states“an it harm none, do what ye will”. This is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of taking responsibility for what follows from one's actions and minimising harm to oneself and others.* [69] Another common element of Wiccan morality is the Law of Threefold Return which holds that whatever benevolent or malevolent actions a person performs will return to that person with triple force, or with equal force on each of the three levels of body, mind and spirit,* [70] similar to the eastern idea of karma. The Wiccan Rede was most likely introduced into Wicca by Gerald Gardner and formalised publicly by Doreen Valiente, one of his High Priestesses. The Threefold Law was an interpretation of Wiccan ideas and ritual, made by Monique Wilson* [71] and further popularised by Raymond Buckland, in his books on Wicca.

Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate a set of eight virtues mentioned in Doreen Valiente's Charge of the Goddess,* [72] these being mirth, reverence, honour, humility, strength, beauty, power, and compassion. In Valiente's poem, they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a dualism that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. Some lineaged Wiccans also observe a set of Wiccan Laws, commonly called the Craft Laws or Ardanes, 30 of which exist in the Gardnerian tradition and 161 of which are in the Alexandrian tradition. Valiente, one of Gardner's original High Priestesses, argued that the first thirty of these rules were most likely invented

by Gerald Gardner himself in mock-archaic language as the by-product of inner conflict within his Bricket Wood coven* [73]* [67] – the others were later additions made

by Alex Sanders during the 1960s.

Although Gerald Gardner initially demonstrated an aversion to homosexuality, claiming that it brought down “the curse of the goddess”,* [74] it is now generally accepted in all traditions of Wicca, with certain groups like the Minoan Brotherhood openly crafting their philosophy around it,* [75] and various important figures in the Craft, such as Alex Sanders and Eddie Buczynski, being openly homosexual or bisexual.

17.2.5 Five elements 17.2.4

Morality

Many traditions hold a belief in the five classical elements, although they are seen as symbolic as represenMain article: Wiccan morality tations of the phases of matter. These five elements are invoked during many magical rituals, notably when conBide the Wiccan laws ye must, in perfect love and perfect secrating a magic circle. The five elements are air, fire, trust ... Mind the Threefold Law ye should – three times water, earth, and aether (or spirit). Aether unites the other bad and three times good ... Eight words the Wiccan Rede four.* [76] Various analogies have been devised to explain the concept of the five elements; for instance, the Wiccan fulfill – an it harm none, do what ye will.

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A Wiccan altar erected at Beltane.

17.3 Practices Five elements with pentagram

Ann-Marie Gallagher used that of a tree, which is composed of earth (with the soil and plant matter), water (sap and moisture), fire (through photosynthesis) and air (the creation of oxygen from carbon dioxide), all of which are believed to be united through spirit.* [77] Darksome Night and Shining Moon, East and South and West and North, Hearken to the Witches' Rune; Hear me now, I call thee forth.

Doreen Valiente Traditionally in the Gardnerian Craft, each element has been associated with a cardinal point of the compass; air with east, fire with south, water with west, earth with north, and the spirit with centre.* [78] However, some Wiccans, such as Frederic Lamond, have claimed that the set cardinal points are only those applicable to the geography of southern England, where Wicca evolved, and that Wiccans should determine which directions best suit each element in their region. For instance, those living on the east coast of North America should invoke water in the east and not the west because the colossal body of water, the Atlantic ocean, is to their east.* [79] Other Craft groups have associated the elements with different cardinal points, for instance Robert Cochrane's Clan of Tubal Cain associated earth with south, fire with east, water with west and air with north,* [80] and each of which were controlled over by a different deity who were seen as children of the primary Horned God and Goddess. The five elements are symbolised by the five points of the pentagram, the most prominently used symbol of Wicca.* [81]

The Neopagan researcher and High Priestess Margot Adler, who defined ritual as being “one method of reintegrating individuals and groups into the cosmos, and to tie in the activities of daily life with their ever present, often forgotten, significance”noted that rituals, celebrations and rites of passage in Wicca are not “dry, formalised, repetitive experiences”, but are performed with the purpose of inducing a religious experience in the participants, thereby altering their consciousness.* [82] She noted that many Wiccans remain sceptical about the existence of the gods, afterlife etc but remain involved in the Craft because of its ritual experiences, with one, Glenna Turner, saying that “I love myth, dream, visionary art.

The Craft is a place where all of these things fit together – beauty, pageantry, music, dance, song, dream.”* [83] The High Priest and Craft historian Aidan Kelly claimed that the practices and experiences within Wicca were actually far more important than the beliefs, stating that “it's a religion of ritual rather than theology. The ritual is first; the myth is second. And taking an attitude that the myths of the Craft are 'true history' in the way a fundamentalist looks at the legends of Genesis really seems crazy. It's an alien head-space.”* [84] Similarly, Adler stated that “ironically, considering the many pronouncements against Witchcraft as a threat to reason, the Craft is one of the few religious viewpoints totally compatible with modern science, allowing total scepticism about even its own methods, myths and rituals”.* [85]

17.3.1 Ritual practices Main article: Magical tools in Wicca The practice of Wicca often involves the ritual practice of magic, ranging from the“low magic”or“folk magic”of shamanism and witchcraft to more elaborate and complex rites influenced by the ceremonial magic of the Western Hermetic Tradition.

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CHAPTER 17. WICCA fast for the day, and/or ritually bathe. After a ritual has finished, the God, Goddess and Guardians are thanked, the directions are dismissed and the circle is closed.

A central aspect of Wicca (particularly in Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca), often sensationalised by the media is the traditional practice of working in the nude, also known as skyclad. This practice seemingly derives from a line in Aradia, Charles Leland's supposed record of Italian witchcraft.* [88] Other traditions wear robes with cords tied around the waist or even normal street clothes.

In certain traditions, ritualised sex magic is performed in the form of the Great Rite, whereby a High Priest and High Priestess invoke the God and Goddess to possess them before performing sexual intercourse to raise magical energy for use in spellwork. In nearly all cases it is Athame, ritual knife or dagger used in Wiccan practices instead performed “in token”, thereby merely symbolically, using the athame to symbolise the penis and the There are many rituals within Wicca that are used when chalice to symbolise the womb.* [89] celebrating the Sabbats, worshipping the deities and One of Wicca's best known liturgical texts is“The Charge working magic. Often these take place on a full moon, or of the Goddess”.* [42] The most commonly used verin some cases a new moon, which is known as an Esbat. In sion used by Wiccans today is the rescension of Doreen typical rites, the coven or solitary assembles inside a rituValiente,* [42] who developed it from Gardner's version. ally cast and purified magic circle. Casting the circle may Gardner's wording of the original “Charge”added exinvolve the invocation of the“Guardians”of the cardinal tracts from the works of Aleister Crowley's work, inpoints, alongside their respective classical elements; air, cluding The Book of the Law, (especially from Ch 1, fire, water and earth. Once the circle is cast, a seasonal spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess) thus linking modern ritual may be performed, prayers to the God and Goddess Wicca irrevocably to the revelations of Thelema. Vaare said, and spells are sometimes worked; these may inliente rewrote Gardner's version in verse, keeping the maclude various forms of 'raising energy', including raising terial derived from Aradia, but removing the material a cone of power for the purposes of sending healing or from Crowley.* [90] other magic to persons outside of the sacred space.

The classical ritual scheme in British Traditional Wicca traditions is:* [86] 17.3.2

Wheel of the Year

1. Purification of the sacred space and the participants Main article: Wheel of the Year 2. Casting the circle 3. Calling of the elemental quarters 4. Cone of power 5. Drawing down the Gods 6. Spellcasting 7. Great Rite 8. Wine, cakes, chanting, dancing, games 9. Farewell to the quarters and participants These rites often include a special set of magical tools.

These usually include a knife called an athame, a wand, a pentacle and a chalice, but other tools include a broomstick known as a besom, a cauldron, candles, incense and a curved blade known as a boline. An altar is usually present in the circle, on which ritual tools are placed and representations of the God and the Goddess may be displayed.* [87] Before entering the circle, some traditions

Wiccans celebrate several seasonal festivals of the year, commonly known as Sabbats. Collectively, these occasions are termed the Wheel of the Year.* [72] Most Wiccans celebrate a set of eight of these Sabbats; however, other groups such as those associated with the Clan of Tubal Cain only follow four. In the rare case of the Ros an Bucca group from Cornwall, only six are adhered to.* [91] The four Sabbats that are common to all British derived groups are the cross-quarter days, sometimes referred to as Greater Sabbats. The names of these festivals are in some cases taken from the Old Irish fire festivals,* [92] though in most traditional Wiccan covens the only commonality with the Celtic festival is the name. Gardner himself made use of the English names of these holidays, stating that“the four great Sabbats are Candlemass [sic], May Eve, Lammas, and Halloween; the equinoxes and solstices are celebrated also.”* [93] In the Egyptologist Margaret Murray's The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) and The God of the Witches (1933), in which she dealt with what she believed to be a historical WitchCult, she stated that the four main festivals had survived

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Painted Wheel of the Year at the Museum of Witchcraft, Boscastle, Cornwall, England, displaying all eight of the Sabbats Bust of Diana wearing a moon crown

Christianisation and had been celebrated in the pagan Witchcraft religion. Subsequently, when Wicca was first developing in the 1930s through to the 1960s, many of the early groups, such as Robert Cochrane's Clan of Tubal Cain and Gerald Gardner's Bricket Wood coven adopted the commemoration of these four Sabbats as described

by Murray.

The other four festivals commemorated by many Wiccans are known as Lesser Sabbats, and comprise the solstices and the equinoxes, and were only adopted in 1958 by members of the Bricket Wood coven,* [94] before subsequently being adopted by other followers of the Gardnerian tradition, and eventually other traditions like Alexandrian Wicca and the Dianic tradition. The names of these holidays that are commonly used today are often taken from Germanic pagan holidays. However, the festivals are not reconstructive in nature nor do they often resemble their historical counterparts, instead exhibiting a form of universalism. Rituals observed may display cultural influence from the holidays from which they take their name as well as influence from other unrelated cultures.* [95]

17.3.3

Rites of passage

Various rites of passage can be found within Wicca. Perhaps the most significant of these is an initiation ritual, through which somebody joins the Craft and becomes a Wiccan. In British Traditional Wiccan (BTW) traditions, there is a line of initiatory descent that goes back to Gerald Gardner, and from him is said to go back to the New Forest coven; however, the existence of this

coven remains unproven.* [98] Gardner himself claimed that there was a traditional length of“a year and a day”between when a person began studying the Craft and when they were initiated, although he frequently broke this rule with initiates.

In BTW, initiation only accepts someone into the first degree. To proceed to the second degree, an initiate has to go through another ceremony, in which they name and describe the uses of the ritual tools and implements. It is also at this ceremony that they are given their craft name. By holding the rank of second degree, a BTW is considered capable of initiating others into the Craft, or founding their own semi-autonomous covens. The third degree is the highest in BTW, and it involves the participation of the Great Rite, either actual or symbolically, and in some cases ritual flagellation. which is a rite often dispensed with due to its sado-masochistic overtones.

By holding this rank, an initiate is considered capable of forming covens that are entirely autonomous of their parent coven.* [99]* [100] According to new-age religious scholar James R. Lewis, in his book Witchcraft today: an encyclopaedia of Wiccan and neopagan traditions, a high priestess becomes a queen when she has successfully hived off her first new coven under a new third-degree high priestess (in the orthodox Gardnerian system). She then becomes eligible to wear the “moon crown”. The sequence of high priestess and queens traced back to Gerald Gardner is known as a lineage, and every orthodox Gardnerian High Priestess has a set of“lineage papers”proving the authenticity

176 of her status.* [101]

CHAPTER 17. WICCA

17.3.4 Book of Shadows Main article: Book of Shadows

Handfasting ceremony at Avebury in England, Beltane 2005

In Wicca, there is no set sacred text such as the Christian Bible, Jewish Tanakh, Hindu Gita or Islamic Quran, although there are certain scriptures and texts that various traditions hold to be important and influence their beliefs and practices. Gerald Gardner used a book containing many different texts in his covens, known as the Book of Shadows (among other names), which he would frequently add to and adapt. In his Book of Shadows, there are texts taken from various sources, including Charles Godfrey Leland's Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches (1899) and the works of 19th–20th century occultist Aleister Crowley, whom Gardner knew personally. Also in the Book are examples of poetry largely composed by Gardner and his High Priestess Doreen Valiente, the most notable of which is the Charge of the Goddess.

The Book of Shadows is not a Bible or Quran. It is a personal cookbook of spells that have worked for the owner.

I am giving you mine to copy to get you started: as you gain experience discard those spells that don't work for you and substitute those that you have thought of yourselves.

This three-tier degree system following initiation is largely unique to BTW, and traditions heavily based upon it. The Cochranian tradition, which is not BTW, but based upon the teachings of Robert Cochrane, does not have the three degrees of initiation, merely having the stages of novice and initiate.

Gerald Gardner to his followers* [105] Some solitary Wiccans also perform self-initiation rituals, to dedicate themselves to becoming a Wiccan.

The first of these to be published was in Paul Huson's Mastering Witchcraft (1970), and unusually involved recitation of the Lord's Prayer backwards as a symbol of defiance against the historical Witch Hunt.* [102] Subsequent, more overtly pagan self-initiation rituals have since been published in books designed for solitary Wiccans by authors like Doreen Valiente, Scott Cunningham and Silver RavenWolf.

Handfasting is another celebration held by Wiccans, and is the commonly used term for their weddings. Some Wiccans observe the practice of a trial marriage for a year and a day, which some traditions hold should be contracted on the Sabbat of Lughnasadh, as this was the traditional time for trial, "Telltown marriages”among the Irish. A common marriage vow in Wicca is “for as long as love lasts”instead of the traditional Christian“till death do us part”.* [103] The first known Wiccan wedding ceremony took part in 1960 amongst the Bricket Wood coven, between Frederic Lamond and his first wife, Gillian.* [67]

Similar in use to the grimoires of ceremonial magicians,* [106] the Book contained instructions for how to perform rituals and spells, as well as religious poetry and chants like Eko Eko Azarak to use in those rituals. Gardner's original intention was that every copy of the Book would be different, because a student would copy from their initiators, but changing things which they felt to be personally ineffective, however amongst many Gardnerian Witches today, particularly in the United States, all copies of the Book are kept identical to the version that the High Priestess Monique Wilson copied from Gardner, with nothing being altered. The Book of Shadows was originally meant to be kept a secret from non-initiates into BTW, but parts of the Book have been published by authors including Charles Cardell, Lady Sheba, Janet Farrar and Stewart Farrar.* [86]* [107]

Today, adherents of many non-BTW traditions have also adopted the concept of the Book of Shadows, with many solitaries also keeping their own versions, sometimes including material taken from the published Gardnerian Book of Shadows. In other traditions however, practices Infants in Wiccan families may be involved in a ritual are never written down, meaning that there is no need for called a Wiccaning, which is analogous to a Christening. a Book of Shadows.

The purpose of this is to present the infant to the God In certain Traditional Witchcraft traditions, different and Goddess for protection. Parents are advised to“give forms of literature are used, for instance in the 1734 [their] children the gift of Wicca”in a manner suitable to Tradition, the published articles of Robert Cochrane their age. In accordance with the importance put on free along with letters he wrote to Joseph Wilson, Robert will in Wicca, the child is not expected or required to ad- Graves* [108] and others are held in high esteem* [109] here to Wicca or other forms of paganism should they not whilst in the Sabbatic tradition, various grimoires are followed, such as the Azoetia of Andrew Chumbley. wish to do so when they reach adulthood.* [104]

17.4. TRADITIONS

177

17.4 Traditions

itself back to Victor Anderson and Gwydion Pendderwen; and Dianic Wicca, whose followers often trace their influSee also: List of Wiccan organisations and Category: ences back to Zsuzsanna Budapest. Some of these groups prefer to refer to themselves as Witches, thereby distinWiccan traditions In the 1950s through to the 1970s, when the Wiccan guishing themselves from the BTW traditions, who more typically use the term Wiccan (see Etymology).

Many traditions, including those of British Traditional Wicca, require formal initiation within an established coven for membership of their respective traditions. In this manner, all BTW's can trace a direct line of descent all the way back to Gardner. Other traditions, however, do not hold this to be necessary.

Wicca has also been“customized”to the various different national contexts into which it has been introduced; for instance, in Ireland, the veneration of ancient Irish deities has been incorporated into Wicca.* [112]

17.4.1 Covens Lineaged Wicca is organised into covens of initiated priests and priestesses. Covens are autonomous, and are generally headed by a High Priest and a High Priestess working in partnership, being a couple who have each been through their first, second and third degrees of initiation. Occasionally the leaders of a coven are only second-degree initiates, in which case they come under the rule of the parent coven. Initiation and training of new priesthood is most often performed within a coven environment, but this is not a necessity, and a few initiated Wiccans are unaffiliated with any coven.* [113]

A Wiccan couple getting handfasted

movement was largely confined to lineaged groups such as Gardnerian Wicca, a “tradition”usually implied the transfer of a lineage by initiation. However, with the rise of more and more such groups, often being founded by those with no previous initiatory lineage, the term came to be a synonym for a religious denomination within Wicca. There are many such traditions* [110]* [111] and there are also many solitary practitioners who do not align themselves with any particular lineage, working alone.

There are also covens that have formed but who do not follow any particular tradition, instead choosing their influences and practices eclectically.

Those traditions which trace a line of initiatory descent back to Gerald Gardner include Gardnerian Wicca, Alexandrian Wicca and the Algard tradition; because of their joint history, they are often referred to as British Traditional Wicca, particularly in North America. Other traditions trace their origins to different figures, even if their beliefs and practices have been influenced to a greater or lesser extent by Gardner. These include Cochrane's Craft and the 1734 Tradition, both of which trace their origins to Robert Cochrane; Feri, which traces

A commonly quoted Wiccan tradition holds that the ideal number of members for a coven is thirteen, though this is not held as a hard-and-fast rule.* [113] Indeed, many U.S. covens are far smaller, though the membership may be augmented by unaffiliated Wiccans at“open”rituals.

When covens grow beyond their ideal number of members, they often split (or “hive”) into multiple covens, yet remain connected as a group.* [114] Initiation into a coven is traditionally preceded by an apprenticeship period of a year and a day.* [115] A course of study may be set during this period. In some covens a “dedication”ceremony may be performed during this period, some time before the initiation proper, allowing the person to attend certain rituals on a probationary basis. Some solitary Wiccans also choose to study for a year and a day before their self-dedication to the religion.

17.4.2 Eclectic Wicca A large number of Wiccans do not exclusively follow any single tradition or even are initiated. These eclectic Wiccans each create their own syncretic spiritual paths by adopting and reinventing the beliefs and rituals of a variety of religious traditions connected to Wicca and broader Paganism.

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While the origins of modern Wiccan practice lie in covenantal activity of select few initiates in established lineages, eclectic Wiccans are more often than not solitary practitioners uninitiated in any tradition. A widening public appetite, especially in the United States, made traditional initiation unable to satisfy demand for involvement in Wicca. Since the 1970s, larger, more informal, often publicly advertised camps and workshops began to take place.* [116] This less formal but more accessible form of Wicca proved successful. Eclectic Wicca is the most popular variety of Wicca in America* [117] and eclectics now significantly outnumber lineaged Wiccans.

theory had been first expressed by the German Professor Karl Ernest Jarcke in 1828, before being endorsed

by German Franz Josef Mone and then the French historian Jules Michelet. * [124] In the late 19th century it was then adopted by two Americans, Matilda Joslyn Gage and Charles Leland, the latter of whom promoted a variant of it in his 1899 book, Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches.* [125] The theory's most prominent advocate was the English Egyptologist Margaret Murray, who promoted it in a series of books – most notably 1921's The Witch-Cult in Western Europe and 1933's The God of the Witches – and in her entry on “witchcraft” for the Encyclopædia Britannica.* [126]* [123] The witchcult theory represented “the historical narrative around which Wicca built itself”, with the early Wiccans claiming to be the survivors of this ancient pagan religion.* [127]

Eclectic Wicca is not necessarily the complete abandonment of tradition. Eclectic practitioners may follow their own individual ideas and ritual practices, while still drawing on one or more religious or philosophical paths.

Eclectic approaches to Wicca often draw on Earth reli- Other influences upon early Wicca included varigion and ancient Egyptian, Greek, Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, ous Western esoteric traditions and practices, among Celtic, Asian, Jewish, and Polynesian traditions.* [118] them ceremonial magic, Aleister Crowley and his religion of Thelema, Freemasonry, Spiritualism, and Theosophy.* [128] To a lesser extent, Wicca also drew upon folk magic and the practices of cunning folk.* [129] 17.5 History It was further influenced both by scholarly works on folkloristics, particularly James Frazer's The Golden Main article: History of Wicca Bough, as well as romanticist writings like Robert Graves' The White Goddess, and pre-existing modern Pagan groups such as the Order of Woodcraft Chivalry and Druidism.* [130]

17.5.1

Origins, 1921–1935

It was during the 1930s that the first evidence appears for the practice of a pagan Witchcraft religion* [131] (what would be recognisable now as Wicca) in England. It seems that several groups around the country, in such places as Norfolk,* [132] Cheshire* [133] and the New Forest had set themselves up as continuing in the tradition of Murray's Witch-Cult, albeit with influences coming from disparate sources such as ceremonial magic, folk magic, Freemasonry, Theosophy, Romanticism, Druidry, classical mythology and Asian religions.

“Wicca originated in the early decades of the twentieth century among those esoterically inclined Britons who wanted to resurrect the faith of their ancient forebears, and arose to public attention in the 1950s and 1960s, largely due to a small band of dedicated followers who were insistent on presenting their faith to what at times was a very hostile world. From these humble beginnings, this radical religion spread to the United States, where it found a comfortable bedfellow in the form of the 1960s counter-culture and came to be championed by those sectors of the women's and gay liberation movements seek- 17.5.2 ing a spiritual escape from Christian hegemony.”

—Religious studies scholar Ethan Doyle White* [2] Wicca was founded in England between 1921 and 1950,* [119] representing what the historian Ronald Hutton called “the only full-formed religion which England can be said to have given the world”.* [120] Characterised as an "invented tradition" by scholars,* [121] Wicca was created from the patchwork adoption of various older elements, many taken from pre-existing religious and esoteric movements.* [122] Wicca took as its basis the witch-cult hypothesis, the idea that those persecuted as witches during the early modern period in Europe were not, as the persecutors had claimed, followers of Satanism, but adherents of a surviving pre-Christian pagan religion.* [119]* [123] This

Early development, 1936–1959

The history of modern Wicca starts with Gerald Gardner (the “Father of Wicca”) in the mid-20th century. Gardner was a retired British civil servant and amateur anthropologist, with a broad familiarity in paganism and occultism. He claimed to have been initiated into a witches' coven in New Forest, Hampshire, in the late 1930s. Intent on perpetuating this craft, Gardner founded the Bricket Wood coven with his wife Donna in the 1940s, after buying the Naturist Fiveacres Country Club.* [134] Much of the coven's early membership was drawn from the club's members* [135] and its meetings were held within the club grounds.* [136]* [137] Many notable figures of early Wicca were direct initiates of this coven, including Dafo, Doreen Valiente, Jack Bracelin, Frederic Lamond, Dayonis, Eleanor Bone and Lois Bourne.

17.6. DEBATES OVER THE ORIGIN OF WICCA The Witchcraft religion became more prominent beginning in 1951, with the repeal of the Witchcraft Act of 1735, after which Gerald Gardner and then others such as Charles Cardell and Cecil Williamson began publicising their own versions of the Craft. Gardner and others never used the term“Wicca”as a religious identifier, simply referring to the“witch cult”,“witchcraft”, and the “Old Religion”. However, Gardner did refer to witches as“the Wica”.* [138] During the 1960s, the name of the religion normalised to“Wicca”.* [139]* [140] Gardner's tradition, later termed Gardnerianism, soon became the dominant form in England and spread to other parts of the British Isles.

17.5.3

Adaptation and spread, present

1960–

Following Gardner's death in 1964, the Craft continued to grow unabated despite sensationalism and negative portrayals in British tabloids, with new traditions being propagated by figures like Robert Cochrane, Sybil Leek and most importantly Alex Sanders, whose Alexandrian Wicca, which was predominantly based upon Gardnerian Wicca, albeit with an emphasis placed on ceremonial magic, spread quickly and gained much media attention.

Around this time, the term “Wicca”began to be commonly adopted over “Witchcraft”and the faith was exported to countries like Australia and the United States.

It was in the United States and in Australia that new, home-grown traditions, sometimes based upon earlier, regional folk-magical traditions and often mixed with the basic structure of Gardnerian Wicca, began to develop, including Victor Anderson's Feri Tradition, Joseph Wilson's 1734 Tradition, Aidan Kelly's New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn and eventually Zsuzsanna Budapest's Dianic Wicca, each of which emphasised different aspects of the faith.* [141] It was also around this time that books teaching people how to become Witches themselves without formal initiation or training began to emerge, among them Paul Huson's Mastering Witchcraft (1970) and Lady Sheba's Book of Shadows (1971). Similar books continued to be published throughout the 1980s and 1990s, fuelled by the writings of such authors as Doreen Valiente, Janet Farrar, Stewart Farrar and Scott Cunningham, who popularised the idea of self-initiation into the Craft. Among witches in Canada, anthropologist Dr. Heather Botting (nee Harden) of the University of Victoria has been one of the most prominent, having been the first recognized Wiccan chaplain of a public university.* [142] Original high priestess of Coven Celeste, she is one of the founders of the Canadian Aquarian Tabernacle Church.* [143] In the 1990s, amid ever-rising numbers of self-initiates, the popular media began to explore “witchcraft”in fictional films like The Craft and television series like Charmed, introducing numbers of young people to the

179 idea of religious witchcraft. This growing demographic was soon catered to through the Internet and by authors like Silver RavenWolf, much to the criticism of traditional Wiccan groups and individuals. In response to the way that Wicca was increasingly portrayed as trendy, eclectic, and influenced by the New Age movement, many Witches turned to the pre-Gardnerian origins of the Craft, and to the traditions of his rivals like Cardell and Cochrane, describing themselves as following “Traditional Witchcraft”. Prominent groups within this Traditional Witchcraft revival included Andrew Chumbley's Cultus Sabbati and the Cornish Ros an Bucca coven.

17.6 Debates over the origin of Wicca According to Gerald Gardner's account in Witchcraft Today and The Meaning of Witchcraft, Wicca is the survival of a European witch-cult that was persecuted during the witch trials.* [144] Theories of an organised panEuropean witch-cult, as well as mass trials thereof, have been largely discredited, but it is still common for Wiccans to claim solidarity with witch trial victims.* [145] The notion of the survival of Wiccan traditions and rituals from ancient sources is contested by most recent researchers, who suggest that Wicca is a 20th-century creation which combines elements of freemasonry and 19th-century occultism.* [146] However, historians such as Ronald Hutton have noted that Wicca not only predates the modern New Age movement but also differs markedly in its general philosophy.* [67] In his 1999 book The Triumph of the Moon, Bristol University history professor Ronald Hutton researched the Wiccan claim that ancient pagan customs have survived into modern times after being Christianised in medieval times as folk practices. Hutton found that most of the folk customs which are claimed to have pagan roots (such as the Maypole dance) actually date from the Middle Ages. He concluded that the idea that medieval revels were pagan in origin is a legacy of the Protestant Reformation.* [67]* [147] Modern scholarly investigations have concluded that Witch trials were substantially fewer than the number claimed by Gardner, and seldom held at the behest of religious authorities. For example, in the 1996 book Witches and Neighbors, Robin Briggs examines the history of witchcraft in medieval Europe and refutes the widelytold story that large numbers of independent women were burned at the stake by vindictive Christian ecclesiastics for the crime of practising naturalistic healing or neopagan religion. Most scholars estimate that a total of 40,000 people were executed as witches during the entire medieval period, and that church authorities participated reluctantly in this process, which was largely fuelled by the political turmoil of the Reformation.* [148]* [149]

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17.7 Demographics Main article: Demographics of Paganism The actual number of Wiccans worldwide is unknown, and it has been noted that it is more difficult to establish the numbers of members of Neopagan faiths than many other religions due to their disorganised structure.* [150] However, Adherents.com, an independent website which specialises in collecting estimates of world religions, cites over thirty sources with estimates of numbers of Wiccans (principally from the USA and the UK). From this, they developed a median estimate of 800,000 members.* [151] As of 2016, Doyle White suggested that there were “hundreds of thousands of practising Wiccans around the globe”.* [2] [The average Wiccan is] a man in his forties, or a woman in her thirties, Caucasian, reasonably well educated, not The use of the inverted pentagram by the Church of Satan has earning much but probably not too concerned about mate- contributed to the misidentification of Wiccans as Satanists. rial things, someone that demographers would call lower middle class.

Leo Ruickbie (2004)* [152] In the United States, the American Religious Identification Survey has shown significant increases in the number of self-identified Wiccans, from 8,000 in 1990, to 134,000 in 2001, and 342,000 in 2008.* [153] Wiccans have also made up significant proportions of various groups within that country; for instance, Wicca is the largest non-Christian faith practised in the United States Air Force, with 1,434 airmen identifying themselves as such.* [154] In the United Kingdom, census figures on religion were first collected in 2001; no detailed statistics were reported outside of the six main religions.* [155] For the 2011 census a more detailed breakdown of responses was reported with 56,620 people identifying themselves as Pagans, 11,766 as Wiccans and a further 1,276 describing their religion as “Witchcraft”.* [156]

17.8 Acceptance of Wiccans

termed “coming out of the broom-closet”.* [158] In a similar way, some people have accused Wicca of being anti-Christian, a claim disputed by Wiccans such as Doreen Valiente, who stated that whilst she knew many Wiccans who admired Jesus,“witches have little respect for the doctrines of the churches, which they regard as a lot of man-made dogma”.* [159] The religious studies scholar Graham Harvey noted that “the popular and prevalent media image [of Wicca] is mostly inaccurate”.* [160] In the United States, a number of legal decisions have improved and validated the status of Wiccans, especially Dettmer v. Landon in 1986. However, Wiccans have encountered opposition from some politicians and Christian organisations,* [161]* [162] including former president of the United States George W. Bush, who stated that he did not believe Wicca to be a religion.* [163]* [164]

In 2007 the United States Department of Veterans Affairs after years of dispute added the Pentagram to the list of Main article: Religious discrimination against Neopagans emblems of belief that can be included on governmentissued markers, headstones, and plaques honoring de* Wicca emerged in a predominantly Christian country, ceased veterans. [165] and from its inception suffered opposition from certain In Canada, Dr. Heather Botting (“Lady Aurora”) and Christian groups and from the popular tabloids like the Dr. Gary Botting “ ( Pan”), the original high priestess and News of the World. Some Christians still believe that high priest of Coven Celeste and founding elders of the Wicca is a form of Satanism, despite important differ- Aquarian Tabernacle Church, successfully campaigned ences between these religions.* [157] Detractors typically the British Columbian government and the federal govdepict Wicca as a form of malevolent Satanism.* [13] Due ernment in 1995 to allow them to perform recognised to negative connotations associated with witchcraft, many Wiccan weddings, to become prison and hospital chapWiccans continue the traditional practice of secrecy, con- lains, and (in the case of Heather Botting) to become the cealing their faith for fear of persecution. Revealing one- first officially recognized Wiccan chaplain in a public uniself as Wiccan to family, friends or colleagues is often versity.* [166]* [167]

17.9. REFERENCES

17.9 References 17.9.1

Notes

[1] Scholars of contemporary Paganism usually capitalise “Witchcraft”when referring to Wicca, reflecting that the names of religion are typically capitalised.* [15]

181

[29] Doyle White 2016, pp. 1–2.

[30] Doyle White 2016, pp. 4, 198.

[31] Doyle White 2010, pp. 199–201.

[32] Doyle White 2016, p. 86.

[33] Doyle White 2016, pp. 86–87.

[34] Doyle White 2016, p. 87.

17.9.2

Footnotes

[1] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 87; Doyle White 2016, p. 5.

[2] Doyle White 2016, p. 2.

[3] Strmiska 2005, p. 47; Doyle White 2010, p. 185.

[4] Strmiska 2005, p. 2; Rountree 2015, p. 4.

[35] Doyle White 2016, pp. 87–88.

[36] Doyle White 2016, p. 91.

[37] Doyle White 2016, p. 88.

[38] Doyle White 2016, p. 89.

[6] Strmiska 2005, p. 2.

[39] Pearson, Joanne; Roberts, Richard H; Samuel, Geoffrey (December 1998). Nature Religion Today: Paganism in the Modern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-7486-1057-X. OCLC 39533917.

[7] Strmiska 2005, p. 21; Doyle White 2016, p. 7.

[40] Doyle White 2016, pp. 89–90.

[8] Doyle White 2016, p. 8.

[41] Doyle White 2016, p. 90.

[9] Orion 1994, p. 6; Doyle White 2016, p. 5.

[42] Pearson, Joanne E. (2005). “Wicca”. In Jones, Lindsay. Encyclopedia of Religion 14. Detroit: Macmaillan Reference USA. p. 9730.

[5] Doyle White 2010, p. 185.

[10] Doyle White 2016, p. 5.

[11] Doyle White 2016, p. 7.

[12] Harvey 2007, p. 36.

[43] Farrar & Farrar 1987, pp. 29-37.

[44] Farrar & Farrar 1987, pp. 38-44.

[13] Doyle White 2016, p. 1.

[45] Doyle White 2016, p. 92.

[14] Doyle White 2016, p. 4.

[15] Rountree 2015, p. 19.

[16] Doyle White 2010, p. 188.

[17] Doyle White 2010, p. 190.

[18] Seims, Melissa.“Wica or Wicca? - Politics and the Power of Words”. The Wica. Retrieved 26 August 2015.

[46] Doyle White 2016, pp. 92–93.

[47] Doyle White 2016, p. 93.

[48] Doyle White 2016, p. 94.

[49] Doyle White 2016, p. 95.

[50] Farrar & Bone 2004.

[19] Doyle White 2010, pp. 191–192.

[51] Adler 1979, pp. 25, 34–35.

[20] Doyle White 2010, p. 193.

[52] Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Millennium. p. 129. ISBN 0-7225-3271-7.

[21] Morris 1969, p. 1548; Doyle White 2010, p. 187; Doyle White 2016, pp. 4-5.

[53] Doyle White 2016, pp. 95–96.

[22] Doyle White 2010, p. 187.

[54] Doyle White 2016, p. 96.

[23] Doyle White 2010, p. 195.

[55] Doyle White 2016, p. 146.

[24] Doyle White 2010, p. 194.

[56] Gallagher 2005, pp. 34-39.

[25] Doyle White 2010, pp. 196–197; Doyle White 2016, p.

5.

[57] Hutton 1999, p. 393.

[26] Doyle White 2010, pp. 197–198.

[27] Doyle White 2010, p. 199.

[28] Winslade, J. Lawton (2004). “Teen Witches, Wiccans, and“Wanna-Blessed-Be’s": Pop-Culture Magic in Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (PDF). Slayage (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2004.

[58] Doyle White 2016, p. 148.

[59] Doyle White 2016, p. 147.

[60] Valiente 1973, p. 231.

[61] Adler 1979, pp. 158-159.

[62] Hutton 1999, pp. 394-395.

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[63] Huson, Paul (1970). Mastering Witchcraft: A Practical Guide for Witches, Warlocks and Covens. Putnam. p. 27.

OCLC 79263.

[90] Guiley, Rosemary Ellen (1999). The Encyclopedia of Witches and Witchcraft (2nd ed.). New York: Checkmark Books. p. 52. ISBN 0-8160-3849-X.

[64] Gallagher 2005, pp. 250-265.

[91] Gary, Gemma (2008). Traditional Witchcraft: A Cornish Book of Ways. Troy Books. Page 147.

[65] Sanders, Alex (1984). The Alex Sanders Lectures. Magickal Childe. ISBN 0-939708-05-1.

[92] Evans, Emrys (1992). Mythology. Little Brown & Company. ISBN 0-316-84763-1. Page 170.

[66] Gallagher 2005, p. 321.

[93] Gardner 2004, p. 10.

[67] Hutton 1999.

[68] Mathiesin, Robert; Theitic (2005). The Rede of the Wiccae. Providence: Olympian Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 0-9709013-1-3.

[94] Lamond, Frederic (2004). Fifty Years of Wicca. Sutton Mallet, England: Green Magic. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0-9547230-1-5.

[69] Harrow, Judy (1985). “Exegesis on the Rede". Harvest 5 (3). Archived from the original on 28 July 2007.

[95] Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age (1989) London: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030737-6 p.23

[70] Lembke, Karl (2002) The Threefold Law.

[96] Gallagher 2005, p. 67.

[71] Adams, Luthaneal (2011). The Book of Mirrors. UK: Capall Bann. p. 218. ISBN 1-86163-325-4.

[97] Gallagher 2005, p. 72.

[72] Farrar & Farrar 1992.

[73] Valiente 1989, pp. 70-71.

[74] Gardner 2004, pp. 69, 75.

[75] Adler 1979, pp. 130–131.

[98] Simpson, Jacqueline (2005). “Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America”. Folklore 116.

[99] Farrar & Farrar 1984, Chapter II – Second Degree Initiation.

[100] Farrar & Farrar 1984, Chapter III – Third Degree Initiation.

[76] Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning [101] Lewis, James R. (1999). Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions. ABC-CLIO. Glory (2006). Creating Circles & Ceremonies. Franklin p.

238. ISBN 9781576071342.

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[78] Gallagher 2005.

[102] Huson, Paul (1970). Mastering Witchcraft: A Practical Guide for Witches, Warlocks and Covens. New York: Putnum. pp. 22–23. ISBN 0-595-42006-0. OCLC 79263.

[79] Lamond, Frederic R (2004). Fifty Years of Wicca. United [103] Gallagher 2005, p. 370.

Kingdom: Green Magic. pp. 88–89. ISBN 0-9547230[104] K., Amber (1998). Coven Craft: Witchcraft for Three or 1-5.

More. Llewellyn. p. 280. ISBN 1-56718-018-3.

[80] Valiente 1989, p. 124.

[105] Lamond, Frederic (2004). Fifty Years of Wicca. Page 14.

Green Magic.

[81] Valiente, Doreen (1988) [1973]. An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Custer: Phoenix Publishing. p. 264.

[106] Crowley, Vivianne (1989). Wicca: The Old Religion in ISBN 0-919345-77-8. the New Age. London: Aquarian Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-85030-737-6.

[82] Adler 2005, p. 164.

[83] Adler 2005, p. 172.

[84] Adler 2005, p. 173.

[85] Adler 2005, p. 174.

[86] Farrar & Farrar 1981.

[107] Gardner, Gerald (2004).

Naylor, A R (ed.), ed.

Witchcraft and the Book of Shadows. Thame: I-H-O Books. ISBN 1-872189-52-0.

[108] Grevel Lindop, ed. (24 May 2010). “Robert Cochrane’ s Letters to Robert Graves”. The Cauldron. Retrieved 8 June 2010.

[87] Crowley, Vivianne. Wicca: The Old Religion in the New [109] Cochrane, Robert; Michael Howard; Evan John Jones (2003). The Robert Cochrane Letters: An Insight into ModAge (1989) London: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030ern Traditional Witchcraft. UK: Capall Bann Publishing.

737-6 ISBN 1-86163-221-5.

[88] Leland, Charles (1899). Aradia, or the Gospel of the [110]“Beaufort House Index of English Traditional Witchcraft” Witches. David Nutt. Page 7. . Beaufort House Association. 15 January 1999. Retrieved [89] Farrar & Farrar 1984, pp. 156-174.

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[111] “Different types of Witchcraft”. Hex Archive. Retrieved [138] Gardner, Gerald B (1999) [1954]. Witchcraft Today.

2 April 2007.

Lake Toxaway, NC: Mercury Publishing. ISBN 0-80652593-2. OCLC 44936549.

[112] Rountree 2015, p. 16.

[139] Hutton 1999, p. vii.

[113] Buckland 1986, pp. 17, 18, 53.

[140] Seims, Melissa (2008). “Wica or Wicca? – Politics and [114] K., Amber (1998). Covencraft: Witchcraft for Three or the Power of Words”. The Cauldron (129).

More. Llewellyn. p. 228. ISBN 1-56718-018-3.

[141] Holzer, Hans (1972). The New Pagans. Garden City, NY: [115] Guiley, Rosemary Ellen (1999). The Encyclopedia of Doubleday. OCLC 281240.

Witches and Witchcraft (2nd ed.). New York: Checkmark Books. p. 169. ISBN 0-8160-3849-X. [142] Todd, Douglas.

“University of Victoria chaplain [116] Howard, Michael (2009). Modern Wicca. Woodbury, Minnesota: Llewellyn. Page 299-301 [117] Smith, Diane (2005). Wicca and Witchcraft for Dummies.

Wiley Publishing. Pg. 125.

marks solstice with pagan rituals | Vancouver Sun”.

Blogs.vancouversun.com. Retrieved 2 May 2013.

[143] “ATC Affiliates – Canada”.

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Aquarian Tabernacle

[118] Hutton 1991.

[144] Buckland 2002, p. 96.

[119] Doyle White 2016, p. 14.

[145] Buckland 2002, 10: Roots of Modern Wica.

[146] Allen, Charlotte (January 2001). “The Scholars and the Goddess”. The Atlantic Monthly (287). OCLC [121] Baker 1996, p. 187; Magliocco 1996, p. 94; Doyle White 202832236.

2016, p. 14.

[147] Davis, Philip G (1998). Goddess Unmasked. Dallas: [122] Doyle White 2016, p. 13.

Spence. ISBN 0-9653208-9-8.

[120] Hutton 2003, pp. 279–230; Doyle White 2016, p. 14.

[123] Guiley, Rosemary Ellen (1999). The Encyclopedia of [148] Gibbons 1998.

Witches and Witchcraft (2nd ed.). New York: Checkmark Books. p. 234. ISBN 0-8160-3849-X. [149] Briggs, Robin (1998). Witches and Neighbors. Penguin.

ISBN 0-14-014438-2.

[124] Doyle White 2016, p. 15.

[150] Bonewits, Isaac (2005). “How Many “Pagans”Are [125] Doyle White 2016, pp. 15–16.

There?". Neopagan.net. Retrieved 7 April 2012.

[126] Doyle White 2016, p. 16.

[127] Doyle White 2016, pp. 16–17.

[128] Doyle White 2016, pp. 17–18.

[129] Doyle White 2014, pp. 19–20.

[130] Doyle White 2016, pp. 20–22.

[151] “Statistical summary pages: W”. Adherents.com. Retrieved 7 April 2012.

[152] Ruickbie, Leo (2004). Witchcraft Out of the Shadows.

Hale. p. 177. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7.

[153] Goldman, Russell (30 October 2009). “Real Witches Practice Samhain: Wicca on the Rise in U.S.”. ABC News. Retrieved 10 November 2013.

[131] Heselton, Philip (November 2001). Wiccan Roots: Gerald Gardner and the Modern Witchcraft Revival. Freshfields, [154] Holmes, Erik (17 January 2010). “Respect healthy for Chieveley, Berkshire: Capall Bann Pub. ISBN 1-86163different faiths”. Air Force Times. Retrieved 20 October 110-3. OCLC 46955899. See also Nevill Drury. “Why 2010.

Does Aleister Crowley Still Matter?" Richard Metzger, ed. Book of Lies: The Disinformation Guide to Magick [155] “Census 2001 Key Statistics – Local Authorities KS07 Religion”. United Kingdom Office for National Statistics. and the Occult. Disinformation Books, 2003.

2001.

[132] Bourne, Lois (1998). Dancing With Witches. Hale. Page [156] Office for National Statistics, 11 December 2012, 2011 51.

Census, Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and [133] Heselton, Philip (2003). Gerald Gardner and the CaulWales. Accessed 12 December 2012. dron of Inspiration. Capall Bann. Page 254.

[157] Davis, Derek; Hankins, Barry (2003). New Religious [134] Hutton 1999, p. 289.

Movements and Religious Liberty in America (2nd ed.).

Waco: Baylor University Press. p. 75. ISBN 0-918954[135] Valiente 1989, p. 60.

92-4. OCLC 52895492. Much to the chagrin of practitioners of Wicca, there has been confusion in the minds [136] Fifty Years of Wicca, Frederic Lamond, page 30-31 of many about their religion, which is often linked with [137] Valiente 1989, p. 56.

Satanism, although there are important differences.

184

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[158] 'Bewitched' (4 December 2003). “Witch Way”.

Slate.com. Retrieved 16 May 2008. Believe me, coming out of the “broom closet”is a one-way trip.

[159] Valiente, Doreen (1973). An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present. Hale. pp. Introduction. ISBN 0-919345-77-8.

[160] Harvey 2007, p. 35.

[161] Silk, Mark (Summer 1999). “Something Wiccan This Way Comes”. Religion in the News 2 (2). ISSN 15257207. Archived from the original on 24 May 2007.

[162] “Barr's Witch Project: Lawmaker Wants to Ban Witches from the Military”. LawStreet Journal. 1 November 1999. Archived from the original on 29 February 2000.

Retrieved 11 July 2007.

[163] Banerjee, Neela (24 April 2007).“Use of Wiccan Symbol on Veterans’Headstones Is Approved”. The New York Times. Retrieved 1 August 2013.

[164] “George W. Bush Justifies Off-The-Cuff Bigotry”. Positive Atheism Magazine. 1 June 1999. Retrieved 30 November 2008.

[165] “Veteran Pentacle Quest”. Circle Sanctuary. Retrieved 28 December 2015.

[166] “Wiccan Chaplaincy”. Aquarian Tabernacle Church Canada. Retrieved 2 May 2013.

[167] Todd, Douglas (16 December 2010).“University of Victoria chaplain marks solstice with pagan rituals”. Vancouver Sun. The Search.

17.9.3

Sources Adler, Margot (1979). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-32379. OCLC 6918454.

Baker, James W. (1996). “White Witches: Historic Fact and Romantic Fantasy”. In Lewis, James R. Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. New York: State University of New York. pp. 171–192.

ISBN 978-0-7914-2890-0.

Doyle White, Ethan (2010). “The Meaning of “Wicca": A Study in Etymology, History and Pagan Politics”. The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies 12 (2): 185–207. doi:10.1558/pome.v12i2.185.

Doyle White, Ethan (2016). Wicca: History, Belief, and Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft.

Brighton: Sussex Academic Press.

ISBN 978-1-84519-754-4.

Gibbons, Jenny (August 1998).

“Recent Developments in the Study of The Great European Witch Hunt”. The Pomegranate (5). ISSN 1528-0268.

Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004-10696-0.

Harvey, Graham (2007). Listening People, Speaking Earth: Contemporary Paganism (2nd ed.). London: Hurst & Company. ISBN 978-185065-272-4.

Hutton, Ronald (1991). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17288-2.

Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19820744-1. OCLC 41452625.

Hutton, Ronald (2003). Witches, Druids and King Arthur. London: Hambledon and Continuum. ISBN 978-1-85285-397-6.

Magliocco, Sabina (1996). “Ritual is My Chosen Art Form: The Creation of Ritual as Folk Art Among Contemporary Pagans”. In Lewis, James R. Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. New York: State University of New York. pp.

93–119. ISBN 978-0-7914-28900.

Morris, William, ed. (1969). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. New York: American Heritage Publishing. p.

1548. ISBN 0-395-09066-0.

Orion, Loretta (1994). Never Again the Burning Times: Paganism Revisited. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press. ISBN 978-0-88133835-5.

Rountree, Kathryn (2015). “Context is Everything: Plurality and Paradox in Contemporary EuroContempopean Paganisms”. rary Pagan and Native Faith Movements in Europe: Colonialist and Nationalist Impulses. New York: Berghahn. pp. 1–23. ISBN 9781-78238-646-9.

Strmiska, Michael F. (2005).

17.10. FURTHER READING “Modern Paganism in World Cultures”.

Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. pp. 1–53.

ISBN 978-1-85109-608-4.

Wiccan literature Buckland, Raymond (2002) [1971].

Witchcraft From The Inside: Origins of the Fastest Growing Religious Movement in America (3rd ed.). St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.

ISBN 1-56718-101-5. OCLC 31781774.

Buckland, Raymond (1986).

Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft.

St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn. ISBN 0-87542-050-8.

OCLC 14167961.

Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1981). A Witches' Bible: The Complete Witches Handbook. London: Phoenix Publishing. ISBN 0-919345-92-1. OCLC 62866821.

Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1984). The Witches' Way: Principles, Rituals and Beliefs of Modern Witchcraft. Phoenix Publishing.

ISBN 0-919345-71-9.

Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1987). The Witches' Goddess: The Feminine Principle of Divinity.

London: Robert Hale Publishing.

ISBN 0-7090-2800-8.

Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (1989). The Witches' God: Lord of the Dance. London: Robert Hale.

ISBN 0-7090-3319-2.

Farrar, Janet; Farrar, Stewart (May 1992) [1981]. Eight Sabbats for Witches. London: Robert Hale Publishing. ISBN 0-7090-4778-9.

OCLC 26673966.

Farrar, Janet; Bone, Gavin (January 2004). Progressive Witchcraft: Spirituality, Mysteries, and Training in Modern Wicca. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Age Books. ISBN 156414-719-3. OCLC 53223741.

Farrar, Stewart (1983).

What Witches Do: A Modern Coven Revealed. Robert Hale Publishing.

ISBN 0-919345-17-4.

Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005). The Wicca Bible: the Definitive Guide to

185 Magic and the Craft. New York: Sterling Publishing. ISBN 1-40273008-X. Gardner, Gerald B. (2004) [1959].

The Meaning of Witchcraft.

Boston: Weiser Books. ISBN 978-1-57863-309-8.

OCLC 53903657.

Valiente, Doreen (1973). An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present.

Robert Hale Publishing. ISBN 0919345-77-8.

Valiente, Doreen (1989).

The Rebirth of Witchcraft. London: Robert Hale Publishing. ISBN 07090-3715-5. OCLC 59694320.

17.10 Further reading Significant historical works • Gardner, (1954). Witchcraft Today. Ryder.

Gerald

Practices and beliefs • Bado-Fralick, Nikki (2005). Coming to the Edge of the Circle: A Wiccan Initiation Ritual. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19516-645-0.

History of Wicca • Kelly, Aidan A. (1991). Crafting the Art of Magic: A History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939-1964. Llewellyn. ISBN 087542-370-1.

• Heselton, Philip (2000). Wiccan Roots: Gerald Gardner and the Modern Witchcraft Revival. Capall Bann. ISBN 1-86163-110-3.

• Heselton, Philip (2001). Gerald Gardner and the Witchcraft Revival: The Significance of His Life and Works to the Story of Modern Witchcraft. I-H-O Books. ISBN 1-87218916-4.

• Heselton, Philip (2003). Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration: An Investigation into the Sources of Gardnerian Witchcraft. Capall Bann. ISBN 1-86163-164-2.

Wicca in different countries • Berger, Helen A (1999). A Community of Witches: Contemporary Neo-Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-58533-796-9.

• Clifton, Chas S (2006). Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America.

AltaMira Press. ISBN 0-75910-201-5.

• Magliocco, Sabina (2004). Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America.

University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 081223-803-6.

186

CHAPTER 17. WICCA • Hume, Lynne (1997). Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia. Melbourne University Press.

ISBN 978-0-522-84782-6.

General

• Buckland, Raymond (1 January 2002).

The Witch Book: The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, Wicca, and Neo-paganism. Visible Ink Press. ISBN 1-57859-114-7.

• Lewis, James R. (1999). Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-134-0.

• Rabinovitch, Shelly; Lewis, James R., eds. (2002). The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism. Kensington.

ISBN 0-8065-2406-5.

• Lewis, James R., ed. (1996). Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-585-03650-0.

• Luhrmann, T. M. (1994). Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England. Picador. ISBN 978-0-330-32946-0.

17.11 External links • Wicca at DMOZ • Pagan Federation (UK), (International) • Covenant of the Goddess (U.S.) • The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies • Witchvox.org – Neopagan news and networking

Chapter 18

Spirituality For the belief in being able to contact the dead, see suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic Spiritualism. psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern religions.* [10] Spirituality may refer to almost any kind of meaningful activity, especially a“search for the sacred.”* [1] It may also refer to personal growth, blissful experience,* [2] or an encounter with one's own “inner dimension.”* [3]

Spirituality is sometimes associated with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics.* [11] It plays an important role in contemporary discussions of issues in mental health, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, and coping.

18.1 Etymology The term spirit means “animating or vital principle in 18.3 Development of the meaning man and animals”.* [web 1] It is derived from the Old of spirituality French espirit * [web 1] which comes from the Latin word spiritus (soul, courage, vigor, breath)* [web 1] and is related to spirare (to breathe).* [web 1] In the Vulgate the 18.3.1 Classical, medieval and early modLatin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma ern periods and Hebrew ruah.* [web 1] The term “spiritual”, matters “concerning the spirit” Words translatable as 'spirituality' first began to arise in ,* [web 2] is derived from Old French spirituel (12c.), the 5th century and only entered common use toward the * which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes from end of the Middle Ages. [12] In a Biblical context the * term means being animated by God,* [13] to be driven spiritus or “spirit”. [web 2] by the Holy Spirit, as opposed to a life which rejects this The term “spirituality”is derived from Middle French influence.* [14] spiritualité,* [web 3] from Late Latin “spiritualitatem” (nominative spiritualitas),* [web 3] which is also derived In the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed from Latin spiritualis.* [web 3] to the material and sensual aspects of life, “the ecclesiastical sphere of light against the dark world of matter” .* [15]* [note 2] In the 13th century“spirituality”acquired 18.2 Definition a social and psychological meaning. Socially it denoted the territory of the clergy:“The ecclesiastical against the There is no single, widely agreed definition of spiritual- temporary possessions, the ecclesiastical against the secity.* [4]* [5]* [note 1] ular authority, the clerical class against the secular class” * * According to Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spiri- [16] [note 3] Psychologically, it denoted the realm of tuality is a process of re-formation which“aims to recover the inner life: “The purity of motives, affections, intenof the spiritual the original shape of man, the image of God. To accom- tions, inner dispositions, the psychology * * life, the analysis of the feelings”.

[17] [note 4] plish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha, and in Islam, Muhammad.”In modern times the emphasis is on subjective experience* [8] incorporating personal growth or transformation, usually in a context separate from organized religious institutions.* [9] Houtman and Aupers

In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made between higher and lower forms of spirituality: “A spiritual man is one who is Christian 'more abundantly and deeper than others'.”* [17]* [note 5] The word was also associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning.

187

188

18.3.2

CHAPTER 18. SPIRITUALITY

Modern spirituality

See also: History of Westerm esotericism

Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field.* [18] He was one of the major figures in Transcendentalism, an early 19th-century liberal Protestant movement, which was rooted in English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, the skepticism of Hume,* [web 4] and Neo-Platonism.* [19]* [20] The Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion.* [web 5] Following Schleiermacher,* [21] an individual's intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth.* [web 5] In the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking.* [web 5] They also endorsed universalist and Unitarianist ideas, leading to Unitarian Universalism, the idea that there must be truth in other religions as well, since a loving God would redeem all living beings, not just Christians.* [web 5]* [web 6]

ings' in Asian religions.* [25] It has been influential on modernist streams in several Asian religions, notably Neo-Vedanta, the revival of Theravada Buddhism, and Buddhist modernism, which have taken over modern western notions of personal experience and universalism and integrated them in their religious concepts.* [25] A second, related influence was Anthroposophy, whose founder, Rudolf Steiner, was particularly interested in developing a genuine Western spirituality, and in the ways that such a spirituality could transform practical institutions such as education, agriculture, and medicine.* [27]* [28] The influence of Asian traditions on western modern spirituality was also furthered by the Perennial Philosophy, whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was deeply influenced by Vivekanda's Neo-Vedanta and Universalism,* [29] and the spread of social welfare, education and mass travel after World War Two. Important early 20th century western writers who studied the phenomenon of spirituality, and their works, include William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), and Rudolph Otto, especially The Idea of the Holy (1917). James' notions of“spiritual experience” had a further influence on the modernist streams in Asian traditions, making them even further recognisable for a western audience.* [21]

Neo-Vedanta “Spiritual but not religious” Main article: Neo-Vedanta Main article: Spiritual but not religious An important influence on western spirituality was NeoVedanta, also called neo-Hinduism* [22] and Hindu Universalism,* [web 7] a modern interpretation of Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism. It aims to present Hinduism as a “homogenized ideal of Hinduism”* [23] with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.* [24] Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.* [25] Unitarianism, and the idea of Universalism, was brought to India by missionaries, and had a major influence on neo-Hinduism via Ram Mohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj and Brahmoism. Roy attempted to modernise and reform Hinduism, from the idea of Universalism.* [26] This universalism was further popularised, and brought back to the west as neo-Vedanta, by Swami Vivekananda.* [26]

After the Second World War spirituality and religion became disconnected,* [17] and spirituality became more oriented on subjective experience, instead of “attempts to place the self within a broader ontological context.” * [30] A new discourse developed, in which (humanistic) psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern religions are being blended, to reach the true self by selfdisclosure, free expression and meditation.* [10] The distinction between the spiritual and the religious became more common in the popular mind during the late 20th century with the rise of secularism and the advent of the New Age movement. Authors such as Chris Griscom and Shirley MacLaine explored it in numerous ways in their books. Paul Heelas noted the development within New Age circles of what he called “seminar spirituality":* [31] structured offerings complementing consumer choice with spiritual options.

Theosophy, Anthroposophy, and the Perennial Phi- Among other factors, declining membership of organized losophy religions and the growth of secularism in the western world have given rise to this broader view of spiritualSee also: Esotericism ity.* [32] Even the secular are finding use for spiritual beliefs.* [33] In his books, Michael Mamas makes the case Another major influence on modern spirituality was the for integrating Eastern spiritual knowledge with Western Theosophical Society, which searched for 'secret teach- rational thought.* [34]* [35]

18.4. TRADITIONAL SPIRITUALITY The term “spiritual”is now frequently used in contexts in which the term “religious”was formerly employed.* [36] Both theists and atheists have criticized this development.* [37]* [38] Spiritual care in health care professions In the health care professions there is growing interest in“spiritual care,”to complement the medical-technical approaches and improve the putcomes of medical treatments.* [39]* [40] For example, Puchalski et al., who argue for "compassionate systems of care,”offering the following definition of spirituality in the operationalization of spiritual care: Spirituality is a dynamic and intrinsic aspect of humanity through which persons seek ultimate meaning, purpose, and transcendence, and experience relationship to self, family, others, community, society, nature, and the significant or sacred. Spirituality is expressed through beliefs, values, traditions, and practices.* [40]

18.4 Traditional spirituality 18.4.1

Abrahamic faiths

189 canons of organised religion. Kabbalah seeks to define the nature of the universe and the human being, the nature and purpose of existence, and various other ontological questions. It also presents methods to aid understanding of these concepts and to thereby attain spiritual realisation.

Hasidic Judaism, meaning“piety”(or "loving kindness"), is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spirituality through the popularisation and internalisation of Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspect of the faith.

It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against overly legalistic Judaism. His example began the characteristic veneration of leadership in Hasidism as embodiments and intercessors of Divinity for the followers. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the Immanent Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of study, and replaced historical mystical (kabbalistic) and ethical (musar) asceticism and admonishment with optimism, encouragement, and daily fervour. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism, through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought.

Christianity

Main articles: Catholic spirituality and Christian mysticism Rabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions, Rab- Catholic spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out binism) (Hebrew:“Yahadut Rabanit”- ‫ )יהדות רבנית‬has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (“Law” or “Instruction”) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and by the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law (called halakha, “the way”).

Judaism

Judaism knows a variety of religious observances: ethical rules, prayers, religious clothing, holidays, shabbat, pilgrimages, Torah reading, dietary laws.

Kabbalah (literally“receiving”), is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought of Judaism. Its definition varies according to the tradition and aims of those following it,* [41] from its religious origin as an integral part of Judaism, to its later Christian, New Age, or Occultist syncretic adaptations. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation).

While it is heavily used by some denominations, it is not a religious denomination in itself. Inside Judaism, it forms the foundations of mystical religious interpretation. Outside Judaism, its scriptures are read outside the traditional Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.

190 a personal act of faith (fides qua creditur) following the acceptance of faith (fides quae creditur). Although all Catholics are expected to pray together at Mass, there are many different forms of spirituality and private prayer which have developed over the centuries. Each of the major religious orders of the Catholic Church and other lay groupings have their own unique spirituality - its own way of approaching God in prayer and in living out the Gospel.

Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often been connected to mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic visions of the soul's mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina).

CHAPTER 18. SPIRITUALITY Sufism or taṣawwuf (Arabic: ‫ )تصو ّف‬is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam.* [46]* [47]* [48] A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (‫ِﻲ‬ ُ Sufis believe they are ّ ‫)ﺻﻮﻓ‬. practicing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad, Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing Him and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you.

Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original form of Islam. They are strong adherents to the principal of tolerance, peace and against any form of violence. The Sufi have suffered severe persecution by their coreligionist brothers the Wahhabi and the Salafist. In 1843 the Senussi Sufi were forced Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movement to flee* Mecca and Medina and head to the Sudan and which seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faith Libya. [49] and replace them with a post-critical understanding of Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as“a science biblical spirituality based on historical and scientific re- whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning search. It focuses on the lived experience of spirituality it away from all else but God”.* [50] Alternatively, in the over historical dogmatic claims, and accepts that the faith words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, “a is both true and a human construction, and that spiritual science through which one can know how to travel into experiences are psychologically and neurally real and use- the presence of the Divine, purify one's inner self from ful. filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits” .* [51] Islamic Spirituality The concept of Islamic spirituality is different from other culture, ideology and religions because Islamic spirituality cannot be achieved through disengagement. Rather Islamic spirituality is rooted in all good deeds which means full engagement in personal emancipation and social emancipation * [42]. * [43] Five pillars Main article: Five Pillars of Islam

Jihad Main article: Jihad Jihad is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning “struggle”. There are two commonly accepted meanings of jihad: an inner spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle.* [52] The “greater jihad”is the inner struggle by a believer to fulfill his religious duties.* [52]* [53] This non-violent meaning is stressed by both Muslim* [54] and non-Muslim* [55] authors.

The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar, “pillars of religion”) are five basic acts in Islam, con- referenced a statement by the companion of Muhammad sidered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents Jabir ibn Abd-Allah: them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) The Prophet [...] returned from one of his daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting battles, and thereupon told us, 'You have arduring Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) rived with an excellent arrival, you have come at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both from the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad— agree on the essential details for the performance of these the striving of a servant (of Allah) against his acts.* [44] desires (holy war).”* [56]* [57]* [note 6] Sufism Main article: Sufism

18.4.2 Asian traditions

The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is the Buddhism Sufi tradition (famous through Rumi and Hafiz) in which a spiritual master or pir transmits spiritual discipline to Main article: Buddhism students.* [45]

18.4. TRADITIONAL SPIRITUALITY Buddhist practices are known as Bhavana, which literally means “development”or “cultivating”* [58] or “producing”* [59]* [60] in the sense of “calling into existence.”* [61] It is an important concept in Buddhist praxis (Patipatti). The word bhavana normally appears in conjunction with another word forming a compound phrase such as citta-bhavana (the development or cultivation of the heart/mind) or metta-bhavana (the development/cultivation of lovingkindness). When used on its own bhavana signifies 'spiritual cultivation' generally.

191 ferred to as ksaitrajña (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ* [63]). It defines spiritual practice as one’s journey towards moksha, awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content.* [64]* [65]

Four paths Traditionally, Hinduism identifies three mārga (ways)* [66]* [note 7] of spiritual practice,* [67] namely Jñāna, the way of knowledge; Bhakti, the way of devotion; and Karma yoga, the way of selfless action. In Various Buddhist Paths to liberation developed throughthe 19th century Vivekananda, in his neo-Vedanta synout the ages. Best-known is the Noble Eightfold Path, but thesis of Hinduism, added Rāja yoga, the way of contemothers include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim. plation and meditation, as a fourth way, calling all of them “yoga.”* [68]* [note 8] Hinduism Main article: Hinduism

Jñāna marga

Bhakti marga

Rāja marga Three of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monistic, or atheistic.* [62] Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and re-

Jñāna marga is a path often assisted by a guru (teacher) in one’s spiritual practice.* [70] Bhakti marga is a path of faith and devotion to deity or deities; the spiritual practice often includes chanting, singing and music - such as in kirtans - in front of idols, or images of one or more deity, or a devotional symbol of the holy.* [71] Karma marga is the path of one’s work, where diligent practical work or vartta (Sanskrit: वार्त्ता, profession) becomes in itself a spiritual practice, and work in daily life is perfected as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material rewards.* [72]* [73] Rāja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues, self-discipline, tapas (meditation), contemplation and self-reflection sometimes with isolation and renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state called samādhi.* [74]* [75] This state of samādhi has been compared to peak experience.* [76] There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative merits of these theoretical spiritual practices. For example, Chandogyopanishad suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice, while those who engage in tapas will succeed; Svetasvataropanishad suggests that a successful spiritual practice requires a longing for truth, but warns of becoming‘false ascetic’who go through the mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature of Self and universal Truths.* [77] In the practice of Hinduism, suggest modern era scholars such as Vivekananda, the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a person’s proclivities.* [65]* [78] Other scholars* [79] suggest that these Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive, but overlapping. These four paths of spirituality are also known in Hinduism outside India, such as in Balinese Hinduism, where it is called Catur Marga (literally: four paths).* [80] Schools and spirituality Different schools of Hinduism encourage different spiritual practices. In Tantric school for example, the spiritual practice has been referred to as sādhanā. It involves initiation into the school, undergoing rituals, and achieving moksha liberation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities.* [81] The Hare Krishna school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritual prac-

192

CHAPTER 18. SPIRITUALITY

tice.* [82] In Advaita Vedanta school, the spiritual prac- 18.4.3 African spirituality tice emphasizes jñāna yoga in stages: samnyasa (cultivate virtues), sravana (hear, study), manana (reflect) and Main article: Traditional African religion dhyana (nididhyasana, contemplate).* [83]

Sikhism Main article: Sikhism Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be in-

In some African contexts, spirituality is considered a belief system that guides the welfare of society and the people therein, and eradicates sources of unhappiness occasioned by evil.

18.5 Contemporary spirituality The term“spiritual”is now frequently used in contexts in which the term“religious”was formerly employed.* [36] Contemporary spirituality is also called“post-traditional spirituality”and "New Age spirituality”.* [96] Hanegraaf makes a distinction between two“New Age”movements: New Age in a restricted sense, which originated primarily in mid-twentieth century England and had its roots in Theosophy and Anthroposophy, and “New Age”in a general sense, which emerged in the later 1970s ...when increasing numbers of people [...] began to perceive a broad similarity between a wide variety of “alternative ideas”and pursuits, and started to think of them as part of one “movement"".* [97]

Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often define themselves as spiritual but not religious and generally believe in the existence of different“spiritual paths,” emphasizing the importance of finding one's own individtertwined:* [84] “In the Sikh Weltanschauung...the tem- ual path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll, about poral world is part of the Infinite Reality and partakes of 24% of the United States population identifies itself as its characteristics.”* [85] Guru Nanak described living spiritual but not religious.* [web 8] an“active, creative, and practical life”of“truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity”as being higher than a 18.5.1 Characteristics purely contemplative life.* [86] An 18th Century Sikh Raja

The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re-affirmed that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent.* [87] According to the 9th Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh.* [88] According to Guru Nanak, the goal is to attain the “attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life”,* [89] the polar opposite to a selfcentered existence.* [89] Nanak talks further about the one God or Akal (timelessness) that permeates all life* [90]).* [91]* [92]* [93] and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being.* [94] In Sikhism there is no dogma,* [95] priests, monastics or yogis.

Modern spirituality is centered on the“deepest values and meanings by which people live.”* [98] It embraces the idea of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality.* [99] It envisions an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence of his/her being.

Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace transcendental ideas. Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas on moral character (qualities such as love, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, responsibility, harmony, and a concern for others).* [100]* :22 These are aspects of life and human experience which go beyond a purely materialist view of the world without necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or divine being. Nevertheless, many humanists (e.g. Bertrand Russell) who clearly value the non-material, communal and virtuous aspects of life reject this usage of the term spirituality as being overlybroad (i.e. it effectively amounts to saying “everything

18.5. CONTEMPORARY SPIRITUALITY and anything that is good and virtuous is necessarily spiritual”)* [101] Similarly, Aristotle—one of the first known Western thinkers to demonstrate that morality, virtue and goodness can be derived without appealing to supernatural forces—even argued that “men create Gods in their own image”(not the other way around). Moreover, theistic and atheistic critics alike dismiss the need for the term “secular spirituality”on the basis that i) the term“spirit” is commonly taken as denoting the existence of unseen / otherworldly /life-giving forces and ii) words such as morality, philanthropy and humanism already efficiently and succinctly describe the prosocial and civility meant to be conveyed by the term secular spirituality but without risk of such confusion.

193 of“religious experience”was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential.* [111]

Major Asian influences were Vivekananda* [112] and D.T. Suzuki.* [108] Swami Vivekananda popularised a modern syncretitistic Hinduism,* [113]* [110] in which the authority of the scriptures was replaced by an emphasis on personal experience.* [110]* [114] D.T. Suzuki had a major influence on the popularisation of Zen in the west and popularized the idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless, transcendent reality.* [web 10]* [web 11]* [25] Another example can be seen in Paul Brunton's A Search in Secret India, which introduced Ramana Maharshi and Although personal well-being, both physical and Meher Baba to a western audience. psychological, is said to be an important aspect of Spiritual experiences can include being connected to a modern spirituality, this does not imply spirituality is larger reality, yielding a more comprehensive self; joinessential to achieving happiness (e.g. see). Free-thinkers ing with other individuals or the human community; with who reject notions that the numinous/non-material is nature or the cosmos; or with the divine realm.* [115] important to living well can be just as happy as more spiritually-oriented individuals (see)* [102] Contemporary spirituality theorists assert that spirituality develops inner peace and forms a foundation for happiness. For example, Meditation and similar practices are suggested to help practitioners cultivate his or her inner life and character.* [103] * [104] Ellison and Fan (2008) assert that spirituality causes a wide array of positive health outcomes, including “morale, happiness, and life satisfaction.”.* [105] However, SchuurmansStekhoven (2013) actively attempted to replicate this research and found more “mixed”results.* [106] Nevertheless, spirituality has played a central role in self-help movements such as Alcoholics Anonymous: ...if an alcoholic failed to perfect and enlarge his spiritual life through work and selfsacrifice for others, he could not survive the certain trials and low spots ahead....* [107]

18.5.2

Spiritual experience

Main article: Religious experience

18.5.3 Spiritual practices Main article: Spiritual practice Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices:* [116] 1. Somatic practices, especially deprivation and diminishment. Deprivation aims to purify the body.

Diminishment concerns the repulsement of egooriented impulses. Examples include fasting and poverty.* [116] 2. Psychological practices, tion.* [117]

for example medita-

3. Social practices. Examples include the practice of obedience and communal ownership, reforming ego-orientedness into other-orientedness.* [117] 4. Spiritual. All practices aim at purifying egocenteredness, and direct the abilities at the divine reality.* [117]

“Spiritual experience”plays a central role in modern spirituality.* [108] This notion has been popularised by both western and Asian authors.* [109]* [110] Spiritual practices may include meditation, mindfulness, William James popularized the use of the term “reli- prayer, the contemplation of sacred texts, ethical develgious experience”in his The Varieties of Religious Ex- opment,* [100] and the use of psychoactive substances perience.* [109] It has also influenced the understanding (entheogens). Love and/or compassion are often deof mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies scribed as the mainstay of spiritual development.* [100] knowledge.* [web 9] Within spirituality is also found “a common emphasis Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of “religious experience”further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion

on the value of thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth and practices and beliefs, and appreciation for the insights of other religious communities, as well as other sources of authority within the social sciences.”* [118]

194

CHAPTER 18. SPIRITUALITY

18.6 Science

Health and well-being

Various studies have reported a positive correlation between spirituality and mental well-being in both healthy people and those encountering a Since the scientific revolution, the relationship of sci- range of physical illnesses or psychological disorence to religion and spirituality has developed in com- ders.* [134]* [135]* [136]* [137] Spiritual individuals tend plex ways.* [119]* [120] Historian John Hedley Brooke to be optimistic, report greater social support,* [138] describes wide variations: and experience higher intrinsic meaning in life,* [139] strength, and inner peace.* [140]

18.6.1

Antagonism

The natural sciences have been invested with religious meaning, with antireligious implications and, in many contexts, with no religious significance at all.”* [120]

The issue of whether the correlation of spirituality with positive psychological factors represents a causal link remains unresolved. Both supporters and opponents of this claim agree that past statistical findings are difficult to interpret, in large part because of the ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be defined and It has been proposed that the currently held pop- measured.* [141] There is also evidence that a predispoular notion of antagonisms between science and sition to experience positive emotions and/or a tendency religion* [121]* [122] has historically originated with toward sociability (which both correlate with spirituality) “thinkers with a social or political axe to grind” might actually be the key psychological features that rather than with the natural philosophers them- predispose people to adopt a spiritual orientation and selves.* [120] Though physical and biological scientists that these, not spiritually per se, add to well-being. today avoid supernatural explanations to describe real- There is also some suggestion that the benefits associated ity* [123]* [124]* [125]* [note 9], some scientists continue with spirituality and religiosity might arise from being a to consider science and spirituality to be complemen- member of a close-knit community. Social bonds availtary, not contradictory,* [126]* [127] and are willing to able via secular sources (I.e., not unique to spirituality debate.* [128] or faith-based groups ) might be just as effective for A few religious leaders have also shown openness to improving well-being. In sum, spiritual may not be the modern science and its methods. The 14th Dalai Lama “active ingredient”(i.e. past association with psychologhas proposed that if a scientific analysis conclusively ical well-being measures might reflect a reverse causation showed certain claims in Buddhism to be false, then the or effects from other variables that correlate with spirclaims must be abandoned and the findings of science ac- ituality),* [101]* [142]* [143]* [144]* [145]* [146]* [147] and that the effects of agreeableness, conscientiouscepted.* [129] ness, or virtue see —personality traits common in many non-spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the spiritual —correlate 18.6.2 Holism more strongly with mental health than spirituality itself.* [148]* [149]* [150]* [151]* [152] After removing Main article: Holism the effects of virtues on well-being, faith in supernatural forces and an afterlife has been found to have a negative During the twentieth century the relationship between association with psychological well-being see, suggesting science and spirituality has been influenced both by that nonbelievers can be as happy (if not happier) than Freudian psychology, which has accentuated the bound- those with such faith. aries between the two areas by accentuating individualism and secularism, and by developments in particle physics, which reopened the debate about complementarity be- Intercessionary prayer Masters and Spielmans* [153] tween scientific and religious discourse and rekindled conducted a meta-analysis of all the available and repfor many an interest in holistic conceptions of real- utable prior research examining the effects of distant ity.* [120]* :322 These holistic conceptions were cham- intercessory prayer. They found no discernible health efpioned by New Age spiritualists in a type of quantum fects from being prayed for by others. mysticism that they claim justifies their spiritual beliefs,* [130]* [131] though quantum physicists themselves on the whole reject such attempts as being Spiritual experiences pseudoscientific.* [132]* [133] Neuroscientists have examined brain functioning during reported spiritual experiences* [154]* [155] finding that certain neurotransmitters and specific areas of the 18.6.3 Scientific research brain are involved.* [156]* [157]* [158]* [159] Moreover,

18.8. NOTES experimenters have also successfully induced spiritual experiences in individuals by administering psychoactive agents known to elicit euphoria and perceptual distortions.* [160]* [161] Conversely, religiosity and spirituality can also be dampened by electromagnetic stimulation of the brain.* [162] These results have led some leading theorists to speculate that spirituality may be a benign subtype of psychosis (see).* [143]* [163]* [164]* [165]* [166] Benign in the sense that the same aberrant sensory perceptions that those suffering clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly in-congruent and inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual individuals as positive —as personal and meaningful transcendent experiences.* [164]* [165]

18.7 See also • Anthroposophy • Awe • Esotericism • Evolutionary origin of religions • Glossary of spirituality terms • History of religion • Ietsism • New Age • Numinous • Outline of spirituality • Perennial philosophy • Reason • Relationship between religion and science • Religion

195

18.8 Notes [1] See: * Koenig e.a.: “There is no widely agreed on definition of spirituality today”.* [4] * Cobb e.a.: “The spiritual dimension is deeply subjective and there is no authoritative definition of spirituality” .* [5] Surveys of the definition of the term, as used in scholarly research, show a broad range of definitions, with very limited similitude.* [6] These range from very narrow and uni-dimensional definitions such as a personal belief in a supernatural realm* [7] to broader concepts such as a quest for an ultimate/sacred meaning, transcending the base/material aspects of life and/or a sense of awe/wonderment and reverence achieved via connection with the universe. A survey of reviews by McCarroll e.a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty-seven explicit definitions “among [...] there was little agreement” .* [6] This causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically; i.e., it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion.

[2] In Dutch: “de hemelse lichtsfeer tegenover de duistere wereld van de materie”. * [15] [3] In Dutch:“de kerkelijke tegenover de tijdelijke goederen, het kerkelijk tegenover het wereldlijk gezag, de geestelijke stand tegenover de lekenstand”.* [16] [4] In Dutch: “Zuiverheid van motieven, affecties, wilsintenties, innerlijke disposities, de psychologie van het geestelijk leven, de analyse van de gevoelens”.* [17] [5] In Dutch:“Een spiritueel mens is iemand die‘overvloediger en dieper dan de anderen’christen is”.* [17] [6] This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad:“greater”and“lesser”. Some Islamic scholars dispute the authenticity of this reference and consider the meaning of jihad as a holy war to be more important.* [56] [7] See also Bhagavad Gita (The Celestial Song), Chapters 2:56-57, 12, 13:1-28

• Secular spirituality

[8] George Feuerstein: “Yoga is not easy to define. In most general terms, the Sanskrit word yoga stands for spiritual discipline in Hinduism, Jainism, and certain schools of Buddhism. (...). Yoga is the equivalent of Christian mysticism, Moslem Sufism, or the Jewish Kabbalah. A spiritual practitioner is known as a yogin (if male) or a yogini (if female).”* [69]

• Self-actualization

[9] See naturalism

• Timeline of religion • Sacred–profane dichotomy

• Self-help • Skepticism

18.9 References

• Spiritual but not religious

[1] Snyder 2007, p. 261.

• Syncretism

[2] Sharf 2000.

• Superstition

[3] Waaijman 2002, p. 315.

• Theosophy

[4] Koenig 2012, p. 36.

196

[5] Cobb 2012, p. 213.

[6] McCarroll 2005, p. 44.

[7] Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. (2014). Measuring Spirituality as Personal Belief in Supernatural Forces: Is the Character Strength Inventory-Spirituality subscale a brief, reliable and valid measure?. Implicit Religion, 17(2).

CHAPTER 18. SPIRITUALITY

[33] Elkins, D. N., Hedstrom, L. J., Hughes, L. L., Leaf, J. A., & Saunders, C. (1988). Toward a humanistic- phenomenological spirituality. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 28, 10.

[34] Michael Mamas,“Unconditioned Spirit”. Asheville, NC: Somagni Publishing, 2006.

[8] Saucier 2006, p. 1259.

[35] Michael Mamas, “Angels, Einstein and You”.

Wilsonville, OR: BookPartners, 1999.

[9] Wong 2008.

[36] Gorsuch 1999.

[10] Houtman 2007.

[11] Snyder 2007, p. 261-261.

[12] Jones, L. G., “A thirst for god or consumer spirituality? Cultivating disciplined practices of being engaged by god,”in L. Gregory Jones and James J. Buckley eds., Spirituality and Social Embodiment, Oxford: Blackwell, 1997, 3-28, p4, n4.

[37] Hollywood, Amy (Winter–Spring 2010). “Spiritual but Not Religious: The Vital Interplay between Submission and Freedom”. Harvard Divinity Bulletin (Harvard Divinity School) 38 (1 and 2). Retrieved 4 January 2014.

[38] David, Rabbi (2013-03-21). “Viewpoint: The Limitations of Being ‘Spiritual but Not Religious’".

Ideas.time.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[13] Waaijman 2000, p. 359-360.

[39] Koenig 2012.

[14] Wong 2009.

[40] Puchalski 2014.

[15] Waaijman 2000, p. 360.

[41] Kabbalah: A very short introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 “The term and its uses”

[16] Waaijman 2000, p. 360-361.

[17] Waaijman 2000, p. 361.

[18] Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls : The Making of American Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. ISBN 006-054566-6 [19] Remes 2014, p. 202.

[20] Versluis 2014, p. 35.

[21] Sharf 1995.

[22] King 2002, p. 93.

[23] Yelle 2012, p. 338.

[24] King 2002, p. 135.

[25] McMahan 2008.

[42] http://www.academia.edu/11796624/Knowledge_ of_Shariah_and_Knowledge_to_Manage_Self_and_ System_Integration_of_Islamic_Epistemology_with_ the_Knowledge_and_Education [43] http://www.academia.edu/9631989/History_of_ emancipatory_worldview_of_Muslim_learners [44] Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online [45] Azeemi,K.S., “Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation”. Houston: Plato, 2005. (ISBN 0-97588754-8), Pg. xi [46] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism's Many Paths, 2000, University of Georgia [47] Nuh Ha Mim Keller, “How would you respond to the claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at: Masud.co.uk

[26] King 2002.

[27] McDermott, Robert (2007). The Essential Steiner. Lindisfarne. ISBN 1584200510.

[28] William James and Rudolf Steiner, Robert A. McDermott, 1991, in ReVision, vol.13 no.4 [29] Roy 2003.

[30] Saucier 2007, p. 1259.

[31] Paul Heelas, The New Age Movement: The Celebration of the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996, page 60. Cited in Anthony Giddens: Sociology. Cambridge: Polity, 2001, page 554.

[32] Michael Hogan (2010). The Culture of Our Thinking in Relation to Spirituality. Nova Science Publishers: New York.

[48] Zubair Fattani, “The meaning of Tasawwuf”, Islamic Academy. Islamicacademy.org [49] Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The first dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24073-5. See Google book search.

[50] Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson —"The Principles of Sufism”. Amal Press. 2008.

[51] An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography has been published by Fons Vitae.

[52] Morgan & 2010 87.

[53] “Jihad”. Retrieved 20 February 2012.

[54] Jihad and the Islamic Law of War Archived July 21, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.

18.9. REFERENCES

[55] Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism. The doctrine of Jihad in Modern History (Mouton Publishers, 1979), p.

118 [56] “Jihad”. BBC. 2009-08-03.

[57] Fayd al-Qadir vol.4 pg. 511 [58] Matthieu Ricard has said this in a talk.

[59] “Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 503, entry for “Bhāvanā,”retrieved 9 December 2008 from University Chicago”. Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[60] Monier-Williams (1899), p. 755, see “Bhāvana”and “Bhāvanā,”retrieved 9 December 2008 from University of Cologne (PDF) [61] Nyanatiloka (1980), p. 67.

[62] See: • Julius J. Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 9780-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."; • Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008; • MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi,“a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu.”

[63] Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, क्षैत्रज्ञ Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012); Quote: • क्षैत्रज्ञ [ kṣaitrajña ] [ kṣaitrajña ] n. ( fr. [ kṣetra-jñá ] g. [ yuvādi ], spirituality, nature of the soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W. [64] See the following two in Ewert Cousins series on World Spirituality: • Bhavasar and Kiem, Spirituality and Health, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp 319-337; • John Arapura, Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp 64-85 [65] Gavin Flood, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN 978-9004-17893-9, see Article on Wisdom and Knowledge, pp 881-884 [66] John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, ISBN 0-82392287-1

197

[67] D. Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Cultural Psychology, in Anthony Marsella (Series Editor), International and Cultural Psychology, Springer New York, ISBN 978-14419-8109-7, pp 93-140 [68] Michelis 2005.

[69] Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga: Theory and practice, Shambhala, ISBN 1-57062-935-8, page 3 [70] Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga: Theory and practice, Shambhala, ISBN 1-57062-935-8, Chapter 55 [71] Jean Varenne (1976), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-85116-8, pp 97130 [72] See discussion of Hinduism and karma yoga in two different professions in these journal articles: • Donald W. McCormick, (1994) “Spirituality and Management”, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 9, Issue 6, pp 5-8; • Macrae, Janet (1995), Nightingale's spiritual philosophy and its significance for modern nursing, Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 27(1), pp 8-10 [73] Klaus Klostermaier, Spirituality and Nature, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-82450755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp 319-337; • Klostermier discusses examples from Bhagavata Purana, another ancient Hindu scripture, where a forest worker discovers observing mother nature is a spiritual practice, to wisdom and liberating knowledge. The Purana suggests that “true knowledge of nature’’leads to “true knowledge of Self and God.’’It illustrates 24 gurus that nature provides.

For example, earth teaches steadfastness and the wisdom that all things while pursuing their own activities, do nothing but follow the divine laws that are universally established; another wisdom from earth is her example of accepting the good and bad from everyone. Another guru, the honeybee teaches that one must make effort to gain knowledge, a willingness and flexibility to examine, pick and collect essence from different scriptures and sources. And so on. Nature is a mirror image of spirit, perceptive awareness of nature can be spirituality.

[74] Vivekananda, S. (1980), Raja Yoga, Ramakrishna Vivekanada Center, ISBN 978-0911206234 [75] Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-0954-7, pp 69-71 [76] See: • Harung, Harald (April 2012), Illustrations of Peak Experiences during Optimal Performance in World-class Performers Integrating Eastern and Western Insights, Journal of Human Values, 18(1), pp 33-52

198

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[77] See: • CR Prasad, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Brahman, pp 724-729

[86] Marwha, Sonali Bhatt (2006). Colors of Truth, Religion Self and Emotions. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. p. 205. ISBN 818069268X. [87] E. Marty, Martin and Appleby R. Scott (11 July 1996). Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance. English: University of Chicago Press. p. 278. ISBN 0226508846.

[88] Singh Gandhi, Surjit (1 Feb 2008). History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606 −1708. English: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd. pp. 676–677. ISBN 8126908572.

• David Carpenter, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Tapas, pp 865-869

[89] Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh (October 22, 2009). Religion and the Specter of the West - Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality and the Politics of Translation. United States of America: University of Columbia. pp. 372 onwards. ISBN 0231147244.

[78] Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7, pp 119260

[90] Singh, Nirbhai (Dec 1990). Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations. New Delhi: South Asia Books. pp. 111–112.

[79] Mikel Burley (2000), Hatha-Yoga: Its context, theory and practice, Motilal Banarsidass Publications, ISBN 81-2081706-0, pp 97-98; Quote: “When, for example, in the Bhagavad-Gita Lord Krsna speaks of jnana-, bhakti- and karma-yoga, he is not talking about three entirely separate ways of carrying out one’s spiritual practice, but, rather, about three aspects of the ideal life”.

[91] Philpott, Chris (2011). Green Spirituality: One Answer to Global Environmental Problems and World Poverty. AuthorHouse. ISBN 9781467005289.

[80] Murdana, I. Ketut (2008), BALINESE ARTS AND CULTURE: A flash understanding of Concept and Behavior, Mudra - JURNAL SENI BUDAYA, Indonesia; Volume 22, page 5 [81] Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0 [82] Rochford, E. B. (1985), Hare Krishna in America, Rutgers University Press; ISBN 978-0813511146, page 12 [83] See: • Ramakrishna Puligandla (1985), Jñâna-Yoga - The Way of Knowledge (An Analytical Interpretation), University Press of America New York, ISBN 08191-4531-9; • Fort, A. O. (1998), Jīvanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-79143903-8;

[92] Singh Kalsi, Sewa Singh (2005). Sikhism. United States: Chelsea House Publishers. p. 49. ISBN 0791080986.

[93] Hayer, Tara (1988).“The Sikh Impact: Economic History of Sikhs in Canada”Volume 1. Surrey, Canada: IndoCanadian Publishers. p. 14.

[94] Lebron, Robyn (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...can There be Common Ground?: A Basic Internet Guide to Forty World Religions & Spiritual Practices. CrossBooks. p. 399. ISBN 9781462712618.

[95] Singh, Nikky-Guninder (1993). The Feminine Principle in the Sikh Vision of the Transcendent. Cambridge University Press. p. 172. ISBN 9780521432870.

[96] Otterloo 2012, p. 239, 240.

[97] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 97.

[98] Philip Sheldrake, A Brief History of Spirituality, WileyBlackwell 2007 p. 1-2 [99] Ewert Cousins, preface to Antoine Faivre and Jacob Needleman, Modern Esoteric Spirituality, Crossroad Publishing 1992.

• Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An intro[100] Dalai Lama, Ethics for the New Millennium, NY: duction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh Riverhead Books, 1999 University Press, ISBN 0-7486-0954-7, pp 223; • Sawai, Y. (1987), The Nature of Faith in the [101] Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. B. (2011). Is it God or just the data that moves in mysterious ways? How well-being Śaṅkaran Vedānta Tradition, Numen, 34(1), pp 18research might be mistaking faith for virtue? Social Indi44 cators Research, 100(2), 313-330. doi:10.1007/s11205[84] Nayar, Kamal Elizabeth and Sandhu, Jaswinder Singh 010-9630-7 (2007). The Socially Involved Renunciate - Guru Nanaks Discourse to Nath Yogi's. United States of America: State [102] Maisel, E. (2009). The atheist's way: Living well without gods, New World Library, Novato) University of New York Press. p. 106.

[85] Kaur Singh, Nikky Guninder (30 Jan 2004). Hindu spir- [103] Wilkinson, Tony (2007). The lost art of being happy : ituality: Postclassical and modern. English: Motilal Baspirituality for sceptics. Findhorn: Findhorn Press. ISBN narsidass. p. 530. ISBN 8120819373.

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In R. W. Hood, Jr (Ed.) Handbook of religious experience [155] Talan, Jamie Science Probes Spirituality February/March (pp.) Birmingham AL, Religious Education Press.

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[158] Joseph, R. (2001). The limbic system and the soul: Evolution and the neuroanatomy of religious experience, Zygon, [143] Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. B. (2013a). Is God’s call 36(1), 105-136. more than audible? A preliminary exploration of a twodimensional model of theistic/spiritual beliefs and experiences. Australian Journal of Psychology, 65(3), 146-155. [159] D'Aquili, E. G., & Newberg, A. B. (1998) The neuropsychological basis of religions, or Why God won't go away. doi:10.1111/ajpy.12015 Zygon, 33(2), 187-201 [144] Saroglou, V., Buxant, C., & Tilquin, J. (2008). Positive emotions as leading to religion and spirituality. Journal of [160] Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., McCann, U., Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical type experiPositive Psychology, 3, 165–173. ences having substantial and sustained personal meaning [145] Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. B. (2010). “Moved by and spiritual significance Psychopharmacology (Berlin), the spirit”. Does spirituality moderate the inter187:268–283 relationships between Subjective Well-Being (SWB) subscales? Journal of Clinical Psychology, CFC 66(7), 709- [161] Drevets, W. C.; Gautier, C.; Price, J.C.; Kupfer, D.J.; 725. doi:10.1002/jclp.20694 Kinahan, P.E.; Grace, A.A.; Price, J.L.; Mathis, C.A. (2001). “Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in [146] Saroglou, V. (2010). Religiousness as a cultural adaptahuman ventral striatum correlates with euphoria”. Bition of basic traits: A five-factor model perspective. Perological Psychiatry 49: 81–96. doi:10.1016/s0006sonality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 108-125.

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[147] Saroglou, V. (2002). Religion and the five factors of per[162] Crescentini, C., Di Bucchianico, M., Fabbro, F., sonality: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Indi& Urgesi, C. (2015). Excitatory stimulation of the vidual Differences, 32(1), 15-25. right inferior parietal cortex lessens implicit religiousness/spirituality Neuropsychologia, 70, 71-79 DOI: [148] Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. B. (2011) 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.016 - See more [149] independent review at: http://www.patheos.com/blogs/epiphenom/2015/05/ you-can-make-people-less-religious-by-flicking-their-brain-with-magnetic[150] Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. B. (2013c). Spirit or fleeting html?ref_widget=related&ref_blog=epiphenom&ref_ apparition? Why spirituality’s link with social support post=does-hallucinations-happiness#sthash.bvyWurlr. might be incrementally invalid. Journal of Religion and dpuf Health doi:10.1007/s10943-013-9801-3 [151] Gebauer, J., Bleidorn, W., Gosling, S., Rentfrow, P., [163] Claridge, G. (2010) Spiritual experience: Healthy psychoticism? In Clarke, I. (Ed), Psychosis and spirituality: Lamb, M., & Potter, J. (2014). Cross-cultural variations Consolidating the new paradigm (pp. 75–86). Chester: in Big Five relationships with religiosity: A sociocultural Wiley-Blackwell. motives perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(6), 1064-1091 DOI: 10.1037/a0037683 [164] Cottam, S., Paul, S. N., Doughty, O. J., Carpenter, L., AlMousawi, A., Karvounis, S. & Done, D. J. (2011). Does [152] Löckenhoff, C. E.; Ironson, G. H.; O'Cleirigh, C.; Costa, religious belief enable positive interpretation of auditory P. T. (2009).“Five-Factor Model Personality Traits, Spirhallucinations? A comparison of religious voice hearers ituality/Religiousness, and Mental Health Among People with and without psychosis, Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Living With HIV”. Journal of Personality 77: 1411– 16(5), 403-421 doi:10.1080/13546805.2010.548543 1436. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00587.x.

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18.10. SOURCES

[166] Thalbourne, M. A., & Delin, P. S. (1994). A common thread underlying belief in the paranormal, creative personality, mystical experience and psychopathology. Journal of Parapsychology, 58, 3-38.

18.10 Sources 18.10.1

Published sources

• Cobb, Mark R.; Puchalski, Christina M.; Rumbold, Bruce (2012), Oxford Textbook of Spirituality in Healthcare • Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass • De Michelis, Elizabeth (2005), A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism, Continuum, ISBN 978-0-8264-8772-8 • Gorsuch, R.L.; Miller, W. R. (1999), Assessing spirituality. In W. R. Miller (Ed), Integrating spirituality into treatment (pp. 47-64), Washington, DC: American Psychological Association • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996), New Age Religion and Western Culture. Esotericism in the mirror of Secular Thought, Leiden/New York/Koln: E.J. Brill • Hori, Victor Sogen (1999), Translating the Zen Phrase Book. In: Nanzan Bulletin 23 (1999) (PDF) • Houtman, Dick; Aupers, Stef (2007), “The Spiritual Turn and the Decline of Tradition: The Spread of Post-Christian Spirituality in 14 Western Countries, 1981-2000”, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (2007) 46 (3): 305-320 • Kapuscinski, Afton N.; Masters, Kevin S. (2010).

“The current status of measures of spirituality: A critical review of scale development.”. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 2 (4): 191–205. doi:10.1037/a0020498.

• King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and “The Mystic East” , Routledge • Koenig, Harold; King, Dana; Carson, Verna B. (2012), Handbook of Religion and Health, Oxford UP • McCarroll, Pam; O'Connor, Thomas St. James; Meakes, Elizabeth (2005), Assessing plurality in Spirituality Definitions. In: Meier et al, “Spirituality and Health: Multidisciplinary Explorations”, pp. 44-59, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press

201 • McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276 • Morgan, Diane (2010), Essential Islam: a comprehensive guide to belief and practice, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 0-313-36025-1 • Oman, Doug (2013), Defining Religion and Spirituality. In Paloutzian, Raymond F.; Park, Crystal L. (Eds.) (eds.). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford. pp. 23–47. ISBN 146251006X. • Otterloo, Anneke; Aupers, Stef; Houtman, Dick (2012),“Trajectories to the New Age. The spiritual turn of the first generation of Dutch New Age teachers”, Social Compass 59(2) p. 239–256 (SAGE) • Puchalski, Christina; Vitillo, Robert; Hull, Sharon; Relle, Nancy (2014), “Spiritual Dimensions of Whole Person Care: Reaching National and International Consensus”, JOURNAL OF PALLIATIVE MEDICINE, Volume 17, Number 6, doi:10.1089/jpm.2014.9427 • Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press • Remes, Pauliina (2014), Neoplatonism, Routledge • Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip • Roy, Sumita (2003), Aldous Huxley And Indian Thought, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd • Saucier, Gerard; Katarzyna Skrzypinska (1 October 2006).

“Spiritual But Not Religious?

Evidence for Two Independent Dispositions” (PDF). Journal of Personality 74 (5): 1257–1292. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00409.x. JSTOR 27734699. Retrieved 2013-03-05.

• Schneiders, Sandra M. (1989). “Spirituality in the Academy”. Theological Studies 50 (4): 676–697. doi:10.1177/004056398905000403. ISSN 00405639, OCLC 556989066 • Schneiders, Sandra M. (1993). “Spirituality as an Academic Discipline: Reflections from Experience”. Christian Spirituality Bulletin (Journal of the Society for the Study of Christian Spirituality) 1 (2): 10–15. ISSN 1082-9008, OCLC 31697474 • Sharf, Robert H. (1995),“Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience”(PDF), NUMEN, vol.42 (1995) • Sharf, Robert H. (2000), The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion. In: Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7, No. 11-12, 2000, pp. 267-87 (PDF)

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• Sheldrake, Philip (1998). Spirituality and history: Questions of interpretation and method. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. ISBN 1-57075-203-6. OCLC 796958914.

• Sinari, Ramakant (2000), Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), “History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta”, Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations • Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2007), Positive Psychology, Sage Publications, Inc., ISBN 0-76192633-X • Versluis, Athur (2014), American Gurus: From Transcendentalism to New Age Religion, Oxford University Press • Waaijman, Kees (2000), Spiritualiteit.

Vormen, grondslagen, methoden, Kampen/Gent: Kok/Carmelitana • Waaijman, Kees (2002), Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, Peeters Publishers • Wong, Yuk-Lin Renita; Vinsky, Jana (2009), “Speaking from the Margins: A Critical Reflection on the ‘Spiritual-but-not-Religious’Discourse in Social Work”, British Journal of Social Work (2009) 39, pp.1343-1359

18.10.2

[11] “Hu Shih: Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China. Its History and Method”. Thezensite.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

18.11 Further reading • Downey, Michael. Understanding Christian Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 1997.

• Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996), New Age Religion and Western Culture. Esotericism in the mirror of Secular Thought, Leiden/New York/Koln: E.J. Brill • Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dynamic in Modern Art : Art History Reconsidered, 1800 to the Present.

• Eck, Diana L. A New Religious America. San Francisco: Harper, 2001.

• Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls : The Making of American Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005.

ISBN 0-06-054566-6 • Carrette, Jeremy R.; King, Richard (2005), Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion, Taylor & Francis Group

18.12 External links

Web-sources

[1] “Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirit''". line.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[10] “Robert H. Sharf, ''Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited''" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-04.

Etymon-

[2] “Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spiritual''". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[3] “Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirituality''". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[4] “Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Transcendentalism''". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[5] Jone Johnson Lewis. “Jone John Lewis, ''What is Transcendentalism?". Transcendentalists.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[6] “Barry Andrews, ''The Roots Of Unitarian Universalist Spirituality In New England Transcendentalism ''".

Archive.uua.org. 1999-03-12. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[7] “Frank Morales, ''Neo-Vedanta: The problem with Hindu Universalism''". Bharatabharati.wordpress.com.

Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[8] http://www.beliefnet.com/News/2005/08/ Newsweekbeliefnet-Poll-Results.aspx#spiritrel [9] “Gellman, Jerome,“Mysticism”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

• Religion and Spirituality at the Open Directory Project • Sociology of Religion Resources

Chapter 19

Syncretism For the linguistic term, see Syncretism (linguistics).

sort of cult for martyr-victims of the Spanish Inquisition, thus incorporating elements of Catholicism while resistSyncretism (/ˈsɪŋkrətɪzəm/) is the combining of differ- ing it. ent, often contradictory beliefs, while blending prac- Some religious movements have embraced overt syntices of various schools of thought. Syncretism involves cretism, such as the case of melding Shintō beliefs into the merger and analogizing of several originally discrete Buddhism or the amalgamation of Germanic and Celtic traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of pagan views into Christianity during its spread into Gaul, religion, thus asserting an underlying unity and allow- the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. Indian influing for an inclusive approach to other faiths. Syncretism ences are seen in the practice of Shi'i Islam in Trinidad. also occurs commonly in expressions of arts and culture Others have strongly rejected it as devaluing and com(known as eclecticism) as well as politics (syncretic poli- promising precious and genuine distinctions; examples of this include post-Exile Second Temple Judaism, Islam, tics). and most of Protestant Christianity.

Syncretism tends to facilitate coexistence and unity between otherwise different cultures and worldviews (intercultural competence), a factor that has recommended it to rulers of multi-ethnic realms. Conversely, the rejection of syncretism, usually in the name of "piety" The Oxford English Dictionary first attests the word syn- and "orthodoxy", may help to generate, bolster or authencretism in English in 1618. It derives from modern ticate a sense of uncompromised cultural unity in a wellLatin syncretismus, drawing on Greek συγκρητισμός defined minority or majority. (synkretismos), meaning “Cretan federation”.

19.1 Nomenclature, orthography, and etymology

The Greek word occurs in Plutarch's (1st century AD) essay on “Fraternal Love”in his Moralia (2.490b). He 19.3 Religious syncretism cites the example of the Cretans, who compromised and reconciled their differences and came together in alliance when faced with external dangers. “And that is their Religious syncretism exhibits blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorposo-called Syncretism". ration into a religious tradition of beliefs from unrelated Erasmus probably coined the modern usage of the Latin traditions. This can occur for many reasons, and the latter word in his Adagia (“Adages”), published in the winter scenario happens quite commonly in areas where multiof 1517–1518, to designate the coherence of dissenters ple religious traditions exist in proximity and function acin spite of their differences in theological opinions. In a tively in the culture, or when a culture is conquered, and letter to Melanchthon of April 22, 1519, Erasmus specif- the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but ically adduced the Cretans of Plutarch as an example of do not succeed in entirely eradicating the old beliefs or, his adage “Concord is a mighty rampart”. especially, practices.

Religions may have syncretic elements to their beliefs or history, but adherents of so-labeled systems often frown 19.2 Social and political roles on applying the label, especially adherents who belong to “revealed”religious systems, such as the Abrahamic reliOvert syncretism in folk belief may show cultural accep- gions, or any system that exhibits an exclusivist approach. tance of an alien or previous tradition, but the “other” Such adherents sometimes see syncretism as a betrayal of cult may survive or infiltrate without authorized syncresis their pure truth. By this reasoning, adding an incompatnevertheless. For example, some Conversos developed a ible belief corrupts the original religion, rendering it no 203

204 longer true. Indeed, critics of a specific syncretistic trend may sometimes use the word“syncretism”as a disparaging epithet, as a charge implying that those who seek to incorporate a new view, belief, or practice into a religious system actually distort the original faith. Non-exclusivist systems of belief, on the other hand, may feel quite free to incorporate other traditions into their own. Others state that the term syncretism is an elusive one,* [1] and can be applied to refer to substitution or modification of the central elements of a dominant religion by beliefs or practices introduced from somewhere else. The consequence under this definition, according to Keith Ferdinando, is a fatal compromise of the dominant religion's integrity.

In modern secular society, religious innovators sometimes create new religions syncretically as a mechanism to reduce inter-religious tension and enmity, often with the effect of offending the original religions in question.

Such religions, however, do maintain some appeal to a less exclusivist audience. Discussions of some of these blended religions appear in the individual sections below.

CHAPTER 19. SYNCRETISM mountain, cave, grove and spring all had their own locally venerated deity. The countless epithets of the Olympian gods reflect their syncretic identification with these various figures. One defines "Zeus Molossos" (worshipped only at Dodona) as “the god identical to Zeus as worshipped by the Molossians at Dodona”. Much of the apparently arbitrary and trivial mythic fabling results from later mythographers' attempts to explain these obscure epithets.

19.3.2 Ancient Rome See also: Religion in ancient Rome

The Romans, identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified Greek deities with similar figures in the Etruscan-Roman tradition, though without usually copying cult practices. (For details, see Interpretatio graeca.) Syncretic gods of the Hellenistic period found also wide favor in Rome: Serapis, Isis and Mithras, for example. Cybele as worshipped in Rome 19.3.1 Ancient Greece essentially represented a syncretic East Mediterranean goddess. The Romans imported the Greek god Dionysus See also: Ancient Greek religion into Rome, where he merged with the Latin mead god Liber, and converted the Anatolian Sabazios into the RoClassical Athens was exclusive in matters of religion. The man Sabazius.

Decree of Diopeithes made the introduction of and belief The degree of correspondence varied: Jupiter makes perin foreign gods a criminal offence and only Greeks were haps a better match for Zeus than the rural huntress allowed to worship in Athenian temples and festivals as Diana does for the feared Artemis. Ares does not quite foreigners were considered impure. match Mars. The Romans physically imported the AnaOn the other hand, Athens imported many foreign cults, including those of Cybele and the Thracian goddess Bendis, and in some cases this involved a merging of identities: for example, Heracles, who had traditionally been regarded as a mortal hero, began here and elsewhere in the Aegean world to be identified as a divine (Olympian) figure, perhaps under the influence of Eastern counterparts like the Tyrian Melqart.

tolian goddess Cybele into Rome from her Anatolian cultcenter Pessinos in the form of her original aniconic archaic stone idol; they identified her as Magna Mater and gave her a matronly, iconic image developed in Hellenistic Pergamum.

Likewise, when the Romans encountered Celts and Germanic peoples, they mingled these peoples' gods with their own, creating Sulis Minerva, Apollo Sucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus (Mars of the war-assembly), among many others. In the Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus speaks of Germanic worshippers of Hercules and Mercury; most modern scholars tentatively identify Hercules as Thor and Mercury as Odin.

Syncretism functioned as a feature of Hellenistic Ancient Greek religion, although only outside of Greece. Overall, Hellenistic culture in the age that followed Alexander the Great itself showed syncretist features, essentially blending of Mesopotamian, Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan–Roman) elements within an Hellenic formula. The Egyptian god Amun developed as the Hel- Romans were familiar with the concept of syncretism belenized Zeus Ammon after Alexander the Great went into cause from their earliest times they had experienced it the desert to seek out Amun's oracle at Siwa.* [2]* [3] with, among others, the Greeks. The Romans incorpoSuch identifications derive from interpretatio graeca, rated the originally Greek Apollo and Hercules into their the Hellenic habit of identifying gods of disparate religion. They did not look at the religious aspects that mythologies with their own. When the proto-Greeks they adopted from other cultures to be different or less (peoples whose language would evolve into Greek proper) meaningful from religious aspects that were Roman in first arrived in the Aegean and on the mainland of origin. The early Roman acceptance of other cultures remodern-day Greece early in the 2nd millennium BCE, ligions into their own made it easy for them to integrate they found localized nymphs and divinities already con- the newly encountered religions they found as a result of nected with every important feature of the landscape: their expansion.* [4]

19.3. RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM

19.3.3

Bahá'í

Main article: Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion The Bahá'ís follow Bahá'u'lláh, a prophet whom they consider a successor to Muhammad, Jesus, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Krishna and Abraham. This acceptance of other religious founders has encouraged some to regard the Bahá'í religion as a syncretic faith. However, Bahá'ís and the Bahá'í writings explicitly reject this view. Bahá'ís consider Bahá'u'lláh's revelation an independent, though related, revelation from God. Its relationship to previous dispensations is seen as analogous to the relationship of Christianity to Judaism. They regard beliefs held in common as evidence of truth, progressively revealed by God throughout human history, and culminating in (at present) the Bahá'í revelation. Bahá'ís have their own sacred scripture, interpretations, laws and practices that, for Bahá'ís, supersede those of other faiths.* [5]* [6]

19.3.4

Barghawata

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19.3.6 Caribbean religions and cultures The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region often forms a part of cultural creolization. (The technical term "Creole" may apply to anyone born and raised in the region, regardless of ethnicity.) The shared histories of the Caribbean islands include long periods of European Imperialism (mainly by Spain, France, and Great Britain) and the importation of African slaves (primarily from Central and Western Africa). The influences of each of the above interacted in varying degrees on the islands, producing the fabric of society that exists today in the Caribbean.

The Rastafari movement, founded in Jamaica, syncretizes vigorously, mixing elements from the Bible, Marcus Garvey's Pan Africanism movement, a text from the European grimoire tradition the Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses, Hinduism, and Caribbean culture.

Another highly syncretic religion of the area, vodou, combines elements of Western African, native Caribbean, and Christian (especially Roman Catholic) beliefs.

See the modern section for other Caribbean syncretisms.

The Barghawata kingdom of Morocco followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism) with elements of Sunni, Shi'ite and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions. Supposedly, they had their own Qur'an in the Berber language comprising 80 suras under the leadership of the second ruler of the dynasty Salih ibn Tarif who had taken part in the Maysara uprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet.

He also claimed to be the final Mahdi of Islamic tradition, and that Isa (Jesus) would be his companion and pray behind him.

19.3.7 Christianity

Gnosticism is identified as an early form of syncretism that challenged the beliefs of early Christians. Gnostic dualism posited that only spiritual or invisible things were good, and that material or visible things were evil. Orthodox Christians have always insisted that matter is essentially good, since, as they believe, God created all things, both spiritual and material,* [15] and said that it was“very good”.* [16] Simon Magus appears as one of the early proponents of Gnosticism, and is considered by some as one of its founders. He was denounced by many Church 19.3.5 Buddhism authorities, including Peter himself, and is regarded by See also: Three teachings, East Asian Buddhism and some as the source of all heresies.

Buddhism by country In the first few centuries after the death and resurrection of Jesus, there were various competing “Jesus moveused syncretism to help Buddhism has syncretized with many traditional beliefs ments”. The Roman emperors * [17] Social conversion to unite the expanding empire. in East Asian societies as it was seen as compatible Christianity happened all over Europe.

It became even with local religions. The most notable syncretization more effective when missionaries concurred with estabof Buddhism with local beliefs is the Three Teachlished cultural traditions and interlaced them into a funings, or Triple Religion, that harmonizes Mahayana * [18] damentally Christian synthesis.

Buddhism with Confucian philosophy and elements of Taoism.* [7] The religious beliefs, practices, and identities of East Asians (who comprise the majority of the world's Buddhists by any measure) often blend Buddhism with other traditions including Confucianism, the Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Shinto, and Korean shamanism.* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12]* [13] Before and during World War II, a Nichiren Shōshū priest named Jimon Ogasawara proposed the blending of Nichiren Buddhism with Shinto.* [14]

Syncretism must be distinguished from assimilation, the latter of which refers the Church's ability to incorporate into herself all that is true, good, and beautiful in the world. This idea was present in the early Church, as we read in the Second Apology of Justin Martyr: “Whatever things were rightly said among all men,”says Justin,“are the property of us Christians”.* [19] The Church has assimilated many (though not all) of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Augustine of Hippo is remembered for assimi-

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lating the ideas of Plato, while Thomas Aquinas is known for doing so with the ideas of Aristotle. In his essay on the development of Christian doctrine,* [20] John Henry Newman clarified the idea of assimilation.* [21]

The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod has created controversy by disciplining pastors for syncretism when they participated in multi-faith services in response to the 9/11 attacks and to the shootings at Newtown, Connecticut, on One can contrast Christian syncretism with the grounds that merely* sharing a worship setting with contextualization or inculturation, the practice of other faiths was in error. [26] making Christianity relevant to a culture: Contextualisation does not address the doctrine but affects a Mormonism change in the styles or expression of worship. Although Christians often took their European music and building In the Latter Day Saint movement, doctrine from previstyles into churches in other parts of the world, in a ous dispensations as recorded in the LDS canon are concontextualization approach, they would build churches, sidered official, though it is accepted that ancient teachsing songs, and pray in a local ethnic style. Some Jesuit ings can be warped, misunderstood, or lost as a result of missionaries adapted local systems and images to teach apostasy.* [27] While it does not officially recognize docChristianity, as did the Portuguese in China, the practice trine from other religions, it is believed that truth in other of which was opposed by the Dominicans, leading to the sources can be identified via personal revelation.* [28] Chinese rites controversy.

Syncretism did not play a role when Christianity split into eastern and western rites during the Great Schism. It became involved, however, with the rifts of the Protestant Reformation, with Desiderius Erasmus's readings of Plutarch. Even earlier, syncretism was a fundamental aspect of the efforts of Neoplatonists such as Marsilio Ficino to reform the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.* [22] In 1615, David Pareus of Heidelberg urged Christians to a “pious syncretism”in opposing the Antichrist, but few 17th-century Protestants discussed the compromises that might affect a reconciliation with the Catholic Church: Johann Hülsemann, Johann Georg Dorsche and Abraham Calovius (1612–85) opposed the Lutheran Georg Calisen“Calixtus”(1586–1656) of the University of Helmstedt for his“syncretism”.* [23] (See: Syncretistic controversy.)

19.3.8 Druze religion The Druzes integrated elements of Ismaili Islam with Gnosticism and Platonism.

19.3.9 Indian religions Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in ancient India have made many adaptations over the millennia, assimilating elements of various diverse religious traditions. One example of this is the Yoga Vasistha.* [29]

The Mughal emperor Akbar, who wanted to consolidate the diverse religious communities in his empire, propounded Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to Catholicism in Central and South America has been merge the best elements of the religions of his empire integrated with a number of elements derived from Meivazhi (Tamil: மெய்வழி) is a syncretic monotheistic indigenous and slave cultures in those areas (see the minority religion based in Tamil Nadu, India. Its focus Caribbean and modern sections); while many African Ini- is spiritual enlightenment and the conquering of death, tiated Churches demonstrate an integration of Protestant through the teachings. Mevaizhi preaches the Oneness and traditional African beliefs. In Asia the revolutionary of essence message of all the previous major scriptures movements of Taiping (19th-century China) and God's - particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and Army (Karen in the 1990s) have blended Christianity Christianity - allowing membership regardless of creed. and traditional beliefs. The Catholic Church allows some Meivazhi's disciples are thousands of people belonging symbols and traditions to be carried over from older belief once to 69 different castes of different religions being systems, so long as they are remade to fit into a Christian united as one family of Meivazhi Religion. worldview; syncretism of other religions with Catholicism, such as Voudun or Santería, is condemned by the 19.3.10 Islam Roman Catholic Church.

Catholicism in South Korea has been syncretized with traditional Mahayana Buddhist and Confucian customs that form an integral part of traditional Korean culture.

As a result, South Korean Catholics continue to practice ancestral rites and observe many Buddhist and Confucian customs and philosophies.* [24]* [25] The image of Our Lady of Guadalupe and the subsequent devotion to her are seen as assimilating some elements of native Mexican culture into Christianity.

The Islamic mystical tradition known as Sufism appears somewhat syncretic in nature in its origins. A common misconception espoused by western writers with poor understanding of the Arabic language and Sufi tradition is that it is pantheistic or monist. A better explanation is that, “Oneness of being does not mean that the created universe is God, for God's Being is

19.3. RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM

207

necessary while the universe's being is merely possible, that is, subject to non-being, beginning, and ending, and it is impossible that one of these two orders of being could in any sense be the other; but rather, the created universe's act of being is derived from and subsumed by the divine act of creation, from which it has no ontic independence and hence is only through the being of its Creator, the one true being. So Wahdat-al-Wujud or Oneness of Being entails that nothing exists except Allah, His attributes, His actions, and His rulings, while created being, as manifest to us, cannot be identified with His entity or attributes but only with His actions and rulings: the world, as it were, is pure act, while Allah is pure Being. In short [Wahdat-alWujud] is not pantheism, because the world is not Allah. Spinoza's definition in the Ethica of God as “simple substance”(pantheism properly speaking), has nothing to do with the experience of those who possess ma'rifa [gnosis].

Rather, the world's existence is through Allah, in Arabic bi Llah, the point under the Arabic letter ba' being both a point of ontic connection and a point of demarcation...The matter is between Lord (Rabb), and slave who is through Lord ('abd bi Rabb)".* [30]

eschatology, angelology and demonology through contacts with Zoroastrianism.* [32]* [33]* [34]

Mainstream Tasawwuf does not present itself as a separate set of beliefs from the mainstream Sunni tradition; well-established traditions like Naqshbandi, Qadiri, Shadhili, and most others have always been part and parcel of normative Islamic life. No doubt some groups in the name of Sufism, just like in any religion, do espouse theologically unorthodox positions.

Unitarian Universalism also provides an example of a modern syncretic religion. It traces its roots to Universalist and Unitarian Christian congregations. However, modern Unitarian Universalism freely incorporates elements from other religious and non-religious traditions, so that it no longer identifies as “Christian.”

In spite of the Jewish halakhic prohibitions on polytheism, idolatry, and associated practices (Avodah Zarah), several combinations of Judaism with other religions have sprung up: Messianic Judaism, Jewish Buddhism, Nazarenism and Judeo-Paganism. Several Jewish Messiah claimants (such as Jacob Frank) and the Sabbateans came to mix Kabbalistic Judaism with Christianity and Islam. Until relatively recently, China had a Jewish community which had adopted some Confucian practices.* [35]

19.3.12 Other modern syncretic religions Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include the African diasporic religions Candomblé, Vodou and Santería, which analogize various Yorùbá and other African deities to the Roman Catholic saints. Some sects of Candomblé have also incorporated Native American deities, and Umbanda combined African deities with Kardecist spiritualism.

Hoodoo is a similarly derived form of folk magic practiced by some African American communities in the Southern United States. Other traditions of syncretic folk religion in North America include Louisiana Voodoo as Authoritarianist branches of Islamic theology, such as well as Pennsylvania Dutch Pow-wow, in which practiSalafism and Wahhabism reject these understandings tioners invoke power through the Christian God. alongside traditional Islamic principles of belief or Many historical Native American religious movements Aqeedah and stress anthropomorphism as taught by Ibn have incorporated Christian European influence, like the Taymiyya.* [31] A belief which is completely contrary Native American Church, the Ghost Dance, and the reliand incorrect according to the traditional beliefs. gion of Handsome Lake.

During Sufi presence in Bengal, Muslim–Hindu syncretism was a general trend, and Nabibangsha by Syed Sultan is an example of it. The book tells the lineage of the prophets of Islam. Apart from Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, the poet also describes Indian deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, Rama and Krishna.

19.3.11

Judaism

In Moses and Monotheism, Sigmund Freud made a case for Judaism arising out of the pre-existing monotheism that was briefly imposed upon Egypt during the rule of Akhenaten. The Code of Hammurabi is also cited as a likely starting point for the Jewish Ten Commandments. Some scholars hold that Judaism refined its concept of monotheism and adopted features such as its

The Theosophical Society, as opposed to Theosophy, professes to go beyond being a syncretic movement that combines deities into an elaborate Spiritual Hierarchy, and assembles evidence that points to an underlying (or occult) reality of Being that is universal and interconnected, common to all spirit-matter dualities. It is maintained that this is the source of religious belief, each religion simply casting that one reality through the prism of that particular time and in a way that is meaningful to their circumstances.

Universal Sufism seeks the unity of all people and religions. Universal Sufis strive to“realize and spread the knowledge of Unity, the religion of Love, and Wisdom, so that the biases and prejudices of faiths and beliefs may, of themselves, fall away, the human heart overflow with love, and all hatred caused by distinctions and differences be rooted out.”* [36]

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In Vietnam, Caodaism blends elements of Buddhism, 19.4.1 During the Enlightenment Catholicism and Taoism.

The modern, rational non-pejorative connotations of synSeveral Japanese new religions, such as Konkokyo and cretism date from Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie articles: Seicho-No-Ie, are syncretistic.

Eclecticisme and Syncrétistes, Hénotiques, ou ConciliaThe Nigerian religion Chrislam combines Christian and teurs. Diderot portrayed syncretism as the concordance Islamic doctrines. of eclectic sources.

Thelema is a mixture of many different schools of belief and practice, including Hermeticism, Eastern Mysticism, Yoga, 19th century libertarian philosophies (i.e. Nietzsche), occultism, and the Kabbalah, as well as ancient Egyptian and Greek religion.

Examples of strongly syncretist Romantic and modern movements with some religious elements include mysticism, occultism, Theosophical Society, modern astrology, Neopaganism, and the New Age movement.

In China, most of the population follows syncretist religions combining Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and elements of Confucianism. Out of all Chinese believers, approximately 85.7% adhere to Chinese traditional religion, as many profess to be both Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist at the same time. Many of the pagodas in China are dedicated to both Buddhist and Taoist deities.

In Réunion, the Malbars combine elements of Hinduism and Christianity.

The Unification Church, founded by religious leader Sun Myung Moon in South Korea in 1954. Its teachings are based on the Bible, but include new interpretations not found in mainstream Judaism and Christianity and incorporates Asian traditions.* [37]* [38] The traditional Mun faith of the Lepcha people predates their seventh century conversion to Lamaistic Buddhism.

Since that time, the Lepcha have practiced it together with Buddhism. Since the arrival of Christian missionaries in the nineteenth century, Mun traditions have been followed alongside that faith as well. The traditional religion permits incorporation of Buddha and Jesus Christ as a deities, depending on household beliefs.* [39]* [40]* [41]

19.4 Cultures and societies Main article: Moral syncretism Syncretism helped create possible cultural compromise.

It contributed for a chance to establish beliefs, values, and customs in a place with different cultural traditions. This also allowed expansive traditions to win popular support in foreign lands.* [42]

19.5 See also • Folk religion • Hermeneutics • Ietsism • Inclusivism • Interfaith dialogue • Multifaith space • New religious movement • Religious pluralism • Sheilaism

19.6 Notes [1] http://www.missiology.org.uk/pdf/cotterell-fs/15_ ferdinando.pdf [2] “Ammon (Siwa)". Livius.Org. Retrieved 9 August 2014.

[3]“Temple of Amun, Siwa Oasis, Egypt”. SacredSites.com.

Retrieved 9 August 2014.

[4] Scheid, John. Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 97, Greece in Rome : Influence, Integration, Resistance (1995), 15-31.

[5] Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 276–277 & p.291. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.

[6] Stockman, Robert (1997). The Baha'i Faith and Syncretism.

[7] Sanjiao: The Three Teachings. Columbia University [8] “Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion”. Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu. Retrieved 20 November 2011.

[9] Windows on Asia – Chinese Religions [10] “Religions and Beliefs in China”. Travelchinaguide.com.

“Syncretism is often used to describe the product of the Retrieved 20 November 2011. large-scale imposition of one alien culture, religion, or body of practices over another that is already present.” [11] “SACU Religion in China”. Sacu.org. Retrieved 20 * [43] November 2011.

19.7. FURTHER READING

[12] “Buddhism in China”. AskAsia. Retrieved 20 November 2011.

[13] “Buddhism And Its Spread Along The Silk Road”. Globaled.org. Retrieved 20 November 2011.

[14] Dumoulin, Heinrich; Maraldo, John C. (1976). Buddhism in the Modern World. The University of Virginia: Macmillan. p. 258.

[15] The Apostles Creed and The Nicene Creed [16] Genesis1:31 [17] Freke, Timothy; Gandy, Peter (1999). The Jesus Mysteries. United Kingdom: Harmony. ISBN 0609807986.

[18] Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

[19] Étienne Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Justin Martyr, page 13 [20] An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine [21] “Chapter 8. Application of the Third Note of a True Development—Assimilative Power”, An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine [22] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4 [23]“Syncretism”, Cyclopedia, LCMS [24] Park, Chang-Won (10 June 2010). Cultural Blending in Korean Death Rites. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1-4411-1749-6.

[25] [26] Pastor Apologizes to His Denomination for Role in Sandy Hook Interfaith Service, The New York Times, 7 February 2013 [27] “Chapter 16: The Church of Jesus Christ in Former Times”, Gospel Principles, LDS Church, 2011, pp. 87– 93, archived from the original on 2014-11-12 [28] “Chapter 22: Gaining Knowledge of Eternal Truths”, Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith, LDS Church, 2007, pp. 261–70, archived from the original on 2014-11-12 [29] Christopher Chapple, The concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha By Venkatesananda, 1985, pp. xii [30] Sea Without Shore: Nuh Ha Mim Keller [31] no reference [32] Boyce, Mary (1987). Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World. London: William's Trust.

[33] Black, Matthew and Rowley, H. H. (eds.) (1982). Peake's Commentary on the Bible. New York: Nelson. ISBN 0415-05147-9.

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[34] Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988).“Zoroastrianism”.

Encyclopedia Americana 29. Danbury: Grolier. pp. 813– 815.

[35] www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/israel/losttribes3.html#chiang [36] Hazrat Pir-o-Murshid Inayat Khan, The 3 Objects of the Sufi Movement at the Wayback Machine (archived December 27, 2007), Sufi Ruhaniat International (1956– 2006).

[37] George D. Chryssides, “Unificationism: A study in religious syncretism”, Chapter 14 in Religion: empirical studies, Editor: Steven Sutcliffe, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, ISBN 0-7546-4158-9, ISBN 978-0-7546-4158-2 [38] Religious Requirements and Practices of Certain Selected Groups: A Handbook for Chaplains, By U. S. Department of the Army, Published by The Minerva Group, Inc., 2001, ISBN 0-89875-607-3, ISBN 978-0-89875-607-4, page 1–42. Google books listing [39] Hamlet Bareh, ed. (2001). “Encyclopaedia of NorthEast India: Sikkim”. Encyclopaedia of North-East India 7. Mittal Publications: 284–86. ISBN 8170997879.

[40] Torri, Davide (2010). “10. In the Shadow of the Devil. traditional patterns of Lepcha culture reinterpreted”. In Fabrizio Ferrari. Health and Religious Rituals in South Asia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 149–156. ISBN 1136846298.

[41] Barbara A. West, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts on File library of world history. Infobase Publishing. p. 462. ISBN 1438119135.

[42] Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), viii.

[43] Peter J. Claus and Margaret A. Mills, South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia: (Garland Publishing, Inc., 2003).

19.7 Further reading • Cotter, John (1990). The New Age and Syncretism, in the World and in the Church. Long Prairie, Minn.: Neumann Press. 38 p. N.B.: The approach to the issue is from a conservative Roman Catholic position.

ISBN 0-911845-20-8

Chapter 20

New Age This article is about the New Age movement and its spirituality. For the astrological age in western astrology, see Age of Aquarius. For other uses with the term New Age, see New Age (disambiguation).

The New Age is a term applied to a range of spiritual or

1970s, at which time it was centred largely in the United Kingdom. It expanded and grew largely in the 1980s and 1990s, in particular within the United States.

Despite its highly eclectic nature, a number of beliefs commonly found within the New Age movement have been identified. Theologically, the movement typically adopts a belief in a holistic form of divinity which imbues all of the universe, including human beings themselves.

There is thus a strong emphasis on the spiritual authority of the self. This is accompanied by a common belief in a wide variety of semi-divine non-human entities, such as angels and masters, with whom humans can communicate, particularly through the form of channeling. Typically viewing human history as being divided into a series of distinct ages, a common New Age belief is that whereas once humanity lived in an age of great technological advancement and spiritual wisdom, it has entered a period of spiritual degeneracy, which will be remedied through the establishment of a coming Age of Aquarius, from which the movement gets its name. There is A New Age Rainbow Gathering in Bosnia, 2007 also a strong focus on healing, particularly using forms of alternative medicine, and an emphasis on a “New Age religious beliefs and practices that developed in Western science”which seeks to unite science and spirituality. nations during the 1970s. Precise scholarly definitions of the movement differ in their emphasis, largely as a Those involved in the New Age movement have been priresult of its highly eclectic structure. Although analyti- marily from middle and upper-middle-class backgrounds. cally often considered to be religious, those involved in it The degree to which New Agers are involved in the typically prefer the designation of “spiritual”and rarely movement varied considerably, from those who adopted use the term “New Age”themselves. Many scholars a number of New Age ideas and practices to those who of the subject refer to it as the New Age movement, al- fully embraced and dedicated their lives to it. The movethough others contest this term, believing that it gives a ment has generated criticism from established Christian organisations as well as contemporary Pagan and indigefalse sense of homogeneity to the phenomenon. nous communities. From the 1990s onward, the moveAs a form of Western esotericism, the New Age movement became the subject of research by academic scholment drew heavily upon a number of older esoteric tradiars of religious studies. tions, in particular those that emerged from the occultist current that developed in the eighteenth century. Such prominent occult influences include the work of Emanuel Swedenborg and Franz Mesmer, as well as the ideas of 20.1 Definition Spiritualism, New Thought, and the Theosophical Society. A number of mid-twentieth century influences, such as the UFO cults of the 1950s, the Counterculture of the “One of the few things on which all scholars are agreed 1960s, and the Human Potential Movement, also exerted concerning New Age is that it is difficult to define. Ofa strong influence on the early development of the New ten, the definition given actually reflects the background Age movement. Although the exact origins of the move- of the scholar giving the definition. Thus, the New Ager ment remain contested, it is agreed that it developed in the views New Age as a revolutionary period of history dic210

20.1. DEFINITION tated by the stars; the Christian apologist has often defined new age as a cult; the historian of ideas understands it as a manifestation of the perennial tradition; the philosopher sees New Age as a monistic or holistic worldview; the sociologist describes New Age as a new religious movement (NRM); while the psychologist describes it as a form of narcissism.”

—Religious studies scholar Daren Kemp, 2004.* [1] The New Age phenomenon has proved difficult to define, with much scholarly disagreement as to how this can be done.* [2] Religious studies scholar Paul Heelas characterised the New Age movement as “an eclectic hotchpotch of beliefs, practices, and ways of life”which can be identified as a singular phenomenon through their use of “the same (or very similar) lingua franca to do with the human (and planetary) condition and how it can be transformed”.* [3] Similarly, historian of religion Olav Hammer termed it “a common denominator for a variety of quite divergent contemporary popular practices and beliefs”which have emerged since the late 1970s and which are“largely united by historical links, a shared discourse and an air de famille".* [4] Sociologist of religion Michael York described the New Age movement as “an umbrella term that includes a great variety of groups and identities”but which are united by their “expectation of a major and universal change being primarily founded on the individual and collective development of human potential”.* [5] The religious studies scholar Wouter Hanegraaff adopted a different approach by asserting that “New Age”was “a label attached indiscriminately to whatever seems to fit it”and that as a result it “means very different things to different people”.* [6] He thus argued against the idea that the New Age movement could be considered“a unified ideology or Weltanschaaung".* [7] Echoing the view that the phenomenon labeled“New Age”was not“even a homogenous entity at all”, the religious studies scholar Steven J. Sutcliffe nevertheless rejected the idea of a “New Age movement", deeming it to be“a false etic category”.* [8] Many of those groups and individuals who could analytically be categorised as part of the New Age movement reject the term “New Age”when in reference to themselves.* [9] Rather than term themselves “New Agers”, those involved in this milieu commonly describe themselves as spiritual“seekers”.* [10] In 2003, Sutcliffe observed that the use of the term was “optional, episodic and declining overall”, adding that among the very few individuals who did use it, they usually did so with qualification, for instance by placing it in inverted commas.* [11] Hence, although the religious studies scholar James R. Lewis acknowledged that“New Age”was a problematic term, he asserted that “there exists no comparable term which covers all aspects of the movement”and that thus it remained a useful etic category for scholars to use.* [12]

211 come conscious of itself, in the later 1970s, as constituting a more or less unified “movement”. All manifestations of this movement are characterized by a popular western culture criticism expressed in terms of a secularized esotericism.”

—Scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff, 1996.* [13] Those involved in the movement rarely consider it to be “religion”– negatively associating the latter solely with organized religion – and instead describe their practices as “spirituality”.* [14] Religious studies scholars however have repeatedly referred to the movement as a“religion"; Hanegraaff for instance described the New Age as a "religious movement”.* [15] The New Age movement is a form of Western esotericism.* [16] Hanegraaff considered the New Age to be a form of “popular culture criticism”, in that it represented a reaction against the dominant Western values of Judeo-Christian religion and rationalism,* [17] adding that“New Age religion formulates such criticism not at random, but falls back on”the ideas of earlier Western esoteric groups.* [7] York described the New Age movement as a new religious movement (NRM).* [18] Conversely, both Heelas and Sutcliffe rejected this categorisation; he believed that while elements of the New Age movement represented NRMs, this was not applicable to every New Age group.* [19] Hammer identified much of the New Age movement as corresponding to the concept of "folk religions" in that it seeks to deal with existential questions regarding subjects like death and disease in “an unsystematic fashion, often through a process of bricolage from already available narratives and rituals”.* [4] York also heuristically divides the New Age movement into three broad trends. The first, the “social camp”, represents groups which primarily seek to bring about social change, while the second,“occult camp”, instead focus on contact with spirit entities and channeling. York's third group, the “spiritual camp”, represents a middle ground between these two camps, and which focuses largely on individual development.* [20]

20.1.1 Terminology of the “New Age”

The term “new age”, along with related terms like “new era”and “new world”, long predate the emergence of the New Age movement, and have widely been used to assert that a better way of life for humanity is dawning.* [21] It has, for instance, widely been used in political contexts; the Great Seal of the United States, designed in 1782, proclaims a “new order of ages”, while in the 1980s the Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev proclaimed that “all mankind is entering a new age” .* [21] The term has also appeared within Western esoteric schools of thought, having a scattered use from the mid-nineteenth century onward.* [22] In 1864 the American Swedenborgian Warren Felt Evans published “The New Age movement is the cultic milieu having beThe New Age and its Message, while in 1907 Alfred Or-

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age and Holbrook Jackson began editing a weekly journal of Christian liberalism and socialism titled The New Age.* [23] The concept of a coming“new age”that would be inaugurated by the return to Earth of Jesus Christ was a theme in the poetry of Wellesley Tudor Pole and Johanna Brandt,* [24] and then also appeared in the work of the American Theosophist Alice Bailey, who used the term prominently in such titles as Disciplineship in the New Age (1944) and Education in the New Age (1954).* [24]

Theosophical Society, an occult group co-founded by the Russian Helena Blavatsky in the late 19th century. In her books Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888), Blavatsky claimed that her Society was conveying the essence of all world religions, and it thus emphasized a focus on comparative religion.* [36] Another was New Thought, which developed in late nineteenth century New England as a Christian-oriented healing movement before spreading throughout the United States.* [37] Drury also Between the 1930s and 1960s a small number of groups identified as an important influence upon the New Age movement the Indian Swami Vivekananda, an adherent and individuals became preoccupied with the concept of brought Hinduism a coming “New Age”and prominently used the term of the philosophy of Vedanta who first to the West in the late 19th century.* [38] * accordingly. [25] The term had thus become a recurring motif in the esoteric spirituality milieu.* [26] Sut- “Most of the beliefs which characterise the New Age were cliffe therefore expressed the view that while the term already present by the end of the 19th century, even to “New Age”had originally been an“apocalyptic emblem” such an extent that one may legitimately wonder whether , it would only be later that it became“a tag or codeword the New Age brings anything new at all.” for a 'spiritual' idiom”.* [27] —Scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff, 1996.* [39] Popularisation behind these ideas has roots in the work of early 20th century writers such as D. H. Lawrence and 20.2 History William Butler Yeats. In the early- to mid-1900s, American mystic, theologian, and founder of the Association for Research and Enlightenment Edgar Cayce was a sem20.2.1 Antecedents inal influence on what later would be termed the New Age movement; he was known in particular for the pracAccording to scholar Nevill Drury, the New Age has a tice some refer to as channeling.* [40] Another promi“tangible history”,* [28] although Hanegraaff expressed nent influence was the psychologist Carl Jung,* [41] who the view that most New Agers were“surprisingly ignorant was a proponent of the concept of the Age of Aquarabout the actual historical roots of their beliefs”.* [29] ius.* [42]* [43]* [44] As a form of Western esotericism,* [30] the New Age has antecedents that stretch back to southern Europe in Late Hanegraaff believed that the New Age movement's diAntiquity.* [31] Following the Age of Enlightenment in rect antecedents could be found in the UFO religions of 18th century Europe, new esoteric ideas developed in re- the 1950s, which he termed a “proto-New Age movesponse to the development of scientific rationality. This ment”.* [45] Many of these new religious movements new esoteric trend is termed occultism by scholars, and had strong apocalyptic beliefs regarding a coming new it was this occultism which would be a key factor in the age, which they typically asserted would be brought about development of the worldview from which the New Age by contact with extraterrestrials.* [46] Examples of such groups included the Aetherius Society, founded in the UK emerged.* [32] in 1955, and the Heralds of the New Age, established in One of the earliest influences on the New Age was the New Zealand in 1956.* [47] Swedish 18th century Christian mystic Emanuel Swedenborg, who professed the ability to communicate with angels, demons, and spirits. Swedenborg's attempt to unite science and religion and his prediction of a coming era in particular have been cited as ways in which he prefigured the New Age movement.* [33] Another early influence was the late 17th and early 18th century German physician and hypnotist Franz Mesmer, who claimed the existence of a force known as "animal magnetism" running through the human body.* [34] The establishment of Spiritualism, an occult religion influenced by both Swedenborgianism and Mesmerism, in the U.S. during the 1840s has also been identified as a precursor to the New Age movement, in particular through its rejection of established Christianity, its claims to representing a scientific approach to religion, and its emphasis on channeling spirit entities.* [35] This barrel house was the first dwelling constructed at the A further major influence on the New Age was the Findhorn Ecovillage.

20.2. HISTORY From a historical perspective, the New Age phenomenon is rooted in the counterculture of the 1960s.* [48] Although not common throughout the counterculture, usage of the terms“New Age”and“Age of Aquarius”– used in reference to a coming era – were found within it,* [49] for instance appearing on adverts for the Woodstock festival of 1969,* [50] and in the lyrics of "Aquarius", the opening song of the 1967 musical Hair: The American Tribal Love-Rock Musical.* [51] This decade also witnessed the emergence of a variety of new religious movements and newly established religions in the United States, creating a spiritual milieu from which the New Age drew upon; these included the San Francisco Zen Center, Transcendental Meditation, Soka Gakkai, the Inner Peace Movement, the Church of All Worlds, and the Church of Satan.* [52] Although there had been an established interest in Asian religious ideas in the U.S. from at least the eighteenth-century,* [53] many of these new developments were variants of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sufism which had been imported to the West from Asia following the U.S. government's decision to rescind the Asian Exclusion Act in 1965.* [54] In 1962 the Esalen Institute was established in Big Sur, California.* [55] It was from Esalen and other similar personal growth centers which had developed links to humanistic psychology that the human potential movement emerged, which would also come to exert a strong influence on the New Age movement.* [56]

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20.2.2 Emergence and development: 1970–2000

c.

Sutcliffe argued that between circa 1967 and 1974, the “emblem”of the“New Age”came to be passed from the “subcultural pioneers”of alternative spirituality groups such as that at Findhorn to the wider array of “countercultural baby boomers”, and that as that happened, there was a “fundamental transformation in meaning”of the term “New Age"; whereas it had once referred specifically to a coming era, at this point it came to be used in a wider sense to refer to a variety of humanistic activities and practices.* [63] The counterculture of the 1960s had rapidly declined by the start of the 1970s, in large part due to the collapse of the commune movement,* [64] but it would be many former members of the counter-culture and hippy subculture who subsequently became early adherents of the New Age movement.* [61] The exact origins of the New Age movement remain an issue of debate; Melton asserted that it emerged in the early 1970s,* [65] whereas Hanegraaff instead traced its emergence to the latter 1970s, adding that it then entered its full development in the 1980s.* [66] This early form of the movement was based largely in Britain and exhibited a strong influence from Theosophy and Anthroposophy.* [67] Hanegraaff termed this early core of the movement the New Age sensu stricto, or“New Age in the strict sense”.* [67]

In the latter part of the 1970s, the New Age movement expanded to cover a wide variety of alternative spiritual and religious beliefs and practices, not all of which explicitly held to the belief in the Age of Aquarius, but which were nevertheless widely recognised as being broadly similar in their search for “alternatives”to mainstream society.* [67] In doing so, the “New Age”became a banner under which to bring together the wider“cultic milieu”of American society.* [30] Hanegraaff terms this development the New Age sensu lato, or “New Age in the wider sense”.* [67] Stores that came to be known as “New Age shops”opened up, selling related books, magazines, jewellery, and crystals, and they were typified by the playing of New Age music and the smell of incense.* [68]This probably influenced several thousand small metaphysical book- and gift-stores that increasingly defined themselves as “New Age bookstores”,* [69] while New Age titles came to be increasingly available from mainstream book* All of these groups would create the backdrop from which stores and then websites like Amazon.com. [70] the New Age movement emerged; as James R. Lewis and Not everyone who came to be associated with the New J. Gordon Melton point out, the New Age phenomenon Age phenomenon openly embraced the term“New Age” represents “a synthesis of many different preexisting , although it was popularised in books like David Spanmovements and strands of thought”.* [61] Nevertheless, gler's 1977 work Revelation: The Birth of a New Age York asserted that while the New Age bore many sim- and Mark Satin's 1979 book New Age Politics: Healing ilarities with both earlier forms of Western esotericism Self and Society.* [71] Other terms that were employed and Asian religion, it remained “distinct from its pre- synonymously with “New Age”in this milieu included decessors in its own self-consciousness as a new way of “Green”,“Holistic”,“Alternative”, and“Spiritual” thinking”.* [62] .* [72]

In Britain, a number of small religious groups that came to be identified as the “light”movement had begun declaring the existence of a coming new age, influenced strongly by the Theosophical ideas of Blavatsky and Bailey.* [57] The most prominent of these groups was the Findhorn Foundation which founded the Findhorn Ecovillage in the Scottish area of Findhorn, Moray in 1962.* [58] Although its founders were from an older generation, Findhorn attracted increasing numbers of countercultural baby boomers during the 1960s, to the extent that its population had grown sixfold to circa 120 residents by 1972.* [59] In October 1965, the founder of Findhorn, Peter Caddy, attended a meeting of various prominent figures within Britain's esoteric milieu; titled “The Significance of the Group in the New Age”, it was held at Attingham Park over the course of a weekend.* [60]

1971 witnessed the foundation of est by Werner H. Erhard, a transformational training course which became

214 a prominent part of the early movement.* [73] Melton suggested that the 1970s witnessed the growth of a relationship between the New Age movement and the older New Thought movement, as evidenced by the widespread use of Helen Schucman's A Course in Miracles (1975), New Age music, and crystal healing in New Thought churches.* [74] Some figures in the New Thought movement were sceptical, challenging the compatibility of New Age and New Thought perspectives.* [75] During these decades, Findhorn had become a site of pilgrimage for many New Agers, and greatly expanded in size as people joined the community, with workshops and conferences being held there that brought together New Age thinkers from across the world.* [76]

CHAPTER 20. NEW AGE field's 1993 work The Celestine Prophecy.* [84] A variety of these books were best sellers, with the Seth book series for instance selling over a million copies.* [70] Supplementing these books were videos, audiotapes, compact discs and websites.* [85] The development of the internet in particular further popularized New Age ideas and made them more widely accessible.* [86] In Britain during the 1980s, the term "New Age Travellers" came into use,* [87] while the term “New Age” came to be used increasingly widely by the popular media in the 1990s.* [87]

20.3 Beliefs and practices Main articles: Spirituality and List of New Age topics Although there is great diversity among the beliefs and practices found within the New Age movement, according to York it is united by a shared“vision of radical mystical transformation on both the personal and collective levels”.* [88] The movement aims to create“a spirituality without borders or confining dogmas”that is inclusive and pluralistic.* [89]

New Age shrine in Glastonbury, England

Several key events occurred, which raised public awareness of the New Age subculture: publication of Linda Goodman's best-selling astrology books Sun Signs (1968) and Love Signs (1978); the release of Shirley MacLaine's book Out on a Limb (1983), later adapted into a television mini-series with the same name (1987); and the "Harmonic Convergence" planetary alignment on August 16 and 17, 1987,* [77] organized by José Argüelles in Sedona, Arizona. The Convergence attracted more people to the movement than any other single event.* [78] Heelas suggested that the movement was influenced by the“enterprise culture”encouraged by the U.S. and U.K. governments during the 1980s onward, with its emphasis on initiative and self-reliance resonating with any New Age ideas.* [79] The claims of channelers Jane Roberts (Seth Material), Helen Schucman (A Course in Miracles), J. Z. Knight (Ramtha), Neale Donald Walsch (Conversations with God) (note that Walsch denies being a“channeler”and his books make it obvious that he is not one, though the text emerged through a dialogue with a deeper part of himself in a process comparable to automatic writing) contributed to the movement's growth.* [80]* [81] The first significant exponent of the New Age movement in the U.S. has been cited as Ram Dass.* [82] Core works in the propagating New Age ideas included Jane Roberts's Seth series, published from 1972 onward,* [70] Helen Schucman's 1975 publication A Course in Miracles,* [83] and James Red-

20.3.1 Theology, cosmogony, and cosmology Hanegraaff noted that the existence of divinity was “mostly an integral and necessary part of New Age ideas” .* [90] However, he added that within the movement, such ideas regarding the nature of divinity “reflect a marked aversion to rigid, doctrinal definitions”,* [91] with New Age theology exhibiting an inclusivist and universalistic approach which accepts all personal perspectives on the divine as being equally valid.* [92] This intentional vagueness as to the nature of divinity also reflects the New Age idea that divinity cannot be comprehended by the human mind or language.* [93] There are nevertheless a number of traits that are repeatedly associated with divinity in New Age literature, the first of which is the idea that it is holistic, thus frequently being described with such terms as an“Ocean of Oneness”,“Infinite Spirit”,“Primal Stream”, “One Essence”, and “Universal Principle” .* [93] A second common trait is the characterisation of divinity as “Mind”, “Consciousness”, and “Intelligence”,* [94] while a third is the description of divinity as a form of "energy".* [95] A fourth trait is the characterisation of divinity as a “life force”, the essence of which is creativity,* [95] while a fifth is the concept that divinity consists of love.* [96] Most New Age groups subscribe to the view that there is an Ultimate Source from which all things originate, which is usually conflated with the divine.* [97] Various creation myths have been articulated in New Age publi-

20.3. BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

215 scended into a world of matter.* [108] The New Age movement typically views the material universe as a meaningful illusion, which humans should try to use constructively rather than focus on escaping into other spiritual realms.* [109] This physical world is hence seen as“a domain for learning and growth”after which the human soul might pass on to higher levels of existence.* [110] There is thus a widespread belief that reality is engaged in an ongoing process of evolution; rather than Darwinian evolution, this is typically seen as either a teleological evolution which assumes a process headed to a specific goal, or an open-ended, creative evolution.* [111] Within the New Age movement, it is often unclear how divine beings are divided from those entities which are believed to exist between divinity and humanity.* [112] In the literature, there is much talk of non-human beings who are benevolently interested in the spiritual development of humanity, and which are variously referred to under such names as angels, guardian angels, personal guides, masters, teachers, and contacts.* [113] New Age angelology is nevertheless unsystematic, reflecting the idiosyncrasies of individual authors.* [114] The figure of Jesus Christ is often mentioned within New Age literature as a mediating principle between divinity and humanity, as well as an exemplar of a spiritually advanced human being.* [115]

New Age meditation group at the Snoqualmie Moondance festival, 1992

20.3.2 Self-spirituality and channeling cations outlining how this Ultimate Source came to create the universe and everything in it.* [98] In contrast, some other New Agers have emphasised the idea of a universal inter-relatedness that is not always emanating from a single source.* [99] The New Age worldview emphasises holism and the idea that everything in existence is intricately connected as part of a single whole,* [100] in doing so rejecting both the dualism of Judeo-Christian thought and the reductionism of Cartesian science.* [101] A number of New Agers have linked this holistic interpretation of the universe to the Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock.* [102] The idea of holistic divinity results in a common New Age belief that humans themselves are divine in essence, a concept described using such terms as“droplet of divinity”,“inner Godhead”, and“divine self”.* [103] Influenced by Theosophical and Anthroposophical ideas regarding 'subtle bodies',* [104] a common New Age idea holds to the existence of a“Higher Self”which is a part of the human but which connects with the divine essence of the universe, and which can advise the human mind through intuition.* [105] Cosmogonical creation stories are common in New Age sources,* [106] with these accounts reflecting the movement's holistic framework by describing an original, primal oneness from which all things in the universe emanated.* [107] An additional common theme is that human souls – once living in a spiritual world – then de-

The New Age movement exhibits a strong emphasis on the idea that the individual and their own experiences are the primary source of authority on spiritual matters.* [116] Thus, it exhibits what Heelas termed “unmediated individualism”,* [117] and reflects a worldview which is“radically democratic”.* [118] As a result, there is a strong emphasis on the freedom of the individual in the movement.* [119] This emphasis has led to some ethical disagreements; while some New Age participants stress the need to help others because all are part of the unitary holistic universe, others have disagreed, refusing to aid others because it is believed that it will result in their dependency on others and thus conflicts with the self-as-authority ethic.* [120] Nevertheless, within the movement, there are differences in the role accorded to voices of authority outside of the self.* [121] “In the flood of channeled material which has been published or delivered to “live”audiences in the last two decades, there is much indeed that is trivial, contradictory, and confusing. The authors of much of this material make claims which, while not necessarily untrue or fraudulent, are difficult or impossible for the reader to verify.

There are, however, a number of other channeled documents which address issues more immediately relevant to the human condition. The best of these writings are not only coherent and plausible, but eloquently persuasive and sometimes disarmingly moving.”

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—Academic Suzanne Riordan, 1992.* [122] Although not present in every New Age group,* [123] a core belief of the movement is in channeling.* [124] This is the idea that humans beings, sometimes (although not always) in a state of trance, can act “as a channel of information from sources other than their normal selves”.* [125] These sources are varyingly described as being God, gods and goddesses, ascended masters, spirit guides, extraterrestrials, angels, devas, historical figures, the collective unconscious, elementals, or nature spirits.* [125] Hanegraaff described channeling as a form of “articulated revelation”,* [126] and identified four forms: trance channeling, automatisms, clairaudient channeling, and open channeling.* [127]

sometimes termed the Age of Pisces.* [134] Although characterised as being a negative period for humanity, New Age literature views the Age of Pisces as an important learning experience for the species.* [137] Hanegraaff stated that New Age perceptions of history were “extremely sketchy”in their use of description,* [137] reflecting little interest in historiography and conflating history with myth.* [138] He also noted that they were highly ethnocentric in placing Western civilization at the centre of historical development.* [135]

Prominent examples of channeling in the New Age movement include Jane Roberts' claims that she was contacted by an entity called Seth, and Helen Schucman's claims to have channeled Jesus Christ.* [128] The academic Suzanne Riordan examined a variety of these New Age channeled messages, and noted that they typically “echoed each other in tone and content”, offering an analysis of the human condition and giving instructions or advice for how humanity can discover its true destiny.* [129] For many New Agers, these channeled messages rival the scriptures of the main world religions as sources of spiritual authority,* [130] although often New Agers describe historical religious revelations as forms of “channeling” as well, thus attempting to legitimate and authenticate their own contemporary practices.* [131] Although the concept of channeling from discarnate spirit entities has links to Spiritualism and psychical research, in the New Age movement the Spiritualist emphasis on proving the existence of life after death is absent, as is the psychical research focus of testing mediums for consistency.* [132]

20.3.3

Astrological cycles and the Age of Aquarius

New Age thought typically envisions the world as developing through a series of large astronomical cycles which can be identified astrologically.* [133] Although the concept of distinct ages has older roots in Western esoteric thought, the New Age movement adopted it from Theosophy,* [134] despite the fact that such New Age conceptions of ages are often looser and more eclectic than those in Theosophical doctrine.* [135] New Age literature often claims that humanity once lived in an age of spiritual wisdom.* [134] In the writings of New Agers like Edgar Cayce, the ancient period of spiritual wisdom is associated with concepts of supremely-advanced societies living on lost continents such as Atlantis, Lemuria, and Mu, as well as the idea that ancient societies like those of Ancient Egypt were far more technologically advanced than modern scholarship accepts.* [136] New Age literature often posits that the ancient period of spiritual wisdom ultimately gave way to an age of spiritual decline,

Astrological ideas hold a central place in the New Age movement

A common belief among the New Age movement is that humanity has entered, or is coming to enter, a new age known as the Age of Aquarius,* [139] which Melton has characterised as a “New Age of love, joy, peace, abundance, and harmony[...] the Golden Age heretofore only dreamed about”.* [140] In accepting this belief in a coming new age, the movement has been described as “highly positive, celebratory, [and] utopian”,* [141] and has also been cited as an apocalyptic movement.* [142] Opinions about the nature of the coming New Age differ among New Agers.* [143] There are for instance differences in belief about its commencement, with New Age author David Spangler claiming that it began in 1967,* [144] while various practitioners placed its beginning with the Harmonic Convergence of 1987,* [145] with others claiming that it will not begin until several centuries into the third millennium.* [146] There are also differences in how this new age is envisioned.* [147] Those adhering to what Hanegraaff termed the “moderate”perspective believed that it would be marked by an improvement to current society, which affected both New Age concerns – through the convergence of science and mysticism and the global embrace of alternative medicine – to more general concerns, including an end to violence, crime and war, a healthier environment, and international co-operation.* [148] Other New Agers adopt a fully utopian vision, believing that the world will

20.3. BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

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be wholly transformed into an “Age of Light”, with humans evolving into totally spiritual beings and experiencing unlimited love, bliss, and happiness.* [149] The Age of Aquarius is not viewed as eternal, but it is instead believed that it will last for around two thousand years, before being replaced by a further age.* [150] There are various beliefs within the movement as to how this new age will come about, but most emphasise the idea that it will be established through human agency; others assert that it will be established with the aid of non-human forces such as spirits or extraterrastrials.* [151] Participants in the movement typically express the view that their own spiritual actions are helping to bring about the Age of Aquarius,* [152] with a common belief also being that there are higher powers in the universe that are helping to birth the new age.* [153]

20.3.4

Healing and alternative medicine

Another core factor of the New Age movement is its emphasis on healing and the use of alternative medicine.* [154]* [155] The general ethos within the movement is that health is the natural state for the human being and that illness is a disruption of that natural balance.* [156] Hence, New Age therapies seek to heal "illness" as a general concept which includes physical, mental, and spiritual aspects; in doing so it critiques mainstream Western medicine for simply attempting to cure disease, and thus has an affinity with most forms of traditional medicine found around the world.* [157] The concept of "personal growth" is also greatly emphasised within the healing aspects of the New Age movement.* [158] The movement's focus of self-spirituality has led to the emphasis of self-healing,* [159] although also present in the movement are ideas that focus on both healing others and healing the Earth itself.* [160] The healing elements of the movement are difficult to classify given that a variety of terms are used, with some New Age authors using different terms to refer to the same trends, while others use the same term to refer to different things.* [161] However, Hanegraaff developed a set of categories into which the forms of New Age healing could be roughly categorised. The first of these was the Human Potential Movement, which argues that contemporary Western society suppresses much human potential, and which accordingly professes to offer a path through which individuals can access those parts of themselves that they have alienated and suppressed, thus enabling them to reach their full potential and live a meaningful life.* [162] Hanegraaff described transpersonal psychology as the“theoretical wing”of this Human Potential Movement; in contrast to other schools of psychological thought, transpersonal psychology takes religious and mystical experiences seriously by exploring the uses of altered states of consciousness.* [163] Closely connected to this is the shamanic consciousness current, which argues that the shaman was a specialist in altered

Reiki is one of the alternative therapies commonly found in the New Age movement.

states of consciousness and which seeks to adopt and imitate traditional shamanic techniques as a form of personal healing and growth.* [164] Hanegraaff identified the second main healing current in the New Age movement as being holistic health. This emerged in the 1970s out of the free clinic movement of the 1960s, and has various connections with the Human Potential Movement.* [165] It emphasises the idea that the human individual is a holistic, interdependent relationship between mind, body, and spirit, and that healing is a process in which an individual becomes whole by integrating with the powers of the universe.* [166] A very wide array of methods are utilised within the holistic health movement, with some of the most common including acupuncture, biofeedback, chiropractic, yoga, kinesiology, homeopathy, iridology, massage and other forms of bodywork, meditation and visualisation, nutritional therapy, psychic healing, herbal medicine, healing using crystals, metals, music, chromotherapy, and reincarnation therapy.* [167] The use of crystal healing has become a particularly prominent visual trope in the movement.* [168] The mainstreaming of the Holistic Health movement in the UK is discussed by Maria Tighe.

The inter-relation of holistic health with the New Age movement is illustrated in Jenny Butler's ethnographic description of “Angel therapy”in Ireland.* [155]

218

20.3.5 “New Age science”

CHAPTER 20. NEW AGE lution.* [179] It also typically criticises the blaming and judging of others for their actions, believing that if an individual adopts these negative attitudes it harms their own spiritual evolution.* [180] Instead the movement emphasizes positive thinking, although beliefs regarding the power behind such thoughts vary within New Age literature.* [181] Common New Age examples of how to generate such positive thinking include the repeated recitation of mantras and statements carrying positive messages,* [182] and the visualisation of a white light.* [183]

“The New Age is essentially about the search for spiritual and philosophical perspectives that will help transform humanity and the world. New Agers are willing to absorb wisdom teachings wherever they can find them, whether from an Indian guru, a renegade Christian priest, an itinerant Buddhist monk, an experiential psychotherapist or a Native American shaman. They are eager to explore their own inner potential with a view to becoming part of a broader process of social transformation. Their journey According to Hanegraaff, the question of death and afteris towards totality of being.” life is not a “pressing problem requiring an answer”in —Scholar and New Ager Nevill Drury, 2004.* [169] the New Age movement.* [184] A belief in reincarnation part of humanity's“proAccording to Drury, the New Age movement attempts to is very common, being viewed as * gressive spiritual evolution”.

[185] In New Age litercreate “a worldview that includes both science and spirature the reality of reincarnation is usually treated as * ituality”. [28] Although it typically rejects rationalism, self-evident, with no explanation as to why practitioners the scientific method, and the academic establishment, * embrace this afterlife belief over others, [186] although at times those active in the movement employ terminolNew Agers endorse it in the belief that it ensures cosogy and concepts borrowed from science and particu* mic justice.

[187] Many New Agers adopt a belief in * larly from the New Physics. [170] Moreover, a number karma, treating it as a law of cause and effect which asof prominent influences on New Age movement, such as sures cosmic balance, although in some cases they stress David Bohm and Ilya Prigogine, came from backgrounds that it is not a system that enforces punishment for past ac* as professional scientists. [171] Instead it typically ex* tions.

[188] In much New Age literature discussing reinpresses the view that its own understandings of the universe will come to replace those of the academic estab- carnation, there is the claim that part of the human soul, that which carries the personality, perishes with the death lishment in a paradigm shift.* [170] of the body, while the Higher Self – that which connects However, most of the academic and scientific establish- with divinity – survives in order to be reborn into another ments dismiss “New Age science”as pseudo-science, body.* [189] It is believed that the Higher Self chooses the or at best existing in part on the fringes of genuine sci- body and circumstances into which it will be born, in orentific research.* [172] Hanegraaff identified “New Age der to use it as a vessel through which to learn new lessons science”as a form of Naturphilosophie.* [173] In this, the and thus advance its own spiritual evolution.* [185] Some movement is interested in developing unified world views prominent New Age writers such as Shakti Gawain and to discover the nature of the divine and establish a scien- Louise Hay have thus expressed the view that humans are tific basis for religious belief.* [171] therefore totally responsible for the events that happen Figures in the New Age movement – most notably Fritjof to them during their life, an idea that many New Agers * Capra in his The Tao of Physics (1975) – have drawn characterise as empowering. [190] At times, past life reparallels between theories in the New Physics and tradi- gression are employed within the New Age movement in tional forms of mysticism, thus arguing that ancient reli- order to reveal a Higher Soul's previous incarnations, usu* gious ideas are now being proven by contemporary sci- ally with an explicit healing purpose. [191] ence.* [174] Many New Agers have adopted James Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis that the Earth acts akin to a single living organism, although have expanded this idea to in- 20.4 Lifestyle clude the idea that the Earth has consciousness and intelligence.* [175] New Age spirituality has led to a wide array of literature on the subject and an active niche market, with books, music, crafts, and services in alternative medicine avail20.3.6 Ethics and afterlife able at New Age stores, fairs, and festivals. New Age The central ethical tenet of the New Age movement is to fairs – sometimes known as “Mind, Body, Spirit fairs” cultivate one's own divine potential.* [176] Given that the , “psychic fairs”, or “alternative health fairs”– are movement's holistic interpretation of the universe pro- spaces in which a variety of goods and services are dishibits a belief in a dualistic good and evil,* [177] negative played by different vendors, including forms of alternaevents that happen are interpreted not as the result of evil tive medicine and *esoteric practices such as palmistry or but as lessons designed to teach an individual and enable tarot card reading. [192] them to advance spiritually.* [178] It rejects the Christian A number of New Age proponents have emphasised the emphasis on sin and guilt, believing that these generate use of spiritual techniques as a tool for attaining finanfear and thus negativity, which then hinder spiritual evo- cial prosperity, thus moving the movement away from its

20.4. LIFESTYLE

219 arts, and entrepreneurial occupations.”

—Religious studies scholar Steven J. Sutcliffe.* [204]

New Age shop in St Albans, UK

counter-cultural origins.* [193] Embracing this attitude, various books have been published espousing such an ethos, established New Age centres have held spiritual retreats and classes aimed specifically at business people, and New Age groups have developed specialised training for businesses.* [194] During the 1980s, many prominent U.S. corporations – among them IBM, AT&T, and General Motors – embraced New Age seminars, hoping that they could increase productivity and efficiency among their work force,* [195] although in several cases this resulted in employees bringing legal action against their employers, claiming that such seminars had infringed on their religious beliefs or damaged their psychological health.* [196] However, the use of spiritual techniques as a method for attaining profit has been an issue of major dispute within the wider New Age movement,* [197] with prominent New Agers such as Spangler and Michael Fox criticising what they see as trends within the community that are narcissistic and lack a social conscience.* [198] In particular, the movement's commercial elements have caused problems given that they often conflict with its general economically-egalitarian ethos; as York highlighted, “a tension exists in New Age between socialistic egalitarianism and capitalistic private enterprise”.* [199]

20.4.1

Demographics

Sociological studies of the demographics of New Age practitioners have established that certain sectors of society are more likely to get involved in the movement than others.* [200] Sutcliffe noted that although most of the influential New Age figureheads were male,* [201] approximately two thirds of its participants were female.* [202] The movement is strongly gendered; sociologist Ciara O'Connor argues that it shows a tension between commodification and women's empowerment.* [203]

In the mid-1990s, it was asserted that the New Age movement was primarily found in the United States and Canada, Western Europe, and Australia and New Zealand.* [205] It is problematic ascertaining the number of New Agers because many individuals involved in the movement don't explicitly identify themselves as such.* [12] While some individuals self-identify as a New Ager, others who participate in New Age practices instead may identify as Jewish, Christian, Buddhist or atheist.* [206] Heelas highlighted the range of attempts to establish the number of New Age participants in the U.S. during this period, noting that estimates ranged from 20,000 to 6 million; he believed that the higher ranges of these estimates were greatly inflated by, for instance, an erroneous assumption that all Americans who believed in reincarnation were part of the movement.* [207] He nevertheless suggested that over 10 million people in the U.S. had had some contact with New Age practices or ideas.* [208] Sutcliffe described the “typical”participant in the New Age milieu as being “a religious individualist, mixing and matching cultural resources in an animated spiritual quest”.* [10] Susan Lee Brown noted that in the U.S., the movement was first embraced by the baby boomer generation (those born between 1946 and 1964), “through which it was incubated and transmitted to other parts of American society”.* [209] Heelas asserted that the movement was“strongly associated”with members of the middle and upper-middle classes of Western society.* [210] He added that within that broad demographic, the movement had nevertheless attracted a diverse clientele.* [211] He typified the typical New Ager as someone who was well-educated yet disenchanted with mainstream society, thus arguing that the movement catered to those who believe that modernity is in crisis.* [212] He suggested that the movement appealed to many former practitioners of the 1960s counter-culture because while they came to feel that they were unable to change society, they were nonetheless interested in changing the self.* [213] He believed that many individuals had been“culturally primed for what the New Age has to offer”,* [214] with the New Age attracting “expressive”people who were already comfortable with the ideals and outlooks of the movement's self-spirituality focus.* [215] It could be particularly appealing because the New Age suited the needs of the individual, whereas traditional religious options that are available primarily catered for the needs of a community.* [216] He believed that although the adoption of New Age beliefs and practices by some fitted the model of religious conversion,* [217] others who adopted some of its practices could not easily be considered to have converted to the religion.* [218]

“By the early twenty-first century... [the New Age phe- He highlighted that those involved in the movement did nomenon] has an almost entirely white, middle-class de- so to varying degrees.* [219] Heelas argued that those inmography largely made up of professional, managerial,

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Social Equitable

Bearable Sustainable

Environment

Stonehenge is a site visited by New Age pilgrims, as seen in this midsummer rave

Viable

Economic

Definitions of sustainability often refer to the “three pillars”of social, environmental, and economic sustainability.* [226]

and work in a communal lifestyle.* [230] volved in the movement could be divided into three broad groups; the first comprised those who were completely dedicated to it and its ideals, often working in professions that furthered those goals. The second consisted of “serious part-timers”who worked in unrelated fields but who nevertheless spent much of their free time involved in movement activities. The third was that of“casual part-timers”who occasionally involved themselves in New Age activities but for whom the movement was not a central aspect of their life.* [220]

New Age centres have been set up in various parts of the world, representing an institutionalised form of the movement.* [231] Notable examples include the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado, Holly Hock Farm near to Vancouver, the Wrekin Trust in West Malvern, Worcestershire, and the Skyros Centre in Skyros.* [232]

Criticising mainstream Western education as counterproductive to the ethos of the movement, many New Age groups have established their own schools for the education of children, although in other cases such groups People who practice New Age spirituality or who em- have sought to introduce New Age spiritual techniques brace its lifestyle are included in the Lifestyle of Health into pre-existing establishments.* [233] and Sustainability (LOHAS) demographic market segment, figures rising, related to sustainable living, green ecological initiatives, and generally composed of a rel- 20.4.3 Music atively affluent and well-educated segment.* [221] The LOHAS market segment in 2006 was estimated at USD See also: List of new-age music artists and List of $300 billion, approximately 30 percent of the United ambient artists States consumer market.* [222]* [223] According to The New York Times, a study by the Natural Marketing InNew-age music is peaceful music of various styles institute showed that in 2000, 68 million Americans were tended to create inspiration, relaxation, and positive feelincluded within the LOHAS demographic. The socioloings while listening. Studies have determined that newgist Paul H. Ray, who coined the term cultural creatives age music can be an effective component of stress manin his book The Cultural Creatives: How 50 Million Peoagement.* [234] ple Are Changing the World (2000), states,“What you're seeing is a demand for products of equal quality that are The style began in the 1970s with the works of free-form jazz groups recording on the ECM label; such as Oregon, also virtuous.”* [224]* [225] the Paul Winter Consort, and other pre-ambient bands; as well as ambient music performer Brian Eno and classical avant-garde musician Daniel Kobialka.* [235]* [236] 20.4.2 Community In the early 1970s, it was mostly instrumental with both acoustic and electronic styles. New-age music evolved Further information: Sustainability to include a wide range of styles from electronic space See also: List of intentional communities Some New Agers advocate living in a simple and music using synthesizers and acoustic instrumentals using sustainable manner to reduce humanity's impact Native American flutes and drums, singing bowls, Ausmusic sounds to spiritual on the natural resources of Earth; and they shun tralian didgeredoos and world * * chanting from other cultures.

[235] [236] * * * consumerism. [227] [228] [229] The New Age movement has been centered around rebuilding a sense of community to counter social disintegration; this has been attempted through the formation of intentional communities, where individuals come together to live

20.5 Reception

20.5. RECEPTION

20.5.1

Academia

20.5.2

Christian perspectives

221

Richard Land of the Southern Baptist Convention stated that there's“widespread agreement”by Baptists who reThe earliest academic studies of the New Age movement gard New Age ideas as contrary to Christian tradition and were performed by specialists in the study of new reli- doctrine.* [255] gious movements, such as Robert Ellwood.* [237] HowIn his 1989 book, Le Nouvel Age, French scholar and ever, this research was often scanty because many scholCathoic priest Jean Vernette criticised the New Age ars of alternative spirituality thought of the New Age movement, which he described as an Anglo Saxon movemovement as an insignificant cultural fad.* [238] Alterment which was beginning to invade France. He asked nately, much of it was largely negative and critical of if it represented the coming of the Anti-Christ, a Jewish New Age groups, as it was influenced by the U.S. anticonspiracy, or a project for a global government. He also cult movement.* [239] In 1996, Wouter Hanegraaff pubnoted its parallels with Nazism and said that Christians lished New Age Religion and Western Culture, a historical should be discerning towards it.* [256] analysis of New Age texts.* [240] That same year, Paul Heelas published a study of the movement which focused The Roman Catholic Church published A Christian reon its manifestation in Britain.* [241] Most of these early flection on the New Age in 2003, following a six-year studies were based on a textual analysis of New Age pub- study; the 90-page document criticizes New Age praclications, rather than on an ethnographic analysis of its tices such as yoga, meditation, feng shui, and crystal healing.* [257]* [258] According to the Vatican, euphoric practitioners.* [242] states attained through New Age practices should not While J. Gordon Melton,* [243] Wouter Hanebe confused with prayer or viewed as signs of God's graaff,* [244] and Paul Heelas* [245] have emphapresence.* [259] Cardinal Paul Poupard, then-president sised personal aspects, Mark Satin,* [246] Theodore of the Pontifical Council for Culture, said the “New Roszak,* [247] Marilyn Ferguson,* [248] and Corinne Age is a misleading answer to the oldest hopes of man” McLaughlin* [249] have described New Age as a * . [257] Monsignor Michael Fitzgerald, then-president of values-based sociopolitical movement. the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, stated In the 2003 book A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyp- at the Vatican conference on the document: the“Church tic Visions in Contemporary America written by Michael avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age” Barkun, professor emeritus of political science at the .* [260] The report also advised Christians to respect the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs* [250] sincerity of New Age persons' spiritual searches, and to Barkun argues New Age beliefs have been greatly facili- witness to them about the Gospel* [261] tated by the advent of the internet which has exposed people to beliefs once consigned to the outermost fringe of political and religious life. He identifies two trends which 20.5.3 Contemporary Pagan perspectives he terms,“the rise of improvisational millennialism" and “the popularity of stigmatized knowledge”. He voices “Neopagan practices highlight the centrality of the relaconcern that these trends could lead to mass hysteria and tionship between humans and nature and reinvent relicould have a devastating effect on American political life. gions of the past, while New Agers are more interested in transforming individual consciousness and shaping the future.”

The majority of published criticism of the New Age movement has come from Christians, in particular those on the religion's fundamentalist wing.* [251] In the United States, the New Age movement became a major concern of evangelical Christian groups in the 1980s, an attitude that gradually also influenced British evangelical groups.* [252] During that decade, evangelical writers such as Constance Cumbey, Dave Hunt, Gary North, and Douglas Groothuis published books criticising the New Age movement from their Christian perspective; a number of them have been characterised as propagating conspiracy theories regarding the origin and purpose of the movement.* [253] The most successful such publication however was Frank E. Peretti's 1986 novel This Present Darkness, which sold over a million copies; it depicted the New Age movement as being in league with feminism and secular education to overthrow Christianity.* [254] This criticism has been sustained since; in 2003

—Religious studies scholar Sarah Pike.* [86] An issue of academic debate has been regarding the connection between the New Age movement and contemporary Paganism, or Neo-Paganism. Religious studies scholar Sarah Pike asserted that that there was a “significant overlap”between the two religious movements,* [262] while Aidan A. Kelly stated that Paganism “parallels the New Age movement in some ways, differs sharply from it in others, and overlaps it in some minor ways”.* [263] Ethan Doyle White stated that while the Pagan and New Age movements “do share commonalities and overlap”, they were nevertheless “largely distinct phenomena.”* [264] Hanegraaff suggested that whereas various forms of contemporary Paganism were not part of the New Age movement – particularly those who pre-dated the movement – other Pagan religions and practices could be identified as New Age.* [265] Various differences between the two movements have been highlighted; the New Age movement focuses on an im-

222

CHAPTER 20. NEW AGE

proved future, whereas the focus of Paganism is on the respective Indigenous nations: pre-Christian past.* [266] Similarly, the New Age movement typically propounds a universalist message which sees all religions as fundamentally the same, whereas Paganism stresses the difference between monotheistic religions and those embracing a polytheistic or animistic Article 31 1.“Indigenous peoples have the theology.* [266] Further, the New Age movement shows right to maintain, control, protect and develop little interest in magic and witchcraft, which are contheir cultural heritage, traditional knowledge versely core interests of many Pagan religions, such as * and traditional cultural expressions, as well as Wicca. [266] the manifestations of their sciences, technoloMany Pagans have sought to distance themselves from the gies and cultures, including human and genetic New Age movement, even using “New Age”as an inresources, seeds, medicines, knowledge of the sult within their community, while conversely many inproperties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, litvolved in the New Age have expressed criticism of Paeratures, designs, sports and traditional games ganism for emphasizing the material world over the spiriand visual and performing arts. They also have tual.* [264] Many Pagans have expressed criticism of the the right to maintain, control, protect and dehigh fees charged by New Age teachers, something not velop their intellectual property over such cultypically present in the Pagan movement.* [267] Followtural heritage, traditional knowledge, and tradiers of the Goddess movement have severely criticized the tional cultural expressions.”―Declaration on New Age as fundamentally patriarchal, analytical rather the Rights of Indigenous Peoples* [273] than intuitive, and as supporting the status quo, particularly in its implicit gender roles. Monica Sjöö (1938– 2005) wrote that New Age channelers were virtually all women, but the spirits they purported to channel, offering guidance to humanity, were nearly all male. Sjöö Indigenous leaders have spoken out against individuals was highly critical of Theosophy, the “I AM”Activ- from within their own communities who may go out into ity, and particularly Alice Bailey, whom she saw as pro- the world to become a “white man's shaman,”and any moting Nazi-like Aryan ideals. Sjöö's writings also con- “who are prostituting our spiritual ways for their own selfdemn the New Age for its support of communication and ish gain, with no regard for the spiritual well-being of the information processing technologies which, she believes, people as a whole”.* [276] The term “plastic shaman” may produce harmful low-level electromagnetic radia- or “plastic medicine people”has been applied to outtion.* [268]* [269]* [270] siders who identify themselves as shamans, holy people,

20.5.4

or other traditional spiritual leaders, but who have no genuine connection to the traditions or cultures they claim to Native American and other indige- represent.* [277]* [278]* [279]

nous responses

The New Age movement has also been accused of cultural imperialism, appropriating the religious beliefs of indigenous peoples.* [271] Indigenous American spiritual leaders, such as Elders councils of the Lakota, Cheyenne, Navajo, Creek, Hopi, Chippewa, and Haudenosaunee have denounced New Age misappropriation of their sacred ceremonies* [272] and other intellectual property,* [273] stating that "[t]he value of these instructions and ceremonies [when led by unauthorized people] are questionable, maybe meaningless, and hurtful to the individual carrying false messages”.* [272] Traditional leaders of the Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota peoples have reached consensus* [274]* [275] to reject “the expropriation of [their] ceremonial ways by nonIndians”. They see the New Age movement as either not fully understanding, deliberately trivializing, or distorting their way of life,* [276] and have declared war on all such "plastic medicine people" who are appropriating their spiritual ways.* [274]* [275] The United Nations General Assembly has issued a declaration protecting ceremonies as part of the cultural and intellectual property of their

The academic Ward Churchill criticized the New Age movement as an instrument of cultural imperialism that is exploitative of indigenous cultures by reducing them to a commodity to be traded. In Fantasies of the Master Race, he criticized the cultural appropriation of Native American culture and symbols in not only the New Age movement, but also in art and popular culture.* [280]

20.6 Social and political movement While many commentators have focused on the personal aspects of the New Age movement, it also has a social and political component. The New Age political movement became visible in the 1970s, peaked in the 1980s, and continued into the 1990s.* [281] In the 21st century, the political movement evolved in new directions.

20.6. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL MOVEMENT

20.6.1

Late 20th century

Mark Satin, author of New Age Politics (1978)

223 All these books were issued by major publishers. Some became international bestsellers. By the 1980s, New Age political ideas were being discussed in big-city newspapers* [299]* [300] and established political magazines.* [286]* [301] In addition, some of the New Age's own periodicals were regularly addressing social and political issues. In the U.S., observers pointed to Leading Edge Bulletin,* [294]* [302] New Age Journal,* [303]* [304] New Options Newsletter,* [294]* [305] and Utne Reader.* [303]* [306] Other such periodicals included New Humanity (England),* [307] Alterna (Denmark),* [308] Odyssey (South Africa), and World Union from the Sri Aurobindo Ashram (India).

As with any political movement, organizations sprang up to generate popular support for New Age political ideas and policy positions. In the U.S., commentators identified the New Age Caucus of California,* [309]* [310] the New World Alliance,* [311]* [312] Planetary Citizens,* [294]* [313] and California State legislator John Vasconcellos's Self-Determination: A Personal / PolitiMarilyn Ferguson, author of The Aquarian Conspiracy cal Network* [294]* [314] as New Age political organiza(1980) tions. So, on occasion, did their own spokespeople.* [315] There may have been more New Age political organizing outside the U.S.;* [313] writer-activists pointed to the Future in Our Hands movement in Norway (which claimed 20,000 adherents out of a population of four million),* [316] the early European Green movements,* [317] and the Values Party of New Zealand.* [318] Fritjof Capra, author of The Turning Point (1982) After the political turmoil of the 1960s, many activists in North America and Europe became disillusioned with traditional reformist and revolutionary political ideologies.* [282] Some began searching for a new politics that gave special weight to such topics as consciousness, ecology, personal and spiritual development, community empowerment, and global unity.* [283]* [284] An outpouring of books from New Age thinkers acknowledged that search and attempted to articulate that in politics.

According to some observers,* [285]* [286] the first was Mark Satin's New Age Politics (1978).* [246] It originally appeared in Canada in 1976.* [287]* [288] Other books that have been described as New Age political include Theodore Roszak's Person / Planet (1978),* [247]* [289] Marilyn Ferguson's The Aquarian Conspiracy (1980),* [248]* [281] Alvin Toffler and Heidi Toffler's The Third Wave (1980),* [281]* [290] Hazel Henderson's The Politics of the Solar Age (1981),* [281]* [291] Fritjof Capra's The Turning Point (1982),* [281]* [292] Robert Muller's New Genesis (1982),* [293]* [294] John Naisbitt's Megatrends (1982),* [294]* [295] Willis Harman's Global Mind Change (1988),* [296]* [297] James Redfield's The Celestine Prophecy (1993),* [296]* [298] and Corinne McLaughlin and Gordon Davidson's Spiritual Politics (1994).* [249]* [296]

Although these books, periodicals, and organizations did not speak with one voice, commentators found that many of them sounded common themes: • Our world does not reflect who we at our best can be.* [286] • All our most significant social and political problems go back at least 300 years.* [319] • The political system therefore needs to be transformed, not just reformed,* [281] with the help of a new political theory appropriate to our time.* [282] • Holism —seeing everything as connected —is the first step on the way to creating that new political theory.* [281]* [286] • Doing away with the categories of“left”and“right” is another essential part of that task.* [281]* [286] • Significant social change requires deep changes in consciousness; institutional change is not enough.* [282]* [320] • Above all, consciousness needs to become more ecologically aware,* [286]* [294] more feminist,* [286]* [294] and more oriented to compassionate global unity.* [281]* [294] • Desirable values include nonviolence, diversity, a sense of community, and a sense of enoughness.* [294]* [301]

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CHAPTER 20. NEW AGE

• Human growth and development, not economic Neither left nor right was impressed with the New Age's growth, should be the overarching goal of New Age ability to organize itself politically.* [286]* [311] Many society.* [301] explanations were offered for the New Age's practical political weakness. Some said that the New Age political • Ownership and control of institutions is important. thinkers and activists of the 1970s and 1980s were simBut the size of institutions is at least as important. ply too far in advance of their time.* [330] Others sugWe must move away from big governments, big cor- gested that New Age activists' commitment to the often porations, and other large institutions to the extent frustrating process of consensus decision-making was at it enhances our lives.* [281]* [301] fault.* [311] After it dissolved, New World Alliance cofounder Marc Sarkady told an interviewer that the Al• We can begin this process by interlacing hierarchical liance had been too“New Age counter-cultural”to appeal * * structures with horizontal networks. [294] [321] to a broad public.* [331] • Global unification is a key goal, but is probably best accomplished by networking at many levels rather 20.6.3 New political directions in the 21st than establishing a centralized world state.* [281] • The agent of political change is no longer the working class, or any economic class. Instead, it is all those who are developing themselves personally and spiritually—all who aspire to live lives of dignity and service.* [282]

century

• Evolution is to be preferred to revolution. However, the forces of evolutionary change need not be a statistical majority. A “critical mass”of informed, committed, and spiritually aware people can move a nation forward.* [281]* [311] Over time, these themes began to cohere. By the 1980s, observers in both North America* [286]* [320] and Europe* [322]* [323] were acknowledging the emergence of AmericaSpeaks event, 2011. In the 21st century, organizations a New Age political “ideology”. like AmericaSpeaks embodied the approach of listening to and learning from everyone.

20.6.2

Political objections at century’s end In the 21st century, writers and activists continue to pur-

sue a political project with New Age roots. However, it Toward the end of the 20th century, criticisms were be- differs from the project that had come before. ing directed at the New Age political project from many The principal difference was anticipated in texts like quarters,* [324]* [325] but especially from the liberal left New Age Politics author Mark Satin's essay “Twentyand religious right. eight Ways of Looking at Terrorism”(1991),* [332] On the left, scholars argued that New Age politics is an human potential movement historian Walter Truett Anoxymoron: that personal growth has little or nothing to do derson's essay “Four Different Ways to Be Absolutely with political change.* [326]* [327] One political scientist Right”(1995),* [333] and mediator Mark Gerzon's book said New Age politics fails to recognize the “realities” A House Divided (1996).* [334]* [335] In these texts, the of economic and political power;* [320] another faulted New Age political perspective is recognized as legitimate. it for not being opposed to the capitalist system, or to But it is presented as merely one among many, with strong liberal individualism.* [282] Antinuclear activist Harvey points and blind spots just like all the rest. The result was Wasserman argued that New Age politics is too averse to to alter the nature of the New Age political project. If social conflict to be effective politically.* [286] every political perspective had unique strengths and sigOn the right, some worried that the drive to come up with nificant weaknesses, then it no longer made sense to try a new consciousness and new values would topple time- to convert everyone to the New Age political perspective, tested old values.* [313] Others worried that the celebra- as had been attempted in the 1970s and 1980s. It made tion of diversity would leave no strong viewpoint in place more sense to try to construct a higher political synthesis into account, includto guide society.* [313] The passion for world unity—one that took every political perspective * * [336] [337] ing that of the New Age. humanity, one planet—was said to lead inevitably to the centralization of power.* [328]* [329] Some doubted that Another difference between the two eras of political networking could provide an effective counterweight to thought is that, in the 21st century, few political actors centralization and bureaucracy.* [294] use the term New Age or post-New Age* [338] to describe

20.8. REFERENCES themselves or their work. Some observers attribute this to the negative connotations that the term “New Age”had acquired.* [284]* [338] Instead, other terms are employed that connote a similar sense of personal and political development proceeding together over time. For example, according to an anthology from three political scientists, many writers and academics use the term “transformational”as a substitute for such terms as New Age and new paradigm.* [319] Ken Wilber has popularized use of the term “integral”,* [339] Carter Phipps emphasizes the term “evolutionary”,* [340] and both terms can be found in some authors' book titles.* [341]* [342]

225

[8] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 9.

[9] Lewis 1992, pp. 1–2; Heelas 1996, p. 17; Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 200.

[10] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 200.

[11] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 197.

[12] Lewis 1992, p. 2.

[13] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 522.

[14] Sutcliffe 2003a, pp. 214–215.

[15] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 243.

20.7 See also

[16] York 1995, p. 33; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 400.

[17] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 331.

• 2012 phenomenon

[18] York 1995, p. 2.

• Biofeedback

[19] Heelas 1996, p. 9; Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 200.

• Cybersectarianism

[20] York 1995, pp. 36–37.

• Eco-communalism

[21] Heelas 1996, p. 15.

• Higher consciousness

[22] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 25.

• Hippies • Hypnosis • Mantras • New Age communities

[23] Heelas 1996, p. 17.

[24] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 26.

[25] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 55.

[26] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 99.

[27] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 29.

• New religious movement

[28] Drury 2004, p. 10.

• Paradigm shift

[29] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 323.

• Peace movement

[30] York 1995, p. 33.

• Philosophy of happiness

[31] Ellwood 1992, p. 59.

• Reincarnation

[32] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 406–407.

• Spiritual evolution

[33] Alexander 1992, p. 31; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 424–429.

[34] Alexander 1992, p. 31; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 430–435.

20.8 References 20.8.1

Footnotes

[1] Kemp 2004, p. 1.

[2] Granholm 2013, p. 59.

[3] Heelas 1996, pp. 1–2.

[35] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 435; Pike 2004, p. 24.

[36] Alexander 1992, p. 31; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 448–455; Pike 2004, p. 24.

[37] Alexander 1992, p. 35; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 455–462.

[38] Drury 2004, pp. 27–28 [39] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 482–483.

[40] York 1995, p. 60.

[4] Hammer 2006, p. 855.

[41] Heelas 1996, pp. 46–47.

[5] York 1995, pp. 1–2.

[6] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 1.

[42] Stein, Murray (2005), Transformation, Texas A & M University Press, p. 138, ISBN 978-1-58544-449-6

[7] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 515.

[43] Letters of C. G. Jung: Volume I, 1906–1950, p. 285

226

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[44] Dunne, Claire (2000), “Visions”, Carl Jung: Wounded Healer of the Soul: An Illustrated Biography (Illustrated (2003) ed.), London, UK: Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 126, ISBN 978-0-8264-6307-4, retrieved 2010-10-04

[77] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 335 [78] Lewis & Melton 1992, p. ix.

[79] Heelas 1996, p. 168.

[45] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 95–96.

[80] Lewis 1992, pp. 22–23

[46] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 95–96; Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 72.

[81] Drury 2004, pp. 133–34

[47] Sutcliffe 2003a, pp. 72, 74.

[82] York 1995, p. 35.

[48] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 11; Pike 2004, p. 15.

[83] York 1995, pp. 35–36; Pike 2004, p. 16.

[49] Sutcliffe 2003a, pp. 108–109.

[84] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 127; Pike 2004, p. 16.

[50] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 109.

[85] Pike 2004, p. 17.

[51] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 10; Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 109.

[86] Pike 2004, p. 18.

[52] Heelas 1996, pp. 53–54.

[87] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 129.

[53] Brown 1992, pp. 88–89.

[88] York 1995, p. 39.

[54] Melton 1992, p. 20; Heelas 1996, pp. 54–55.

[55] Alexander 1992, pp. 36–37; York 1995, p.

Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 38–39; Heelas 1996, p. 51.

[76] Pike 2004, p. 29.

35;

[56] Alexander 1992, pp. 36, 41–43; York 1995, p. 8; Heelas 1996, p. 53.

[57] Melton 1992, p. 20.

[89] Drury 2004, p. 8.

[90] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 182.

[91] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 183.

[92] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 185.

[93] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 186.

[58] Melton 1992, p. 20; York 1995, p. 35; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 38–39; Heelas 1996, p. 51.

[94] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 186–187.

[59] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 118.

[95] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 187.

[60] Sutcliffe 2003a, pp. 83–84.

[96] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 187–188.

[61] Lewis & Melton 1992, p. xi.

[97] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 120.

[62] York 1995, p. 1.

[98] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 122–123.

[63] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 112.

[99] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 128.

[64] Heelas 1996, p. 54.

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[65] Melton 1992, p. 18.

[101] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 119.

[66] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 12.

[102] Pike 2004, p. 23.

[67] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 97.

[103] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 204.

[68] Sutcliffe 2003a, pp. 126–127.

[104] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 222–223.

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[108] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 307–308.

[71] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 124.

[109] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 115.

[72] Sutcliffe 2003a, p. 128.

[110] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 116–117.

[73] Heelas 1996, pp. 58–60.

[111] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 158–160.

[74] Melton 1992, pp. 25–26.

[112] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 194.

[75] Melton 1992, pp. 26–27.

[113] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 197, 198.

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[144] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 334–335.

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[145] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 335.

[179] Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 294–295.

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[291] Henderson, Hazel (1981). The Politics of the Solar Age: New Age Encyclopedia. Gale Research, Inc., pp. 323–25.

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ISSN 1047-2746. ISSN accessed 28 August 2012.

ISBN 978-0-385-17150-2.

[312] Stein, Arthur (1985). Seeds of the Seventies: Values, [292] Capra, Fritjof (1982) The Turning Point: Science, Society, Work, and Commitment in Post-Vietnam America. Uniand the Rising Culture. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553versity Press of New England, pp. 134–39. ISBN 978-034572-8.

87451-343-1.

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[313] Groothuis, Douglas R. (1987). “Politics: Building an [331] Gottlieb (1987), cited above, p. 153.

International Platform”. In Hoyt, Karen; Yamamoto, J. Isamu, eds. (1987). The New Age Rage. Fleming H. Rev- [332] Satin, Mark (1991). New Options for America: The Next American Experiment Has Begun. Foreword by Mariell Company / Baker Publishing Group, Chap. 5. ISBN lyn Ferguson. The Press at California State University / 978-0-8007-5257-6.

Southern Illinois University Press, Chap. 19. ISBN 978[314] Satin (1978), cited above, p. 345.

0-8093-1794-3.

[315] Saunders, Marilyn, interviewer; Olson, Bob (December [333] Anderson, Walter Truett, ed. (1995). “Four Differ1980). "The New World Alliance: Toward a Transformaent Ways to Be Absolutely Right”. In Anderson, Waltional Politics". AHP Newsletter, pp. 14–16. A publicater Truett, ed. (1995). The Truth About the Truth: Detion of the Association for Humanistic Psychology. AcConfusing and Re-Constructing the Postmodern World. A cessed 23 August 2012.

Jeremy P. Tarcher Putnam Book / G. P. Putnam’s Sons, Chap. 18. ISBN 978-0-87477-801-4.

[316] Ferguson (1980), cited above, pp. 409–10.

[334] Gerzon, Mark (1996). A House Divided: Six Belief Sys[317] Satin (1978), cited above, pp. 14–15. tems Struggling for America's Soul. A Jeremy P. Tarcher Putnam Book / G. P. Putnam’s Sons. ISBN 978-0[318] Henderson (1980), cited above, pp. 373 and 397.

87477-823-6.

[319] Slaton, Christa Daryl; Woolpert, Stephen; Schwerin, Ed[335] As shown above, the Satin text was published in a book ward W. (1998). “Introduction: What Is Transformaforeworded by Marilyn Ferguson, and the Anderson and tional Politics?" In Woolpert, Stephen; Slaton, Christa Gerzon texts were published under the imprint of FerguDaryl; and Schwerin, Edward W., eds. (1998). Transson's publisher, Jeremy P. Tarcher Inc. formational Politics: Theory, Study, and Practice. State University of New York Press, pp. xix–xxiii. ISBN 978- [336] McLaughlin (1993), cited above, p. 81 (quoting Satin).

0-7914-3945-6.

[337] Gerzon (1996), cited above, Chaps. 7–8.

[320] Boggs, Carl (2000). The End of Politics. Guilford Press, pp. 169–73. ISBN 978-1-57230-504-5.

[338] Melton, John Gordon (2012). “New Age Movement” . In Encyclopædia Britannica (2012). Encyclopædia Bri[321] Lipnack, Jessica; Stamps, Jeffrey (1982). Networking: tannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Retrieved The First Report and Directory. Doubleday and Company, 30 August 2012.

Chap. 6. ISBN 978-0-385-18121-1.

[339] Wilber, Ken (2000). A Theory of Everything: An Inte[322] Jamison, Andrew (2001). The Making of Green Knowlgral Vision for Business, Politics, Science, and Spirituality. edge: Environmental Politics and Cultural TransformaShambhala Publications. ISBN 978-1-57062-724-8. tion. Cambridge University Press, p. 5. ISBN 978-0521-79252-3.

[340] Phipps, Carter (2012). Evolutionaries: Unlocking the Spiritual and Cultural Potential of Science’s Greatest Idea.

[323] Zizek, Slavoj (2000). The Ticklish Subject: The Absent Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-191613-7.

Centre of Political Ontology. Verso Books, pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-85984-291-1.

[341] McIntosh, Steve (2007). Integral Consciousness and the Future of Evolution: How the Integral Worldview Is Trans[324] Sessions, George (23 September 1987). "Deep Ecology forming Politics, Culture, and Spirituality. Paragon House. and the New Age". Earth First! Journal, pp. 27–30. Deep ISBN 978-1-55778-867-2. ecologist says New Age politics is too enamored of high technology, space exploration, and computer management [342] Hamilton, Marilyn (2008). Integral City: Evolutionary Insystems. Accessed 15 September 2012. telligences for the Human Hive. New Society Publishers / Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 978-0-86571-629-2.

[325] Weigel, George (March 1989).“No Options”. American Purpose, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 21–22. Mainstream conservative says New Age politics is just a retooled version of 20.8.2 Sources leftism.

[326] Jamison (2001), cited above, p. 169.

[327] Zizek (2000), cited above, pp. 1–2 and 70.

[328] LaHaye, Tim; Hindson, Ed (2001). Seduction of the Heart: How to Guard and Keep Your Heart from Evil. W Publishing Group / Thomas Nelson, Inc., p. 178. ISBN 978-0-8499-1726-4.

[329] Rhodes, Ron (1995). New Age Movement. Zondervan Publishing House, p. 20. ISBN 978-0-310-70431-7.

[330] Ray and Anderson (2000), cited above, pp. 206–07.

Albanese, Catherine L. (1992).

“The Magical Staff: Quantum Healing in the New Age”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 68–86.

ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Alexander, Kay (1992). “Roots of the New Age”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis

232

CHAPTER 20. NEW AGE and J. Gordon Melton (editors).

New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 30–47. ISBN 07914-1213-X. Aupers, Stef; Houtman, Dick (2006). “Beyond the Spiritual Supermarket: The Social and Public Significance of New Age Spirituality”. Journal of Contemporary Religion 21 (2): 201–22.

Brown, Susan Love (1992).“Baby Boomers, American Character, and the New Age: A Synthesis”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 87–96.

ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Bruce, Steve (1998). “Good Intentions and Bad Sociology: New Age Authenticity and Social Roles” . Journal of Contemporary Religion 13 (1): 23–35.

Butler, Jenny; Tighe, Maria (2007).

“Holistic Health and New Age in the British Isles”. Handbook of New Age. Daren Kemp and James R. Lewis (editors). Boston: Brill. pp. 415–434. ISBN 978-90-0415355-4.

Doyle White, Ethan (2016). Wicca: History, Belief, and Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft.

Brighton, Chicago, and Toronto: Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-84519-754-4.

Drury, Nevill (2004). The New Age: Searching for the Spiritual Self. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28516-9.

Ellwood, Robert (1992). “How New is the New Age ?". Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 59–67.

ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Greer, Paul (1995). “The Aquarian Confusion: Conflicting Theologies of the New Age”. Journal of Contemporary Religion 10 (2): 151–166.

Granholm, Kennet (2013). “Esoteric Currents as Discursive Complexes”. Religion 43 (1): 46–69. doi:10.1080/0048721X.2013.742741.

Hammer, Olav (2006). “New

Age Movement”. Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism.

Wouter Hanegraaff (editor). Leiden: Brill. pp. 855–861. ISBN 978-9004152311.

Hanegraaff, Wouter (1996). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004106956.

Heelas, Paul (1996). The New Age Movement: Religion, Culture and Society in the Age of Postmodernity.

Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19332-6.

Heelas, Paul (1998). “New Age Authenticity and Social Roles: A Response to Steve Bruce”. Journal of Contemporary Religion 13 (2): 257–264.

Hexham, Irving (1992). “The Evangelical Response to the New Age”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp.

152–163. ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Höllinger, Franz (2004). “Does the Counter-Cultural Character of New Age Persist? Investigating Social and Political Attitudes of New Age Followers”. Journal of Contemporary Religion 19 (3): 289– 309.

Kelly, Aidan A. (1992). “An Update on Neopagan Witchcraft in America”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp.

136–151. ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Kemp, Daren (2004). New Age: A Guide. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74861532-2.

Lewis, James R. (1992). “Approaches to the Study of the New Age Movement”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 1–12. ISBN 07914-1213-X. Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon (1992). “Introduction”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (edi-

20.9. FURTHER READING tors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp. ix–xxi.

ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Melton, J. Gordon (1992). “New Thought and the New Age”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 15–29.

ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Pike, Sarah M. (2004). New Age and Neopagan Religions in America. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231124027.

Riordan, Suzanne (1992). “Channeling: A New Revelation?". Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 105–126.

ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Rupert, Glenn A. (1992). “Employing the New Age: Training Seminars”. Perspectives on the New Age. James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton (editors). New York: State University of New York Press. pp.

127–135. ISBN 0-7914-1213-X. Sutcliffe, Steven J. (2003a). Children of the New Age: A History of Spiritual Practices. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415242981.

Sutcliffe, Steven (2003b). “Category Formation and the History of 'New Age'". Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal 4 (1): 5–29.

Whedon, Sarah W. (2009). “The Wisdom of Indigo Children: An Emphatic Restatement of the Value of American Children”. Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 12 (3): 60–76.

York, Michael (1995). The Emerging Network: A Sociology of the New Age and Neo-Pagan Movements. London: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780847680016.

York, Michael (2001). “New Age Commodification and Appropriation of Spirituality”. Journal of Contemporary Religion 16 (3): 361–372.

233

20.9 Further reading • Hammer, Olav (2003), Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age, Boston, Massachusetts, US: Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-13638-0 • Kemp, Daren and Lewis, James R., ed. (2007), Handbook of New Age, Boston, Massachusetts, US: Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-0415355-4

20.10 External links • New Age at DMOZ

Chapter 21

Angel For other uses, see Angel (disambiguation). on their back, a halo, robes and various forms of glowing “Angelology”redirects here.

For the novel, see light.* [4] Angelology (novel).

An angel is a primarily spiritual being found in various

21.1 Etymology The word angel (pronounced /ˈeɪn.dʒəl/) in English is a blend of Old English engel (with a hard g) and Old French angele.* [5] Both derive from Late Latin angelus “messenger”, which in turn was borrowed from Late Greek ἄνγελος ángelos. According to R. S. P. Beekes, ángelos itself may be “an Oriental loan, like ἄγγαρος ['Persian mounted courier'].”* [6] The word's earliest form is Mycenaean a-ke-ro attested in Linear B syllabic script.* [7]* [8] The ángelos is the default Septuagint's translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mal’ākh denoting simply “messenger”without specifying its nature. In the Latin Vulgate, however, the meaning becomes bifurcated: when mal’ākh or ángelos is supposed to denote a human messenger, words like nuntius or legatus are applied. If the word refers to some supernatural being, the word angelus appears. Such differentiation has been taken over by later vernacular translations of the Bible, early Christian and Jewish exegetes and eventually modern scholars.* [9]

21.2 Judaism Schutzengel (English: “Guardian Angel”) by Bernhard Plockhorst depicts a guardian angel watching over two children.

religions. In Abrahamic religions and Zoroastrianism, angels are often depicted as benevolent celestial beings who act as intermediaries between God or Heaven and Earth, or as guardian spirits or a guiding influence.* [1]* [2] Other roles of angels include protecting and guiding human beings, and carrying out God's tasks.* [3] The term “angel”has also been diversed to various notions of spirits or figures found in many other religious traditions. The theological study of angels is known as “angelology”.

Main article: Angels in Judaism The Torah uses the (Hebrew) terms ‫( מלאך אלהים‬mal'āk̠ 'ĕlōhîm; messenger of God), ‫( מלאך יהוה‬mal'āk̠ YHWH; messenger of the Lord), ‫( בני אלהים‬bənē 'ĕlōhîm; sons of God) and ‫( הקודשים‬haqqôd̠ əšîm; the holy ones) to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as angels. Later texts use other terms, such as ‫( העליונים‬hā'elyônîm; the upper ones).

The term ‫( מלאך‬mal'āk̠ ) is also used in other books of the Tanakh. Depending on the context, the Hebrew word may refer to a human messenger or to a supernatural messenger. A human messenger might be a prophet or In art, angels are often depicted as humanoids with bird- priest, such as Malachi, “my messenger"; the Greek sulike wings (which are symbolic for at least most angels) perscription in the Septuagint translation states the Book 234

21.2. JUDAISM

235 is conceived as God's instrument.* [16] In post-Biblical Judaism, certain angels took on particular significance and developed unique personalities and roles. Though these archangels were believed to rank among the heavenly host, no systematic hierarchy ever developed. Metatron is considered one of the highest of the angels in Merkabah and Kabbalist mysticism and often serves as a scribe; he is briefly mentioned in the Talmud* [17] and figures prominently in Merkabah mystical texts. Michael, who serves as a warrior* [18] and advocate for Israel (Daniel 10:13), is looked upon particularly fondly.* [19] Gabriel is mentioned in the Book of Daniel (Daniel 8:15–17) and briefly in the Talmud,* [20] as well as in many Merkabah mystical texts. There is no evidence in Judaism for the worship of angels, but there is evidence for the invocation and sometimes even conjuration of angels.* [15] Medieval Jewish philosopher Maimonides explained his view of angels in his Guide for the Perplexed II:4 and II

Three angels hosted by Abraham, Ludovico Carracci (1555– 1619), Bologna, Pinacoteca Nazionale.

of Malachi was written “by the hand of his messenger”ἀγγέλου angélu. Examples of a supernatural messenger* [10] are the "Malak YHWH,”who is either a messenger from God,* [11] an aspect of God (such as the Logos),* [12] or God himself as the messenger (the "theophanic angel.”)* [10]* [13] Scholar Michael D. Coogan notes that it is only in the late books that the terms “come to mean the benevolent semi divine beings familiar from later mythology and art.”* [14] Daniel is the first biblical figure to refer to individual angels by name,* [15] mentioning Gabriel (God's primary messenger) in Daniel 9:21 and Michael (the holy fighter) in Daniel 10:13. These angels are part of Daniel's apocalyptic visions and are an important part of all apocalyptic literature.* [14] Coogan explains the development of this concept of angels: “In the postexilic period, with the development of explicit monotheism, these divine beings—the 'sons of God' who were members of the Divine Council—were in effect demoted to what are now known as 'angels', understood as beings created by God, but immortal and thus superior to humans.”* [14] This conception of angels is best understood in contrast to demons and is often thought to be“influenced by the ancient Persian religious tradition of Zoroastrianism, which viewed the world as a battleground between forces of good and forces of evil, between light and darkness.”* [14] One of these is hāšāṭān, a figure depicted in (among other places) the Book of Job.

... This leads Aristotle in turn to the demonstrated fact that God, glory and majesty to Him, does not do things by direct contact.

God burns things by means of fire; fire is moved by the motion of the sphere; the sphere is moved by means of a disembodied intellect, these intellects being the 'angels which are near to Him', through whose mediation the spheres [planets] move ... thus totally disembodied minds exist which emanate from God and are the intermediaries between God and all the bodies [objects] here in this world.

—Guide for the Perplexed II:4, Maimonides

According to Kabalah, there are four worlds and our world is the last world: the world of action (Assiyah). Angels exist in the worlds above as a 'task' of God. They are an extension of God to produce effects in this world. After an angel has completed its task, it ceases to exist. The angel is in effect the task. This is derived from the book of Genesis when Abraham meets with three angels and Lot meets with two. The task of one of the angels was to inform Abraham of his coming child. The other two were to save Lot and to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah.* [15]

21.2.1 Jewish angelic hierarchy Main article: Jewish angelic hierarchy

Philo of Alexandria identifies the angel with the Logos Maimonides, in his Yad ha-Chazakah: Yesodei ha-Torah, inasmuch as the angel is the immaterial voice of God. counts ten ranks of angels in the Jewish angelic hierarchy, The angel is something different from God Himself, but beginning from the highest:

236

CHAPTER 21. ANGEL • Sandalphon (archangel) (translation: bringing together), battles Samael and brings mankind together

21.3 Christianity Main article: Christian angelic hierarchy Later Christians inherited Jewish understandings of an-

One of Melozzo's musician (seraphim) angels from the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, now in the sacristy of St. Peter's Basilica

21.2.2

Individual angels

From the Jewish Encyclopedia, entry“Angelology”.* [15] • Michael (archangel) (translation: who is like God?), kindness of God, and stands up for the children of The Archangel Michael wears a late Roman military cloak and mankind cuirass in this 17th-century depiction by Guido Reni

• Gabriel (archangel) (translation: God is my strength), gels, which in turn may have been partly inherited from performs acts of justice and power the Egyptians.* [21] In the early stage, the Christian con(Only these two angels are mentioned by name in the He- cept of an angel characterized the angel as a messenger of God. Later came identification of individual angelic mesbrew Bible; the rest are from extra-biblical tradition.) sengers: Gabriel, Michael, Raphael, Uriel, and Lucifer.

Then, in the space of little more than two centuries (from • Jophiel (translation: Beauty of God), expelled Adam the 3rd to the 5th) the image of angels took on definite and Eve from the Garden of Eden holding a flam- characteristics both in theology and in art.* [22] ing sword and punishes those who transgress against According to St Augustine, " 'Angel' is the name of their God. office, not of their nature. If you seek the name of their • Raphael (archangel) (translation: It is God who nature, it is 'spirit'; if you seek the name of their office, it heals), God's healing force is 'angel': from what they are, 'spirit', from what they do, 'angel'.”* [23] Basilian Father Thomas Rosica says,“An• Uriel (archangel) (translation: God is my light), leads gels are very important, because they provide people with us to destiny an articulation of the conviction that God is intimately in* • Samael (archangel) (translation: Venom of God), volved in human life.” [24] angel of death—see also Malach HaMavet (trans- By the late 4th century, the Church Fathers agreed that lation: the angel of death) there were different categories of angels, with appropri-

21.3. CHRISTIANITY

237

ate missions and activities assigned to them. There was, however, some disagreement regarding the nature of angels. Some argued that angels had physical bodies,* [25] while some maintained that they were entirely spiritual.

Some theologians had proposed that angels were not divine but on the level of immaterial beings subordinate to the Trinity. The resolution of this Trinitarian dispute included the development of doctrine about angels.* [26] The angels are represented throughout the Christian Bible as spiritual beings intermediate between God and men: “You have made him [man] a little less than the angels ...”(Psalms 8:4-5). The Bible describes the function of angels as “messengers”but does not indicate when the creation of angels occurred.* [27] Christians believe that angels are created beings, based on (Psalms 148:2-5; Colossians 1:16): “praise ye Him, all His angels: praise ye Him, all His hosts ... for He spoke and they were made.

He commanded and they were created ...”. The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) declared that the angels were created beings. The Council's decree Firmiter credimus (issued against the Albigenses) declared both that angels were created and that men were created after them. The An angel comforting Jesus, by Carl Heinrich Bloch, 1865–1890.

First Vatican Council (1869) repeated this declaration in Dei Filius, the “Dogmatic constitution on the Catholic faith”. gani written by Venerable Germanus Ruoppolo, Galgani Thomas Aquinas (13th century) relates angels to Aris- stated that she had spoken with her guardian angel. totle's metaphysics in his Summa contra Gentiles,* [28] Pope John Paul II emphasized the role of angels in Summa Theologica,* [29] and in De substantiis sepa- Catholic teachings in his 1986 address titled "Angels Parratis,* [30] a treatise on angelology. Although angels have ticipate In History Of Salvation", in which he suggested greater knowledge than men, they are not omniscient, as that modern mentality should come to see the importance Matthew 24:36 points out.* [31] of angels.* [35] According to the Vatican's Congregation for Divine Worship and Discipline of the Sacraments, “The practice of 21.3.1 Interaction with angels assigning names to the Holy Angels should be discourThe New Testament includes many interactions and con- aged, except in the cases of Gabriel, Raphael and Michael * versations between angels and humans. For instance, whose names are contained in Holy Scripture.” [36] three separate cases of angelic interaction deal with the births of John the Baptist and Jesus Christ. In Luke 1:11, an angel appears to Zechariah to inform him that he will 21.3.2 The New Church have a child despite his old age, thus proclaiming the birth of John the Baptist. In Luke 1:26 the Archangel In the New Church, there is extensive information proGabriel visits the Virgin Mary in the Annunciation to vided concerning angels and the spiritual world in which foretell the birth of Jesus Christ. Angels then proclaim they dwell from many years of spiritual experiences rethe birth of Jesus in the Adoration of the shepherds in counted in the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg. All angels are in human form with a spiritual body, and are Luke 2:10.* [32] not just minds without form.* [37] There are different orAccording to Matthew 4:11, after Jesus spent 40 days in ders of angels according to the three heavens,* [38] and the desert, "...the devil left him and, behold, angels came each angel dwells in one of innumerable societies of anand ministered to him.”In Luke 22:43 an angel com- gels. Such a society of angels can appear as one angel forts Jesus Christ during the Agony in the Garden.* [33] as a whole.* [39] All angels originate from the human In Matthew 28:5 an angel speaks at the empty tomb, fol- race, and there is not one angel in heaven who first did lowing the Resurrection of Jesus and the rolling back of not live in a material body.* [40] Moreover, all children the stone by angels.* [32] who die not only enter heaven but eventually become anIn 1851 Pope Pius IX approved the Chaplet of Saint gels.* [41] The life of angels is that of usefulness, and Michael based on the 1751 reported private revelation their functions are so many that they cannot be enumerfrom archangel Michael to the Carmelite nun Antonia ated. However each angel will enter a service accordd'Astonac.* [34] In a biography of Saint Gemma Gal- ing to the use that they had performed in their earthly

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CHAPTER 21. ANGEL

life.* [42] Names of angels, such as Michael, Gabriel, and minister to humanity, teach doctrines of salvation, call Raphael, signify a particular angelic function rather than mankind to repentance, give priesthood keys, save indian individual being.* [43] While living in one's body an viduals in perilous times, and guide humankind.* [50] individual has conjunction with heaven through the angels,* [44] and with each person, there are at least two evil spirits and two angels.* [45] Temptation or pains of conscience originates from a conflict between evil spirits and angels.* [46] Due to man's sinful nature it is dangerous to have open direct communication with angels* [47] and can only be seen when one's spiritual sight has been opened.* [48] Thus from moment to moment angels attempt to lead each person to what is good tacitly using the person's own thoughts.* [49]

21.3.3

Latter Day Saints

Paradiso Illustration by Gustave Doré.

Paradise (Paradiso)

Latter Day Saints believe that angels either are the spirits of humans who are deceased or who have yet to be born, or are humans who have been resurrected or translated and have physical bodies of flesh and bones,* [51] and accordingly Joseph Smith taught that “there are no angels Temple statue of the Angel Moroni, Bern, Switzerland who minister to this earth but those that do belong or Adherents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day have belonged to it.”* [52] As such, Latter Day Saints Saints (LDS Church) view angels as the messengers of also believe that Adam, the first man, was and is now the God. They are sent to mankind to deliver messages, archangel Michael,* [53]* [54]* [55] and that Gabriel lived

21.4. ISLAM

239 People who claimed to have received a visit by an angel include the other two of the Three Witnesses: David Whitmer and Martin Harris. Many other Latter Day Saints, both in the early and modern church, have claimed to have seen angels, though Smith posited that, except in extenuating circumstances such as the restoration, mortals teach mortals, spirits teach spirits, and resurrected beings teach other resurrected beings.* [58]

21.4 Islam

The Divine Comedy Illustration by Gustave Doré.

on the earth as Noah.* [51] Likewise the Angel Moroni first lived in a pre-Columbian American civilization as the 5th-century prophet-warrior named Moroni.

Joseph Smith, Jr. described his first angelic encounter thus:* [56] “While I was thus in the act of calling upon God, I discovered a light appearing in my room, which continued to increase until the room was lighter than at noonday, when immediately a personage appeared at my bedside, standing in the air, for his feet did not touch the floor.

He had on a loose robe of most exquisite whiteness. It was a whiteness beyond anything earthly I had ever seen; nor do I believe that any earthly thing could be made to appear so exceedingly white and brilliant ...

Not only was his robe exceedingly white, but his whole person was glorious beyond description, and his countenance truly like lightning. The room was exceedingly light, but not so very bright as immediately around his person. When I first looked upon him, I was afraid; but the fear soon left me.”

Depiction of an angel in Shia

Main article: Islamic view of angels Angels (Arabic: ‫ ملائكة‬, Malāʾikah) are mentioned many times in the Qur'an and Hadith. Islam is clear on the nature of angels in that they are messengers of God. They have no free will, and can do only what God orders them to do.* [59] An example of a task they carry out is that of testing individuals by granting them abundant wealth and curing their illness.* [60] Believing in angels is one of the six Articles of Faith in Islam.

Most angelic visitations in the early Latter Day Saint movement were witnessed by Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery, who both claimed (prior to the establishment of the church in 1830) to have been visited by the prophet Moroni, John the Baptist, and the apostles Peter, James, and John. Later, after the dedication of the Kirtland Some examples of angels in Islam: Temple, Smith and Cowdery claimed to have been vis• Jibrail: the archangel Gabriel (Jibra'il or Jibril) is an ited by Jesus, and subsequently by Moses, Elias, and Elijah.* [57] archangel who serves as a messenger from God.

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CHAPTER 21. ANGEL

• Michael (archangel): or Mikail, the angel of nature.

• Israfil (Arabic: ‫إسرافيل‬, translit. Isrāfīl, Alternate Spelling: Israfel or Seraphim, Meaning: The Burning One * [61] ), is the angel of the trumpet in Islam,* [62] though unnamed in the Qur'an. Along with Mikhail, Jibrail and Izra'il, he is one of the four Islamic archangels.* [61] Israfil will blow the trumpet from a holy rock in Jerusalem to announce the Day of Resurrection.* [63] The trumpet is constantly poised at his lips, ready to be blown when God so orders.

• Darda'il: the angels who travel in the earth searching out assemblies where people remember God's name.

• Azrael is Azraa-eel ‫ عزرائيل‬or Izrail: the Angel of Death. No authentic reference of this in Quran or Hadeeth. Only referenced as angel of death or ‫ملك‬ ‫الموت‬.

• Kiraman Katibin: the two angels who record a person's good and bad deeds.

• Mu'aqqibat: a class of guardian angels who keep people from death until its decreed time.

21.6 Sikhism The poetry of the holy scripture of the Sikhs – the Sri Guru Granth Sahib – figuratively mentions a messenger or angel of death, sometimes as Yam (ਜਮ – “Yam”) and sometimes as Azrael (ਅਜਰਾਈਲੁ – “Ajraeel”): ਜਮ ਜੰਦਾਰੁ ਨ ਲਗਈ ਇਉ ਭਉਜਲੁ ਤਰੈ ਤਰਾਸਿ The Messenger of Death will not touch you; in this way, you shall cross over the terrifying world-ocean, carrying others across with you.

—Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Siree Raag, First Mehl, p. 22.* [67] ਅਜਰਾਈਲੁ ਯਾਰੁ ਬੰਦੇ ਜਿਸੁ ਤੇਰਾ ਆਧਾਰੁ Azraa-eel, the Messenger of Death, is the friend of the human being who has Your support, Lord.

—Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Tilang, Fifth Mehl, Third House, p.

724.* [68]

In a similar vein, the Sri Guru Granth Sahib talks of a • Munkar and Nakir: the angels who test the faith of figurative Chitar (ਚਿਤ੍ਰ) and Gupat (ਗੁਪਤੁ): the dead in their graves. They ask the soul of the ਚਿਤ੍ਰ ਗੁਪਤੁ ਸਭ ਲਿਖਤੇ ਲੇਖਾ ॥ dead person questions. If the person fails the questions, the angels make the man suffer until the Day of Judgement. If the soul passes the questions, he will have a pleasant time in the grave until the Day of Judgement.

• Ridwan: the angel in charge of maintaining Jannat or Paradise.

• Maalik: the angel who keeps or guards hellfire.

• Harut and Marut (Arabic: ‫ )هاروت وماروت‬are two angels mentioned in the second Surah of the Qur'an, who were sent down to test the people at Babel or Babylon by performing deeds of magic. (Sura AlBaqara, verse 102.) The Qur'an indicates that although they warned the Babylonians not to imitate them or do as they were doing, some members of their audience failed to obey and became sorcerers, thus damning their own souls.

ਭਗਤ ਜਨਾ ਕਉ ਦ੍ਰਿਸਟਿ ਨ ਪੇਖਾ Chitar and Gupat, the recording angels of the conscious and the unconscious, write the accounts of all mortal beings, / but they cannot even see the Lord's humble devotees.

—Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Aasaa, Fifth Mehl, Panch-Pada, p.

393.* [69] However, Sikhism has never had a literal system of angels, preferring guidance without explicit appeal to supernatural orders or beings.

21.7 Bahá'í Faith

In his Book of Certitude Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Bahá'í Faith, describes angels as people who “have consumed, with the fire of the love of God, all human traits and limitations”, and have “clothed themselves”with angelic 21.5 Hermetic Qabalah attributes and have become“endowed with the attributes of the spiritual”. 'Abdu'l-Bahá describes angels as the See also: Hermetic Qabalah “confirmations of God and His celestial powers”and as “blessed beings who have severed all ties with this nether According to the Kabbalah as described by the Golden world”and“been released from the chains of self”, and Dawn there are ten archangels, each commanding one “revealers of God's abounding grace”. The Bahá'í writof the choir of angels and corresponding to one of the ings also refer to the Concourse on High, an angelic host, Sephirot. It is similar to the Jewish angelic hierarchy. and the Maid of Heaven of Bahá'u'lláh's vision.* [70]

21.11. BRAHMA KUMARIS

21.8 Zoroastrianism

241

21.11 Brahma Kumaris

The Brahma Kumaris uses the term “angel”to refer to a perfect, or complete state of the human being, which they believe can be attained through a connection with In Zoroastrianism there are different angel-like figures.

God.* [78]* [79] For example, each person has one guardian angel, called Fravashi. They patronize human beings and other creatures, and also manifest God's energy. The Amesha Spentas have often been regarded as angels, although there is 21.12 In art no direct reference to them conveying messages,* [71] but are rather emanations of Ahura Mazda (“Wise Lord”, Main article: Angels in art God); they initially appeared in an abstract fashion and In an address during a General Audience of 6 August then later became personalized, associated with diverse aspects of the divine creation.* [72] Main article: Zoroastrian angelology

21.9 Neoplatonism In the commentaries of Proclus (4th century, under Christian rule) on the Timaeus of Plato, Proclus uses the terminology of “angelic”(aggelikos) and “angel” (aggelos) in relation to metaphysical beings. According to Aristotle, just as there is a First Mover,* [73] so, too, must there be spiritual secondary movers.* [74]

21.10 Theosophy See also: Theosophical Society In the teachings of the Theosophical Society, Devas are regarded as living either in the atmospheres of the planets of the solar system (Planetary Angels) or inside the Sun (Solar Angels) and they help to guide the operation of the processes of nature such as the process of evolution and the growth of plants; their appearance is reputedly like colored flames about the size of a human. It is believed by Theosophists that devas can be observed when the third 12th-century icon of the Archangels Michael and Gabriel weareye is activated. Some (but not most) devas originally ing the loros of the Imperial guards. incarnated as human beings.* [75] 1986, entitled “Angels participate in the history of salIt is believed by Theosophists that nature spirits, vation”, Pope John Paul II explained that "[T]he angels elementals (gnomes, undines, sylphs, and salamanders), have no 'body' (even if, in particular circumstances, they and fairies can be also be observed when the third eye reveal themselves under visible forms because of their is activated.* [76] It is maintained by Theosophists that mission for the good of people).”* [35] Angels are howthese less evolutionarily developed beings have never ever often depicted in painting and sculpture as male hubeen previously incarnated as humans; they are regarded mans. Christian art perhaps reflects the descriptions in as being on a separate line of spiritual evolution called Revelation 4:6–8 of the Four Living Creatures (Greek: the “deva evolution"; eventually, as their souls advance τὰ τέσσαρα ζῷα) and the descriptions in the Hebrew as they reincarnate, it is believed they will incarnate as Bible of cherubim and seraphim (the chayot in Ezekiel's devas.* [77] Merkabah vision and the Seraphim of Isaiah). However, It is asserted by Theosophists that all of the above- while cherubim and seraphim have wings in the Bible, mentioned beings possess etheric bodies that are com- no angel is mentioned as having wings.* [80] The earliposed of etheric matter, a type of matter finer and more est known Christian image of an angel—in the Cubicolo pure that is composed of smaller particles than ordinary dell'Annunziazione in the Catacomb of Priscilla (mid-3rd physical plane matter.* [77] century)—is without wings. In that same period, repre-

242

CHAPTER 21. ANGEL

sentations of angels on sarcophagi, lamps and reliquaries also show them without wings,* [81] as for example the angel in the Sacrifice of Isaac scene in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (although the side view of the Sarcophagus shows winged angelic figures).

The earliest known representation of angels with wings is on the“Prince's Sarcophagus”, discovered in the 1930s at Sarigüzel, near Istanbul, and attributed to the time of Theodosius I (379–395).* [82] From that period on, Christian art has represented angels mostly with wings, as in the cycle of mosaics in the Basilica of Saint Mary Major (432–440).* [83] Four- and six-winged angels, drawn from the higher grades of angels (especially cherubim and seraphim) and often showing only their faces and wings, are derived from Persian art and are usually shown only in heavenly contexts, as opposed to performing tasks on earth. They often appear in the pendentives of church domes or semi-domes. Prior to the Judeo-Christian tradition, in the Greek world the goddess Nike and the gods Eros and Thanatos were also depicted in human-like form with wings.

Saint John Chrysostom explained the significance of angels' wings:

21.13 See also • Apsara • Dakini • Elioud • Eudaemon • Fallen angel • Gandharva • Hierarchy of angels • How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?

• In paradisum • Nephilim • Shoulder angel • Watcher or Grigori • Yaksha

21.14 References They manifest a nature's sublimity. That is why Gabriel is represented with wings. Not that angels have wings, but that you may know that they leave the heights and the most elevated dwelling to approach human nature. Accordingly, the wings attributed to these powers have no other meaning than to indicate the sublimity of their nature.* [84]

Angels are typically depicted in Mormon art as having no wings based on a quote from Joseph Smith (“An angel of God never has wings”).* [85]

[1] The Free Dictionary retrieved 1 September 2012 [2] “Angels in Christianity.”Religion Facts. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2014 [3] Augustine of Hippo's Enarrationes in Psalmos, 103, I, 15, augustinus.it (Latin) [4] Angels and the New Race - Page 8, Geoffrey Hodson 1998 [5] Oxford Dictionaries, “angel” [6] Beekes, R. S. P., Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 9.

In terms of their clothing, angels, especially the [7] palaeolexicon.com; a-ke-ro, Palaeolexicon (Word study Archangel Michael, were depicted as military-style tool of ancient languages) agents of God and came to be shown wearing Late Antique military uniform. This uniform could be the normal [8] “Mycenaean (Linear b) – English Glossary”(PDF). Retrieved 30 July 2012. military dress, with a tunic to about the knees, an armour breastplate and pteruges, but was often the specific dress [9] Kosior, Wojciech. “The Angel in the Hebrew Bible from of the bodyguard of the Byzantine Emperor, with a long the Statistic and Hermeneutic Perspectives. Some Retunic and the loros, the long gold and jewelled pallium marks on the Interpolation Theory”.“The Polish Journal restricted to the Imperial family and their closest guards. of Biblical Research”, Vol. 12, No. 1 (23), pp. 55-70.

The basic military dress was shown in Western art into the Retrieved 22 November 2013.

Baroque period and beyond (see Reni picture above), and up to the present day in Eastern Orthodox icons. Other [10] ”,‫""ַמְלָאְך‬Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, eds.: ''A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old angels came to be conventionally depicted in long robes, Testament'' , p. 521”. Archive.org. Retrieved 30 July and in the later Middle Ages they often wear the vest2012. ments of a deacon, a cope over a dalmatic; this costume was used especially for Gabriel in Annunciation scenes— [11] Pope, Hugh.“Angels.”The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. for example the Annunciation in Washington by Jan van 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. acEyck. cessed 20 October 2010

21.14. REFERENCES

243

[12] Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Volume 1, Continuum, 2003, p. 460.

[13] Baker, Louis Goldberg. Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology: Angel of the Lord“The functions of the angel of the Lord in the Old Testament prefigure the reconciling ministry of Jesus. In the New Testament, there is no mention of the angel of the Lord; the Messiah himself is this person.”

[14] Coogan, Michael D. (2009). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford University Press.

[15] “Angelology”. The Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[16] Copleston, Frederick Charles (2003). A history of philosophy, Volume 1. Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 460. ISBN 0-8264-6895-0 [17] Sanhedrin 38b and Avodah Zerah 3b.

[18] Aleksander R. Michalak, Angels as Warriors in Late Second Temple Jewish Literature, Tuebingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012.

[32] Pope, Hugh.“Angels.”The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 11 Jan. 2015 [33] “BibleGateway, Luke 22:43”. Biblegateway.com. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[34] Ann Ball, 2003 Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices ISBN 0-87973-910-X page 123 [35] “Angels Participate In History Of Salvation”. Vatican.va.

6 August 1986. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[36] Congregation for Divine Worship and Discipline of the Sacraments,“Directory on Popular Piety and the Liturgy” , §217 [37] Swedenborg, Emanuel. Heaven and Hell, 1758. Rotch Edition (revised). New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1907, in The Divine Revelation of the New Jerusalem (2012), n. 74.

[38] Arcana Coelestia, n. 459.

[39] Heaven and Hell, n. 51-53.

[40] Heaven and Hell, n. 311

[19] Hannah Darrell D., Michael and Christ: Michael Traditions and Angel Christology in Early Christianity, Tuebingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1999 [20] cf. Sanhedrin 95b [21] Evans, Annette Henrietta Margaretha.“The development of Jewish ideas of angels: Egyptian and Hellenistic connections, ca. 600 BCE to ca. 200 CE”, Thesis (PhD (Ancient Studies))-University of Stellenbosch, 2007.

[22] Proverbio, Cecelia.“La Figura Dell'Angelo Nella Civilta' Paleochristiana”(2007), pp. 25–38, Libreria Hoepli

[24] “Angels”, ZENIT International News Agency, December 9, 2002 [25] Ludlow, Morwenna (2012). Brakke, David, ed.

“Demons, Evil, and Liminality in Cappadocian Theology” (PDF). Journal of Early Christian Studies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press) 20 (2): 179–211 [183]. doi:10.1353/earl.2012.0014. ISSN 1067-6341.

Retrieved 11 November 2012.

[26] Proverbio(2007), pp. 29–38; cf. summary in Libreria Hoepli and review in La Civiltà Cattolica, 3795–3796 (2– 16 August 2008), pp. 327–328.

[27] “When Did God Create Angels?". Apologetics Press.

Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[28] Thomas Aquinas. “46”. Summa contra Gentiles 2.

[29] Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica. Treatise on Angels (Newadvent.org).

De

substantiis

[42] Heaven and Hell, n. 387-393.

[43] Swedenborg, Emanuel. Heavenly Arcana (or Arcana Coelestia), 1749-58 (AC). Rotch Edition (revised). New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1907, in The Divine Revelation of the New Jerusalem (2012), n. 8192.3.

[44] Heaven and Hell, n. 291-298.

[45] Arcana Coelestia, n. 50, 697, 968.

[46] Arcana Coelestia, n. 227.

[23] Augustine, En. in Ps. 103, 1, 15: PL 37, 1348

[30] Aquinas, Thomas.

Josephkenny.joyeurs.com.

[41] Heaven and Hell, n. 416

separatis.

[31] “BibleGateway, Matthew 24:36”. Biblegateway.com.

Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[47] Arcana Coelestia, n. 784.2.

[48] Heaven and Hell, n. 76.

[49] Arcana Coelestia, n. 5992.3.

[50]“God's messengers, those individuals whom he sends (often from his personal presence in the eternal worlds), to deliver his messages (Luke 1:11–38); to minister to his children (Acts 10:1–8, Acts 10:30–32); to teach them the doctrines of salvation (Mosiah 3); to call them to repentance (Moro. 7:31); to give them priesthood and keys (D.&C. 13; 128:20–21); to save them in perilous circumstances (Nehemiah 3:29–31; Daniel 6:22); to guide them in the performance of his work (Genesis 24:7); to gather his elect in the last days (Matthew 24:31); to perform all needful things relative to his work (Moro. 7:29–33)— such messengers are called angels.”.

[51] “LDS Bible Dictionary-Angels”. Scriptures.lds.org. 21 February 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[52] Doctrine and Covenants 130:4–5.

[53] http://www.lds.org/manual/gospel-principles/ chapter-6-the-fall-of-adam-and-eve “Chapter 6: The Fall of Adam and Eve,"] Gospel Principles (Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church, 2011) pp. 26–30.

244

[54] “D&C 107:24”. Scriptures.lds.org. 21 February 2012.

Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[55] Mark E. Petersen, “Adam, the Archangel”, Ensign, November 1980.

[56] “Joseph Smith–History 1:30-33”. Scriptures.lds.org. 21 February 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[57] “D&C 110”. Scriptures.lds.org. 21 February 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[58] Robert J. Matthews, “The Fulness of Times”, Ensign, December 1989.

[59] Mirza Tahir Ahmad. An Elementary Study of Islam. Islam International Publications. p. 12. ISBN 1-85372-562-5.

[60] Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:56:670 [61] Lewis, James R., Oliver, Evelyn Dorothy, Sisung Kelle S. (Editor) (1996), Angels A to Z, p. 224, Visible Ink Press, ISBN 0-7876-0652-9 [62] Webster, Richard (2009). Encyclopedia of angels (1st ed.). Woodbury, Minn.: Llewellyn Publications. p. 97.

ISBN 978-0-7387-1462-2.

[63] “Israfil”. Encyclopaedia. Britannica. Retrieved 20 November 2012.

CHAPTER 21. ANGEL

[76] “Eskild Tjalve's paintings of devas, nature spirits, elementals and fairies:". Web.archive.org. 21 November 2002.

Archived from the original on 21 November 2002. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[77] Powell, A.E. The Solar System London:1930 The Theosophical Publishing House (A Complete Outline of the Theosophical Scheme of Evolution) See“Lifewave”chart (refer to index) [78] Basava Journal, Volume 19. Basava Samiti, 1994 (Bangalore, India).

[79] Peace & purity: the story of the Brahma Kumaris : a spiritual revolution By Liz Hodgkinson [80]“Angel”, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia James Orr, editor, 1915 edition.

[81] Proverbio (2007), pp. 81–89; cf. review in La Civiltà Cattolica, 3795–3796 (2–16 August 2008), pp. 327–328.

[82] Proverbio (2007) p. 66.

[83] Proverbio (2007), pp. 90–95 [84] Proverbio (2007) p. 34.

[85] “History of the Church, 3:392”. Institute.lds.org. Retrieved 30 July 2012.

[64] Strong's Hebrew: 691. ‫(ֶאְרֵאל‬erel) - perhaps a hero [65] Strong's Hebrew: 2830. ‫(ַחְׁשַמל‬chashmal) - perhaps amber [66] Strong's Hebrew: 3742. ‫ ְ(ּכרּוב‬kerub) - probably an order of angelic beings

21.15 Further reading

[67] “Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib”. srigranth.org.

Retrieved 24 May 2015.

• Proverbio, Cecilia (2007). La figura dell'angelo nella civiltà paleocristiana (in Italian). Assisi, Italy: Editrice Tau. ISBN 88-87472-69-6.

[68] “Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib”. srigranth.org.

Retrieved 24 May 2015.

• Cheyne, James Kelly (ed.)

(1899).

Angel.

Encyclopædia Biblica. New York, Macmillan.

[69] “Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib”. srigranth.org.

Retrieved 24 May 2015.

• Driver, Samuel Rolles (Ed.) (1901) The book of Daniel. Cambridge UP.

[70] Smith, Peter (2000). “angels”. A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp.

38–39. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.

• Davidson, A. B. (1898). “Angel”. In James Hastings. A Dictionary of the Bible I. pp. 93–97.

[71] Lewis, James R., Oliver, Evelyn Dorothy, Sisung Kelle S. (Editor) (1996), Angels A to Z, Entry: Zoroastrianism, pp.

425–427, Visible Ink Press, ISBN 0-7876-0652-9 [72] Darmesteter, James (1880)(translator), The Zend Avesta, Part I: Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 4, pp. lx-lxxii, Oxford University Press, 1880, at sacred-texts.com [73] Aristotle. Metaphysics. 1072a ff.

[74] Aristotle. Metaphysics. 1073a13 ff.

[75] Hodson, Geoffrey, Kingdom of the Gods ISBN 0-76618134-0 —Has color pictures of what Devas supposedly look like when observed by the third eye—their appearance is reputedly like colored flames about the size of a human. Paintings of some of the devas claimed to have been seen by Hodson from his book “Kingdom of the Gods":

• Oosterzee, Johannes Jacobus van. Christian dogmatics: a text-book for academical instruction and private study. Trans. John Watson Watson and Maurice J. Evans. (1874) New York, Scribner, Armstrong.

• Smith, George Adam (1898) The book of the twelve prophets, commonly called the minor. London, Hodder and Stoughton.

• Bamberger, Bernard Jacob, (15 March 2006).

Fallen Angels: Soldiers of Satan's Realm. Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-82760797-0 • Bennett, William Henry (1911), "Angel", Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., Vol. II, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 4–6.

21.16. EXTERNAL LINKS • Briggs, Constance Victoria, 1997. The Encyclopedia of Angels : An A-to-Z Guide with Nearly 4,000 Entries. Plume. ISBN 0-452-27921-6.

• Bunson, Matthew, (1996). Angels A to Z: A Who's Who of the Heavenly Host. Three Rivers Press.

ISBN 0-517-88537-9.

• Cruz, Joan Carroll, OCDS, 1999. Angels and Devils. TAN Books and Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-89555638-3 • Davidson, Gustav. A Dictionary of Angels: Including the Fallen Angels. Free Press. ISBN 0-02907052-X • Graham, Billy, 1994. Angels: God's Secret Agents.

W Pub Group; Minibook edition. ISBN 0-84995074-0 • Guiley, Rosemary, 1996. Encyclopedia of Angels.

ISBN 0-8160-2988-1 • von Heijne, Camilla, 2010. The Messenger of the Lord in Early Jewish Interpretations of Genesis.

BZAW 412. De Gruyter, Berlin/New York, ISBN 978-3-11-022684-3 • von Heijne, Camilla, 2015 “Angels”pp. 20–24 in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Theology, vol. 1. Oxford University Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-19-023994-7 • Jastrow, Marcus, 1996, A dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Bavli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic literature compiled by Marcus Jastrow, PhD., Litt.D. with and index of Scriptural quotatons, Vol 1 & 2, The Judaica Press, New York • Kainz, Howard P.,“Active and Passive Potency”in Thomistic Angelology Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90247-1295-5 • Kreeft, Peter J. 1995. Angels and Demons: What Do We Really Know About Them? Ignatius Press. ISBN 0-89870-550-9 • Lewis, James R. (1995). Angels A to Z. Visible Ink Press. ISBN 0-7876-0652-9 • Melville, Francis, 2001. The Book of Angels: Turn to Your Angels for Guidance, Comfort, and Inspiration. Barron's Educational Series; 1st edition. ISBN 0-7641-5403-6 • Michalak, Aleksander R. (2012), Angels as Warriors in Late Second Temple Jewish Literature.Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-151739-6.

• Muehlberger, Ellen (2013). Angels in Late Ancient Christianity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199931934

245 • Ronner, John, 1993. Know Your Angels: The Angel Almanac With Biographies of 100 Prominent Angels in Legend & Folklore-And Much More! Mamre Press. ISBN 0-932945-40-6.

• Smith, William Robertson (1878), "Angel", Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., Vol. II, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 26–28.

• Swedenborg E.Heaven and its Wonders and Hell From Things Heard and Seen (Swedenborg Foundation 1946), ISBN 0-554-62056-1 (Detailed information on angels and their life in heaven) • Swedenborg, E. Wisdom's Delight in Marriage ( “Conjugial”) Love: Followed by Insanity's Pleasure in Promiscuous Love (Swedenborg Foundation 1979 ISBN 0-87785-054-2) (Extensive review of angelic marriage)

21.16 External links • Zoroastrian angels • Jewish Encyclopedia entry on angels • Angels in Islam • Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments. Directory of Popular Piety and the Liturgy, §§ 212-217,“The Holy Angels, Vatican City, December 2001

Chapter 22

Astrology Not to be confused with Astronomy, the scientific study of celestial objects.

22.1 Etymology

Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial objects as a means for divining information about human affairs and terrestrial events.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4] Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, and has its roots in calendrical systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications.* [5] Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and some – such as the Indians, Chinese, and Maya – developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations.

Western astrology, one of the oldest astrological systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th-17th century BCE Mesopotamia, from which it spread to Ancient Greece, Rome, the Arab world and eventually Central and Western Europe. Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with systems of horoscopes that purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems.* [6]* :83 Throughout most of its history astrology was considered a scholarly tradition and was common in academic circles, often in close relation with astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine.* [7] It was present in political circles, and is mentioned in various works of literature, Marcantonio Raimondi engraving, 15th century from Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer to William The word astrology comes from the early Latin Shakespeare, Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca. word astrologia,* [18] which derives from the Greek With the onset of the scientific revolution astrolἀστρολογία—from ἄστρον astron (“star”) and -λογία ogy was called into question; it has been chal-logia, (“study of”—"account of the stars”). As* * * lenged successfully both on theoretical [8] :249; [9] trologia later passed into meaning 'star-divination' with * * and experimental [10] [11] grounds, and has been astronomia used for the scientific term.* [19] * shown to have no scientific validity [6] or explanatory power. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined.* [12] Astrology is now recognized to be 22.2 History pseudoscience.* [13]* [14]* [15]* [16]* [17] Main article: History of astrology Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese, and Maya developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events 246

22.2. HISTORY

247 Chaucer, and of playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare.

Throughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in political and academic contexts, and was connected with other studies, such as astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine.* [7] At the end of the 17th century, new scientific concepts in astronomy and physics (such as heliocentrism and Newtonian mechanics) called astrology into question. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined.* [12]

22.2.1 Ancient world See also: Babylonian astrology Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky.* [20]* :2,3 Early evidence for humans making conscious attempts to measure, record, and predict seasonal changes by reference to astronomical cycles, appears as markings on bones and cave walls, which show that lunar cycles were being noted as early as 25,000 years ago.* [21]* :81ff This was a first step towards recordThe Zodiac Man a diagram of a human body and astrologi- ing the Moon's influence upon tides and rivers, and tocal symbols with instructions explaining the importance of as- wards organising a communal calendar.* [21] Farmers adtrology from a medical perspective. From a 15th-century Welsh dressed agricultural needs with increasing knowledge of manuscript the constellations that appear in the different seasons— and used the rising of particular star-groups to herald an* from celestial observations. In the West, astrology most nual floods or seasonal activities. [22] By the 3rd millenoften consists of a system of horoscopes purporting to nium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of explain aspects of a person's personality and predict fu- celestial cycles, and may have oriented* temples in alignture events in their life based on the positions of the sun, ment with heliacal risings of the stars. [23] moon, and other celestial objects at the time of their birth. Scattered evidence suggests that the oldest known astroThe majority of professional astrologers rely on such sys- logical references are copies of texts made in the antems.* [6]* :83 cient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa thought * Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millen- to be compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE. [24] A nium BCE, with roots in calendrical systems used to pre- scroll documenting an early use of electional astrology dict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the Sumerian ruler signs of divine communications.* [5] A form of astrol- Gudea of Lagash (c. 2144 – 2124 BCE). This describes ogy was practised in the first dynasty of Mesopotamia how the gods revealed to him in a dream the constellafavourable for the planned con(1950–1651 BCE). Chinese astrology was elaborated in tions that would be most * [25] However, there is controversy struction of a temple. the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). Hellenistic astrology about whether these were genuinely recorded at the time after 332 BCE mixed Babylonian astrology with Egyptian or merely ascribed to ancient rulers by posterity. The oldDecanic astrology in Alexandria, creating horoscopic asest undisputed evidence of the use of astrology as an intetrology. Alexander the Great's conquest of Asia allowed grated system of knowledge is therefore attributed to the astrology to spread to Ancient Greece and Rome. In Mesopotamia (1950–1651 records of the first dynasty of Rome, astrology was associated with 'Chaldean wisdom'.

After the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th century, as- BCE). This astrology had some parallels with Hellenistic trology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hellenis- Greek (western) astrology, including the zodiac, a normtic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. In the ing point near 9 degrees in Aries, the trine aspect, plane(the twelve divi12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europe and tary exaltations, and the dodekatemoria * [26] The Babylonians viewed sions of 30 degrees each). translated into Latin. Major astronomers including Tycho celestial events as possible signs rather than as causes of Brahe, Johannes Kepler and Galileo practised as court as* [26] physical events. trologers. Astrological references appear in literature in the works of poets such as Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey The system of Chinese astrology was elaborated during

248 the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) and flourished during the Han Dynasty (2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE), during which all the familiar elements of traditional Chinese culture – the Yin-Yang philosophy, theory of the five elements, Heaven and Earth, Confucian morality – were brought together to formalise the philosophical principles of Chinese medicine and divination, astrology and alchemy.* [27]* :3,4

Ancient objections

CHAPTER 22. ASTROLOGY then the planet sees some light from the moon, but when the moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on the side facing the planet.* [31] Favorinus argued that it was absurd to imagine that stars and planets would affect human bodies in the same way as they affect the tides,* [32] and equally absurd that small motions in the heavens cause large changes in people's fates. Sextus Empiricus argued that it was absurd to link human attributes with myths about the signs of the zodiac.* [33] Carneades argued that belief in fate denies free will and morality; that people born at different times can all die in the same accident or battle; and that contrary to uniform influences from the stars, tribes and cultures are all different.* [34]

22.2.2 Hellenistic Egypt Main article: Hellenistic astrology In 525 BCE, Egypt was conquered by the Persians.

The Roman orator Cicero objected to astrology

Cicero stated the twins objection (that with close birth times, personal outcomes can be very different), later developed by Saint Augustine.* [28] He argued that since the other planets are much more distant from the earth than the moon, they could have only very tiny influence compared to the moon's.* [29] He also argued that if astrology explains everything about a person's fate, then it wrongly ignores the visible effect of inherited ability and parenting, changes in health worked by medicine, or the effects of the weather on people.* [30]

1484 copy of first page of Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli

Plotinus argued that since the fixed stars are much more distant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine the planets' effect on mankind should depend on their position with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that the interpretation of the moon's conjunction with a planet as good when the moon is full, but bad when the moon is waning, is clearly wrong, as from the moon's point of view, half of her surface is always in sunlight; and from the planet's point of view, waning should be better, as

With the occupation by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, Egypt became Hellenistic. The city of Alexandria was founded by Alexander after the conquest, becoming the place where Babylonian astrology was mixed with Egyptian Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology.

This contained the Babylonian zodiac with its system of planetary exaltations, the triplicities of the signs and the importance of eclipses. It used the Egyptian concept of dividing the zodiac into thirty-six decans of ten degrees

The 1st century BCE Egyptian Dendera Zodiac shares two signs – the Balance and the Scorpion – with Mesopotamian astrology.* [35]

22.2. HISTORY

249

each, with an emphasis on the rising decan, and the Greek Islamic system of planetary Gods, sign rulership and four elements.* [36] 2nd century BCE texts predict positions of Main article: Astrology in medieval Islam planets in zodiac signs at the time of the rising of certain Astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars* [50] followdecans, particularly Sothis.* [37] The astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work the Tetrabiblos formed the basis of Western astrology, and, "...enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more.”* [38]

22.2.3

Greece and Rome

The conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great exposed the Greeks to ideas from Syria, Babylon, Persia and central Asia.* [39] Around 280 BCE, Berossus, a priest of Bel from Babylon, moved to the Greek island of Kos, teaching astrology and Babylonian culture.* [40] By the 1st century BCE, there were two varieties of astrology, one using horoscopes to describe the past, present and future; the other, theurgic, emphasising the soul's ascent to the stars.* [41] Greek influence played a crucial role in the transmission of astrological theory to Rome.* [42] The first definite reference to astrology in Rome comes from the orator Cato, who in 160 BCE warned farm overseers against consulting with Chaldeans,* [43] who were described as Babylonian 'star-gazers'.* [44] Among both Greeks and Romans, Babylonia (also known as Chaldea) became so identified with astrology that 'Chaldean wisdom' became synonymous with divination using planets and stars.* [45] The 2nd-century Roman poet and satirist Juvenal complains about the pervasive influence of Chaldeans, saying, “Still more trusted are the Chaldaeans; every word uttered by the astrologer they will believe has come from Hammon's fountain.”* [46]

Latin translation of Abū Maʿshar's De Magnis Coniunctionibus ('Of the great conjunctions'), Venice, 1515

ing the collapse of Alexandria to the Arabs in the 7th century, and the founding of the Abbasid empire in the 8th. The second Abbasid caliph, Al Mansur (754–775) founded the city of Baghdad to act as a centre of learning, and included in its design a library-translation centre known as Bayt al-Hikma 'House of Wisdom', which continued to receive development from his heirs and was to provide a major impetus for Arabic-Persian translations of Hellenistic astrological texts. The early translators included Mashallah, who helped to elect the time for the foundation of Baghdad,* [51] and Sahl ibn Bishr, (a.k.a.

Zael), whose texts were directly influential upon later European astrologers such as Guido Bonatti in the 13th century, and William Lilly in the 17th century.* [52] Knowledge of Arabic texts started to become imported into Europe during the Latin translations of the 12th century.

One of the first astrologers to bring Hermetic astrology to Rome was Thrasyllus, astrologer to the emperor Europe Tiberius,* [42] the first emperor to have had a court as* trologer, [47] though his predecessor Augustus had used See also: Christian views on astrology astrology to help legitimise his Imperial rights.* [48]

22.2.4

Medieval world

Hindu The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra, and Sārāvalī by Kalyāṇavarma.

The Horāshastra is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The Sārāvalī likewise dates to around 800 CE.* [49] English translations of these texts were published by N.N. Krishna Rau and V.B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.

The first astrological book published in Europe was the Liber Planetis et Mundi Climatibus (“Book of the Planets and Regions of the World”), which appeared between 1010 and 1027 AD, and may have been authored

by Gerbert of Aurillac.* [53] Ptolemy's second century AD Tetrabiblos was translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli in 1138.* [53] The Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas followed Aristotle in proposing that the stars ruled the imperfect 'sublunary' body, while attempting to reconcile astrology with Christianity by stating that God ruled the soul.* [54] The thirteenth century mathematician Campanus of Novara is said to have devised a system of astrological houses that divides the prime vertical into 'houses' of equal 30° arcs,* [55] though the system was used earlier in the East.* [56] The thirteenth century astronomer Guido Bonatti wrote a textbook, the Liber As-

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The medieval theologian Isidore of Seville criticised the predictive part of astrology

Dante Alighieri meets the Emperor Justinian in the Sphere of Mercury, in Canto 5 of the Paradiso

tronomicus, a copy of which King Henry VII of England owned at the end of the fifteenth century.* [55] In Paradiso, the final part of the Divine Comedy, the Italian poet Dante Alighieri referred “in countless details” * [57] to the astrological planets, though he adapted traditional astrology to suit his Christian viewpoint,* [57] for example using astrological thinking in his prophecies of the reform of Christendom.* [58]

timing of actions (so-called interrogation and election) as wholly false, and rejected the determination of human action by the stars on grounds of free will.* [64]* [65] The friar Laurens Pignon (c. 1368–1449)* [66] similarly rejected all forms of divination and determinism, including by the stars, in his 1411 Contre les Devineurs.* [67] This was in opposition to the tradition carried by the Arab astronomer Albumasar (787-886) whose Introductorium in Astronomiam and De Magnis Coniunctionibus argued the view that both individual actions and larger scale history are determined by the stars.* [68]

22.2.5 Renaissance and Early Modern Medieval objections In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville argued in his Etymologiae that astronomy described the movements of the heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scientific, describing the movements of the sun, the moon and the stars, while the other, making predictions, was theologically erroneous.* [59]* [60] In contrast, John Gower in the fourteenth century defined astrology as essentially limited to the making of predictions.* [59]* [61] The influence of the stars was in turn divided into natural astrology, with for example effects on tides and the growth of plants, and judicial astrology, with supposedly predictable effects on people.* [62]* [63] The fourteenth century sceptic Nicole Oresme however included astronomy as a part of astrology in his Livre de divinacions.* [64] Oresme argued that current approaches to prediction of events such as plagues, wars, and weather were inappropriate, but that such prediction was a valid field of inquiry.

However, he attacked the use of astrology to choose the

Renaissance scholars commonly practised astrology.

Gerolamo Cardano cast the horoscope of king Edward VI of England, while John Dee was the personal astrologer to queen Elizabeth I of England. Catherine de Medici paid Michael Nostradamus in 1566 to verify the prediction of the death of her husband, king Henry II of France made by her astrologer Lucus Gauricus. Major astronomers who practised as court astrologers included Tycho Brahe in the royal court of Denmark, Johannes Kepler to the Habsburgs, Galileo Galilei to the Medici, and Giordano Bruno who was burnt at the stake for heresy in Rome in 1600.* [69] The distinction between astrology and astronomy was not entirely clear. Advances in astronomy were often motivated by the desire to improve the accuracy of astrology.* [70] Ephemerides with complex astrological calculations, and almanacs interpreting celestial events for use in medicine and for choosing times to plant crops, were popular in Elizabethan England.* [71] In 1597, the English

22.3. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

251 Astrology saw a popular revival starting in the 19th century, as part of a general revival of spiritualism and— later, New Age philosophy,* [79]* :239–249 and through the influence of mass media such as newspaper horoscopes.* [79]* :259–263 Early in the 20th century the psychiatrist Carl Jung developed some concepts concerning astrology,* [80] which led to the development of psychological astrology.* [79]* :251–256;* [81]* [82]

22.3 Principles and practice Advocates have defined astrology as a symbolic language, an art form, a science, and a method of divination.* [83]* [84] Though most cultural astrology systems share common roots in ancient philosophies that influenced each other, many use methods that differ from 'An Astrologer Casting a Horoscope' from Robert Fludd's those in the West. These include Hindu astrology (also known as “Indian astrology”and in modern times reUtriusque Cosmi Historia, 1617 ferred to as “Vedic astrology”) and Chinese astrology, both of which have influenced the world's cultural history. mathematician and physician Thomas Hood made a set of paper instruments that used revolving overlays to help students work out relationships between fixed stars or 22.3.1 Western constellations, the midheaven, and the twelve astrological houses.* [72] Hood's instruments also illustrated, for ped- For more details on this topic, see Western astrology. agogical purposes, the supposed relationships between the signs of the zodiac, the planets, and the parts of the Western astrology is a form of divination based on the human body adherents believed were governed by the construction of a horoscope for an exact moment, such as planets and signs.* [72]* [73] While Hood's presentation a person's birth.* [85] It uses the tropical zodiac, which is was innovative, his astrological information was largely aligned to the equinoctial points.* [86] standard and was taken from Gerard Mercator's astrological disc made in 1551, or a source used by Merca- Western astrology is founded on the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies such as the Sun, tor.* [74]* [75] Moon and planets, which are analysed by their movement English astrology had reached its zenith by the 17th cen- through signs of the zodiac (twelve spatial divisions of tury.* [76] Astrologers were theorists, researchers, and the ecliptic) and by their aspects (based on geometric ansocial engineers, as well as providing individual advice gles) relative to one another. They are also considered by to everyone from monarchs downwards. Among other their placement in houses (twelve spatial divisions of the things, astrologers could advise on the best time to take sky).* [87] Astrology's modern representation in western a journey or harvest a crop, diagnose and prescribe for popular media is usually reduced to sun sign astrology, physical or mental illnesses, and predict natural disasters. which considers only the zodiac sign of the Sun at an inThis underpinned a system in which everything —peo- dividual's date of birth, and represents only 1/12 of the ple, the world, the universe—was understood to be inter- total chart.* [88] connected, and astrology co-existed happily with religion, The horoscope visually expresses the set of relationships magic and science.* [77] for the time and place of the chosen event. These relationships are between the seven 'planets', signifying ten22.2.6 Enlightenment period and onwards dencies such as war and love; the twelve signs of the zodiac; and the twelve houses. Each planet is in a parDuring The Enlightenment, intellectual sympathy for as- ticular sign and a particular house at the chosen time, trology fell away, leaving only a popular following sup- when observed from the chosen place, creating two kinds ported by cheap almanacs.* [78] One English almanac of relationship.* [89] A third kind is the aspect of each compiler, Richard Saunders, followed the spirit of the planet to every other planet, where for example two planage by printing a derisive Discourse on the Invalidity of ets 120° apart (in 'trine') are in a harmonious relationship, Astrology, while in France Pierre Bayle's Dictionnaire of but two planets 90° apart ('square') are in a conflicted 1697 stated that the subject was puerile.* [78] The Anglo- relationship.* [90]* [91] Together these relationships and Irish satirist Jonathan Swift ridiculed the Whig political their interpretations supposedly form "...the language of astrologer John Partridge.* [78] the heavens speaking to learned men.”* [89]

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Along with tarot divination, astrology is one of the core studies of Western esotericism, and as such has influenced systems of magical belief not only among Western esotericists and Hermeticists, but also belief systems such as Wicca that have borrowed from or been influenced by the Western esoteric tradition. Tanya Luhrmann has said that “all magicians know something about astrology,” and refers to a table of correspondences in Starhawk's The Spiral Dance, organised by planet, as an example of the astrological lore studied by magicians.* [92]

Varaha Mihira's texts are considered conclusive evidence of a Greek origin for Hindu astrology.* [97] The Indian techniques may also have been augmented with some of the Babylonian techniques.* [98]* :231

22.3.3 Chinese and East-Asian For more details on this topic, see Chinese astrology and Chinese zodiac.

Chinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese philosophy (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth and man) and uses concepts such as yin and yang, the Five Main article: Hindu astrology phases, the 10 Celestial stems, the 12 Earthly Branches, The earliest Vedic text on astronomy is the Vedanga Jy- and shichen (時辰 a form of timekeeping used for religious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrology was mainly confined to political astrology, the observation of unusual phenomena, identification of portents and the selection of auspicious days for events and decisions.* [27]* :22,85,176

22.3.2

Hindu

The constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Europe were not used; instead the sky is divided into Three Enclosures (三垣 sān yuán), and Twenty-eight Mansions (二十八宿 èrshíbā xiù) in twelve Ci (十二次).* [99] The Chinese zodiac of twelve animal signs is said to represent twelve different types of personality. It is based on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and the cycle proceeds through 11 other animals signs: the Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.* [100] Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as ziping and Zi Wei Dou Shu (simplified Chinese: 紫微斗数; traditional Chinese: 紫微斗數; pinyin: zǐwēidǒushù) are still used regularly in modern-day Chinese astrology. They do not rely on direct observations of the stars.* [101]

Page from an Indian astrological treatise, c. 1750

otisha; Vedic thought later came to include astrology as well.* [93]

The Korean zodiac is identical to the Chinese one. The Vietnamese zodiac is almost identical to Chinese zodiac except the second animal is the Water Buffalo instead of the Ox, and the fourth animal is the Cat instead of the Rabbit. The Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the beginning of the new year on 1 January as per the Gregorian Calendar. The Thai zodiac begins, not at Chinese New Year, but either on the first day of fifth month in the Thai lunar calendar, or during the Songkran festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use.* [102]

Hindu natal astrology originated with Hellenistic astrology by the 3rd century BCE,* [94]* :361* [95] though incorporating the Hindu lunar mansions.* [96] The names of the signs (e.g. Greek 'Krios' for Aries, Hindi 'Kriya'), 22.4 Theological viewpoints the planets (e.g. Greek 'Helios' for Sun, astrological Hindi 'Heli'), and astrological terms (e.g. Greek 'apok- See also: Christian views on astrology, Jewish views on lima' and 'sunaphe' for declination and planetary con- astrology and Muslim views on astrology junction, Hindi 'apoklima' and 'sunapha' respectively) in

22.5. SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS AND CRITICISM

22.4.1

Ancient

St. Augustine (354–430) believed that the determinism of astrology conflicted with the Christian doctrines of man's free will and responsibility, and God not being the cause of evil,* [103] but he also grounded his opposition philosophically, citing the failure of astrology to explain twins who behave differently although conceived at the same moment and born at approximately the same time.* [104]

22.4.2

253 the dead or other practices falsely supposed to “unveil”the future. Consulting horoscopes, astrology, palm reading, interpretation of omens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoyance, and recourse to mediums all conceal a desire for power over time, history, and, in the last analysis, other human beings, as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers. They contradict the honor, respect, and loving fear that we owe to God alone.* [110] —Catechism of the Catholic Church

Medieval

Some of the practices of astrology were contested on the22.5 Scientific analysis and critiological grounds by medieval Muslim astronomers such cism as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) and Avicenna. They said that the methods of astrologers conflicted with orthodox religious views of Islamic schol- Main article: Astrology and science ars, by suggesting that the Will of God can be known The scientific community rejects astrology as having and predicted in advance.* [105] For example, Avicenna's 'Refutation against astrology', Risāla fī ibṭāl aḥkām alnojūm, argues against the practice of astrology while supporting the principle that planets may act as agents of divine causation. Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the possibility of determining the exact influence of the stars.* [106] Essentially, Avicenna did not deny the core dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and fatalistic predictions could be made from it.* [107] Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, also used physical arguments in astronomy to question the practice of judicial astrology.* [108] He recognised that the stars are much larger than the planets, and argued: And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]?

—Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya* [108]

Popper proposed falsifiability as something that distinguishes science from non-science, using astrology as the example of an idea that has not dealt with falsification during experiment

no explanatory power for describing the universe, and consider it a pseudoscience.* [15]* [16]* [17]* :1350 Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and The Catechism of the Catholic Church maintains that no evidence has been found to support any of the divination, including predictive astrology, is incompat- premises or purported effects outlined in astrological ible with modern Catholic beliefs* [109] such as free traditions.* [11]* :424;* [111]* [112] There is no proposed will:* [104] mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events All forms of divination are to be rejected: on Earth that does not contradict well understood, barecourse to Satan or demons, conjuring up sic aspects of biology and physics.* [8]* :249;* [9] Those

22.4.3

Modern

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who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so "...in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary.”* [113] It has also been shown that confirmation bias is a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology.* [114]* :344;* [115]* :180–181;* [116]* :42–48 Confirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias.* [loweralpha 1]* [117]* :553 According to available literature, astrology believers tend to selectively remember predictions that turn out to be true, and do not remember those that turn out false. Another, separate, form of confirmation bias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not.* [115]* :180–181 Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief.* [115]* :180–181

22.5.1

Demarcation

Under the criterion of falsifiability, first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper, astrology is a pseudoscience.* [118] Popper regarded astrology as“pseudoempirical”in that“it appeals to observation and experiment,”but “nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards.”* [119]* :44 In contrast to scientific disciplines, astrology has not responded to falsification through experiment.* [120]* :206 In contrast to Popper, the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific, but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non-empirical.* [121]* :401 Kuhn thought that, though astrologers had, historically, made predictions that categorically failed, this in itself does not make it unscientific, nor do attempts by astrologers to explain away failures by claiming that creating a horoscope is very difficult. Rather, in Kuhn's eyes, astrology is not science because it was always more akin to medieval medicine; they followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings, but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research,* [122]* :8 and so “they had no puzzles to solve and therefore no science to practise.” * [121]* :401;* [122]* :8 While an astronomer could correct for failure, an astrologer could not. An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way. As such, to Kuhn, even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life astrology is not scientific.* [122]* :8

ing to compare the current theory to alternatives, and not be“selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations.”* [13]* :227–228 Progress is defined here as explaining new phenomena and solving existing problems, yet astrology has failed to progress having only changed little in nearly 2000 years.* [13]* :228* [123]* :549 To Thagard, astrologers are acting as though engaged in normal science believing that the foundations of astrology were well established despite the “many unsolved problems,” and in the face of better alternative theories (psychology). For these reasons Thagard views astrology as pseudoscience.* [13]* [123]* :228 For the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments, but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning.* [124]* :34 What if throughout astrological writings we meet little appreciation of coherence, blatant insensitivity to evidence, no sense of a hierarchy of reasons, slight command over the contextual force of critieria, stubborn unwillingless to pursue an argument where it leads, stark naivete concerning the effiacacy of explanation and so on? In that case, I think, we are perfectly justified in rejecting astrology as irrational. ... Astrology simply fails to meet the multifarious demands of legitimate reasoning.”

—Edward W. James* [124]* :34

22.5.2 Effectiveness Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity.* [6]* :85;* [11] Where it has made falsifiable predictions under controlled conditions, they have been falsified.* [11]* :424 One famous experiment included 28 astrologers who were asked to match over a hundred natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) questionnaire.* [125]* [126] The double-blind experimental protocol used in this study was agreed upon by a group of physicists and a group of astrologers* [11] nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research, who advised the experimenters, helped ensure that the test was fair* [10]* :420;* [126]* :117 and helped draw the central proposition of natal astrology to be tested.* [10]* :419 They also chose 26 out of the 28 astrologers for the tests (two more volunteered afterwards).* [10]* :420 The study, published in Nature in 1985, found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance, and that the testing "...clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis.”* [10]

The philosopher Paul Thagard asserts that astrology cannot be regarded as falsified in this sense until it has been replaced with a successor. In the case of predicting behaviour, psychology is the alternative.* [13]* :228 To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of science from pseudoscience is that the state-of-the-art must progress and that the community of researchers should be attempt- In 1955, astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin

22.6. CULTURAL IMPACT stated that though he had failed to find evidence that supported indicators like zodiacal signs and planetary aspects in astrology, he did find positive correlations between the diurnal positions of some planets and success in professions that astrology traditionally associates with those planets.* [127]* [128] The best-known of Gauquelin's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the natal charts of successful athletes and became known as the Mars effect.* [129]* :213 A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim, but found no statistical evidence.* [129]* :213–214 They attributed the effect to selective bias on Gauquelin's part, accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add or delete names from their study.* [130] Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin. The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession. The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common. Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations, where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information. The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower, indicating more evidence that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs.* [126]* :116 Dean, a scientist and former astrologer, and psychologist Ivan Kelly conducted a large scale scientific test that involved more than one hundred cognitive, behavioural, physical, and other variables —but found no support for astrology.* [131]* [132] Furthermore, a meta-analysis pooled 40 studies that involved 700 astrologers and over 1,000 birth charts. Ten of the tests—which involved 300 participants—had the astrologers pick the correct chart interpretation out of a number of others that were not the astrologically correct chart interpretation (usually three to five others). When date and other obvious clues were removed, no significant results suggested there was any preferred chart.* [132]* :190

22.5.3

255 from earth, of a large but distant planet such as Jupiter is far smaller than that produced by ordinary household appliances.* [134]* [135] Western astrology has taken the earth's axial precession (also called precession of the equinoxes) into account since Ptolemy's Almagest, so the 'first point of Aries', the start of the astrological year, continually moves against the background of the stars.* [136] The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign, astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations.* [137] Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being "...empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars.”* [137] Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, by the same astrologers, to the Age of Aquarius, which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius.* [11] Astrologers usually have only a small knowledge of astronomy, and often do not take into account basic principles —such as the precession of the equinoxes, which changes the position of the sun with time. They commented on the example of Elizabeth Teissier, who claimed that, “The sun ends up in the same place in the sky on the same date each year,”as the basis for claims that two people with the same birthday, but a number of years apart, should be under the same planetary influence.

Charpak and Broch noted that,“There is a difference of about twenty-two thousand miles between Earth's location on any specific date in two successive years,”and that thus they should not be under the same influence according to astrology. Over a 40 years period there would be a difference greater than 780,000 miles.* [137]* :6–7

22.6 Cultural impact 22.6.1 Western politics and society

Lack of mechanisms and consis- In the West, political leaders have sometimes consulted astrologers. Louis de Wohl worked as an astrologer for tency the British intelligence agency MI5, after claims surfaced

Testing the validity of astrology can be difficult, because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict.* [6]* :83 Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person's personality and life, but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone.* [6]* [116]* :83 Many astrologers claim that astrology is scientific,* [133] while some have proposed conventional causal agents such as electromagnetism and gravity.* [133]* [134] Scientists reject these mechanisms as implausible* [133] since, for example, the magnetic field, when measured

that Adolf Hitler used astrology to time his actions. The War Office was "...interested to know what Hitler's own astrologers would be telling him from week to week.” * [138] In fact, de Wohl's predictions were so inaccurate that he was soon labelled a “complete charlatan,” and later evidence showed that Hitler considered astrology“complete nonsense.”* [139] After John Hinckley's attempted assassination of US President Ronald Reagan, first lady Nancy Reagan commissioned astrologer Joan Quigley to act as the secret White House astrologer. However, Quigley's role ended in 1988 when it became public through the memoirs of former chief of staff, Donald Regan.* [140]

256

CHAPTER 22. ASTROLOGY

30 Births Deaths 25

Rates per thousand

There was a boom in interest in astrology in the late 1960s. The sociologist Marcello Truzzi described three levels of involvement of“Astrology-believers”to account for its revived popularity in the face of scientific discrediting. He found that most astrology-believers did not claim it was a scientific explanation with predictive power. Instead, those superficially involved, knowing “next to nothing”about astrology's 'mechanics', read newspaper astrology columns, and could benefit from “tensionmanagement of anxieties”and“a cognitive belief-system that transcends science.”* [141] Those at the second level usually had their horoscopes cast and sought advice and predictions. They were much younger than those at the first level, and could benefit from knowledge of the language of astrology and the resulting ability to belong to a coherent and exclusive group. Those at the third level were highly involved and usually cast horoscopes for themselves. Astrology provided this small minority of astrology-believers with a "meaningful view of their universe and [gave] them an understanding of their place in it.”* [lower-alpha 2] This third group took astrology seriously, possibly as a sacred canopy, whereas the other two groups took it playfully and irreverently.* [141]

20

15

10

5

0 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2008

Birth (in blue) and death (in red) rates of Japan since 1950, with the sudden drop in births during hinoeuma year (1966)

enced by astrology.* [149] It is still considered a branch of the Vedanga.* [150]* [151] In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into astrology,* [152] resulting in permission for Indian universities to offer courses in Vedic astrology.* [153]

On February 2011, the Bombay High Court reaffirmed astrology's standing in India when it dismissed a case that In 1953, sociologist Theodor W. Adorno conducted a challenged its status as a science.* [154] study of the astrology column of a Los Angeles newspaper as part of a project examining mass culture in In Japan, strong belief in astrology has led to dramatic capitalist society.* [142]* :326 Adorno believed that pop- changes in the fertility rate and the number of abortions ular astrology, as a device, invariably leads to state- in the years of Fire Horse. Adherents believe that women ments that encouraged conformity—and that astrologers born in hinoeuma years are unmarriageable and bring bad who go against conformity, by discouraging performance luck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number of at work etc., risk losing their jobs.* [142]* :327 Adorno babies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parents concluded that astrology was a large-scale manifestation tried to avoid the stigma of having a daughter born in the of systematic irrationalism, where individuals are subtly hinoeuma year.* [155]* [156] led—through flattery and vague generalisations—to believe that the author of the column is addressing them directly.* [143] Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase 22.6.3 Literature and music opium of the people, by Karl Marx, by commenting,“occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes.”* [142]* :329 The fourteenth-century English poets John Gower A 2005 Gallup poll and a 2009 survey by the Pew Research Center reported that 25% of US adults believe in astrology.* [144]* [145] According to data released in the National Science Foundation's 2014 Science and Engineering Indicators study, “Fewer Americans rejected astrology in 2012 than in recent years.”* [146] The NSF study noted that in 2012, “slightly more than half of Americans said that astrology was 'not at all scientific,' whereas nearly two-thirds gave this response in 2010.

The comparable percentage has not been this low since 1983.”* [146]

22.6.2

India and Japan

In India, there is a long-established and widespread belief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, particularly in matters concerning marriage and career, and makes extensive use of electional, horary and karmic astrology.* [147]* [148] Indian politics have also been influ-

and Geoffrey Chaucer both referred to astrology in their works, including Gower's Confessio Amantis and Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.* [157] Chaucer commented explicitly on astrology in his Treatise on the Astrolabe, demonstrating personal knowledge of one area, judicial astrology, with an account of how to find the ascendant or rising sign.* [158] In the fifteenth century, references to astrology, such as with similes, became “a matter of course”in English literature.* [157] In the sixteenth century, John Lyly's 1597 play, The Woman in the Moon, is wholly motivated by astrology,* [159] while Christopher Marlowe makes astrological references in his plays Doctor Faustus and Tamburlaine (both c. 1590),* [159] and Sir Philip Sidney refers to astrology at least four times in his romance The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (c. 1580).* [159] Edmund Spenser uses astrology both decoratively and causally in his poetry, revealing "...unmistakably an abid-

22.7. SEE ALSO

257

Title page of Calderón de la Barca's Astrologo Fingido, Madrid, 1641

Title page of John Lyly's astrological play, The Woman in the Moon, 1597

is the orchestral suite The Planets. Written by the British composer Gustav Holst (1874–1934), and first performed in 1918, the framework of The Planets is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets.* [163] Each of the seven movements of the suite is based upon a different planet, though the movements are not in the order of the planets from the Sun. The composer Colin Matthews wrote an eighth movement entitled Pluto, the Renewer, first performed in 2000.* [164] In 1937, another British composer, Constant Lambert, wrote a ballet on astrological themes, called Horoscope.* [165] In 1974, the New Zealand composer Edwin Carr wrote The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment for orchestra without strings.* [166] Camille Paglia acknowledges astrology as an influence on her work of literary criticism Sexual Personae (1990).* [167]

ing interest in the art, an interest shared by a large number of his contemporaries.”* [159] George Chapman's play, Byron's Conspiracy (1608), similarly uses astrology as a causal mechanism in the drama.* [160] William Shakespeare's attitude towards astrology is unclear, with contradictory references in plays including King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra, and Richard II.* [160] Shakespeare was familiar with astrology and made use of his knowledge of astrology in nearly every play he wrote,* [160] assuming a basic familiarity with the subject in his commercial audience.* [160] Outside theatre, the physician and mystic Robert Fludd practised astrology, as did the quack doctor Simon Forman.* [160] In Elizabethan England,“The Luusual feeling about astrology ... [was] that it is the most Astrology features strongly in Eleanor Catton's The * minaries, recipient of the 2013 Man Booker Prize.

[168] * useful of the sciences.” [160] In seventeenth century Spain, Lope de Vega, with a detailed knowledge of astronomy, wrote plays that ridicule astrology. In his pastoral romance La Arcadia (1598), it leads to absurdity; in his novela Guzman el Bravo (1624), he concludes that the stars were made for man, not man for the stars.* [161] Calderón de la Barca wrote the 1641 comedy Astrologo Fingido (The Pretended Astrologer); the plot was borrowed by the French playwright Thomas Corneille for his 1651 comedy Feint Astrologue.* [162] The most famous piece of music influenced by astrology

22.7 See also • Barnum effect • List of astrological traditions, types, and systems • List of topics characterized as pseudoscience

258

CHAPTER 22. ASTROLOGY

22.8 Notes [1] see Heuristics in judgement and decision making [2] Italics in original.

22.9 References [1] “astrology”. Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 11 December 2015.

[2] “astrology”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. MerriamWebster Inc. Retrieved 11 December 2015.

[3] “Wordnik, astrology”.

[4] Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2008). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. p.

57.

[5] Koch-Westenholz, Ulla (1995). Mesopotamian astrology: an introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian celestial divination. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp.

Foreword, 11. ISBN 978-87-7289-287-0.

[6] Jeffrey Bennett, Megan Donohue, Nicholas Schneider, Mark Voit (2007). The cosmic perspective (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. pp. 82–84.

ISBN 0-8053-9283-1.

[7] Kassell, Lauren (5 May 2010). “Stars, spirits, signs: towards a history of astrology 1100–1800”. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 41 (2): 67–69. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2010.04.001.

[8] Vishveshwara, edited by S.K. Biswas, D.C.V. Mallik, C.V. (1989). Cosmic Perspectives: Essays Dedicated to the Memory of M.K.V. Bappu (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-34354-2.

[9] Peter D. Asquith, ed. (1978). Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 1.

Dordrecht u.a.: Reidel u.a. ISBN 978-0-917586-05-7.

• “Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding”. science and engineering indicators 2006. National Science Foundation.

Retrieved 28 July 2012. About three-fourths of Americans hold at least one pseudoscientific belief; i.e., they believed in at least 1 of the 10 survey items[29]"... " Those 10 items were extrasensory perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts/that spirits of dead people can come back in certain places/situations, telepathy/communication between minds without using traditional senses, clairvoyance/the power of the mind to know the past and predict the future, astrology/that the position of the stars and planets can affect people's lives, that people can communicate mentally with someone who has died, witches, reincarnation/the rebirth of the soul in a new body after death, and channeling/allowing a “spirit-being”to temporarily assume control of a body.

[10] Carlson, Shawn (1985). “A double-blind test of astrology” (PDF). Nature 318 (6045): 419–425.

Bibcode:1985Natur.318..419C. doi:10.1038/318419a0.

[11] Zarka, Philippe (2011). “Astronomy and astrology” . Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5 (S260): 420–425. doi:10.1017/S1743921311002602.

[12] David E. Pingree, Robert Andrew Gilbert. “Astrology Astrology in modern times”. Encyclopædia Britannica.

Retrieved 7 October 2012.

[13] Thagard, Paul R. (1978). “Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience” (PDF). Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association (The University of Chicago Press) 1: 223–234.

[14] Astrology. Encyclopædia Britannica.

[15] Sven Ove Hansson, Edward N. Zalta. “Science and Pseudo-Science”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Retrieved 6 July 2012.

[16] “Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List”. Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

[17] Hartmann, P.; Reuter, M.; Nyborga, H. (May 2006).

“The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A largescale study”. Personality and Individual Differences 40 (7): 1349–1362. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017. To optimise the chances of finding even remote relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g. month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudoscientific) concept of astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book Astrology: Science or superstition? by Eysenck and Nias (1982).

[18] Harper, Douglas. “astrology”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 6 December 2011. Differentiation between astrology and astronomy began late 1400s and by 17c. this word was limited to “reading influences of the stars and their effects on human destiny.”

[19] “astrology, n.”. Oxford English Dictionary (Second ed.).

Oxford University Press. September 2011. In Old French and Middle English astronomie seems to be the earlier and general word, astrologie having been subseq. introduced for the 'art' or practical application of astronomy to mundane affairs, and thus gradually limited by 17th cent. to the reputed influences of the stars, unknown to science.

Not in Shakespeare.

[20] Campion, Nicholas (2009). History of western astrology.

Volume II, The medieval and modern worlds. (first ed.).

Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-8129-9.

[21] Marshack, Alexander (1991). The roots of civilization : the cognitive beginnings of man's first art, symbol and notation (Rev. and expanded ed.). Moyer Bell. ISBN 9781-55921-041-6.

22.9. REFERENCES

[22] Evelyn-White, Hesiod ; with an English translation by Hugh G. (1977). The Homeric hymns and Homerica (Reprinted ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 663–677. ISBN 978-0-674-99063-0. Fifty days after the solstice, when the season of wearisome heat is come to an end, is the right time to go sailing. Then you will not wreck your ship, nor will the sea destroy the sailors, unless Poseidon the Earth-Shaker be set upon it, or Zeus, the king of the deathless gods [23] Aveni, David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone (2005). Exploring ancient skies an encyclopedic survey of archaeoastronomy (Online ed.). New York: Springer. p. 268. ISBN 978-0-387-95310-6.

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[45] Parker, 1983. p. 16.

[46] Juvenal, Satire 6: The Ways of Women (translated by G. G. Ramsay, 1918, retrieved 5 July 2012).

[47] Barton, 1994. p. 43.

[48] Barton, 1994. p. 63.

[49] David Pingree, Jyotiḥśāstra (J. Gonda (Ed.) A History of Indian Literature, Vol VI Fasc 4), p.81 [50] Ayduz, Salim; Kalin, Ibrahim; Dagli, Caner (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 64.

[24] Russell Hobson, THE EXACT TRANSMISSION OF TEXTS IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C.E., Published PhD Thesis. Department of Hebrew, Biblical and Jewish Studies. University of Sydney. 2009 PDF File

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[52] Houlding, Deborah (2010). “6: Historical sources and traditional approaches”. Essays on the History of Western Astrology. STA. pp. 2–7.

[26] Rochberg-Halton, F. (1988). “Elements of the Babylonian Contribution to Hellenistic Astrology”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 108 (1): 51–62. doi:10.2307/603245. JSTOR 603245.

[27] Kistemaker, Jacob, Sun, Xiaochun (1997). The Chinese sky during the Han: constellating stars and society. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10737-3.

[28] Long, 2005. p. 173.

[29] Long, 2005. pp. 173–174.

[30] Long, 2005. p. 177.

[31] Long, 2005. p. 174.

[32] Long, 2005. p. 184.

[33] Long, 2005. p. 186.

[34] Hughes, Richard (2004). Lament, Death, and Destiny.

Peter Lang. p. 87.

[35] Barton, 1994. p. 24.

[36] Holden, 1996. pp. 11–13.

[37] Barton, 1994. p. 20.

[38] Robbins, 1940. 'Introduction' p. xii.

[39] Campion, 2008. p. 173.

[40] Campion, 2008. p. 84.

[41] Campion, 2008. pp. 173–174.

[42] Barton, 1994. p. 32.

[43] Barton, 1994. p. 32–33.

[44] Campion, 2008. pp. 227–228.

[53] Campion, 1982. p. 44.

[54] Campion, 1982. p. 45.

[55] Campion, 1982. p. 46.

[56] North, John David (1986). “The eastern origins of the Campanus (Prime Vertical) method. Evidence from alBīrūnī". Horoscopes and history. Warburg Institute. pp.

175–176.

[57] Durling, Robert M. (January 1997). “Dante's Christian Astrology. by Richard Kay. Review”. Speculum 72 (1): 185–187. doi:10.2307/2865916. JSTOR 2865916.

Dante's interest in astrology has only slowly been gaining the attention it deserves. In 1940 Rudolf Palgen published his pioneering eighty-page Dantes Sternglaube: Beiträge zur Erklärung des Paradiso, which concisely surveyed Dante's treatment of the planets and of the sphere of fixed stars; he demonstrated that it is governed by the astrological concept of the “children of the planets”(in each sphere the pilgrim meets souls whose lives reflected the dominant influence of that planet) and that in countless details the imagery of the Paradiso is derived from the astrological tradition. ... Like Palgen, he [Kay] argues (again, in more detail) that Dante adapted traditional astrological views to his own Christian ones; he finds this process intensified in the upper heavens.

[58] Woody, Kennerly M. (1977). “Dante and the Doctrine of the Great Conjunctions”. Dante Studies, with the Annual Report of the Dante Society 95: 119–134.

JSTOR 40166243. It can hardly be doubted, I think, that Dante was thinking in astrological terms when he made his prophecies. [The attached footnote cites Inferno. I, lOOff.; Purgatorio. xx, 13-15 and xxxiii, 41; Paradiso. xxii, 13-15 and xxvii, 142-148.]

[59] Wood, 1970. p. 5 [60] Isidore of Seville (c. 600). Etymologiae. pp. L, 82, col.

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[61] Gower, John (1390). Confessio Amantis. pp. VII, 670– 84. Assembled with Astronomie / Is ek that ilke Astrologie / The which in juggementz acompteth / Theffect, what every sterre amonteth, / And hou thei causen many a wonder / To tho climatz that stonde hem under.

[62] Wood, 1970. p. 6 [63] Allen, Don Cameron (1941). Star-crossed Renaissance.

Duke University Press. p. 148.

[64] Wood, 1970. pp. 8–11 [65] Coopland, G. W. (1952). Nicole Oresme and the Astrologers: A Study of his Livre de Divinacions. Harvard University Press; Liverpool University Press.

[66] Vanderjagt, A.J. (1985). Laurens Pignon, O.P.: Confessor of Philip the Good. Venlo, The Netherlands: Jean Mielot.

[67] Veenstra, 1997. pp. 5, 32, passim [68] Veenstra, 1997. p. 184 [69] Campion, 1982. p. 47.

[70] Rabin, Sheila J. (2010). “Pico and the historiography of Renaissance astrology”. Explorations in Renaissance Culture. Retrieved 10 February 2016.

[71] Harkness, Deborah E. (2007). The Jewel House. Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution. Yale University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-300-14316-4.

[72] Harkness, Deborah E. (2007). The Jewel House. Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution. Yale University Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-300-14316-4.

[73] Astronomical diagrams by Thomas Hood, Mathematician (Vellum, in oaken cases). British Library (Add. MSS. 71494, 71495): British Library. c. 1597.

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[76] Cummins A (2012) The Starry Rubric: SeventeenthCentury English Astrology and Magic, p. 3. France: Hadean Press [77] Cummins A (2012) The Starry Rubric: SeventeenthCentury English Astrology and Magic, p. 43–45. France: Hadean Press [78] Porter, Roy (2001). Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World. Penguin. pp. 151–152. ISBN 0-14-025028-X. he did not even trouble readers with formal disproofs!

[79] Campion, Nicholas (2009). History of western astrology.

Volume II, The medieval and modern worlds. (first ed.).

London: Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-8129-9. At the same time, in Switzerland, the psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) was developing sophisticated theories concerning astrology ...

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[80] Jung, C.G.; Hull. Adler, Gerhard, ed. C.G. Jung Letters: 1906–1950. in collaboration with Aniela Jaffé; translations from the German by R.F.C. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09895-1. Letter from Jung to Freud, 12 June 1911 “I made horoscopic calculations in order to find a clue to the core of psychological truth.”

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248, 256, ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1 [83] The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica,' v.5, 1974, p. 916 [84] Dietrich, Thomas: 'The Origin of Culture and Civilization, Phenix & Phenix Literary Publicists, 2005, p. 305 [85] Philip P. Wiener, ed. in chief (1974). Dictionary of the history of ideas. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-68413293-1.

[86] James R. Lewis, 2003. The Astrology Book: the Encyclopedia of Heavenly Influences. Visible Ink Press. Online at Google Books.

[87] Hone, Margaret (1978). The Modern Text-Book of Astrology. Romford: L. N. Fowler. pp. 21–89. ISBN 0-85243357-3.

[88] Riske, Kris (2007). Llewellyn's Complete Book of Astrology. Minnesota, USA: Llewellyn Publications. pp. 5–6; 27. ISBN 978-0-7387-1071-6.

[89] Kremer, Richard (1990).

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[91] Fenton, Sasha (1991). Rising Signs. Aquarian Press. pp.

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[92] Luhrmann, Tanya (1991). Persuasions of the witch's craft: ritual magic in contemporary England. Harvard University Press. pp. 147–151. ISBN 0-674-66324-1.

[93] Subbarayappa, B. V. (14 September 1989). “Indian astronomy: An historical perspective”. In Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1. In the Vedic literature Jyotis[h]a, which connotes 'astronomy' and later began to encompass astrology, was one of the most important subjects of study... The earliest Vedic astronomical text has the title, Vedanga Jyotis[h]a...

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[98] Pingree, David (June 1963). “Astronomy and Astrology [113] “Objections to Astrology: A Statement by 186 Leading in India and Iran”. Isis. The University of Chicago Press Scientists”. The Humanist, September/October 1975. on behalf of The History of Science Society 54 (2): 229– Archived from the original on 18 March 2009.

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[99] F. Richard Stephenson, “Chinese Roots of Modern As• Bok, Bart J.; Lawrence E. Jerome; Paul Kurtz tronomy”, New Scientist, 26 June 1980. See also 二十八 (1982). “Objections to Astrology: A Statement 宿的形成与演变 by 186 Leading Scientists”. In Patrick Grim. Phi[100] Theodora Lau, The Handbook of Chinese Horoscopes, pp losophy of Science and the Occult. Albany: State 2–8, 30–5, 60–4, 88–94, 118–24, 148–53, 178–84, 208– University of New York Press. pp. 14–18. ISBN 13, 238–44, 270–78, 306–12, 338–44, Souvenir Press, 0-87395-572-2.

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Barnum effect. Named after the 19th-century showman Phileas T. Barnum —whose circus provided “a little [102] "การเปลี่ยนวันใหม่ การนับวัน ทางโหราศาสตร์ไทย something for everyone” —it refers to the idea that people การเปลี่ยนปีนักษัตร โหราศาสตร์ ดูดวง ทำนายทายทัก believe a statement about their personality that is vague ('The transition to the new astrological dates Thailand. or trivial if they think it derives from some systematic Changing zodiac astrology horoscope prediction')". (in procedure tailored especially for them (Dickson & Kelly, Thai) 1985; Furnham & Schofield, 1987; Rogers & Soule, 2009; Wyman & Vyse, 2008). For example, the more [103] Veenstra, J.R. (1997). Magic and Divination at the Courts birth detail is used in an astrological prediction or horoof Burgundy and France: Text and Context of Laurens scope, the more credulous people tend to be (Furnham, Pignon's “Contre les Devineurs”(1411). Brill. pp. 184– 1991). However, confirmation bias means that people do 185. ISBN 978-90-04-10925-4. not tend to pay attention to other information that might disconfirm the credibility of the predictions.

[104] Hess, Peter M.J.; Allen, Paul L. (2007). Catholicism and science (1st ed.). Westport: Greenwood. p. 11. ISBN [115] Nickerson, Raymond S. Nickerson (1998). “Confirma978-0-313-33190-9. tion Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises” . Review of General Psychology. 2 2 (2): 175–220.

[105] Saliba, George (1994b). A History of Arabic Astronomy: doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175.

Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York University Press. pp. 60, 67–69. ISBN 0-8147[116] Eysenck, H.J.; Nias, D.K.B. (1984). Astrology: Science 8023-7. or Superstition?. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. ISBN [106] Catarina Belo, Catarina Carriço Marques de Moura Belo, 0-14-022397-5.

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[117] Gonzalez (1990). Jean-Paul Caverni, Jean-Marc Fabre, 228. Brill, 2007. ISBN 90-04-15587-2.

Michel, ed. Cognitive biases. Amsterdam: North[107] George Saliba, Avicenna: 'viii. Mathematics and PhysHolland. ISBN 0-444-88413-0. ical Sciences'. Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, 2011, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ [118] Stephen Thornton, Edward N. Zalta (older edition).“Karl avicenna-viii Popper”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

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[119] Popper, Karl (2004). Conjectures and Refutations: The [132] Dean G., Kelly, I. W. (2003). “Is Astrology Relevant to Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Reprinted ed.). London: Consciousness and Psi?". Journal of Consciousness StudRoutledge. ISBN 0-415-28594-1. ies 10 (6–7): 175–198.

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[135] editor, Michael Shermer, (2002). The Skeptic encyclopeWright, Peter (1975). “Astrology and Science in dia of pseudoscience. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. Seventeenth-Century England”. Social Studies of Science p. 241. ISBN 1-57607-653-9.

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[136] Tester, 1999. Page 161.

Kuhn, Thomas (1970). Imre Lakatos & Alan Musgrave, ed. Proceedings of the International Colloquium in the Phi- [137] Charpak, Georges; Holland, Henri Broch; translated by losophy of Science [held at Bedford College, Regent's Park, Bart K. (2004). Debunked!: ESP, telekinesis, and other London, from July 11th to 17th 1965] (Reprint ed.). Campseudoscience. Baltimore u.a.9: Johns Hopkins Univ. bridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-09623Press. pp. 6, 7. ISBN 0-8018-7867-5.

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[138] “The Strange Story Of Britain's“State Seer"". The SydHurley, Patrick (2005). A concise introduction to logic (9th ney Morning Herald. 30 August 1952. Retrieved 21 July ed.). Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-58505-1.

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[124] James, Edward W. (1982). Patrick Grim, ed. Philosophy [139] Norton-Taylor, Richard (4 March 2008). “Star turn: asof science and the occult. Albany: State University of New trologer who became SOE's secret weapon against Hitler” York Press. ISBN 0-87395-572-2. . London: The Guardian. Retrieved 21 July 2012.

[125] Muller, Richard (2010).“Web site of Richard A. Muller, [140] Regan, Donald T. (1988). For the record: from Wall Street Professor in the Department of Physics at the University to Washington (first ed.). San Diego: Harcourt Brace Joof California at Berkeley,”. Retrieved 2 August 2011.My vanovich. ISBN 0-15-163966-3. former student Shawn Carlson published in Nature magazine the definitive scientific test of Astrology.

• Quigley, Joan (1990). What does Joan say? : my Maddox, Sir John (1995). “John Maddox, editor of the seven years as White House astrologer to Nancy and science journal Nature, commenting on Carlson's test”.

Ronald Reagan. Secaucus, NJ: Birch Lane Press.

Retrieved 2 August 2011. "... a perfectly convincing and ISBN 1-55972-032-8. lasting demonstration.”

• Gorney, Cynthia (11 May 1988). “The Reagan Chart Watch; Astrologer Joan Quigley, Eye on the [126] Smith, Jonathan C. (2010). Pseudoscience and ExtraorCosmos”. The Washington Post (The Washington dinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Post). Retrieved 17 July 2012.

Toolkit. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-14051-8123-5.

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[141] Truzzi, Marcello (1972).“The Occult Revival as Popular Culture: Some Random Observations on the Old and the Pont, Graham (2004).“Philosophy and Science of Music Nouveau Witch”. The Sociological Quarterly 13 (1): 16– in Ancient Greece”. Nexus Network Journal 6 (1): 17–29.

36. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1972.tb02101.x. JSTOR doi:10.1007/s00004-004-0003-x.

4105818.

Gauquelin, Michel (1955). L'influence des astres: étude [142] Cary J. Nederman and James Wray Goulding (Winter critique et expérimentale. Paris: Éditions du Dauphin.

1981). “Popular Occultism and Critical Social Theory: Carroll, Robert Todd (2003). The Skeptic's Dictionary: Exploring Some Themes in Adorno's Critique of AstrolA Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and ogy and the Occult”. Sociological Analysis 42.

Dangerous Delusions. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 0-471[143] Theodor W. Adorno (Spring 1974). “The Stars Down 27242-6. to Earth: The Los Angeles Times Astrology Column”.

Benski, Claude; et al. (1995). The “Mars Effect: A Telos 1974 (19): 13–90. doi:10.3817/0374019013.

French Test of over 1,000 Sports Champions. with a commentary by Jan Willem Nienhuys. Amherst, NY: [144] Moore, David W. (16 June 2005).“Three in Four Americans Believe in Paranormal”. Gallup.

Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-988-7.

[131] Matthews, Robert (17 August 2003). “Astrologers fail to [145] “Eastern or New Age Beliefs, 'Evil Eye'". Many Ameripredict proof they are wrong”. The Telegraph (London). cans Mix Multiple Faiths. Pew Research Center's Religion Retrieved 13 July 2012. & Public Life Project. 9 December 2009.

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[146] “Science and Engineering Indicators: Chapter 7.Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding”.

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[147] Kaufman, Michael T. (23 December 1998).“BV Raman Dies”. New York Times, 23 December 1998. Retrieved 12 May 2009.

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the Vox Clamantis and the Mirour de l'Omme, that Astrology figures most largely in his works ... Gower's sources on the subject of astrology ... were Albumasar's Introductorium in Astronomiam, the Pseudo-Aristotelian Secretum Secretorum, Brunetto Latini's Trésor, and the Speculum Astronomiae ascribed to Albert the Great.

[158] Wood, 1970. pp.12–21 [148] Dipankar Das, May 1996. “Fame and Fortune”. Re[159] De Lacy, Hugh (October 1934). “Astrology in the Potrieved 12 May 2009. etry of Edmund Spenser”. The Journal of English and [149] “Soothsayers offer heavenly help”. BBC News. 2 Germanic Philology 33 (4): 520–543. JSTOR 27703949.

September 1999. Retrieved 21 July 2012.

[160] Camden, Carroll, Jr. (April 1933). “Astrology in Shakespeare's Day”. Isis 19 (1): 26–73. doi:10.1086/346721.

[150]“In countries such as India, where only a small intellecJSTOR 225186. tual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences.”David Pingree and Robert Gilbert, “Astrol- [161] Halstead, Frank G. (July 1939). “The Attitude of Lope de Vega toward Astrology and Astronomy”. Hispanic ogy; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times”.

Review 7 (3): 205–219.

Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008 [151] Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? Indian Journal of Medical Ethics October–December 2001 9(4) [152] “Indian Astrology vs Indian Science”. BBC. 31 May 2001.

[162] Steiner, Arpad (August 1926). “Calderon's Astrologo Fingido in France”. Modern Philology 24 (1): 27–30.

[163] Campion, Nicholas.:A History of Western Astrology: Volume II: The Medieval and Modern Worlds. (Continuum Books, 2009) pp. 244–245 ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1

[153] “Guidelines for Setting up Departments of Vedic As- [164] Adams, Noah (10 September 2006). "'Pluto the Renewer' trology in Universities Under the Purview of University is no swan song”. National Public Radio (NPR). ReGrants Commission”. Government of India, Departtrieved 13 June 2013. ment of Education. Archived from the original on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011. There is an urgent need [165] Vaughan, David (2004). “Frederick Ashton and His Balto rejuvenate the science of Vedic Astrology in India, to lets 1938”. Ashton Archive. Retrieved 13 June 2013. allow this scientific knowledge to reach to the society at large and to provide opportunities to get this important [166] “The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment”.

Centre for New Zealand Music. Retrieved 13 June 2013. science even exported to the world, [154] 'Astrology is a science: Bombay HC', The Times of India, [167] Paglia, Camille. Sex, Art, and American Culture: Essays.

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3 February 2011 [155] Japanese childrearing: two generations of scholarship. [168] Catton, Eleanor. “Eleanor Catton on how she wrote The Luminaries”. The Guardian. Retrieved 10 December 1996. Retrieved 22 July 2012.

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[157] Wedel, Theodore Otto (2003) [1920]. “9: Astrology in Gower and Chaucer”. Mediæval Attitude Toward Astrology, Particularly in England. Kessinger. pp. 131– 156. The literary interest in astrology, which had been on the increase in England throughout the fourteenth century, culminated in the works of Gower and Chaucer. Although references to astrology were already frequent in the romances of the fourteenth century, these still retained the signs of being foreign importations. It was only in the fifteenth century that astrological similes and embellishments became a matter of course in the literature of England.

Such innovations, one must confess, were due far more to Chaucer than to Gower. Gower, too, saw artistic possibilities in the new astrological learning, and promptly used these in his retelling of the Alexander legend—but he confined himself, for the most part, to a bald rehearsal of facts and theories. It is, accordingly, as a part of the long encyclopaedia of natural science that he inserted into his Confessio Amantis, and in certain didactic passages of

22.10 Sources • Barton, Tamsyn (1994). Ancient Astrology. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11029-7.

• Campion, Nicholas (1982). An Introduction to the History of Astrology. ISCWA. • Holden, James Herschel (2006). A History of Horoscopic Astrology (2nd ed.). AFA. ISBN 0-86690463-8.

• Kay, Richard (1994). Dante's Christian Astrology.

Middle Ages Series. University of Pennsylvania Press.

• Long, A.A. (2005). “6: Astrology: arguments pro and contra”. In Barnes, Jonathan; Brunschwig, J. Science and Speculation. Cambridge University Press. pp. 165–191.

264 • Parker, Derek; Parker, Julia (1983). A history of astrology. Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-97576-4.

• Robbins, Frank E., ed. (1940). Ptolemy Tetrabiblos.

Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library).

ISBN 0-674-99479-5.

• Tester, S. J. (1999). A History of Western Astrology.

Boydell & Brewer.

• Veenstra, J.R. (1997). Magic and Divination at the Courts of Burgundy and France: Text and Context of Laurens Pignon's“Contre les Devineurs”(1411).

Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10925-4.

• Wedel, Theodore Otto (1920). The Medieval Attitude Toward Astrology: Particularly in England.

Yale University Press.

• Wood, Chauncey (1970). Chaucer and the Country of the Stars: Poetical Uses of Astrological Imagery.

Princeton University Press.

22.11 Further reading • Forer, Bertram R. (January 1949). “The Fallacy of Personal Validation: A Classroom Demonstration of Gullibility”. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 44 (1): 118–123. doi:10.1037/h0059240.

• Osborn, M. (2002). Time and the Astrolabe in The Canterbury Tales. University of Oklahoma Press.

• Thorndike, Lynn (1955). “The True Place of Astrology in the History of Science”. Isis 46 (3): 273. doi:10.1086/348412.

22.12 External links • Astrology at DMOZ • Digital International Astrology Library at International Astrology Research Center • Carl Sagan on Astrology

CHAPTER 22. ASTROLOGY

Chapter 23

Soul For other uses, see Soul (disambiguation). since all bodily goods are dependent on such excellence The soul in many religions, philosophical and mytho- (The Apology 30a–b).

Anima mundi is the concept of a“world soul”connecting all living organisms on the planet.

23.1 Etymology The Modern English word "soul", derived from Old English sáwol, sáwel, was first attested in the 8th-century poem Beowulf v. 2820 and in the Vespasian Psalter 77.50. It is cognate with other German and Baltic terms for the same idea, including Gothic saiwala, Old High German sêula, sêla, Old Saxon sêola, Old Low Franconian sêla, sîla, Old Norse sála and Lithuanian siela. Further etymology of the Germanic word is uncertain. The original concept is meant to be 'coming from or belonging to the sea/lake', because of the German belief in souls being born out of and returning to sacred lakes, Old Saxon sêola (soul) compared to Old Saxon sêo (sea).

The Koine Greek word ψυχή psychē, “life, spirit, consciousness”, is derived from a verb meaning “to cool, to blow”, and hence refers to the breath, as opposed to σῶμα (“soma”), meaning “body”. Psychē occurs juxtaposed to σῶμα, as seen in Matthew 10:28: Image of the soul in the Rosarium philosophorum

—καὶ μὴ φοβεῖσθε ἀπὸ τῶν ἀποκτεννόντων τὸ σῶμα, τὴν δὲ ψυχὴν μὴ δυναμένων ἀποκτεῖναι·

logical traditions, is the incorporeal and immortal essence of a living being.* [1] According to Abrahamic religions, only human beings have immortal souls. For example, the φοβεῖσθε δὲ μᾶλλον τὸν δυνάμενον καὶ ψυχὴν καὶ Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas attributed “soul” σῶμα ἀπολέσαι ἐν γεέννῃ. (anima) to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal.* [2] Other religions (most notably Vulgate: et nolite timere eos qui occidunt corHinduism and Jainism) teach that all biological organisms pus animam autem non possunt occidere sed have souls, while some teach that even non-biological enpotius eum timete qui potest et animam et cortities (such as rivers and mountains) possess souls. This pus perdere in gehennam. latter belief is called animism.* [3] Authorized King James Version (KJV) “And fear not them which kill the body, but are not Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle able to kill the soul: but rather fear him which understood that the psyche (ψυχή) must have a logical is able to destroy both soul and body in hell.” faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. At his defense trial, Socrates even summarized his teaching as nothing other than an exhortation In the Septuagint (LXX), ψυχή translates Hebrew ‫נפש‬ for his fellow Athenians to excel in matters of the psyche nephesh, meaning “life, vital breath”, and specifically 265

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CHAPTER 23. SOUL

refers to a mortal, physical life, but is in English variously translated as “soul, self, life, creature, person, appetite, mind, living being, desire, emotion, passion"; an example can be found in Genesis 1:20: — ‫שרֶץ נ ֶפֶשׁ ַחיָּה‬ ֶ ׁ ‫ַמי ִם‬ ַ ּ ‫וַיֹּאמֶר ֱא ֹלהִים י ְִׁשרְצו ּ ה‬ LXX καὶ ἐποίησεν ὁ θεὸς τὰ κήτη τὰ μεγάλα καὶ πᾶσαν ψυχὴν ζῴων ἑρπετῶν.

Vulgate Creavitque Deus cete grandia, et omnem animam viventem atque motabilem.

KJV“And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth.”

Paul of Tarsus used ψυχή and πνεῦμα specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of ‫ נפש‬nephesh and ‫ רוח‬ruah (spirit) (also in LXX, e.g. Genesis 1:2 ‫וְרו ּ ַח ֱא ֹלהִים‬ = πνεῦμα θεοῦ = spiritus Dei = “the Spirit of God”).

23.2 Philosophical views The Ancient Greeks used the word“alive”for the concept of being "ensouled", indicating that the earliest surviving Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of western philosophical view believed that the soul was that Athens, a fresco by Raphael. which gave the body life. The soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual“breath”that animates (from the 3. the eros, or epithumetikon (appetitive, desire, or femLatin, anima, cf. “animal”) the living organism. inine) Francis M. Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, The parts are located in different regions of the body: the soul is active and reveals “an award of joy or sorrow * drawing near”in dreams. [4] 1. logos is located in the head, is related to reason and Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre-Pythagorean belief regulates the other part. presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, and that it retired into Hades with no hope of returning to 2. thymos is located near the chest region and is related a body.* [5] to anger.

23.2.1

Socrates and Plato

Main article: The psyche according to Socrates

3. eros is located in the stomach and is related to one's desires.

Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a societal caste system. According to Plato's theory, the three-part soul is essentially the same thing as a state's class system because, to function well, each part must contribute so that the whole functions well. Logos keeps the other functions of the soul regulated.

Drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being. Socrates says that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is continually reborn in subsequent bodies and Plato 23.2.2 Aristotle believed this as well, however, he thought that only one part of the soul was immortal (logos). The Platonic soul Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) defined the soul, or Psūchê (ψυχή), as the "first actuality" of a naturally organized consists of three parts:* [6] body,* [7] and argued against its separate existence from the physical body. In Aristotle's view, the primary ac1. the logos, or logistikon (mind, nous, or reason) tivity, or full actualization, of a living thing constitutes 2. the thymos, or thumetikon (emotion, spiritedness, or its soul. For example, the full actualization of an eye, as masculine) an independent organism, is to see (its purpose or final

23.2. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS

267

cause).* [8] Another example is that the full actualization of a human being would be living a fully functional human life in accordance with reason (which he considered to be a faculty unique to humanity).* [9] For Aristotle, the soul is the organization of the form and matter of a natural being which allows it to strive for its full actualization. This organization between form and matter is necessary for any activity, or functionality, to be possible in a natural being. Using an artifact (non-natural being) as an example, a house is a building for human habituation, but for a house to be actualized requires the material (wood, nails, bricks, etc.) necessary for its actuality (i.e. being a fully functional house). However, this does not imply that a house has a soul. In regards to artifacts, the source of motion that is required for their full actualization is outside of themselves (for example, a builder builds a house). In natural beings, this source of motion is contained within the being itself.* [10] Aristotle elaborates on this point when he addresses the faculties of the soul.

the Scholastics. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul include the idea that the immortality of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill.

In his theory of “The Ten Intellects”, he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final intellect.

Aristotle identified three hierarchical levels of natural beings: plants, animals, and people. For these groups, he identified three corresponding levels of soul, or biological activity: the nutritive activity of growth, sustenance and reproduction which all life shares; the self-willed motive activity and sensory faculties, which only animals and people have in common; and finally“reason”, of which people alone are capable.

marily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul,”and he defined the soul as nothing other than “what a human indicates by saying "I".* [14]

Aristotle's discussion of the soul is in his work, De Anima (On the Soul). Although mostly seen as opposing Plato in regard to the immortality of the soul, a controversy can be found in relation to the fifth chapter of the third book. In this text both interpretations can be argued for, soul as a whole can be deemed mortal and a part called “active intellect”or “active mind”is immortal and eternal.* [11] Advocates exist for both sides of the controversy, but it has been understood that there will be permanent disagreement about its final conclusions, as no other Aristotelian text contains this specific point, and this part of De Anima is obscure.* [12]

23.2.4 Thomas Aquinas

While he was imprisoned, Avicenna wrote his famous “Floating Man”thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantial nature of the soul. He told his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies.

He argues that in this scenario one would still have selfconsciousness. He thus concludes that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. This argument was later refined and simplified by René Descartes in epistemic terms, when he stated: “I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition The various faculties of the soul, such as nutrition, move- of my own consciousness.”* [13] ment (peculiar to animals), reason (peculiar to humans), Avicenna generally supported Aristotle's idea of the soul sensation (special, common, and incidental) and so forth, originating from the heart, whereas Ibn al-Nafis rejected when exercised, constitute the“second”actuality, or ful- this idea and instead argued that the soul “is related to fillment, of the capacity to be alive. For example, some- the entirety and not to one or a few organs". He further one who falls asleep, as opposed to someone who falls criticized Aristotle's idea whereby every unique soul redead, can wake up and live their life, while the latter can quires the existence of a unique source, in this case the no longer do so. heart. al-Nafis concluded that “the soul is related pri-

23.2.3

Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis

Following Aristotle, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Ibn alNafis, a Persian philosopher, further elaborated upon the Aristotelian understanding of the soul and developed their own theories on the soul. They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and the Avicennian doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among

Following Aristotle and Avicenna, Thomas Aquinas (1225–74) understood the soul to be the first actuality of the living body. Consequent to this, he distinguished three orders of life: plants, which feed and grow; animals, which add sensation to the operations of plants; and humans, which add intellect to the operations of animals.

Concerning the human soul, his epistemological theory required that, since the knower becomes what he knows, the soul is definitely not corporeal —if it is corporeal when it knows what some corporeal thing is, that thing would come to be within it.* [15] Therefore, the soul has an operation which does not rely on a body organ, and therefore the soul can exist without a body. Furthermore, since the rational soul of human beings is a subsistent form and not something made of matter and form, it cannot be destroyed in any natural process.* [16] The full argument for the immortality of the soul and Aquinas' elaboration of Aristotelian theory is found in Question 75 of the First Part of the Summa Theologica.

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Immanuel Kant

In his discussions of rational psychology, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) identified the soul as the“I”in the strictest sense, and that the existence of inner experience can neither be proved nor disproved. “We cannot prove a priori the immateriality of the soul, but rather only so much: that all properties and actions of the soul cannot be recognized from materiality”. It is from the “I”, or soul, that Kant proposes transcendental rationalization, but cautions that such rationalization can only determine the limits of knowledge if it is to remain practical.* [17]

23.2.6

lieved to be made up of various elements, some physical and some spiritual.

Similar ideas are found in ancient Assyrian and Babylonian religion. Kuttamuwa, an 8th-century BC royal official from Sam'al, ordered an inscribed stele erected upon his death. The inscription requested that his mourners commemorate his life and his afterlife with feasts “for my soul that is in this stele”. It is one of the earliest references to a soul as a separate entity from the body. The 800-pound (360 kg) basalt stele is 3 ft (0.91 m) tall and 2 ft (0.61 m) wide. It was uncovered in the third season of excavations by the Neubauer Expedition of the Oriental Institute in Chicago, Illinois.* [19]

Philosophy of mind

Main article: Philosophy of mind

23.3.2 Bahá'í

The Bahá'í Faith affirms that “the soul is a sign of God, a heavenly gem whose reality the most learned of men hath failed to grasp, and whose mystery no mind, however acute, can ever hope to unravel”.* [20] Bahá'u'lláh stated that the soul not only continues to live after the physical death of the human body, but is, in fact, immortal.* [21] Heaven can be seen partly as the soul's state of nearness to God; and hell as a state of remoteness from God. Each state follows as a natural consequence of in23.3 Religious views dividual efforts, or the lack thereof, to develop spiritually.* [22] Bahá'u'lláh taught that individuals have no existence prior to their life here on earth and the soul's evo23.3.1 Ancient Near East lution is always towards God and away from the material Main articles: Egyptian soul and Religions of the ancient world.* [22] Near East In the ancient Egyptian religion, an individual was beGilbert Ryle's ghost-in-the-machine argument, which is a rejection of Descartes' mind-body dualism can provide a contemporary understanding of the soul/mind, and the problem concerning its connection to the brain/body.* [18]

23.3.3 Buddhism

Buddhism teaches that all things are in a constant state of flux: all is changing, and no permanent state exists by itself.* [23]* [24] This applies to human beings as much as to anything else in the cosmos. Thus, a human being has no permanent self.* [25]* [26] According to this doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman) – “no-self”or “no soul”– the words“I”or“me”do not refer to any fixed thing. They are simply convenient terms that allow us to refer to an ever-changing entity.* [27]

The souls of Pe and Nekhen towing the royal bargue on a relief of Ramesses II's temple in Abydos.

The anatta doctrine is not a kind of materialism. Buddhism does not deny the existence of “immaterial”entities, and it (at least traditionally) distinguishes bodily states from mental states.* [28] Thus, the conventional translation of anatta as “no-soul”* [29] can be confusing. If the word “soul”simply refers to an incorporeal component in living things that can continue after death, then Buddhism does not deny the existence of the soul.* [30] Instead, Buddhism denies the existence of a permanent entity that remains constant behind the changing corporeal and incorporeal components of a living being. Just as the body changes from moment to moment, so thoughts come and go. And there is no permanent state underlying the mind that experiences these thoughts, as in

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269

Cartesianism. Conscious mental states simply arise and perish with no “thinker”behind them.* [31] When the body dies, Buddhists believe the incorporeal mental processes continue and are reborn in a new body.* [30] Because the mental processes are constantly changing, the being that is reborn is neither entirely different from, nor exactly the same as, the being that died.* [32] However, the new being is continuous with the being that died – in the same way that the “you”of this moment is continuous with the“you”of a moment before, despite the fact that you are constantly changing.* [33] Buddhist teaching holds that a notion of a permanent, abiding self is a delusion that is one of the causes of human conflict on the emotional, social, and political lev- Soul carried to Heaven by William Bouguereau els.* [34]* [35] They add that an understanding of anatta provides an accurate description of the human condition, dualists cannot say what souls are. Souls are immaterial and that this understanding allows us to pacify our munsubjects of mental properties. They have sensations and dane desires. thoughts, desires and beliefs, and perform intentional acVarious schools of Buddhism have differing ideas about tions. Souls are essential parts of human beings”. Acwhat continues after death.* [36] The Yogacara school in cording to a common Christian eschatology, when people Mahayana Buddhism said there are Store consciousness die, their souls will be judged by God and determined to which continue to exist after death.* [37] In some schools, go to Heaven or to Hell. Though all branches of Chrisparticularly Tibetan Buddhism, the view is that there are tianity – Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthothree minds: very subtle mind, which does not disinte- dox, Evangelical and mainline Protestants teach that Jesus grate in death; subtle mind, which disintegrates in death Christ plays a decisive role in the Christian salvation proand which is“dreaming mind”or“unconscious mind"; cess, the specifics of that role and the part played by indiand gross mind, which does not exist when one is sleeping. vidual persons or ecclesiastical rituals and relationships, is Therefore, gross mind less permanent than subtle mind, a matter of wide diversity in official church teaching, thewhich does not exist in death. Very subtle mind, how- ological speculation and popular practice. Some Chrisever, does continue, and when it “catches on”, or coin- tians believe that if one has not repented of one's sins and cides with phenomena, again, a new subtle mind emerges, has not trusted in Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, he/she with its own personality/assumptions/habits, and that en- will go to Hell and suffer eternal damnation or eternal tity experiences karma in the current continuum. separation from God. Some hold a belief that babies (in* Plants were said to be non-sentient (無情), [38] but Bud- cluding the unborn) and those with cognitive or mental dhist monks are required to not cut or burn trees, because impairments who have died will be received into Heaven some sentient beings rely on them.* [39] Some Mahayana on the basis of God's grace through the sacrifice of Jesus. monks said non-sentient beings such as plants and stones Other Christians understand the soul as the life, and behave buddha-nature.* [40]* [41] lieve that the dead are sleeping (Christian conditionalCertain modern Buddhists, particularly in Western coun- ism). This belief is traditionally accompanied by the betries, reject—or at least take an agnostic stance toward the lief that the unrighteous soul will cease to exist instead of concept of rebirth or reincarnation, which they view as suffering eternally (annihilationism). Believers will inincompatible with the concept of anatta. Stephen Batch- herit eternal life either in Heaven, or in a Kingdom of elor discusses this issue in his book Buddhism Without God on earth, and enjoy eternal fellowship with God. Beliefs. Others point to research that has been conducted There are also beliefs in universal salvation. at the University of Virginia as proof that some people are reborn.* [42] Trichotomy of the soul

23.3.4

Christianity

See also: Soul in the Bible Most Christians understand the soul as an ontological reality distinct from, yet integrally connected with, the body. Its characteristics are described in moral, spiritual, and philosophical terms. Richard Swinburne, a Christian philosopher of religion at Oxford University, wrote that “it is a frequent criticism of substance dualism that

Augustine, one of western Christianity's most influential early Christian thinkers, described the soul as “a special substance, endowed with reason, adapted to rule the body”. Some Christians espouse a trichotomic view of humans, which characterizes humans as consisting of a body (soma), soul (psyche), and spirit (pneuma).* [43] However, the majority of modern Bible scholars point out how spirit and soul are used interchangeably in many biblical passages, and so hold to dichotomy: the view that

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CHAPTER 23. SOUL Various denominations The present Catechism of the Catholic Church defines the soul as “the innermost aspect of humans, that which is of greatest value in them, that by which they are in God's image described as 'soul' signifies the spiritual principle in man”.* [48] All souls living and dead will be judged by Jesus Christ when he comes back to earth. The Catholic Church teaches that the existence of each individual soul is dependent wholly upon God: “The doctrine of the faith affirms that the spiritual and immortal soul is created immediately by God.”* [49]

The Damned Soul. Drawing by Michelangelo Buonarroti c.

1525 Depiction of the soul on a 17th-century tombstone at the cemetery of the Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow

each of us is body and soul. Paul said that the“body wars against”the soul,“For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit”(Heb 4:12 NASB),and that “I buffet my body”, to keep it under control. Trichotomy was changed to dichotomy as tenet of Christian faith at the Council of Constantinople in 869 regarded as the 8th Ecumenical Council by Roman Catholics.* [44]

Origin of the soul The 'origin of the soul' has provided a vexing question in Christianity. the major theories put forward include soul creationism, traducianism and pre-existence. According to creationism, each individual soul is created directly by God, either at the moment of conception or some later time. According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to the preexistence theory, the soul exists before the moment of conception. There have been differing thoughts regarding whether human embryos have souls from conception, or there is a point between conception and birth where the fetus acquires a soul, consciousness, and/or personhood.

Stances in this question might more or less influence judgements on the morality of abortion.* [45]* [46]* [47]

Protestants generally believe in the soul's existence, but fall into two major camps about what this means in terms of an afterlife. Some, following Calvin,* [50] believe in the immortality of the soul and conscious existence after death, while others, following Luther,* [51] believe in the mortality of the soul and unconscious “sleep”until the resurrection of the dead.* [52] Various new religious movements derived from Adventism —including Christadelphians,* [53] Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses* [54]* [55] —similarly believe that the dead do not possess a soul separate to the body and are unconscious until the resurrection.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the spirit and body together constitute the Soul of Man (Mankind).“The spirit and the body are the soul of man.”* [56] Latter-Day Saints believe that the soul is the union of a pre-existing, God-made spirit* [57]* [58]* [59] and a temporal body, which is formed by physical conception on earth. After death, the spirit continues to live and progress in the Spirit world until the resurrection, when it is reunited with the body that once housed it. This reuniting of body and spirit results in a perfect soul that is immortal and eternal and capable of receiving a fulness of joy.* [60]* [61] Latter-Day Saint cosmology also describes “intelligences”as the essence of consciousness or agency. These are co-eternal with God, and animate the spirits.* [62] The union of a newly created spirit body with an eternally-existing intelligence constitutes a

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271

“spirit birth”and justifies God's title“Father of our spir- (ananda). Liberation or moksha is liberation from all its”.* [63]* [64]* [65] limiting adjuncts (upadhis) and the unification with Brahman.

23.3.5

Hinduism

Main articles: Ātman (Hinduism) and Jiva In Hinduism, the Sanskrit words most closely corre-

The Mandukya Upanishad verse 7 describes the atman in the following way: “Not inwardly cognitive, not outwardly cognitive, not both-wise cognitive, not a cognition-mass, not cognitive, not noncognitive, unseen, with which there can be no dealing, ungraspable, having no distinctive mark, non-thinkable, that cannot be designated, the essence of the assurance of which is the state of being one with the Self, the cessation of development, tranquil, benign, without a second (a-dvaita)—[such] they think is the fourth. That is the Self. That should be discerned.”

In Bhagavad Gita 2.20 Lord Krishna describes the atman in the following way:* [66] na jayate mriyate va kadacin 'nayam bhutva bhavita va na bhuyah 'ajo nityah sasvato yam purano 'na hanyate hanyamane sarire

Hindu last rites for departed souls

“For the atman there is neither birth nor death at any time.

He has not come into being, does not come into being, and will not come into being. He is unborn, eternal, ever – existing and primeval. He is not slain when the body is slain”. [Translation by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (Srila Prabhupada)]* [67]

sponding to soul are jiva, Ātman and "purusha", meaning the individual self. The term “soul”is misleading as it implies an object possessed, whereas self signifies the subject which perceives all objects. This self is held to be distinct from the various mental faculties such as desires, Srila Prabhupada, a great Vaishnava saint of the modern thinking, understanding, reasoning and self-image (ego), time further explains: “The atman does not take birth all of which are considered to be part of prakriti (nature). there, and the atman does not die... And because the atThe three major schools of Hindu philosophy agree that man has no birth, he therefore has no past, present or fuis, the atman (individual self) is related to Brahman or the ture. He is eternal, ever-existing and primeval – that * there is no trace in history of his coming into being.”

[68] Paramatman, the Absolute Atman or Supreme Self, but they differ in the nature of this relationship. In Advaita Vedanta the individual self and the Supreme Self are one and the same. Dvaita rejects this concept of identity, instead identifying the self as a separate but similar part of Supreme Self (God), that never loses its individual identity. Visishtadvaita takes a middle path and accepts the atman as a “mode”(prakara) or attribute of the Brahman. For an alternative atheistic and dualistic view of the atman in ancient Hindu philosophy, see Samkhya.

Since the quality of Atma is primarily consciousness, all sentient and insentient beings are pervaded by Atma, including plants, animals, humans and gods. The difference between them is the contracted or expanded state of that consciousness. For example, animals and humans share in common the desire to live, fear of death, desire to procreate and to protect their families and territory and the need for sleep, but animals' consciousness is more contracted and has less possibility to expand than does human The atman becomes involved in the process of becoming consciousness. and transmigrating through cycles of birth and death be- When the Atma becomes embodied it is called birth, cause of ignorance of its own true nature. The spiritual when the Aatma leaves a body it is called death. The path consists of self-realization – a process in which one Aatma transmigrates from one body to another body acquires the knowledge of the self (brahma-jñanam) and based on karmic [performed deeds] reactions. through this knowledge applied through meditation and In Hinduism, the Sanskrit word most closely correspondrealization one then returns to the Source which is Brah- ing to soul is Atma, which can mean soul or even God. It man. is seen as the portion of Brahman within us. Hinduism The qualities which are common to both Brahman and at- contains many variant beliefs on the origin, purpose, and mam are being (sat), consciousness (chit), and bliss/love fate of the atma. For example, advaita or non-dualistic

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conception of the aatma accords it union with Brahman, the absolute uncreated (roughly, the Godhead), in eventuality or in pre-existing fact. Dvaita or dualistic concepts reject this, instead identifying the atma as a different and incompatible substance.

1. Liberated Souls- These are souls which have attained (Moksha) and never become part of the life cycle again.

2. Non-Liberated Souls - The Souls of any living being which are stuck in the life cycle of 4 forms Manushya Gati (Human Being), Tiryanch Gati (Any other living being), Dev Gati (Heaven) and Narak Gati (Hell). Till the time the soul is not liberated from the innumerable birth and death cycle, it gets attached to different types of above bodies based on the karma of individual soul. According to Jainism, there is no beginning and end to the existence of soul. It is eternal in nature and changes its form till it attains (Moksha)

There are 25 coverings wrapped on our Atma (Reference Taken from Vaikunta Varnane written by Sanyasi Vadiraja Swami) 1. Iccha avarka, 2. Linga deha, 3.

Avyakta Sharira, 4. Avidya Avarna, 5. Karma avarna, 6. Kama avarna, 7. Jeevacchadaka, 8. Paramacchadaka, 9. Narayana rupa avarna, 10. Vasudeva rupa Avarna, 11.

Sankarshana rupa avarna, 12. Pradhyumna Avarka, 13.

Anniruddha avarka, 14. Anniruddha Sharira, 15. Vasudeva Kavaca, 16. Narayana Kavaca, 17. Anandamaya kosha, 18. Vignanamaya kosha, 19. Manomaya kosha, 20. Vangmaya kosha, 21. Shrotrumaya kosha, 22. Chakshurmaya kosha, 23. Pranamaya kosha, 24. Annamaya Irrespective of which state the soul is in, it has got the same attributes and qualities. The difference between kosha, 25. Gross Body. the liberated and non-liberated souls is that the qualities and attributes are exhibited completely in case of Siddhas (Siddha) as they have overcome all the karmic bondages 23.3.6 Islam whereas in case of non-liberated souls they are partially exhibited.

Further information: Nafs Concerning the Jain view of the soul, Virchand Gandhi quoted“the soul lives its own life, not for the purpose of Islam teaches that the soul is immortal and eternal, and the body, but the body lives for the purpose of the soul. that what a person does is recorded and will be judged at If we believe that the soul is to be controlled by the body the final court of God. They will either go to heaven or then soul misses its power”.* [69] hell, depending on whether or not they did well in the test that was given to them by Allah.

The Qur'an mentions the soul: And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about the soul (Rûh). Say,“The soul (Rûh) is of the affair of my Lord. And mankind have not been given of knowledge except a little.”- Qur'an 17:85

23.3.8 Judaism The fruit of a righteous man is the tree of life, and the wise man acquires ‫ ְנָפׁשֹות‬souls.

Proverbs 11:30

The Hebrew terms ‫ נפש‬nephesh (literally “living being” ), ‫ רוח‬ruach (literally “wind”), ‫ נשמה‬neshama (literIt is Allah that takes the souls at death: and ally “breath”), ‫ חיה‬chaya (literally “life”) and ‫יחידה‬ those that die not (He takes their souls) during yechidah (literally “singularity”) are used to describe their sleep: then those on whom He has passed the soul or spirit. In Judaism the soul is believed to be the Decree of death He keeps back (their souls given by God to a person as mentioned in Genesis,“And from returning to their bodies); but the rest He the LORD God formed man [of] the dust of the ground, sends (their souls back to their bodies) for a and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man term appointed. Verily in this are Signs for became a living being.”Genesis 2:7. Judaism relates the those who contemplate. - Qur'an 39:42 quality of one's soul to one's performance of the commandments, mitzvot, and reaching higher levels of understanding, and thus closeness to God. A person with 23.3.7 Jainism such closeness is called a tzadik. Therefore, Judaism embraces the commemoration of the day of one's death, Main articles: Atman (Jainism) and Jiva nahala/Yahrtzeit and not the birthday* [70] as a festive Further information: Jain philosophy, Jainism and of remembrance, for only toward the end of life's strugnon-creationism and Atma Siddhi gles, tests and challenges human souls could be judged and credited - b'ezrat hashem (“with God's help”) * * places In Jainism every living being, from a plant or a bacterium for righteousness and holiness. [71] [72] Judaism * great importance on the study of the souls.

[73] to human, has a soul and the concept forms the very basis of Jainism. The soul (Atman (Jainism)) is basically For I [Hashem] will not contend forever, neither will I be categorized in two based on its liberation state. wroth to eternity, when a spirit from before Me humbles

23.3. RELIGIOUS VIEWS itself, and ‫רּוַח‬souls [which] I have made.

273

23.3.11 Taoism

Nevi'im, Yeshayahu 57:16

According to Chinese traditions, every person has two Kabbalah and other mystic traditions go into greater detail types of soul called hun and po (魂 and 魄), which are into the nature of the soul. Kabbalah separates the soul respectively yang and yin. Taoism believes in ten souls, into five elements, corresponding to the five worlds: sanhunqipo (三魂七魄) “three hun and seven po".* [78] The pò is linked to the dead body and the grave, whereas the hún is linked to the ancestral tablet. A living being 1. Nephesh, related to natural instinct. that loses any of them is said to have mental illness or 2. Ruach, related to emotion and morality. unconsciousness, while a dead soul may reincarnate to a disability, lower desire realms or may even be unable to 3. Neshamah, related to intellect and the awareness of reincarnate.

God. 4. Chayah, considered a part of God, as it were.

23.3.12 Zoroastrianism

5. Yechidah, also termed the pintele Yid (the“essential [inner] Jew”). This aspect is essentially one with Main article: Zoroastrianism God. Kabbalah also proposed a concept of reincarnation, the gilgul. (See also nefesh habehamit the “animal soul”.) 23.3.13

23.3.9

Other religious beliefs and views

Shamanism

According to Nadya Yuguseva, a shaman from the Altai, "'A woman has 40 souls; men have just one[.]'"* [74]

23.3.10

Sikhism

Sikhism considers Soul (atma) to be part of God (Waheguru). Various hymns are cited from the holy book "Sri Guru Granth Sahib" (SGGS) that suggests this belief.

“God is in the Soul and the Soul is in the God.”* [75] The same concept is repeated at various pages of the SGGS. For example:“The soul is divine; divine is the soul. Worship Him with love.”* [76] and “The soul is the Lord, and the Lord is the soul; contemplating the Shabad, the Lord is found.”* [77] The“Atma”or“Soul”according to Sikhism is an entity or“spiritual spark”or“light”in our body because of which the body can sustain life. On the departure of this entity from the body, the body becomes lifeless – No amount of manipulations to the body can make the person make any physical actions. The soul is the ‘driver’in the body. It is the ‘roohu’or spirit or atma, the presence of which makes the physical body alive. Many religious and philosophical traditions, support the view that the soul is the ethereal substance – a spirit; a non material spark – particular to a unique living being. Such traditions often consider the soul both immortal and innately aware of its immortal nature, as well as the true basis for sentience in each living being.

The concept of the soul has strong links with notions of an afterlife, but opinions may vary wildly even within a given religion as to what happens to the soul after death.

Many within these religions and philosophies see the soul as immaterial, while others consider it possibly material.

Charon (Greek) who guides dead souls to the Underworld. 4th century BC.

In theological reference to the soul, the terms“life”and “death”are viewed as emphatically more definitive than the common concepts of "biological life" and “biological death”. Because the soul is said to be transcendent of the material existence, and is said to have (potentially) eternal life, the death of the soul is likewise said to be an eternal death. Thus, in the concept of divine judgment, God is commonly said to have options with regard to the dispensation of souls, ranging from Heaven (i.e., angels) to hell (i.e., demons), with various concepts in between.

Typically both Heaven and hell are said to be eternal, or at least far beyond a typical human concept of lifespan and time.

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23.3.14

CHAPTER 23. SOUL

Spirituality, New Age and new re- the Oversoul —which is one, infinite, and eternal...[and] [t]he sole purpose of creation is for the soul to enjoy the ligions infinite state of the Oversoul consciously.”* [81]

Brahma Kumaris In Brahma Kumaris, human souls are believed to be incorporeal and eternal. God is considered to be the Supreme Soul, with maximum degrees of spiritual qualities, such as peace, love and purity.* [79] Theosophy In Helena Blavatsky's Theosophy, the soul is the field of our psychological activity (thinking, emotions, memory, desires, will, and so on) as well as of the so-called paranormal or psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, out-of-body experiences, etc.). However, the soul is not the highest, but a middle dimension of human beings.

Higher than the soul is the spirit, which is considered to be the real self; the source of everything we call “good” — happiness, wisdom, love, compassion, harmony, peace, etc. While the spirit is eternal and incorruptible, the soul is not. The soul acts as a link between the material body and the spiritual self, and therefore shares some characteristics of both. The soul can be attracted either towards the spiritual or towards the material realm, being thus the “battlefield”of good and evil. It is only when the soul is attracted towards the spiritual and merges with the Self that it becomes eternal and divine.

Eckankar, founded by Paul Twitchell in 1965, defines Soul as the true self; the inner, most sacred part of each person.* [82]

23.4 Science The findings of science may be relevant to one's understanding of the soul depending on one's belief regarding the relationship between the soul and the mind. Another may be one's belief regarding the relationship between the soul and the body.* [83] One problem with seeking scientific evidence for the soul is that there is no clear or unique definition of what the soul is, as it usually varies from one belief to another.

23.4.1 Neuroscience and the soul

Neuroscience as an interdisciplinary field, and its branch of cognitive neuroscience particularly, operates under the ontological assumption of physicalism. In other words, it assumes—in order to perform its science—that only the fundamental phenomena studied by physics exist.

Thus, neuroscience seeks to understand mental phenomena within the framework according to which human thought and behavior are caused solely by physical processes taking place inside the brain, and it operates by Anthroposophy the way of reduction by seeking an explanation for the * * Rudolf Steiner differentiated three stages of soul devel- mind in terms of brain activity. [84] [85] opment, which interpenetrate one another in conscious- To study the mind in terms of the brain several methness:* [80] ods of functional neuroimaging are used to study the

neuroanatomical correlates of various cognitive processes • The“sentient soul”, centering on sensations, drives, that constitute the mind. The evidence from brain imagand passions, with strong conative (will) and emo- ing indicates that all processes of the mind have physical tional components; correlates in brain function.* [86] However, such corre• The“intellectual”or“mind soul”, internalizing and lational studies cannot determine whether neural activreflecting on outer experience, with strong affective ity plays a causal role in the occurrence of these cog(feeling) and cognitive (thinking) components; and nitive processes (correlation does not imply causation) and they cannot determine if the neural activity is either • The “consciousness soul”, in search of universal, necessary or sufficient for such processes to occur. Identification of causation, and of necessary and sufficient objective truths. conditions requires explicit experimental manipulation of that activity. If manipulation of brain activity changes Miscellaneous consciousness, then a causal role for that brain activity can be inferred.* [87]* [88] Two of the most common In Surat Shabda Yoga, the soul is considered to be an ex- types of manipulation experiments are loss-of-function act replica and spark of the Divine. The purpose of Surat and gain-of-function experiments. In a loss-of-function Shabd Yoga is to realize one's True Self as soul (Self- (also called “necessity”) experiment, a part of the nerRealisation), True Essence (Spirit-Realisation) and True vous system is diminished or removed in an attempt to Divinity (God-Realisation) while living in the physical determine if it is necessary for a certain process to occur, body. and in a gain-of-function (also called“sufficiency”) exSimilarly, the spiritual teacher Meher Baba held that periment, an aspect of the nervous system is increased “Atma, or the soul, is in reality identical with Paramatma relative to normal.* [89] Manipulations of brain activity

23.6. SEE ALSO

275

can be performed with direct electrical brain stimula- “because the weight loss was not reliable or replicable, his tion, magnetic brain stimulation using transcranial mag- findings were unscientific.”* [98]* [99] netic stimulation, psychopharmacological manipulation, optogenetic manipulation and by studying the symptoms of brain damage (case studies) and lesions. In addition, 23.6 See also neuroscientists are also investigating how the mind develops with the development of the brain.* [90] • Ekam

23.4.2

Physics and the soul

Physicist Sean M. Carroll has written that the idea of a soul is in opposition to quantum field theory (QFT). He writes that for a soul to exist“Not only is new physics required, but dramatically new physics. Within QFT, there can’t be a new collection of 'spirit particles' and 'spirit forces' that interact with our regular atoms, because we would have detected them in existing experiments.”* [91] Quantum indeterminism has been invoked by some theorists as a solution to the problem of how a soul might interact with the brain but neuroscientist Peter Clarke found errors with this viewpoint noting there is no evidence that such processes play a role in brain function and concluded that a Cartesian soul has no basis from quantum physics.* [92]

23.4.3

Biology and the soul

Biologist Cyrille Barrette has written that “the soul is a word to designate an idea we invented to represent the sensation of being inhabited by an existence, by a conscience”.* [93] Barrette explains, using simple examples in a short self-published article, that the soul is a property emerging from the complex organisation of matter in the brain.* [94]

23.5 Parapsychology

• Ghost in the machine • Kami • Over-soul • Metaphysical naturalism • Mind-body problem • Philosophical zombie • Soul dualism • Vitalism

23.7 References [1]“soul."Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 CD. 13 July 2010.

[2] Peter Eardley and Carl Still, Aquinas: A Guide for the Perplexed (London: Continuum, 2010), pp. 34–35 [3] “Soul”, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.

2001–07. Retrieved 12 November 2008.

[4] Francis M. Cornford, Greek Religious Thought, p.64, referring to Pindar, Fragment 131.

[5] Erwin Rohde, Psyche, 1928.

[6] Jones, David (2009). The Gift of Logos: Essays in Continental Philosophy. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp.

33–35. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

Some parapsychologists have attempted to establish, by [7] scientific experiment, whether a soul separate from the [8] brain exists, as is more commonly defined in religion rather than as a synonym of psyche or mind. Milbourne [9] Christopher (1979) and Mary Roach (2010) have argued that none of the attempts by parapsychologists have yet [10] succeeded.* [95]* [96]

23.5.1

Weight of the soul

Aristotle. On The Soul. pp. 412b5.

Aristotle. Physics, Book VIII, Chapter 5. pp. 256a5–22.

Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics, Book I, Chapter 7. pp.

1098a7–17.

Aristotle. Physics, Book III, Chapter 1. pp. 201a10–25.

[11] Aristotle. On The Soul, Book III, Chapter 5. pp. 430a24– 5.

[12] Shields, Christopher (2011). “Aristotle's Psychology (supplement: The Active Mind of De Anima iii 5)". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 201312-12.

In 1901 Duncan MacDougall made weight measurements of patients as they died. He claimed that there was weight loss of varying amounts at the time of death.* [97] The physicist Robert L. Park has written that MacDougall's [13] Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (1996), History experiments “are not regarded today as having any sciof Islamic Philosophy, p. 315, Routledge, ISBN 0-41513159-6. entific merit”and the psychologist Bruce Hood wrote that

276

[14] Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), “Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d.

1288)", p. 209-210, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.

CHAPTER 23. SOUL

[32] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 34 [33] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 33

[15] Aquinas, Thomas. “Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate” [34] Conze, Edward (1993). A Short History of Buddhism.

Oneworld. p. 14. ISBN 1-85168-066-7. (in Latin). Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[16] Aquinas, Thomas. “Super Boetium De Trinitate” (in Latin). Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[35] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 51

[17] Bishop, Paul (2000). Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition in Kant, Swedenborg, and Jung. USA: The Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 262–267. ISBN 0-7734-7593-1.

[36] " 六 朝 神 滅 不 滅 論 與 佛 教 輪 迴 主 體 之 研 究".

Ccbs.ntu.edu.tw. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[18] Ryles, Gilbert (1949). The Concept of Mind. University Of Chicago Press.

[37] " 佛教心理論之發達觀". Ccbs.ntu.edu.tw. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[19] “Found: An Ancient Monument to the Soul”. The New York Times. 17 November 2008. Retrieved 18 November 2008. In a mountainous kingdom in what is now southeastern Turkey, there lived in the eighth century B.C. a royal official, Kuttamuwa, who oversaw the completion of an inscribed stone monument, or stele, to be erected upon his death. The words instructed mourners to commemorate his life and afterlife with feasts “for my soul that is in this stele.”

[20] Bahá'u'lláh (1976). Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 158–163. ISBN 0-87743-187-6. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[21] Bahá'u'lláh (1976). Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 155–158. ISBN 0-87743-187-6. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[22] Taherzadeh, Adib (1976). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. ISBN 0-85398270-8. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[23] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 25 [24] Sources of Indian Tradition, vol. 1, ed. Theodore de Bary (NY: Columbia UP, 1958), p. 92-93 [25] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 55-57 [26] Sources of Indian Tradition, vol. 1, ed. Theodore de Bary (NY: Columbia UP, 1958), p. 93 [27] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 55 [28] Sources of Indian Tradition, vol. 1, ed. Theodore de Bary (NY: Columbia UP, 1958), p. 93-94 [29] for example, in Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 51-66 [30] Sources of Indian Tradition, vol. 1, ed. Theodore de Bary (NY: Columbia UP, 1958), p. 94 [31] Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (NY: Grove, 1962), p. 26

[38] " 植物、草木、山石是无情众生吗？有佛性吗？".

Bskk.com. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[39] " 從律典探索佛教對動物的態度（中）". Awker.com.

Archived from the original on 2011-11-21. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[40] " 無 情 眾 生 現 今 是 不 具 有 神 識， 但 具 有 佛 性！".

Dharma.com.tw. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[41] 无情有佛性 [42] B. Alan Wallace, Contemplative Science. University of Columbia Press, 2007, page 13.

[43] “Soul at http://www.newadvent.org". Newadvent.org. 1 July 1912. Retrieved 13 November 2011. External link in |title= (help) [44] Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic) [45] ""Do Embryos Have Souls?", Father Tadeusz Pacholczyk, PhD, Catholic Education Resource Center”. Catholiceducation.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[46] Matthew Syed (12 May 2008). “Embryos have souls?

What nonsense”. The Times (UK). Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[47]“The Soul of the Embryo: An Enquiry into the Status of the Human Embryo in the Christian Tradition”, by David Albert Jones, Continuum Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0-82646296-1 [48] “Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraph 363”.

Vatican.va. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[49] “Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraph 382”.

Vatican.va. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[50] Paul Helm, John Calvin's Ideas 2006 p129 “The Immortality of the Soul: As we saw when discussing Calvin's Christology, Calvin is a substance dualist.”

[51] Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Most, Salvatore Settis The Classical Tradition 2010 p480 “On several occasions, Luther mentioned contemptuously that the Council Fathers had decreed the soul immortal.”

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[52] Richard Marius Martin Luther: the Christian between God and death 1999 p429 “Luther, believing in soul sleep at death, held here that in the moment of resurrection... the righteous will rise to meet Christ in the air, the ungodly will remain on earth for judgment,...”

[74] Pope, Hugh (2006) [2005]. Sons of the conquerors: the rise of the Turkic world. New York: Overlook Duckworth. p. 270. ISBN 978-1-58567-804-4.

[53] Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith. online

[76] SGGS, M 4, p 1325.

Available

[54] “Do You Have an Immortal Soul?". The Watchtower: 3–5. July 15, 2007.

[55] What Does the Bible Really Teach?. p. 211.

[56] [Doctrine & Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah; 88:15] [57] “Moses 6:51”. lds.org. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[58] “Hebrews 12:9”. lds.org. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[59] Joseph Smith goes so far as to say that these spirits are made of a finer matter that we cannot see in our current state: Doctrine and Covenants 131:7-8 https://www.lds. org/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/131.7-8?lang=eng#6 [60] [Book of Mormon. Alma: 5:15; 11:43–45; 40:23; 41:2] [61] Doctrine and Covenants 93:33-34 https://www.lds.org/ scriptures/dc-testament/dc/93.33-34?lang=eng#32 [62] Doctrine and Covenants 93:29-30 https://www.lds.org/ scriptures/dc-testament/dc/93.29-30?lang=eng#28 [63] Chapter 37, Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph F. Smith, (2011), 331–38 https://www.lds.org/ manual/teachings-joseph-f-smith/chapter-37 [64]“Spirit.”Guide to the Scriptures https://www.lds.org/ scriptures/gs/spirit [65] “Gospel Principles Chapter 41: The Postmortal Spirit World”. lds.org. Retrieved 2016-02-23.

[66] Bhagavad – Gita As It Is, by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada [67] Bhagavad Gita As it is, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust: Translation by Srila Prabhupada [68] “Srila Prabhupada”. Krishna.com. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[69] “Forgotten Gandhi, Virchand Gandhi (1864-1901) - Advocate of Universal Brotherhood”. All Famous Quotes.

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[75] SGGS, M 1, p 1153.

[77] SGGS, M 1, p 1030.

[78] “Encyclopedia of Death and Dying (2008)". Deathreference.com. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[79] Ramsay, Tamasin (Sep 2010). “Custodians of Purity An Ethnography of the Brahma Kumaris”. Monash University: 105.

[80] Creeger, Rudolf Steiner ; translated by Catherine E. (1994). Theosophy : an introduction to the spiritual processes in human life and in the cosmos (3rd ed.). Hudson, NY: Anthroposophic Press. pp. 42–46. ISBN 0-88010373-6.

[81] Baba, Meher. (1987). Discourses. Myrtle Beach, SC: Sheriar Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-1880619094.

[82] Klemp, H. (2009). The call of soul. Minneapolis, MN: Eckankar [83] The final science; or Spiritual materialism by John Henry Wilbrandt Stuckenberg 1885 p. 14 [84] O. Carter Snead. "Cognitive Neuroscience and the Future ofPunishment" (2010).

[85] Kandel, ER; Schwartz JH; Jessell TM; Siegelbaum SA; Hudspeth AJ. "Principles of Neural Science, Fifth Edition" (2012).

[86] Andrea Eugenio Cavanna, Andrea Nani, Hal Blumenfeld, Steven Laureys. "Neuroimaging of Consciousness" (2013).

[87] Farah, Martha J.; Murphy, Nancey (February 2009).

“Neuroscience and the Soul”. Science 323 (5918): 1168. doi:10.1126/science.323.5918.1168a. Retrieved 20 November 2012.

[88] Max Velmans, Susan Schneider. "The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness" (2008). p. 560.

[89] Matt Carter, Jennifer C. Shieh. "Guide to Research Techniques in Neuroscience" (2009).

[90] Squire, L. et al. "Fundamental Neuroscience, 4th edition" (2012). Chapter 43.

[70] The only person mentioned in the Torah celebrating birthday (party) is the wicked pharaoh of Egypt Bereshith 40:20-22.

[91] Carroll, Sean M.. (2011). “Physics and the Immortality of the Soul”. Scientific American. Retrieved 2014-10-11.

[71] HaQoton, Reb Chaim. “Happy Birthday”. Reb Chaim HaQoton. Retrieved 11 July 2013.

[92] Clarke, Peter. (2014). Neuroscience, Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul. Brain and cognition 84: 109-117.

[72] “About Jewish Birthdays”. Judaism 101. Aish.com.

Retrieved 11 July 2013.

[73] http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/ 13933-soul

[93] Barrette, Cyrille; Saint-Arnaud, Jean-Guy (2013). Lettres Ouvertes Correspondance entre un athée et un croyant (1 ed.). Québec: Mediapaul Canada. p. 130. ISBN 9782894209134. Retrieved 30 January 2016.

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[94] Barrette, Cyrille. “La Science et l'âme” (PDF). http: //www.aeutaq.ulaval.ca. Cyrille Barrette. Retrieved 30 January 2016. External link in |website= (help)

• Park, Robert L. (2009). Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13355-3

[95] Milbourne Christopher. (1979). Search for the Soul: An Insider's Report on the Continuing Quest by Psychics and Scientists for Evidence of Life After Death. Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers.

• Rohde, Erwin. (1925). Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925; reprinted

by Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-22563-9.

[96] Mary Roach. (2010). Spook: Science Tackles the Afterlife.

Canongate Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84767-080-9 [97] MacDougall, Duncan (1907). “The Soul: Hypothesis Concerning Soul Substance Together with Experimental Evidence of the Existence of Such Substance”. American Medicine. New Series 2: 240–243.

[98] Park, Robert L. (2009). Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science. Princeton University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0691-13355-3 [99] Hood, Bruce. (2009). Supersense: From Superstition to Religion - The Brain Science of Belief. Constable. p. 165.

ISBN 978-1-84901-030-6

• Ryle, Gilbert. (1949) The Concept of Mind, London: Hutchinson.

• Spenard, Michael (11 April 2011) “Dueling with Dualism: the forlorn quest for the immaterial soul” , essay. An historical account of mind-body duality and a comprehensive conceptual and empirical critique on the position. ISBN 978-0-578-08288-2 • Swinburne, Richard. (1997). The Evolution of the Soul. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

23.9 External links 23.8 Further reading • Batchelor, Stephen. (1998). Buddhism Without Beliefs. Bloomsbury Publishing.

• Bremmer, Jan (1983). The Early Greek Concept of the Soul (PDF). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03131-2. Retrieved 16 August 2007.

• Chalmers, David. J. (1996). The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

• Christopher, Milbourne. (1979). Search For The Soul: An Insider's Report On The Continuing Quest

By Psychics & Scientists For Evidence Of Life After Death. Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers.

• Clarke, Peter. (2014). Neuroscience, Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul. Brain and Cognition 84: 109-117.

• Hood, Bruce. (2009). Supersense: From Superstition to Religion - The Brain Science of Belief. Constable. ISBN 978-1-84901-030-6 • McGraw, John J. (2004). Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul. Aegis Press.

• Martin, Michael; Augustine, Keith. (2015). The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-81088677-3 • Musolino, Julien. (2015). The Soul Fallacy: What Science Shows We Gain from Letting Go of Our Soul Beliefs. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-61614962-8

• Etymology of Soul • Quantum Theory Won’t Save The Soul • What Science Really Says About the Soul by Stephen Cave • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ancient Theories of the Soul • The soul in Judaism at Chabad.org • The Old Testament Concept of the Soul by Heinrich J. Vogel • Body, Soul and Spirit Article in the Journal of Biblical Accuracy • Is Another Human Living Inside You? • Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Soul". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

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23.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 23.10.1

Text

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Angel2000~enwiki, IPSOS, Una Smith, LeaveSleaves, Manyminds17, Me I'm the grea tone, Streetsanto, Groundpounder, Deconstructhis, Xeeria, Gunnerclark, StAnselm, DiarrheaOmellette, Anyep, Portalian, Motuleños, KingRantheMan, OKBot, Kumioko (renamed), Pharaoh602, Firefly322, Twinsday, Traveler100, Niceguyedc, LizardJr8, Thobe, DragonBot, Nymf, Jusdafax, GoRight, Siriuslee, Alexander Tendler, BurgererSF~enwiki, Johnuniq, Editor2020, Lucyintheskywithdada, XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, WikHead, Addbot, Joeyiscool12341, Friginator, Reidlophile, Diptanshu.D, Rosewater Alchemist, Pitshot, OffsBlink, OlEnglish, Bermicourt, Tobi, Legobot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, QueenCake, Mtaylor1795, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, LeafromOZ, Tamir-Yehuda Ben Avraham, Millahnna, J04n, Brandon5485, Reflections of Memory, Mattis, Shadowjams, თეკა, Green Cardamom, YuukiKiryuu, Wikiy2k, WPANI, Pergamino, Haeinous, Rodneyorpheus, Machine Elf 1735, Aleister Wilson, Henry123ifa, Citation bot 1, Xxglennxx, Pinethicket, Prcchati, B. Whitestone, NortyNort, Torchrunner, HelenOnline, GossamerBliss, Vrenator, SeoMac, GW4psychic, Kitfoxxe, Paul 94Leask420, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, JoshuaWestfalen, RjwilmsiBot, AsceticRose, Michael Essmeyer, Kabir Talat, Christina Silverman, Wayne Slam, L Kensington, Loganloganlogand, Eglino, Mlang.Finn, Manytexts, Sylartk, ClueBot NG, Mehtank, CindyC78, Dream of Nyx, Widr, Easprem, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Jeraphine Gryphon, Waysofman, BG19bot, Jamescrouch74, PhnomPencil, Dragenfly, Rohanidoc, Compfreak7, Joshua Jonathan, MrBill3, H. 217.83, Melodychick, Amitrochates, Smithasalma, Davidlwinkler, Naturaldoubt, Philosavant, Cherubinirules, Saha.rj, BadKittieKat76, Mas Rodin, Lajj831, XercesBlue1991, Mckross2000, Alexis1102, Glorious Sparrow, Vieque, Mystical13, Colecampbell98, DarkMystik1, ReptilianGod, Riazj14234, Patrick8888888, Jerodlycett, KasparBot, Knife-in-the-drawer, Pandit Gaurav Acharya, Thecontemporists and Anonymous: 388 • Initiation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiation?oldid=713338935 Contributors: Mav, RK, SimonP, Michael Hardy, Sannse, Jpatokal, Skyfaller, JASpencer, Dysprosia, Wik, Vanessa (usurped), Grendelkhan, Robbot, Zandperl, Altenmann, Forseti, Naddy, Hemanshu, Gwalla, Zigger, Bit~enwiki, Neilc, Gscshoyru, Dbachmann, JustinWick, CanisRufus, El C, John Vandenberg, Maurreen, Quatermass, Denial, Fourthords, Guthrie, Stemonitis, John Hill, Pmj, Rjwilmsi, Mo-Al, Bbullot~enwiki, MacRusgail, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, 999~enwiki, Hiyya54, Bhny, Grafen, Stijn Calle, Varano, Botteville, Jkelly, Calaschysm, RDF, Shawnc, Sevadar, SmackBot, MattieTK, Hydrogen Iodide, Delldot, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller, Rorybowman, Baa, The Moose, Arcarius, Jmlk17, Radagast83, Fuzzypeg, GourangaUK, SashatoBot, Jrothwell, Feureau, Stizz, Ahering@cogeco.ca, Sheherazahde, Kaze0010, Eastlaw, JForget, CmdrObot, Lgh, Neelix, Idolater718, 206510351, Epbr123, Dogaroon, Ohpuu, Bongwarrior, Stijn Vermeeren, Simon Peter Hughes, Patstuart, MartinBot, J.delanoy, Adavidb, Maproom, McSly, Crakkpot, Sexperts, WinterSpw, Idioma-bot, Y, Happysailor, Mkeranat, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Dakinijones, Snigbrook, Niceguyedc, Embhee, SoxBot, SchreiberBike, Editor2020, SilvonenBot, 10sh10, Addbot, Dingeman, Jncraton, Feťour, FCSundae, Stephenhalpern, Tide rolls, ‫ماني‬, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, ImperatorExercitus, ArthurBot, Joarsolo, Jsleaby, Erik9bot, Nightsturm, Pinethicket, Yunshui, Acowisatree, Lotje, Esoglou, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Dcirovic, AvicBot, ZéroBot, Philafrenzy, Sharonmil, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, Frietjes, Widr, Sage17qxz, Luke2512, Schrauwers, Epicgenius, I am One of Many, ProtossPylon, KasparBot, 3 of Diamonds, Capankajsmilyo and Anonymous: 81 • Alchemy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy?oldid=715059495 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Lee Daniel Crocker, BF, Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, Manning Bartlett, Sjc, RK, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Matusz, Fubar Obfusco, Apollia, Mswake, Heron, BryceHarrington, Edward, Patrick, Tim Starling, Kwertii, DopefishJustin, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Sannse, Tregoweth, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Ronz, William M. Connolley, Theresa knott, Angela, Jdforrester, Александър, Nikai, Susurrus, Rotem Dan, Jouster, Ghewgill, Norwikian, Heidimo, Charles Matthews, Timwi, RickK, Stone, Slathering, Malcohol, Andrewman327, Zoicon5, Markhurd, EACH, Big Bob the Finder, Maximus Rex, SEWilco, Omegatron, Wernher, Elwoz, Wetman, Flockmeal, David.Monniaux, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Vardion, Mazin07, Chrism, Fredrik, Ly, Romanm, Mirv, Chiramabi, Flauto Dolce, Blainster, Humus sapiens, Timrollpickering, Hadal, Jsonitsac, Wereon, TPK, Wayland, Timvasquez, Smjg, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Gtrmp, Sj, Dr spork, Lupin, Timpo, Monedula, Bradeos Graphon, Xerxes314, Everyking, Anville, LarryGilbert, Duncharris, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Jorge Stolfi, Mboverload, Luigi30, Solipsist, Darrien, Chameleon, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Wmahan, Bacchiad, Isidore, Chowbok, R. fiend, Jonel, GeneralPatton, Pcarbonn, Quadell, Antandrus, Zaha, Phe, MisfitToys, Piotrus, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Oneiros, Tothebarricades.tk, Bodnotbod, Kuralyov, Icairns, Gscshoyru, LHOON, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Hilarleo, Joyous!, Syvanen, Fenrir~enwiki, Adashiel, Esperant, ProjeX, Ashami, PRiis, Oskar Sigvardsson, Mr Bound, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Mercurius~enwiki, Moverton, Discospinster, Steve Farrell, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, JBradHicks, Vsmith, Silence, Bishonen, MeltBanana, Dbachmann, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Indrian, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, Metaquasi, Kbh3rd, Fenice, Crux Ansata, Brian0918, El C, Huntster, Bletch, Edward Z. Yang, Chairboy, RoyBoy, AlexTheMartian, Thuresson, Bobo192, 23skidoo, Ray Dassen, Htmlism, Sivaraj, Viriditas, Jericho4.0, Markryherd, Idban, Forteanajones, Tiresias BC, Microtony, Sam Korn, Fugg, Jumbuck, Patsw, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Gerweck, CyberSkull, Wiki-uk, Keenan Pepper, Jet57, Andrew Gray, Riana, Primalchaos, SlimVirgin, Fourthgeek, Alex '05, Malo, Avenue, House of Shin, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Homo universalis, Fasten, Velella, Here, Knowledge Seeker, Suruena, Wimvandorst, Rhialto, LFaraone, BDD, Sleigh, Ghirlandajo, Zereshk, Oleg Alexandrov, Marasmusine, Bloodsorr0w, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Linas, Onari, T. Baphomet, Uncle G, Kzollman, Nefertum17, WadeSimMiser, JeremyA, QuetschJL, Jeff3000, LeaMaimone, Twthmoses, Kmg90, Wikiklrsc, Damicatz, TotoBaggins, Adam Field, Tickle me, Macaddct1984, Rchamberlain, GalaazV, Crucis, MarcoTolo, Sweetfreek, V8rik, Cuchullain, BD2412, Galwhaa, Kbdank71, Jclemens, Josh Parris, Sjö, Drbogdan, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Matt.whitby, Phileas, Tawker, Oblivious, Ligulem, NeonMerlin, ElKevbo, Mjsedgwick, Brighterorange, TheGWO, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, SlaunchaMan, FlaBot, RobertG, Windchaser, AJR, Gparker, RexNL, Gurch, Whateley23, Mitsukai, Robert Prummel, Mehrshad123, Codex Sinaiticus, Nick81, Bihzad, Samuel Levine, Benjwong, Jidan, DaGizza, Aethralis, Korg, Digitalme, Gwernol, EamonnPKeane, Satanael, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, RobotE, JJB, PowerGamer6, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Deeptrivia, Rtkat3, Hillman, Brandmeister (old), 999~enwiki, Pip2andahalf, Lighterside, The Storm Surfer, Hornplease, Pigman, Chris Capoccia, Sasuke Sarutobi, Jtbandes, GG Crono, Akamad, Stephenb, Manop, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Bisqwit, Wimt, EnakoNosaj, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, Leutha, Onias, Joshdboz, Henleydude, Janarius, Justin Eiler, Ragesoss, Rubaphilos, Aaron Brenneman, PhilipC, Dr Debug, Waqas1987, Dayana Hashim, Misza13, Semperf, Srammij, Syrthiss, Mkill, Mishalak, Mysid, Kortoso, Karl Meier, PS2pcGAMER, Wujastyk, T-rex, FestivalOfSouls, Phenz, Vaisnavi, Nlu, Wknight94, Protozoid~enwiki, Cheese Sandwich, Ms2ger, Bomkia~enwiki, Wiqi55, NickD, Zzuuzz, Ninly, Theda, Jwissick, Reyk, Brina700, Nothlit, Hound Doggie, LeonardoRob0t, Cjwright79, Fram, TopGear, Curpsbot-unicodify, Nightscrawler, Staxringold, Kramden, Ephilei, Kungfuadam, JDspeeder1, Cookiedog, Payneos, CIreland, NickelShoe, Boss1000, That Guy, From That Show!, Abramul, Luk, ChemGardener, MaeseLeon, Itub, Yvwv, Edenbeast, Attilios, Crystallina, Joshbuddy, SmackBot, Moeron, Oxford Comma, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, VigilancePrime, Lagalag, Ze miguel, Pgk, MeiStone, Bomac, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Chairman S., Delldot, Sleevies, J.J.Sagnella, Teiler Köregäten, Vassyana, Aksi great, Gilliam, Monkeytail39, Hmains, Skizzik, Kevinalewis, Chris the speller, Kurykh, IMacThere4iAm, Jnelson09, Jprg1966, Aro888, MalafayaBot, Honey bee155, Kashami, Nozzleman, Bazonka, Jerome Charles Potts, Kungming2, Gracenotes, Hotwiki, Royboycrashfan, Zsinj, Rogermw, Quaque, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Vanished user llkd8wtiuawfhiuweuhncu3tr, TheGerm, Benten, Kr5t, Dan Ferrario, Rrburke, Kittybrewster, Addshore, Tlusťa, Dali, Huon, Khoikhoi, King Vegita, Brogersoc, Makemi, Theodore7, Kntrabssi, Mistamagic28, EVula, D J L, Harvestman, Localzuk, Wirbelwind, Drphilharmonic, LordHoborgXVII, Fuzzypeg, Henrydms, SuperDT, Sadi Carnot, Josellis, Pilotguy, Kukini, Yoshiko-Chan, Deepred6502, Doug Miller, Ken M., Rory096, Harryboyles, Axem Titanium, NormalGoddess, Kuru, John, STemplar, DavidCooke,

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

281

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Parrot, Slakr, Piercetp, Alethiophile, DragoonWraith, Dicklyon, Xiaphias, Aarktica, Mets501, Doczilla, Ryulong, Sharnak, Citicat, PSUMark2006, WindOwl, John1014, Gotnoglory, Keahapana, Iridescent, Sarastro777, Thenobleageofsteam, Colinjl, JoeBot, Twas Now, Somaterc, Courcelles, Heliomance, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Filelakeshoe, Hirtenfeuer, Xcentaur, Planktonbot, CmdrObot, Sir Vicious, Groovysoul, Comrade42, Ninetyone, Anakata, KyraVixen, Leevanjackson, Dgw, DanielRigal, NickW557, Casper2k3, Ken Gallager, John S Moore, Pratikthakore, Speedy342315, Cydebot, Astrochemist, Goldfritha, Synergy, Frater5, Odie5533, Karafias, Doug Weller, Christian75, DumbBOT, Aintsemic, Chrislk02, Dooly00000, SteveMcCluskey, JodyB, Satori Son, .:Debil:., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Rsage, RevolverOcelotX, Marek69, Esowteric, Tapir Terrific, RickinBaltimore, Msbluerasp, GideonF, Nick Number, ThePeg, Natalie Erin, Mentifisto, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, G.o.narada, Majorly, Phuff, Luna Santin, Yomangani, Fire3500, The Templar, Prolog, Dr. Blofeld, Julia Rossi, Goldenrowley, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, Cinnamon42, Fayenatic london, Ereiyo, Bakabaka, Modernist, Dylan Lake, Glacierfairy, Leevclarke, Rico402, Myanw, Defordj, Gökhan, Mightywayne, Avani patel, Davewho2, Aurumsolis, Laboratorio.Ricerche.Evolutive, OllyG, Hut 8.5, Chevellefan11, Flashinpon, Acroterion, I80and, Caffeinepuppy, Magioladitis, Hroðulf, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jeff Dahl, Professor marginalia, Juanradeliz, Ling.Nut, Sodabottle, Vikrant A Phadkay, Nyttend, Balloonguy, Samjohnston, Nick Cooper, NotACow, FrF, Animum, Upholder, IkonicDeath, Practical123, Deepinthenight, MetsBot, Deanostrodamus, Hamiltonstone, Allstarecho, Frotz, Vssun, Ksvaughan2, DerHexer, Edward321, Thyroidpsychic, Teardrop onthefire, DukeTwicep, War wizard90, Gun Powder Ma, Ztobor, B9 hummingbird hovering, FisherQueen, Paul Gard, Hdt83, Mmoneypenny, CliffC, Equisis, Dr. TaO, Artemis-Arethusa, C0nsumer, Naohiro19, Anaxial, Vincentrijlaarsdam, David J Wilson, R'n'B, Rh64815, WelshMatt, Smokizzy, LedgendGamer, Amt1018, J.delanoy, M.m.a, PCock, Owl320, Bitethesilverbullet, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, HiddenTreasures06, Ishamid, Polenth, TomS TDotO, Ian.thomson, Exploravisionx2, Jkaplan, Sssuuuzzzaaannn, Minderbinder~enwiki, Xyzt1234, Bot-Schafter, L'Aquatique, AdamBMorgan, Gurchzilla, WebHamster, 2wingo, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, NewEnglandYankee, Vermeer1, SJP, Alnokta, Fjbfour, Doug4, KylieTastic, STBotD, Ot Manu, FuegoFish, Jamesontai, Skryinv~enwiki, XKiichigo, DrunkinRoxtar, Gtg204y, Bonadea, Levcampbell, Jones9999, Sixiki, Jakeman2005, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Sesshoumaru-sama~enwiki, Chromancer, Alchemy999, VolkovBot, Metal.lunchbox, Alienlifeformz, Xeltifon, ABF, Beatnik Party, DOHC Holiday, Macedonian, TallNapoleon, Shinju, AlnoktaBOT, LeilaniLad, QuackGuru, CinderAlchemist, Philip Trueman, Ken.Dickey, Saziel, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, GimmeBot, BuickCenturyDriver, Keefer.t, Hobe, Apepch7, Atomcoeur, IPSOS, Qxz, Goldisgood, Zmod101, DennyColt, Martin451, Ripepette, Psyche825, Vgranucci, Natg 19, Flyingw, Fishhook, CO, RadiantRay, Isaacrob, Chickenpower, Joelwyland, Staka, Vritti, AnnekeBart, Merkabaman, Nmhall, TravelingCat, Blaze Flame, Spinningspark, Mikrofone877, Ajrocke, Why Not A Duck, Anton H, HiDrNick, AlleborgoBot, LuigiManiac, Yaksar, MrChupon, W4chris, Wikiajmail, Steven Weston, D. 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CHAPTER 23. SOUL

mous: 1731 • Gnosticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism?oldid=714107830 Contributors: AxelBoldt, MichaelTinkler, The Epopt, Calypso, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Manning Bartlett, 0, Ktsquare, Hotlorp, Sfdan, Renata, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Llywrch, Nixdorf, MartinHarper, Jketola, Menchi, Bobby D. Bryant, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Snoyes, 5ko, TUF-KAT, Jebba, Irmgard, Julesd, Glenn, Peter Kaminski, Andres, Cratbro, Evercat, Sethmahoney, Harvester, Jonik, Wfeidt, Ehn, Uriber, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Randyc~enwiki, Stone, Ike9898, Denni, Vincent Ramos, Rvolz, Zoicon5, Grendelkhan, Dogface, Khym Chanur, AnonMoos, Wetman, Shafei, Huangdi, Twang, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Goethean, Psychonaut, Sam Spade, Mirv, Ashley Y, M1shawhan, Wjhonson, Chiramabi, Puckly, Anglican1, Rursus, Thesilverbail, Blainster, LGagnon, Sunray, Wereon, SoLando, Unyounyo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Nagelfar, Dave6, DocWatson42, Cobra libre, Tom harrison, Timpo, Marcika, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Anville, Curps, Per Honor et Gloria, Mboverload, Eequor, Golbez, Bacchiad, Geoffspear, Gadfium, Physicist, Beatnick~enwiki, Andycjp, Quadell, Antandrus, Savant1984, Rdsmith4, Pmanderson, Fratley, Manchineel, ArcticFrog, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Kevin Rector, Lacrimosus, Ashami, Danc, Eep², D6, Jayjg, Rfl, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Ultratomio, Bpage, Fuffzsch, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Florian Blaschke, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Euthydemos, Ahkond, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, ESkog, Andrejj, Sunborn, JoeSmack, Hapsiainen, Gnrlotto, El C, Huntster, Cedders, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Kross, Summer Song, Tverbeek, Visualerror, Lima, Etimbo, Etz Haim, Jpgordon, Gedanken, Rrreese, Bastique, Bobo192, Ray Dassen, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Dungodung, BM, Saluyot, Jaredfaulkner, Jonathunder, Craig.lz, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Schuyler, ThorstenNY, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Apoc2400, Flata, Malo, Yau~enwiki, Polyphilo, Snowolf, Ross Burgess, Noosphere, Fivetrees, Trylks, ReyBrujo, Garzo, Drbreznjev, Geographer, Kbolino, Zorblek, Postrach, Zntrip, OwenX, Woohookitty, Linas, RHaworth, S36e175, David Haslam, T. Baphomet, Percy Snoodle, Honzinek, Jeff3000, Trödel, MONGO, -Ril-, Wikiklrsc, John Hill, Sdelat, Nerrin, M Alan Kazlev, GalaazV, Tydaj, Revolver Ocelot, Graham87, Grundle, Justin Bailey, A Train, BD2412, Kbdank71, Kane5187, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Arberor, Koavf, DeadlyAssassin, AwkwardSocks, Kalogeropoulos, AndyKali, Ddhageman, Afterwriting, Paul Hjul, Ashgene, Somecallmetim, CDThieme, Nihiltres, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Robert Prummel, Newmhost, SpectrumDT, 2ct7, BradBeattie, Theshibboleth, Kazuba, GangofOne, Bgwhite, Algebraist, Zephret, CunningLinguist14, Failsafeman, Ugha, Wavelength, Meridius, Sceptre, Retodon8, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Hiyya54, FrenchIsAwesome, Pigman, TimNelson, Thomaschina03, Hydrargyrum, Theelf29, Aaronwinborn, Thane, PaulGarner, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Nirvana2013, Bloodofox, Toya, BlackAndy, Abb3w, CecilWard, Pkearney, Amakuha, Crasshopper, Matrixfusion, Tomisti, Nlu, Dantedanti, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, Eduard Gherkin, SMcCandlish, Tvleavitt, Olen Watson, Spikespeigel42, GEWJ, Opiaterein, JLaTondre, Molly ringwald, Humbabba, Kramden, Philip Stevens, CIreland, JordanStratford, SmackBot, Radak, Thomas Ash, Mangoe, Nihonjoe, Lestrade, Reedy, Melchoir, Grantb, Kim FOR sure, Jfurr1981, Delldot, Jcbarr, Kintetsubuffalo, Flannel, Vassyana, Quotemstr, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, BirdValiant, Rmosler2100, Keytool, Chris the speller, Davigoli, Xpi6, Oblemboy, Enkyklios, Kleinzach, Hibernian, Bazonka, CSWarren, Octahedron80, Whispering, Baa, A. B., Eusebeus, Scwlong, Ig0774, Trekphiler, Jahiegel, Leinad-Z, Ankur.sinha, Aratron, Furby100, Sephiroth BCR, Clinkophonist, Rrburke, Cícero, Doh286, Tcmcgonigal, *Ria777*, Stevenmitchell, Jerrch, Шизомби, Whoosisman, Nibuod, Fullstop, John D. Croft, RaCha'ar, Harvestman, Dreadstar, LoveMonkey, Andrew c, Maelnuneb, Kendrick7, GameKeeper, CIS, The Ungovernable Force, Rory096, LinuxDude, Tower Junkie, Gnostique, Saturn V~enwiki, Capmo, Mattpersons, Jason Farrow, A. 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Wilson, Pacific PanDeist, Amity150, Ernie G C P Spiggot, JustAGal, Bunzil, Jimhoward72, Nick Number, Matthew Proctor, DjidiDjidi, Bmorton3, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Crezia Hext Knight, Figma, Kenjacobsen, Fennessy, JAnDbot, Geneisner, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Ringsjöodjuren, Mohammad ihs, Clean2, Solis93, Rothorpe, Beowulf327, SiobhanHansa, Skorpio-88, Bongwarrior, Kaddeesh, Adam keller, Valentinus~enwiki, LeVoyageur, Ranger2006, Prestonmcconkie, Markoff Chaney, Sam Medany, AlephGamma, Zostrianos, EagleFan, Mkdw, Glen, JaGa, JdeJ, Michael J., SquirleyWurley, Lost tourist, 27pence, Phelpsfan44, XCluvr16, Shinybubbles, Rev Troy, Spunkiel, Dewener, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Kiore, Nikpapag, Bissinger, Jerry teps, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Tgeairn, Catasoft, Randerson 3535, Adavidb, Informed1212, Maurice Carbonaro, KrytenKoro, Natty4bumpo, Ian.thomson, OfficeGirl, Johnbod, Wmgreene, Lupussy, Jamatta, Student7, BrettAllen, Reymma, Remember the dot, Owen Slatraigh, A. Ben-Shema, Ktoonen, Lamblash, The enemies of god, Yasuna, JasonJD48, A Ramachandran, Alpha774, Flyingidiot, Maghnus, Voxofspirit, Philip Trueman, Judicata, Charleca, TXiKiBoT, BackMaun, Java7837, Liquidcentre, Chazersize2004, IPSOS, Corvus cornix, Psyche825, Harpakhrad11, Lejarrag, Frenchy1985, Craig Browning, Synthebot, Shanalk, Seresin, Sondrawaggoner, Thanatos666, Insanity Incarnate, Palaeovia, - tSR - Nth Man, Munci, Demize, Plasmasphere, SieBot, StAnselm, Tresiden, Simplifier, Jolfawnzo, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, GlassCobra, Brotherrog, Oxymoron83, GeorgeChristopher, MiNombreDeGuerra, Kharga, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, PbBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alatari, Eebahgum, Lookimfamous, RevMarsha, Helios solaris, ClueBot, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, ArdClose, Xav71176, Stealthepiscopalian, Soonerzbt, Cptmurdok, TheOldJacobite, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Singinglemon~enwiki, DragonBot, Excirial, Zaharous, Quaffed, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Hans Adler, SchreiberBike, Askahrc, ChrisHamburg, Rui Gabriel Correia, Thinkingclearer, JDPhD, Pilotusa, Ospix, Editor2020, Akira-otomo, Finalnight, Heironymous Rowe, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Pichpich, Jytdog, Gaarik, WikHead, Will in China, Rayanazecca~enwiki, EmmettLBrown, Addbot, JBsupreme, Metawombat, Krthomas, DougsTech, Metagignosko, Mteshima, Rosewater Alchemist, Download, Drakusrazel, Urbanmystick1, Debresser, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Lineface, Katharine908, HandThatFeeds, JohnArbogast, Jonnysonthespot, Tide rolls, Gail, ScienceApe, Christopher.derks, Legobot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Brithnoth, Legobot II, Amirobot, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, 802SnowyOwl, Jim1138, Galoubet, Darolew, Materialscientist, Jonathanlivingstone, Citation bot, VedicScience, Vanished user zm34pq51mz, Barnstone, Paulatim, Deadly Dozen, Icarus580, LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Ptr1968, Makeswell, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Kirkevan11, Baba Bom, Mattis, Tao3100, Doubtintom, Shadowjams, Pauswa, Thehelpfulbot, Father.rassbach, FrescoBot, Lebanese bebe, LucienBOT, Eugnostos, Noneofyourbussiness, SiIIyLiIIyPiIIy, Cdw1952, Galorr, D'ohBot, UncorkedJet, Sciguybm, JawadTazari, Citation bot 1, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, JIK1975, AstaBOTh15, DrilBot, Ladolchivita, I dream of horses, Edderso, Chiscotheque, Dazedbythebell, Skyerise, Fat&Happy, SpaceFlight89, , TobeBot, Pollinosisss, Akasriel, Fama Clamosa, Benelohim74, Dinamik-bot, Ivan84m, Some Wiki Editor, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jfmantis, RjwilmsiBot, Marie Paradox, Noommos, In ictu oculi, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, John of Reading, Lunaibis, GnosticMovement, Denode, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, Laurel Lodged, Slightsmile, Wikipelli, Bkatayab, ZéroBot, CoolCoolFace, Spacexplosion, Spøkelse, H3llBot, SporkBot, OnePt618, Ben Ammi, StasMalyga, Jbribeiro1, Texanator2, Tot12, ChuispastonBot, Jayodavis, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Adville, Rattakorn c, 1shields1, Dream of Nyx, Dancer619, Yeaunome, Helpful Pixie Bot, SumerianFable, R R Pat, Linds531, BG19bot, Neesrine, Northamerica1000, AxisAbove, DesertRat262, Supotmails, Cuthbertofgilead, Babyface152, Drift chambers, Acheinlein, Tpetgood, Truth-seeker2004, Oct13, Lieutenant of Melkor, JEMead, BattyBot, Paco1097, Seanmcdh, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Lapsoo, Dexbot, SeekYeTheTruth, Mogism, Nphar, Corinne, PinkAmpersand, DangerouslyPersuasiveWriter, Sre-

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

283

neebrel, FiredanceThroughTheNight, Blake'sMistress, Ornowhere, Finnusertop, Shearflyer, Jianhui67, Jayaguru-Shishya, Xenxax, Man of Steel 85, Mike82199, Joe Abdul, Monkbot, Fish storm, JudeccaXIII, TranquilHope, Gnostic1349, Gnostic1234, Pixarh, Dr3wsa7ag3, KasparBot, HamzaWahabi, Philosi4, Munus Deus, Michaelle rubenok and Anonymous: 864 • Kabbalah Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah?oldid=714615706 Contributors: Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler, The Cunctator, Dreamyshade, BF, Dan~enwiki, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Slrubenstein, RK, Danny, Zoe, Hephaestos, Olivier, Rickyrab, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, DopefishJustin, Chris~enwiki, Nixdorf, Liftarn, IZAK, Sannse, AlexR, Qaz, Error, Uriber, Jallan, Peregrine981, Anton Hein, Carol Fenijn, Mir Harven, Spikey, HarryHenryGebel, Khym Chanur, Fvw, Optim, Carbuncle, Hmackiernan, Robbot, Donreed, Goethean, Sam Spade, Chris Roy, Chiramabi, Humus sapiens, Hadal, UtherSRG, Mushroom, Xanzzibar, Dina, Snobot, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Jahaza, Marcika, Acampbell70, Bradeos Graphon, Noone~enwiki, Everyking, Snyderwd, Varlaam, Jgritz, Jfdwolff, Jew~enwiki, LarryGilbert, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Clossius, Eequor, Wesley crossman, Masterhomer, Chowbok, Dvavasour, Gdr, Knutux, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Quarl, DNewhall, Rdsmith4, Icairns, JulieADriver, Gary D, Neutrality, Fintor, JohnArmagh, Canterbury Tail, Ashami, Eep², Mike Rosoft, ChanochGruenman, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, FWBOarticle, Zappaz, Georgemg, Dbachmann, Bender235, Crevaner, Sunborn, JoeSmack, Mattisgoo, El C, Marcok, -jkb-, Triona, Etz Haim, Perfecto, Jpgordon, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Ray Dassen, Infocidal, Clawson, AugustinMa, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Wisdom89, Nitnorth, Aleph1, NetJohn, MPerel, Helix84, Jez, ClementSeveillac, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Arthena, Paradiso, SpaceFalcon2001, Truthaboutchabad, Jnothman, Wdfarmer, Spangineer, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Fivetrees, Velella, ReyBrujo, Suruena, Garzo, Kusma, Arnold1, Versageek, T3gah, Zosodada, TShilo12, Nortonew, FeanorStar7, Scriberius, PoccilScript, SamS, Nemonoman, MGTom, Fraterm, Uris, Grika, SeventyThree, Toussaint, Banpei~enwiki, Mandarax, Tslocum, Ashmoo, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Agrumer, Koavf, George Burgess, Wikibofh, Strait, PinchasC, Amire80, Salix alba, Jtpaladin, NeonMerlin, Peripatetic, Leningrad, Yamamoto Ichiro, Gringo300, Heycam, Musical Linguist, Crazycomputers, RexNL, Gurch, 1523, BlkStarr, Benanhalt, Chobot, Haldrik, DVdm, Bgwhite, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, HG1, Alan216, Abba Poemon the Ubermensch, MightyAtom, 999~enwiki, AVM, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Hellbus, ClareyF, Akamad, Stephenb, Maxim Leyenson, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Sanguinity, Whale~enwiki, Fnorp, NawlinWiki, Yserarau, Teb728, Nowa, Wiki alf, Heycos, Veledan, Grafen, Justin Eiler, Jndrline, Michalis Famelis, Toya, Yoninah, Thiseye, Aaron Schulz, Morgan Leigh, Psy guy, Asarelah, DRosenbach, Kewp, Adistius, Caroline Sanford, Avraham, Tuckerresearch, FF2010, Ultron, Zzuuzz, Cspalletta, BorgQueen, Ion seal, Spliffy, Zalmang, Curpsbot-unicodify, Fractalchez, Andrewbarista, Sethie, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Proof Reader, Prodego, InverseHypercube, Stephensuleeman, Lucas9000, Eugenefx32, Sunetos, Apers0n, Boshea, Rotemliss, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Dhall10067, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jibbajabba, Jon513, Saint Midge, SchfiftyThree, The Rogue Penguin, FTAAPJE, Ikiroid, Colonies Chris, John Reaves, Theneokid, RyanEberhart, DLand, Chlewbot, Phaedriel, Blueboar, The tooth, Huon, PiMaster3, Nakon, Itchjones, Dreadstar, RandomP, Ildkugle, Badboyjamie, Drett, Derek R Bullamore, Fuzzypeg, Wwwdlhow27, Seekwisdom, Illnab1024, JackO'Lantern, Giancarlo Rossi, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, Eliyak, Rory096, Harryboyles, John, Yonah mishael, Žiga, Slowmover, Dr. John Gold, JohnCub, Shlomke, Nygdan, Dfass, Cryptomnesia, The Man in Question, 16@r, NumberMan, Rizome~enwiki, Ryulong, Spollen770, Morganie, Hu12, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Talmid78, Newone, Octane, CapitalR, T B Pereira, Tawkerbot2, Orangutan, Shirahadasha, Baba Louis, Americasroof, CmdrObot, Lighthead, Prodaea, Kylu, Californicus, Crazy Ivan (usurped), Frozen fish, Evilgohan2, Biblicalgarden, FilipeS, Karimarie, Ashpaa, Jamescrow, POLLUX, CaliforniaKid, Jeangophile, Echad, Kris10le, Ragwad, Accipio Mitis Frux, H. 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Wilson, Ina custers~enwiki, Salome777, Jonathan.McGregor.Bethel, TXiKiBoT, Akeenan, Nihiliststar, IPSOS, John Carter, Hermetizam~enwiki, DieBuche, Enviroboy, Riversong, Gabe777, Tomcusack, ThriceGreat, Trinsic1, Jojalozzo, DanBLOO, Anchor Link Bot, Mr. Stradivarius, Journalist492, Wahrmund, JL-Bot, Martarius, Samuel Grant, IPAddressConflict, Ferma12e3pe, TheOldJacobite, Wikijens, CFPeterson, Curious Blue, Phso2, Audaciter, FeelyViewy, Lx 121, Editor2020, Tdslk, UnionJack123, Quenstedt, Addbot, Ronhjones, Jncraton, Mseanbrown, Moreschi2, CarsracBot, Debresser, Tyler8779, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Algorithme, Materialscientist, Citation bot, QaBobAllah, RevelationDirect, Hermotimus, Xqbot, Sionus, Gehadad, TechBot, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Basileias, Flygongengar, Rhadryn, Aleister Wilson, Citation bot 1, XxTimberlakexx, Bookerj, Skyerise, Shelhabiron, Pollinosisss, ItsZippy, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Syncategoremata, ZéroBot, Donner60, Gschiffino, ClueBot NG, Manosty, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, BlueMoonset, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Adom2000, Dkoiia1154, Car Henkel, Joshua Jonathan, JEMead, Khuenaten, ChrisGualtieri, Mogism, Sowlos, Corinne, GeoffHoeber, Lauralilly, MolodoiG, Metadox, Ilovetopaint, Frogger48, Sepamu92, Sociosphere, JudeccaXIII, Crito10, TVShowFan122, Autismrevolution342342234, Mdmerovee, Billix0008, Granitic, Megalodon34 and Anonymous: 238 • Theosophy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy?oldid=714801823 Contributors: Mav, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, F. Lee Horn, Eclecticology, SJK, Shii, Heron, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Ixfd64, ArnoLagrange, Pweemeeuw, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Ceekaye, Kh7, Evercat, Ghewgill, Ehn, Daniel Quinlan, Peregrine981, Hyacinth, Topbanana, KazimirMajorinc, Robbot, Goethean, Sam Spade, Ashley Y, Wjhonson, Rursus, Blainster, Sunray, Hadal, Modeha, Luis Dantas, Leflyman, Bradeos Graphon, Kadzuwo~enwiki, Eequor, Isidore, Popefauvexxiii, Antandrus, Beland, Jossi, Ot, Hasbeen101, Tothebarricades.tk, Sam Hocevar, Kelson, Gary D, Neutrality, Mschlindwein, Lpangelrob, The stuart, Jiy, Brianhe, Cacycle, Dbachmann, Bender235, Sunborn, El C, Omoo, Randwolf, Cmdrjameson, Kjkolb, Lauri-San, Jonathunder, Nsaa, Lysdexia, Wiki-uk, Loa, AzaToth, DreamGuy, Polyphilo, P Ingerson, Knightt, Tainter, LukeSurl, Mcsee, Jpfulton, GregorB, Rchamberlain, M Alan Kazlev, GalaazV, Liface, Tydaj, Kbdank71, Search4Lancer, Rjwilmsi, Juggertrout, Parababelico, FlaBot, Nihiltres, CarolGray, Ewlyahoocom, Frjwoolley, YurikBot, Pigman, Lucinos~enwiki, Shell Kinney, Theelf29, Badagnani, Lexicon, Ormanbotanigi, BOT-Superzerocool, Sauseek, Bota47, Pelister, Maunus, JdwNYC, JQF, Piecraft, Sethie, AndrewWTaylor, A bit iffy, SmackBot, PiCo, Danielhcaldwell, Jagged 85, Scifiintel, Rojomoke, Frymaster, Hbackman, Vassyana, Bardias, Mallarme, Mladifilozof, Proofreader, Misoshiru, Nima Baghaei, Blueboar, Havik~enwiki, Kingdon, Nakon, Hgilbert, Revdrcr, AndyBQ, Leon..., Ceoil, Spiritia, Aldaniel, Wtwilson3, Stelio, A. Parrot, Erwin, CharlesMartel, Midnightblueowl, Vindheim, Violncello, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Pathosbot, Gco, CmdrObot, Iced Kola, WeggeBot, Gregbard, Derekacameron, Treepour, Julian Mendez, Frater5, Michael C Price, Algabal, Epbr123, Ning-ning, Qwyrxian, Typing monkey, Keraunos, Esowteric, Itsmejudith, Second Quantization, Floridasand, Scottandrewhutchins, AntiVandalBot, RoMo37, Courtjester555, Modernist, Wahabijaz, Baumannp, Husond, Ekabhishek, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Robina Fox, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Yandman, TL789, Mr.troughton, Cardamon, Mrmayfield, Lyonscc, Elliotb2, GuelphGryphon98, Wayne Miller, Bartl, Shehanw, Johnpacklambert, Ash, Fred.e, Ali, Nived 90, M. Buenviaje, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Libroman, Arion 3x3, AdamBMorgan, M-le-mot-dit, Knulclunk, Jorfer, Student7, BrettAllen, KeithHebden, Borat fan, Deor, RashmiPatel, Johnfos, TallNapoleon, Xeropoint, AlnoktaBOT, Senzar, TXiKiBoT, Vipinhari, GcSwRhIc, Missmae, Domitius, Rumiton, Plazak, P1h3r1e3d13, Ph03n1xs74r, Parsifal, Lamro, Gillyweed, Synthebot, Thanatos666, Bellowed, Sardaka, Palaeovia, AlleborgoBot, Munci, Hrafn, Tiddly Tom, Anglicanus, Strife911, Mimihitam, Anchor Link Bot, Linda, JL-Bot, Dick Emery, Vcashk, Jrphaller, Martarius, Gratedparmesan, Binksternet, BoBoMisiu, Unbuttered Parsnip, Orsoblonde, Mild Bill Hiccup, MrKIA11, 718 Bot, Accampb, PixelBot, Steve2711, SchreiberBike, Samowen89, Alexander Tendler, Editor2020, Erwindia, XLinkBot, April8, Terrance321, Juan234, Tmyoung, Shoemaker's Holiday, Mspickiness, Addbot, Devananda.vdv, Reidlophile, Download, AndersBot, Favonian, Abiyoyo, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pink!Teen, Ezequiels.90, EnochBethany, Rh7691, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, DynamoDegsy, Xqbot, Valheed, JFY, DustFormsWords, Makeswell, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Gerald Roark, RibotBOT, WikiBlues, Factuarius, FrescoBot, Flygongengar, Nino.shoshia, Markeilz, Rodneyorpheus, Citation bot 1, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, I dream of horses, Buddhaamaatya, Jonesey95, A412, Ency456, Skyerise, Fentlehan, Khidr7, Peace and Passion, Trappist the monk, Pollinosisss, Jonkerz, Stravon, Lvx1313, Dandelionslayer, Kitfoxxe, EmausBot, Sikander.alis, Oneiroy, Rodurp, Nikolaidonskoj, ZéroBot, Marthavi, Xabier Armendaritz, Sgerbic, Thatfield977, Ebrambot, SporkBot, Doug Shaver, Roddy76, Bill william compton, AndyTheGrump, MacStep, ClueBot NG, CactusBot, DonaldRichardSands, Doh5678, Snotbot, Norlns22, JonCameron310, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wmeegan, Curb Chain, Exactness, Graham11, Azuizo, Josephross, Supotmails, Allecher, Joshua Jonathan, MrBill3, H. 217.83, GreenUniverse, LuminalSage, JFergus, JEMead, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Qexigator, Factseducado, Desmondous, Bobthegreat157, Sowlos, GeoffHoeber, TinaCFLE, Neoconfederate, Archeofructus, Rustynail127, Ingmardb, Xenxax, Owensp22, Jyddcc, TerryAlex, Givg4665, Mannerheimcross, JudeccaXIII, Shreeharioffice, Stefsera, Trinity9538, Rxet, Jerodlycett, TheCorduroyEffect, KasparBot, Wugapodes, De la Marck, Gewe01, Alirgout and Anonymous: 322 • Rosicrucianism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosicrucianism?oldid=711252099 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, Dachshund, Olivier, Paul Barlow, Earth, Nixdorf, Skysmith, ArnoLagrange, Goblin, Poor Yorick, Rossami, Vzbs34, Kaihsu, Harry Potter, JASpencer, Dino, Reddi, Daniel Quinlan, Dogface, VeryVerily, Optim, Robbot, Sam Spade, Desmay, Wereon, Aetheling, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Tom harrison, Ferkelparade, Zigger, Bradeos Graphon, Niteowlneils, Micru, Pascal666, Infinitysnake, Bacchiad, YusufMJH, Chowbok, Utcursch, SarekOfVulcan, Quadell, IdahoEv, Beland, Jossi, DNewhall, Tail, Sam Hocevar, Hillel, Discospinster, Ponder, Dbachmann, Mashford, Pedant, El C, Marcok, Dom Lochet, Ray Dassen, Jguk 2, Forteanajones, Nk, Kunzite, Hooperbloob, Cachilders, Ekhalom, Hanuman Das, Anthony Appleyard, DreamGuy, Subramanian, Voltagedrop, Dismas, Woohookitty, Anilocra, Rchamberlain, GalaazV, Marudubshinki, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Jivecat, Bruce1ee, Fel64, Pljones, Afterwriting, Gsp, Somecallmetim, Mathbot, Sanbeg, Sergio1, Robert Prummel, RobyWayne, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Pigman, Stephenb, Bill52270, ENeville, Wiki

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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SapienDeinosRexus, Jandalhandler, Lumina434987, SaturdayNightSpecial, Alarichus, FoxBot, Dinamik-bot, Paradisevalleycampground, Caroatlantic, Lynn Wilbur, Simon Kidd, Tbhotch, Candy chick, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, EmausBot, Klbrain, Slightsmile, Angel Basher, Alfredo ougaowen, HiW-Bot, PS., Misty MH, Wayne Slam, MonoAV, Donner60, DASHBotAV, Special Cases, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Movses-bot, IfYouDoIfYouDon't, Frietjes, Dream of Nyx, CaroleHenson, MerlIwBot, Eat u in, Jeraphine Gryphon, Thewonderofit, PhnomPencil, Mark Arsten, User mj, PetrosB3, Kairan tumaquin, CitationCleanerBot, Editer1337, Vanischenu, Melodychick, BattyBot, Globe Trekker, Moses2012.e, Entryvivid12, Curandera, DanielTom, I am One of Many, Tentinator, Flat Out, DavidLeighEllis, George8211, GreyWinterOwl, CogitoErgoSum14, Babylonortruth, 524003nlr, Richard Yin, Cybersister27, EvilLair, SarahTehCat, WyattAlex, Christophervig, Jacobdaun, Rebaikissell, Patru bogdan, Kilo-echo-lima-victor-india-november, Johnmccrayisadumbass, Baking Soda, Jjlai92 and Anonymous: 249 • Mysticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysticism?oldid=714616884 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, ClaudeMuncey, Mav, Wesley, Eclecticology, Mark Christensen, Danny, Rgamble, Froderik, SimonP, Soulpatch, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Andy Baker, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Ixfd64, Kalki, IZAK, Skysmith, TUF-KAT, Setu, Александър, Kh7, Djnjwd, Evercat, Norwikian, Heidimo, RodC, Charles Matthews, Jwrosenzweig, Andrewman327, Pedant17, Maximus Rex, Jjshapiro, Kkawohl, James Arthur Reed, Topbanana, Joy, Optim, Bcorr, Lumos3, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Chealer, Fredrik, RedWolf, Goethean, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Stewartadcock, Rursus, Texture, Blainster, Sunray, Hadal, Wikibot, Seano1, Mattflaschen, Imma, Zigger, Bradeos Graphon, San de Berg, Maroux, MOBY, Mboverload, Jds, Eequor, Ojl, Harisingh, Lucky 6.9, Mateuszica, Wmahan, Gadfium, Neophile, Andycjp, Jonel, Antandrus, Jossi, Satori, Pmanderson, Trc, ZZyXx, Gary D, Neutrality, Kevin Rector, Shotwell, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, CALR, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, H0riz0n, FT2, Wrp103, Vsmith, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235, Pietzsche, El C, Bobo192, Forteanajones, Jojit fb, VBGFscJUn3, Allenjwsc, Ekhalom, Wayfarer, Ogress, Ramashray, Raj2004, Alansohn, Paradiso, Scarecroe, Clifflandis, DreamGuy, RJII, Ogambear, Kelly Martin, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Havermayer, Uncle G, Kokoriko, Jacobolus, Kzollman, WadeSimMiser, Zelse81, Trapolator, Tabletop, Aaroamal, GalaazV, Palica, Mandarax, RichardWeiss, Graham87, BD2412, Solace098, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Gabrielsimon, PinchasC, Josiah Rowe, Heah, Vegaswikian, FuelWagon, Lostsocks, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Winhunter, John Z, RexNL, Tedder, Fourdee, Jared Preston, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, JoeMystical, Peter G Werner, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Hiyya54, Arado, PWhittle, Hede2000, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar, Wimt, Friday, Nirvana2013, Jgrantduff, Welsh, Midnite Critic, Juggins, Larry laptop, Moe Epsilon, Apeman, Priyanath, AdelaMae, Psican, Trainra, Bmju, Twisturbed Tachyon, Igiffin, Smkolins, J. Van Meter, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, Ogo, Kungfuadam, FAThomssen, Infinity0, Kf4bdy, Tom Morris, Sardanaphalus, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, Amcbride, Narayani~enwiki, Lestrade, McGeddon, Jfurr1981, Eskimbot, Kintetsubuffalo, Pasha Abd, Cool3, Gilliam, Gizmoguy, Universal1300, Holy Ganga, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Stevenwagner, Madmedea~enwiki, Static Universe, BrandonCsSanders, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, Deli nk, Go for it!, Zachorious, Dragice, JFQ, Ig0774, Zambaccian, Nixeagle, Paddel~enwiki, Rrburke, RedHillian, Stangbat, Cybercobra, Daqu, Hoof Hearted, Lcarscad, LoveMonkey, FWadel, Fuzzypeg, Wwwdlhow27, Wisco, DMacks, GourangaUK, GameKeeper, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Nishkid64, John, AC2000, Anapraxic, DLPanther, Makyen, Sharnak, Texas Dervish, Novangelis, Kripkenstein, Hectorian, Drpaluga, MouseRancher, Potashnik, Nehrams2020, Fan-1967, BananaFiend, Iridescent, Libratune, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Greenie2600, JStewart, Sam Li, Thirdgatebaptist, Tawkerbot2, IronChris, ChrisCork, Thedanturner, Patrickwooldridge, CmdrObot, Bridesmill, Amalas, Punanimal, Lighthead, Mak Thorpe, WeggeBot, John courtneidge, Gregbard, Vaquero100, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Metanoid, Evenmadderjon, Steel, Aristophanes68, Peterdjones, Soetermans, Miguel de Servet, Frater5, Psuliin, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, YorkBW, DBaba, Kozuch, Questmaster, Superbeatles, Leonjbrm, Arb, Jonathanbethel, Nhelferty, Lectert, Bigwyrm, Perennial~enwiki, Pacific PanDeist, Tjpob, Logan0703, Nick Number, Leewonbum, Abracadab, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Sobaka, Cacahuate, James Epstein, Julia Rossi, Geokerk, Jayrav, Modernist, Danny lost, Alphachimpbot, Myrddin Masery, Kent Witham, Drhipp, TheGunslinger, Kariteh, JAnDbot, Dinurcenter, Isatay, Ekabhishek, Andonic, Hele 7, Naval Scene, Ophion, Loosestring, BlueRobot~enwiki, Dragonnas, Atulkulki, Magioladitis, Da baum, 1shaman, Mystiq0, Arthur B, Rivertorch, ELinguist, Truthspreader, Presearch, Nposs, Kristinemcole, DerHexer, JaGa, DAVIDY, Pikolas, B9 hummingbird hovering, Arenarax, MartinBot, Nazroon, Kostisl, R'n'B, Earthdenizen, Fconaway, Vanwhistler, J.delanoy, Randerson 3535, BeckyBeck, AstroHurricane001, StevenTCramer, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Cpiral, PhiloNysh, Rmbtm p, Joshuareagan, Bailo26, Tarotcards, Chiswick Chap, Sheiknazim2, Happy138, Rosenknospe, A. Ben-Shema, Andy Marchbanks, Axaladl, Naqshabandi, RJASE1, Myklove, N.B. Miller, VolkovBot, Iosef, TXiKiBoT, Soma77, MysticReaders, Gdzierlenga, DSGruss, ^demonBot2, Mytchill, Tommytocker, Cnilep, M.hayek, Hrafn, Caterinato, WereSpielChequers, Malcolmxl5, Tillmangirl72, Ravensfire, Nullist, David Plum, Theun k, HughJLF, Benny the wayfarer, WickerGuy, ClueBot, Dakinijones, Mild Bill Hiccup, Boing! said Zebedee, Hafspajen, CounterVandalismBot, Michaelchecht, Gavin Kettis!, PixelBot, Ludwigs2, Get2therage, Simon D M, ZuluPapa5, Arjayay, Kippson, SchreiberBike, IamNotU, Yozer1, Johnuniq, Editor2020, Voiceofspirit, VirginiaLou, Lama Ding Dong, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Mitsube, Avoided, Wordwebber, SgtSchumann, WikiDao, Dgreenbergz, Kaldar, Addbot, Queenmomcat, Marcgblainey, Shankara1000, LaaknorBot, Bassbonerocks, Favonian, Konstantinos~enwiki, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Romaioi, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Bunnyhop11, Librsh, Denispir, Raphael26, Dan1138, AnomieBOT, Mauro Lanari, Jim1138, Billegge, Piano non troppo, Cacala17, Citation bot, VedicScience, Eumolpo, Kngwa83, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, FreeRangeFrog, Xqbot, Csfun1, Suddha, Nasnema, DSisyphBot, Headlikeawhole, Gdallaire, Makeswell, Ragityman, J04n, Tenofour, Micione, NancyBrownMiller, ‫تسلیم‬, Wolf Ashkenazi, Dougofborg, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Neonic333, Kirtanman, D'ohBot, Haeinous, Aleister Wilson, Alexisniche, Aditya soni, The kicker, Traben, Sopher99, Perrybrad1, Buddhaamaatya, MolBioMan, Ency456, Dazedbythebell, Trelawnie, PSY7, ImmortalYawn, Vejlefjord, Pollinosisss, Leftsideend, Kered77, Lotje, EliTaz, Dinamik-bot, LilyKitty, 30daysinAK, Lsousek, Bobby122, Woodlot, Blaze1974, BrightBlackHeaven, BastardoTheGreat, Obsidian Soul, RjwilmsiBot, PPdd, EmausBot, Sikander.alis, Jujhar.pannu, Vortexengineer, 8oclockmovement, Rarevogel, Phoenixthebird, ARCitect, Mjerskey, Jrh98409, Unreal7, SporkBot, Tolly4bolly, Jacobisq, Doctorilluminatus, Xchri5o8x, Cincybluffa, ChuispastonBot, DASHBotAV, Manytexts, Sylartk, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Nobody60, Gilderien, Elwin-bennington, Movses-bot, PurpleMundi, Ambkj123, Snotbot, Jogmiers, Kasirbot, Anthony maybury, Rurik the Varangian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Dragenfly, Trismegistus33, Drift chambers, Thehumandignity, CitationCleanerBot, Joshua Jonathan, MrBill3, SympatheticResonance, Docsufi, JEMead, BattyBot, DemirBajraktarevic, Alchohilcsementhrower, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Qexigator, Will I Am CCE, Siggy101, Mogism, Rnacafov, Khunrath1595, Randykitty, Newthoughts34, Cherubinirules, DavidLeighEllis, John.v.Winterhulk, JimRenge, Noyster, Bladesmulti, Juhuyuta, DTPolet, Monkbot, Commie2014, Khabboos, Filedelinkerbot, Poveglia, Ankitapasricha, Isambard Kingdom, Pixarh, RabbiSimeon, March232013, Soulgazer, KasparBot, Wpaul1972, Philosi4 and Anonymous: 570 • Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn?oldid=713944653 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, The Cunctator, Dan~enwiki, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Olivier, Pit~enwiki, Nixdorf, Lquilter, Ihcoyc, Spikey, Robbot, Altenmann, Rursus, Profoss, Alan Liefting, Djinn112, Gzornenplatz, Infinitysnake, Quarl, DenisMoskowitz, Austin Hair, Gary D, Eiserlohpp, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Wadewitz, ESkog, Sunborn, El C, Huntster, Mwanner, Ray Dassen, Gatta, Teorth, Viriditas, Mn extra, Hanuman Das, Arthena, DreamGuy, Denial, Docboat, LFaraone, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Axeman89, Tariqabjotu, Woohookitty, Davidkazuhiro, Rchamberlain, M Alan Kazlev, Jdemarcos, Rjwilmsi, ElKevbo, FlaBot, Somecallmetim, Mathbot, Isotope23, Magicalpath, Vorpal Suds, The One True Fred, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, NTBot~enwiki, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Kauffner, Pigman, Nicke L, Deskana, Kitabparast, Aaron Schulz, Morgan Leigh, Sandstein, Eduard Gherkin, JDspeeder1, Doom127, Draicone,

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

287

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Wu, Bobak, RUL3R, Romarin, Xompanthy, Kyle Barbour, AdelaMae, Morgan Leigh, Psy guy, CorbieVreccan, Alex Law, Dylankidwell, Robotics1, Jcvamp, Morgaine Swann, Jkelly, FF2010, Queezbo, American2, Zzuuzz, Theda, Closedmouth, Pb30, Sicamous, BorgQueen, JoanneB, MrBook, Diddims, Nae'blis, NielsenGW, Pádraic MacUidhir, Nealparr, Ybbor, Katieh5584, Paganpan, NeilN, CIreland, That Guy, From That Show!, Cylon, TechBear, Teo64x, MaeseLeon, SmackBot, AndreniW, Amcbride, Unschool, Malkinann, Prodego, Melchoir, McGeddon, C.Fred, Iopq, SKC, Capike, Diggagal, Cylik, Crimsone, Septegram, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi 先生, Gilliam, Brenton.eccles, Capricornwitch, Lotusduck, Andy M. 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288

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Kim Dent-Brown, BobTheMad, Rivertorch, Dylanj 92, Kingdog334, Brusegadi, Avicennasis, Bubba hotep, TruthScribe, Indon, Vanished user dkjsdfkljeritekk4, Cgingold, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Frotz, Moozer91, Ripogenus77, 3idiot, Fourthcourse, DerHexer, CC80, ForgottenManC, TheRanger, Shiconia, Redsquyrl, Andy4226uk, Phoenix Flower, Arnesh, Voln, Vishvax, STARLRA, Pikolas, Ex.libris.lady, B9 hummingbird hovering, DancingPenguin, Wensday, Paganolive, MartinBot, Bassplayer05, Gibil777, Lisamh, Sowsearsoup, Anima rising, Jred21, Mschel, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Apola, PrestonH, Tgeairn, Artaxiad, J.delanoy, HoichitheEarless, Trusilver, Mikelj, All Is One, Eliz81, Score Under, Ian.thomson, Jarnagin, Gzkn, Mysticknight 33, Damatres, Penguinwithin, Darkspots, LordAnubisBOT, Rammstein Viking, Clerks, Janus Shadowsong, Easdalc1993, Jeepday, LibrarianB, Tarotcards, Amasi 1, Chriswiki, AntiSpamBot, Alexb102072, WHeimbigner, Velps, Fp1969, Marrilpet, SmilesALot, Deepdesert, DadaNeem, Anietor, Abeltio~enwiki, FJPB, AlanBarnet, Idalapwing, Cue the Strings, MagusRobertus, Cometstyles, Paranoid Eyes, Aminullah, Chasclifton, Asteroidz R not planetz, Natl1, Tww2005, Glennwall123, Num1dgen, Ja 62, IceDragon64, HighKing, TheNewPhobia, Martial75, Jefferson Anderson, Dkreisst, CardinalDan, L mannell, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, WWGB, Redtigerxyz, Ahopkins, Fainites, Deor, Amaraiel, Mew Xacata, Oscilation, Booknut56, Itsfullofstars, Indubitably, TheMindsEye, HeckXX, Jorgath, Kyle the bot, Lilwitch606, Dreilyn, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, SirChristdom, Motacilla, PsychicKid1, Vipinhari, TheKeeper81, Kronix1986, Crohnie, Luthaneal, Someguy1221, Steven J. 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Reyes, Isoderberg, WiccaForge-Forgemaster, Jeffery6986897, Seb az86556, Caitlion, MichaelLonewolf, Noformation, Okami13, Wiae, Maxim, KitMarlowe2, Piro-san, Cof123123, Shrivenzale, Andrewaskew, MRaphael68, Bettyg51, Falcon8765, Insane-Contrast, Enviroboy, Purgatory Fubar, Nyo~enwiki, Nick Levinson, Luffmodular, Monty845, HiDrNick, Icebug, Toyalla, IndulgentReader, Esseh, Deconstructhis, Ajbw, Dream Slave, Editmylife, SieBot, Coffee, Ttony21, N601066, Andrarias, Winchelsea, Da Joe, Caltas, Sephiroth storm, Pahuson, Erinwatson, Karonaway, BuzanTheFearless, Jjcoughlin, Stormin' Foreman, Keilana, Wiff&Hoos, Greenman22, Jojalozzo, RomaniGypsyEyes, Oxymoron83, Henry Delforn (old), Faradayplank, KoshVorlon, AnonGuy, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, MetalRed, Harry the Dirty Dog, Yumbuns, Lankfordjl, Wiki-maann, Maelgwnbot, Dickinson56, StaticGull, Cyfal, Franciscoh, Jacklemook, Keeto14, Noosnomis, Drudwyn, Y5nthon5a, Zephon03, Ambrosia374743, Loren.wilton, Hartweg64, ClueBot, Fribbler, Icebugf, Fyyer, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Postmortemjapan, IceUnshattered, Kittyharcourt, Science120mes, Chessy999, Arakunem, TotesBoats, LaRubi, SuperHamster, Skäpperöd, JGrant35, Blanchardb, Pyro1999, Ficbot, Kiriyasha.Mizu, Davidovic, Raeboo328, Runeman11, Gakusha, Coagula, Sirius85, Xel01x, Lpivonka, Gglolkeke, Excirial, Nymf, Goeticgirl, Northernhenge, Lartoven, PineapplesTasteSour, Rhododendrites, Ravenwicca, Vael Victus, Arjayay, Alidiwoo89, Qu1234, Jonjames1986, 7&6=thirteen, Mr manilow, Esimal, Chado2008, Dustpelt96, Rds865, Thingg, Darren23, Aitias, MetaphysicalAwarenessCom, SoxBot III, Editor2020, 1carrottop, Gabrielwhitestone, Lama Ding Dong, Lrotc89, Mydeathnotes, BarretB, XLinkBot, Rangergordon, FloridaJarrett, Wikiuser100, Xeonhart, Square126, Gealach~enwiki, Notsonoble, Whitechocolatemage, Moontrine, Arandia, Ditliv, Dmoore8019, Addbot, Xp54321, Xarlysx, Willking1979, Tcncv, Apoyon, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, -kayac-, The light before dawn, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, Cst17, Freemasonx, Bassbonerocks, Drownyour kiss, Heru32, Debresser, Favonian, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, The Quill, Jrenzulli, Tassedethe, Everglow310, Tide rolls, Baronessvonstrudel, Lightbot, LuK3, Legobot, Folklore1, VictoriaWordNerd, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Senator Palpatine, Ojay123, Salvador Barley, Clíodhna-2, NERVUN, PMDrive1067, BuckwikiPDa535, VoixMortelle, Mustafa Al-Zulfikari, Knownot, AnakngAraw, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, Bbb23, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, Guppyluvr76, Mauro Lanari, Kristen Eriksen, Jim1138, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Piano non troppo, Shoneen, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Sahara1313, Ulric1313, Citation bot, E2eamon, Vanessa8653, Ly12603, RevelationDirect, WishingOne, Apollo, ArthurBot, Hendrixx01, LilHelpa, Capricorn42, BulletSponge624, 4twenty42o, Peterdx, Hippomatotos, Dasparton007, - ), J04n, Call me Bubba, ProtectionTaggingBot, Warlock6368, Carrite, Mathonius, Auréola, Shubinator, Sam22VZ, AMissAdventure, Sophus Bie, Gravycorn, Wolfpeaceful, Xpyreddotcom, Ghrgwbkjbgfrv, 1bh'dfbhi g, Anaiyathoron, Samwb123, KelsoLovesJesus, Sylvjna Freyasdottir, Yankin.Michaine, FrescoBot, 13deathgoddess, Tangent747, MagdaOakewoman, MephYazata, Paine Ellsworth, Pepper, Gråbergs Gråa Sång, Sahara13, Xanisk, Dmbstar14, Rodneyorpheus, Jordan Kerin, Edit9000, Machine Elf 1735, ShadowHunterKurohyou, Aleister Wilson, Kwiki, Island original, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Xxglennxx, Javert, BoleynC, DrilBot, Blackluster117, Pinethicket, Pink Bull, Sbbeef, Cerridwenscauldron, JarredShah, Robin2p, RolandPolk, Skyerise, EDG161, Kungfukats2, JesseGil, C10633, Yukiakasunano, Matiakd, Emma-Idelisa, Bettingonalice12, DrLit, Trappist the monk, ArchiveCarrickfergus, Moscow Connection, Ketchupandmustard, Wyvren, HelenOnline, Lotje, LeapingMonkey, Reaper Eternal, Aiken drum, Stalwart111, Buffbrahma, Melissa.fusther, Kitfoxxe, Eikou, ShelbyMosesFace, C12H22O12, Kilmon3, Nooblet1234514, Fastilysock, Tbhotch, MissWitch, RjwilmsiBot, Joesheehan, Hajatvrc, Shirokuchibara, Agent Smith (The Matrix), Aircorn, Something in the Water, Sbrianhicks, WiccanPride996, Home Aeons Ago, John of Reading, Sophie, C. 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Gillette, Mk5384, Ncsr11, Wiccanmomma665, 4meter4, Bt8257, Tommy2010, Melaniewelch42, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Broju15, Camocon, HannekeQuinn, Brownteam, Cyndrax, PunkyMcPunkersen, Michael Essmeyer, Rimdumdum, Jericho4211, A930913, H3llBot, Fidulario, EWikist, Annihilator1, Efrain Damien, Douchebaggerry, HarryPotter241, Vajra13, Jay-Sebastos, Brandmeister, Dante8, Jcubic, Kary247, Matthewrbowker, Fishheads1998, Blackwood13, Fernando González Sarrenes, Manytexts, Sonicyouth86, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Nobody60, MariannaOfFlorida, FliptheScript9, Tgirlphoenix, Hazhk, Escapepea, PippaPineapple, Silvensis, Morgied, Wiccan101, Widr, Juanataquito, MillingMachine, Kgd1974, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, SueTwo, Jack Samson, Kinaro, Lowercase sigmabot, Earth lover144, BG19bot, Rionxe, Guillaume222333444, Lo Ximiendo, Steve Milburn, WarriorPrincessDanu, PhnomPencil, Anonwuzhere, Fckingmagnets, GoldenValley342, Goldenshimmer, Kirkflip, AndThenTheyRan, AdventurousSquirrel, FoxCE, Dodgegirl44514, Emaly232, VirusKA, Cightrite, Bfugett, Spacehopper509, Loveiskindest, Lucky7twn, Glacialfox, MrFixItWitch, Matbelata, TBrandley, Shirudo, Russianamerican1, Aisteco, WiccanPride, Menhire, Factualeditor, Bradyculous, Adams2487, Zoeysixx, Char4774, KhabarNegar, Puppy85899, Tonyxc600, Ladylafay, Brira, Mikerrr, Smedly1, Smedly2, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Annie Evol14, Somerandompagan, Schwert von Feuer, Dexbot, Dominus1, Webclient101, Kirky.russell, Trudog00, Chickenwingadingafingdfskgjl, Lugia2453, Kobraclash, Todaer, Sowlos, Stewwie, Wicky0905, Charnorton, Cathry, Razibot, Kyle94ellis, Southernwitch, Ekips39, Faizan, Littlewindow, IvyAmethyst, Beholder of the Truth, Pkanella, JamesMoose, ChiChi17, Gerald Ryder, Changeistheonlyconstant, Hoppeduppeanut, Tsaopao, DavidLeighEllis, Kharkiv07, Frednotbob, Purpleriverbends, KnickySnicks, Monadial, LadyStarChilde, Ethereal Static, LuckyLeprechaun, Willspurs99, Verena wolfbane, Lagoset, Ingram52, Monkbot, LadyZelda, Okimhyper, Frenchy28, Axel2017, 16antoney, Funnybæ, MitchtheWitch, Herpzaderp, Baileyanthony1234, FursuitYiff, Sammie 0217, Caseyjones134, Ilovethegays, McLoviing, HikariUchiha01, ReddBeliever, Conspirasee1, Inactiveedit, Scrubbydub, Mordechai the conducting jew, Anonmous12, TaqPol, Learner731, Swagdadddy2k10, Wicca much, Jlt1210, Tashytash, Wiccamybutt, NuadaArgeitlam, Pinkboarder9, Therileyman, Gateofhorn, TheDaedraGamer, Resful.thomas, Catbecket, LukeArOres and Anonymous: 1990 • Spirituality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality?oldid=715196696 Contributors: Mav, Wesley, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, Ortolan88, Heron, Chris Q, Stevertigo, Quintessent, Nealmcb, Liftarn, Gabbe, Cybercavalier, Dori, Charles Matthews, Greenrd, Pedant17, Maximus Rex, Martinphi, Kkawohl, Fvw, Optim, Jusjih, Lumos3, Huangdi, Robbot, Chocolateboy, Moondyne, Goethean, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Ashley Y, Stewartadcock, Blainster, Sunray, Hadal, TPK, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Barbara Shack, Wikilibrarian, Tom harrison, Acampbell70, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, No Guru, NeoJustin, Mboverload, Bluejay Young, Dirtbiscuit, Eequor, Wmahan, Andycjp, CryptoDerk, Beland, OverlordQ, MacGyverMagic, Kevin B12, Haisch, Gscshoyru, Gary D, Mike Rosoft, Chris Howard, Jayjg, Venu62, CALR, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, H0riz0n, FT2, Freestylefrappe, Dbachmann, Aliman, Stereotek, Bender235, El C,

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

289

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CHAPTER 23. SOUL

Mike2000~enwiki, A876, Cory Kohn, Languagehat, Frater5, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Avazina, Keraunos, The Proffesor, E. Ripley, Notmyrealname, Nick Number, Libertyernie2, Escarbot, Cladeal832, Cstreet, Fayenatic london, Mack2, Cherylyoung, Dfitzgerald, JAnDbot, Deflective, Arch dude, Albany NY, Dirdum, Sam Medany, Indon, Franktaveras, JaGa, PRMerkley, Kkrystian, B9 hummingbird hovering, GoldenMeadows, Anaxial, R'n'B, Jarhed, J.delanoy, Nived 90, Siryendor, Skier Dude, Themoodyblue, Evb-wiki, Andy Marchbanks, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Mbaudier, Rei-bot, Donatus, Llamabr, Hasta Nakshatra, Transitive Sam, ^demonBot2, P M Yonge, Synthebot, MCTales, Munci, Bym007, Kbrose, Botev, SieBot, Kwork, Adrianhaight, Sakkura, WRK, Davidbanuelos, Phalanxpursos, Strike Freedom Gundam, Robertcurrey, OKBot, JohnSawyer, Vice regent, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Angelo De La Paz, Vanhorn, Mr. Granger, ClueBot, Dwgatewood, Chris Bainbridge, Cpq29gpl, Parkwells, TypoBoy, Piledhigheranddeeper, SamuelTheGhost, CohesionBot, Star Mississippi, Gobeshock Gobochondro Gyanotirtho, Estirabot, Simon D M, Vegetator, 7, JoyUnspeakable, Versus22, Yozer1, Editor2020, RustDragon, XLinkBot, Quenstedt, Borock, The Rationalist, Iranway, Addbot, LaaknorBot, BepBot, Lihaas, Favonian, CuteHappyBrute, Konstantinos~enwiki, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Legobot, Middayexpress, Yobot, Legobot II, Dam59, Estudiarme, EnochBethany, Nallimbot, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Mann jess, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, The sock that should not be, DrGuled, Smk65536, Gilo1969, Tad Lincoln, Albert Non, Omnipaedista, Mattis, Patrick Faas, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Machine Elf 1735, Artifice242, Talcos, HelenOnline, Kitfoxxe, PleaseStand, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, Zujine, EmausBot, Laryaghat, PBS-AWB, Bilpen, SporkBot, Someone65, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Prioryman, Passignano, Widr, Cognate247, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, JohnChrysostom, MusikAnimal, Reviewer17, Compfreak7, Atomician, Joydeep, AnEyeSpy, HMman, JEMead, SlingPro, MeanMotherJr, Nicrorus, JBrown23, Nathanielfirst, Soni, FoCuSandLeArN, Hmainsbot1, RupJana, Belobogist, Foonarres, Rupert loup, Mark viking, Epicgenius, Chris96706, Yasashiku, Tinnb, ProtossPylon, Cherubinirules, Redplain, Heirspecks, SJ Defender, Nuren411, Zambelo, Mdalspaugh, Meticulo, AsteriskStarSplat, BrandenburgG, Radicalpilgrim, 468SM, RuneMan3, Farhanhanz, Tibboy59 and Anonymous: 288 • New Age Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Age?oldid=714782433 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, The Epopt, The Cunctator, Lee Daniel Crocker, BF, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Timo Honkasalo, Stephen Gilbert, F. Lee Horn, Ed Poor, RK, Larry Sanger, Alex.tan, BenBaker, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Isomorph, PierreAbbat, Fubar Obfusco, SJK, Zoe, Tzartzam, Hephaestos, Quercusrobur, Olivier, Chris Q, Stevertigo, Edward, RTC, Chas zzz brown, Michael Hardy, JakeVortex, Lexor, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Sannse, CesarB, ArnoLagrange, Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, Angela, Salsa Shark, Poor Yorick, Tristann9, Andres, Evercat, Etaoin, Heidimo, RodC, Dino, Wik, Furrykef, Martinphi, Mir Harven, Omegatron, Hoopes, Shizhao, Warofdreams, Jerzy, Lumos3, Calieber, Phil Boswell, ChrisG, Vespristiano, Donreed, Goethean, Modulatum, Blanka~enwiki, Nilmerg, Rholton, Laney, Sunray, MrNatural-Health, Hadal, UtherSRG, Wikibot, JackofOz, Wereon, Wayland, David Gerard, Psb777, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Andries, Barbara Shack, Nat Krause, Luis Dantas, BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Wighson, Timeship, Bfinn, Bradeos Graphon, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Anville, Jfdwolff, DO'Neil, Alensha, Mboverload, Bluejay Young, Eequor, Jrdioko, Heysup420, Mporch, Gadfium, LordSimonofShropshire, Andycjp, CryptoDerk, Antandrus, Onco p53, Loremaster, Jossi, Fredpenner, The Land, Bodnotbod, Gscshoyru, ArcticFrog, Gary D, Iamblichus, Mennonot, N-k, Porges, CALR, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Nuview, Xgenei, Antaeus Feldspar, Dbachmann, Martpol, Bender235, MattTM, Mashford, JoeSmack, El C, Marcok, CDN99, Bobo192, Nigelj, Ray Dassen, Smalljim, Flxmghvgvk, Skywalker, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Jonathunder, Ekhalom, Psyche~enwiki, Apoc2400, Walkerma, DreamGuy, ClockworkSoul, Capntastic, Jesvane, LFaraone, Sfacets, T3gah, Slburson, Aliceinlampyland, Ceyockey, Preost, MickWest, Angr, Jak86, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Alex Kennedy, JeremyA, Jeff3000, Bruce Cabot, SCEhardt, Frungi, Zzyzx11, M Alan Kazlev, Laurap414, Xiong Chiamiov, Gimboid13, Liface, Essjay, Farhansher, Allen3, Ashmoo, Graham87, BD2412, LanguageMan, GrundyCamellia, Grammarbot, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Koavf, Erebus555, Bill37212, Amire80, Xosé, Ligulem, GreyHead, Bubba73, Sparklelight1, Nandesuka, FlavrSavr, Spiritdude~enwiki, Titoxd, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Chris Pressey, Latka, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, Harmil, Whateley23, Alberrosidus, Valermos, Babel41, Brianmacian, GreyCat, Imnotminkus, Perchta, Butros, A.Warner, Chobot, Sharkface217, Random user 39849958, Wavelength, Borgx, Deeptrivia, RussBot, WAvegetarian, Hede2000, Azlib77, Pigman, Kimberry352, SpuriousQ, HVH, Akamad, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Mkbnett, Nirvana2013, Grafen, Chick Bowen, Bloodofox, Nadirsofar, Deemo, Długosz, Justin Eiler, Aesculapius75, SirWoland, Mccready, Irishguy, Vizjim, Aaron Brenneman, Da van"duh"lizer, Halloween jack, Priyanath, Harami2000, CorbieVreccan, Maunus, Black Falcon, Jkelly, 2over0, RDF, Clocke, GraemeL, CWenger, Ilmari Karonen, Allens, Red Darwin, Kingboyk, Fadamsxii, That Guy, From That Show!, Luk, Sardanaphalus, FieryPhoenix, Veinor, BonsaiViking, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, McGeddon, Voltius, Roberto Cruz, Batman Jr., Scifiintel, Eaglizard, Cdanes4217, Septegram, JFHJr, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Kmarinas86, Lapsus Linguae, Bluebot, Basejumper123~enwiki, ZETAZEN, Crashmatrix, Jprg1966, Thumperward, SonOfNothing, Snori, Andrew Parodi, Jon513, Kenjiro~enwiki, SchfiftyThree, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Bigbear590, Yari, Mladifilozof, Scwlong, Farseer, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Smallbones, Michael.Pohoreski, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, JonasRH, MisterCharlie, Dreadstar, RandomP, BullRangifer, Hgilbert, Wwwdlhow27, Jklin, GourangaUK, Wikipedical, Will Beback, Askbombay, The Ungovernable Force, Ginar, Dandelion1, Wtwilson3, Piekarnia, Metaholist, Gobonobo, Tim Q. Wells, BoosterBronze, JohnWittle, Redherring, Ckatz, Trounce, Funnybunny, Midnightblueowl, Foolishben, DabMachine, Vanished user, Iridescent, K, Pegasus1138, PetaRZ, Courcelles, Gco, Switchercat, JForget, Onam, CmdrObot, Patchouli, TheEditrix, Amalas, Scohoust, Matthew Auger, Dgw, Robert James~enwiki, Mr Pumblechook, Pro bug catcher, Gregbard, Ekajati, Equendil, Ntsimp, Peterdjones, Gogo Dodo, Bellerophon5685, Jayen466, Tawkerbot4, Quibik, Alexnye, Shirulashem, Doug Weller, Chris Henniker, Kugland, SummonerMarc, FromanylanD, David Fahey, Keraunos, Headbomb, Mrmrbeaniepiece, Geoser, Escarbot, Apantomimehorse, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Sobaka, Goldenrowley, Fayenatic london, C. M. Harris, Bdean1963, Puppypupdog, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, Kat'n'Yarn, Aurumsolis, Geneisner, Spiritualone, Nthep, Fetchcomms, Grant Gussie, Copy Editor, Ikanreed, Leolaursen, Snowynight, Marcuswebb@aol.com, Nurturingtouchsf, Magioladitis, Swikid, VoABot II, SineWave, Chamomille, Interversal, PelleSmith, I JethroBT, KConWiki, WhatamIdoing, Mtd2006, Cisum.ili.dilm, David Eppstein, JaGa, Coffeepusher, WLU, Kayau, ClansOfIntrigue, Keith D, Tha Drummer4HIM, The Anonymous One, Tgeairn, RockMFR, Joeperez69, BigrTex, EmmaRen, Rlsheehan, Tikiwont, All Is One, Keesiewonder, Burkbraun, Tokyogirl79, Relytor, Anneh2803, Arion 3x3, ToxicAllure, Ashra enchantments, TomasBat, Low Sea, DadaNeem, Toon05, Jorfer, Dubhe.sk, Prhartcom, Cometstyles, Ams411, S (usurped also), Squids and Chips, Cloverkitty, Remi0o, VolkovBot, Mew Xacata, Hersfold, Jeff G., JohnBlackburne, AlnoktaBOT, Philip Trueman, Law Lord, Cosmic Latte, Xenophrenic, Malinaccier, Java7837, Vipinhari, Miranda, Angel2000~enwiki, Marcellomotmail.com, Lradrama, Tujn, Pennstatephil, Breathing Prosperity, Slysplace, Terrymacro, ACEOREVIVED, Aphilo, Nazar, Parsifal, Anonymomr, Gillyweed, Docleaf, Synthebot, Ziphon, Lova Falk, Falcon8765, VanishedUserABC, Kaori, Chuuwugaguy, Qworty, ScottPetullo, Hrafn, Vcjvkj, Jon33, SieBot, StAnselm, Abetasman, BotMultichill, Starfish1014, Proevolution48, Yintan, Revent, Happysailor, Radon210, Hxhbot, Oxymoron83, TheOuterLimits, Scorpion451, Robertcurrey, Lightmouse, Aranshaw, Ph787, Yt7878, Ply677, Pr25, Dolcevita56, Por6766, Adieu78, London67, Vice regent, Jongleur100, Nefariousski, Linda, Tesi1700, Tradereddy, Bowei Huang 2, Pl787, I got graapes, Escape Orbit, LarRan, Randy Kryn, EPadmirateur, Someone the Person, ClueBot, Dakinijones, XenaLite, Daffydavid, CiudadanoGlobal, Pi zero, TheOldJacobite, DanielDeibler, Smithgiant, Cirt, Aua, Neurolanis, Foreveryellowskies, Highdozen, Sun Creator, Daveroo69, NuclearWarfare, PerennialPhilosophy, Maranges, 7&6=thirteen, Brianboulton, Jack-A-Roe, The Baroness of Morden, New earth11, Fuggle, Lucyintheskywithdada, Indopug, DumZiBoT, Semitransgenic, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Kwork2, Christ10, Ism schism, Borock, Azhagiya Tamilmagan, Spiderjeru, The Rational-

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

291

ist, Mariamartelli, The Neutral Zone, Monsoonique, UhOhFeeling, Addbot, Grayfell, C6541, DOI bot, Rich jj, EjsBot, Blethering Scot, Cst17, Shankara1000, MrOllie, Redheylin, Favonian, LemmeyBOT, AtheWeatherman, Verbal, Lightbot, CrisBCT, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, AadaamS, Yobot, Lauyukpui, Terrifictriffid, Titofuego, Downstage right, Shiningdove, Raphael26, South Bay, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Yfitcnas, Rubinbot, Piano non troppo, Mann jess, Dr funnybone, Materialscientist, Elmmapleoakpine, Citation bot, NancyAZ, Paul Quigley, ArthurBot, Xqbot, The Banner, Nova Weaver, AbigailAbernathy, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Manuelt15, Artelove33, Cekli829, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Pskjk3, Machine Elf 1735, Aleister Wilson, SynTaxCollector, Mew Xacata (Raven), Naturalistic, A. 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DerHexer, Dunkenud, Joelnewton, Nuiop, Nevit, Pax:Vobiscum, Devant, Jonomacdrones, Niente21, Zahakiel, MartinBot, Mayor Beauregard, Tholly, Abdurrahman.meda, Kateshortforbob, CommonsDelinker, CKnapp, AlexiusHoratius, Tabithacat, Gunkarta, LedgendGamer, EdBever, Heavilymental, J.delanoy, Brian Joseph Morgan, Gotyear, EmmaRen, Neutron Jack, Rrostrom, Steveo1212, Peter Chastain, Uncle Dick, MoogleEXE, Jesant13, Knit0004, Jerry, AVX, Ian.thomson, Jason.McBratney, Snigglefritz, Silkenflower, Michaelgotta, Johnbod, McSly, Lucy Skywalker, Gadianton, Lady of Versailles, Lamb of god tonight, Mrg3105, Matthardingu, Zerokitsune, Rosenknospe, Gabrielkfl, Minesweeper.007, Sukkoth Qulmos, Blckavnger, Wkey, Cometstyles, Smw543, OrganicAtom, Messenger777, Vanished user 39948282, DorganBot, Bonadea, MishaPan, Ja 62, Icecold7, CardinalDan, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Aidoflight, Efgardiner, ACSE, Black Kite, Posita, Deor, VolkovBot, Transmexico, Macedonian, Jeff G., Indubitably, Hearingitman, Philip Trueman, RRKennison, Maximillion Pegasus, Dblankfeld, Stephbaker, Java7837, A4bot, GDonato, OrionArioch, Ann Stouter, Jynx-Me, Andreas Kaganov, Steven J. Anderson, Lradrama, Sintaku, Martin451, ServantOfYahweh, Dlae, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Noformation, Cremepuff222, Bearian, Duncan.harley, Saturn star, Mazarin07, Msr iaidoka, Pam55, Hooger~enwiki, Zubairno1, Falcon8765, VanishedUserABC, Robinthehood2, Thanatos666, Corvokarasu, Ignacio Bibcraft, Telogen, Bobo The Ninja, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Dazzere, Mayakid, EmxBot, Rampa Zinuru, Hrafn, Imalachi, Thw1309, MatthewTStone, SieBot, Caulde, Gray0013, Caltas, Jimmyswift, Smsarmad, Sephiroth storm, Nickols k, Barliner, Ckikendall, NewDreams2, Keilana, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Poopfaceman, Oxymoron83, Baseball Bugs, Aspects, GaryColemanFan, Admitbooks~enwiki, WacoJacko, RyanParis, Marclipshitz, BenoniBot~enwiki, Smmps1, Lauracs, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Lehasa, Superdorito~enwiki, GiveItSomeThought, Sean.hoyland, Florentino floro, MattCyan, JL-Bot, Maxschmelling, Foundation Studios, TheCatalyst31, Invertzoo, Romit3, Lethesl, ClueBot, Victor Chmara, PipepBot, Theoson, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Xav71176, Metaprimer, Munk3ie5, Anxituh, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, UserDoe, Mild Bill Hiccup, Rluginbill, Timberframe, Hafspajen, Kristamaranatha, Rich Uncle Skeleton, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Arunsingh16, SamuelTheGhost, Mike0001, Twlight532, Leeheonjin, Saphius, Bukwild, Featherman030, Excirial, Crywalt, Robbie098, Eeekster, Bursck, Gulmammad, Free chiru, ParisianBlade, Coinmanj, A pyrate's life for me..., Cenarium, Jotterbot, Unknown720, Ngebendi, AllenHansen, Ostalocutanje, Warrior4321, SchreiberBike, Thehelpfulone, Rui Gabriel Correia, Unmerklich, Bald Zebra, Chizzlemanizzle, Thingg, Natet16, Florinisgreat, Sanddune777, Wikiblowsfart, Fsxpilot1, Apparition11, Editor2020, Mavericstud9, ClanCC, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, Mikegonz, XLinkBot, Cminard, Ost316, Little Mountain 5, Rreagan007, Charles Sturm, Mitch Ames, Vatoloso, WikHead, Calakmul2003, NellieBly, Alexius08, Grimz007, LatinLuv14, Marionleenor, Good Olfactory, Airplaneman, Marklar2007, UniversalPhilosophy, Leonini, Moosedavid, Viewy, Addbot, ERK, Kevyremmy, Some jerk on the Internet, Jafeluv, Tcncv, JonahloveshisAngel, Zahd, SpellingBot, Tanhabot, Ronhjones, Doctormanhattan, Tbizarro, Twinkie eater91, Swiveler, Achleegh, Cst17, Redheylin, PranksterTurtle, Glane23, AndersBot, Debresser, Favonian, LemmeyBOT, Tassedethe, Cora and Clarice, Marion Knows Best, Tulta, Tide rolls, Bfigura's puppy, Steve1947, Wikibatman, MuZemike, Bermicourt, Angeliccare, Ani100, Matt.T, Flyingflags2, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dr. MFL, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Hatchepsut, Bigtophat, EnochBethany, Trinityheavens, Skowog, Matanya, Baconforlife, Gerald T. Fernandez-Mayfield, AnomieBOT, Zgemmek, Floquenbeam, Jim1138, IRP, John.Longanecker, Ipatrol, AdjustShift, LlywelynII, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Ahmdnmr, Hunnjazal, E2eamon, Shech736, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, TinucherianBot II, Kjb07, Cureden, Addihockey10, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Nasnema, Mononomic, Laocoont, GenQuest, Dicekilla999, Wiblinbotes, Gilo1969, 661kts, Jmundo, Tomwsulcer, Coretheapple, Village Idiot Sabant, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Hi878, Osiris870, Micione, Iceheart95, ShandiArchuleta, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Guardaiinalto, GorgeCustersSabre, RibotBOT, Wikifixerz, Kesaloma, Brochan, Amaury, Angelathea, Basharh, Doulos Christos, Sha3sha3y, Dodder0, Shadowjams, Hornymanatee, Squishyguy101, Elijahwork, Hersfold tool account, XRealistX, Saikamalchand88, Anirishwoman, FrescoBot, Angelwriter123, Mrthekid97, Louca perdida, AlexanderKaras, Crystabyrd, Anantajmera, Gejay, Spott87, Markeilz, HJ Mitchell, Solaricon, DivineAlpha, Cannolis, Citation bot 1, MarB4, DrilBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Schmeater, Buddhaamaatya, Per Ardua, 10metreh, LinDrug, Yahia.barie, Hadalj, ReaverFlash, Tuopuo, Austin1235, December21st2012Freak, Rajo Firman, Trappist the monk, Diligentdave, Lotje, Vrenator, UnL1M1T3d, रोहित रावत, Paradisevalleycampground, Djbmd777, Elfindesign, Defender of torch, Lynn Wilbur, Stukoo, Tbhotch, Sideways713, Bricaniwi, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Amandarin101, Jfmantis, Mean as custard, Kamikaze chicken, Peaceworld111, MikaylaAnneCurtis, In ictu oculi, Wintonian, Doug Webber, Djmdutch11, Mrcubfan415, Sliceofmiami, Enegizer, Spontaneouscombustion, Cxdrizzy, Seraphim'sZephyr, Ka2uya2ep, Unacorda, Vasambrano, Cartermlb, Philippez, Dewritech, Ibbn, Racerx11, GoingBatty, RA0808, Stregamama, GigaWatts2k, Slightsmile, Angel Basher, Wikipelli, Koryds2008, Chrissieastell, Evanh2008, Mia1117, AvicBot, Jamierichardson, ZéroBot, Mutomana, John Cline, Daonguyen95, MykeO92, Chris beaver, ReySquared, Dshill234, Allforrous, Sasan700, The Nut, Mrvshus, Elimas2509, Dada Chandra Ramadhan, Wayne Slam, Supernatural101, Ben Ammi, Thine Antique Pen, Brandmeister, L Kensington, MCSKY, Donner60, PipI79, Jcubic, Tht890, Subrata Roy, ChuispastonBot, MasrRasha, Labargeboy, Senator2029, Herk1955, DASHBotAV, Shi Hou, Aequitas2010, Ubaid773, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, This lousy T-shirt, BallroomBlitzkriegBebop, Decepticon1, Bped1985, Mmtaylormd, MasriDefend, Misterenclopedia, Cntras, Twillisjr, O.Koslowski, Future777, Dream of Nyx, Mannanan51, Samsqky, Widr, Telpardec, Iplaywithwiki, Gubbler46, Januarythe18th, LeGypsie, JCGregg00, North Atlanticist Usonian, Savsavsav, Helpful Pixie Bot, Boredinibca, DBigXray, Superbrain1999, Charmlegal212, BG19bot, God123456, JeBonSer, Crazykiwi95, Pharaoh69a, Wasbeer, PTJoshua, Alio122000, Oneforthebooks, PyonS7, Wikikid666, Wiki13, RobLandau, MusikAnimal, DarkCorrectioner, Solomon7968, Bella sofia, Mark Arsten, ReformedArsenal, Cadiomals, Dmarvel, North911, Jordankoch, Snow Blizzard, Oct13, Julianvoss, Excalibursword, Red Rose 13, Conifer, Remington861, Melodychick, BattyBot, Uncleremus94, Octapusxft, Eanjoseph, Rordog23, Griot-de, 27yidio2, Melenc, Torvalu4, MadCowpoke, 1Angelika, Alex.smythe, Orton789, Michael A Bekoff, Mr. Guye, Mogism, Viewmont Viking, Angelscall, Lugia2453, Yamjisaka, Frosty, Harpalkang, Daffa Akbar Aprilio, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Ibrahim ebi, Buggatti22, Spirts, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Rupert loup, Slumdogoo, MarchOrDie, Faizan, Lemnaminor, Chaoyangopterus, Frank1926, Melonkelon, Lfdder, Markseasigh, RonPainter, TheRealCGC, Jayroo96, NiallHoransPrincess, Jr8825, QPT, Dick and dom, 296.x, Babitaarora, Presentime, Monochrome Monitor, Glaisher, Whitenicka, Manul, Kind Tennis Fan, Mediator ram, MagicatthemovieS, GreyWinterOwl, Stamptrader, Snowsuit Wearer, Angracel, Ihateelephants, AveryJean, Firstplacewhovian, Intercricket, Aetgar, Stormmeteo, Pandorabox722, Trollface131313, Hasan289, Monkbot, Guiablack, Joaquin jimenez, HelpfulArticals, Angel984010, Zkhannno1, LUNG E.R.LG SALVATORY, Biblioworm, Gibril77, Boyinra, Aluracein82, AsteriskStarSplat, Jwdoctrine, Celtic hammer 408, Bar Shsuhan, Liance, Thydoctor311, Gonzales John, Jaybello, Jude00, Firebeast87012, Djaria0118, H3athheerrrr, Mishacollin, Godsy, Avrand6, Zortwort, Esabine, Amelia Bearheart, Zabeekhan90, Toanga, Kevinbergie, Wishva de Silva, KasparBot, Immakingthisasajoke, Wikibwiki, Fartalotlollipopsxk, Nice200000, Muke af always1010, Littlelondonlester, Mikey'sunicorn, Trymankind, Patru bogdan, GSS-1987, 12angelj, Zshannond, DatGuy, Emily 611, Allthefoxes, Karlfonza, Jimesta, Annnonyyyymoussss, Nettiest, JustTryintobeJust, MyosIsdabest, Wolffeywolf, Castielgripsme, Zack42069, Satanlover666dsl, The real woodster, GreenessItself, Castielforlife and Anonymous: 1488 • Astrology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology?oldid=713946515 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross, Sodium, Lee Daniel Crocker, JvaGoddess, Eloquence, Dan~enwiki, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, AstroNomer, Gareth Owen, RK, Zunbot, Eclecticology, Shii, Apollia, Heron, Mintguy, Montrealais, Modemac, Someone else, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Alan Peakall, Kwertii, Fred Bauder, Dante Alighieri, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Chuck SMITH, Tannin, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Two16, Cyde, AlexR, Alfio, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Mkweise, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Glenn, Chimpa, Andres, Je-

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

293

andré du Toit, Jonik, Yngwin, Cardsharque, LordK, Vroman, Tom Peters, Valluvan~enwiki, Novum, Timwi, Dino, Timc, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Ed g2s, Samsara, Ardeo, Optim, Rbellin, Wetman, Jusjih, Johnleemk, SimonWarcup, Jeffq, Lumos3, Shantavira, Jason Potter, Nufy8, Robbot, Moriori, Fredrik, Zandperl, Jotomicron, WormRunner, Stephan Schulz, Lowellian, Ashley Y, PedroPVZ, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Hemanshu, Texture, Blainster, Humus sapiens, Rasmus Faber, Hadal, Wikibot, Nerval, Borislav, Raeky, HaeB, Xanzzibar, Cyrius, Wayland, Spellbot, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Centrx, Philwiki, Zuytdorp Survivor, Mousomer, Spazzm, Wolfkeeper, Nunh-huh, Tom harrison, Doovinator, Art Carlson, Fastfission, Aphaia, Monedula, Acampbell70, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, OldManCoyote, Curps, Michael Devore, FeloniousMonk, Niteowlneils, Duncharris, Guanaco, Alensha, Crag, Finn-Zoltan, Prosfilaes, Matthead, Brockert, Gzornenplatz, Pne, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, RayTomes, ALargeElk, Wmahan, Neilc, Gadfium, Pamri, 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dianLinuxUser, Rtrrt, Diptanshu.D, Miladt, Jim10701, Favonian, Doniago, Arousingeyehole, Valravn, Dayewalker, Jonnysonthespot, Tide rolls, Verbal, Guyonthesubway, Jarble, DaveChild, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pink!Teen, Macalves, Nbb0ffice, TaBOT-zerem, LNchic, Victor Dorantes, Jan Arkesteijn, Fulcanelli, Amble, Latacash999, Anypodetos, Horsechestnut, Azcolvin429, Againme, Gokulayur, MinorProphet, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, MEKILOOLOO, Tryptofish, Quangbao, Bsimmons666, Rsokhi, Jim1138, Kakarot 9517634, Galoubet, Shock Brigade Harvester Boris, Piano non troppo, Edwinhubbel, Self-ref, Kingpin13, Joy10, Pendimethalin, Mann jess, Visakavel, Rajeshwaranand, Linkin park for gb, Mrspalmreader, Citation bot, UnnaturalSelection, Lolx23lol, Davidgutierrezalvarez, Paul Quigley, LilHelpa, Marshallsumter, Xqbot, Valheed, JimVC3, Bihco, Nfr-Maat, Revels4454, Horoworld, The Evil IP address, Crzer07, GrouchoBot, Starjack, Indya1000, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Thirdeye99, Bellerophon, The www www, Blink 2008, Grfpopl, Aquageek 22, Doulos Christos, MakeSense64, Shadowjams, Aaron Kauppi, Sohan113, SD5, TehShyster, Bwalls93, Terra angelica, FreeKnowledgeCreator, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Hamdello, Gråbergs Gråa Sång, StaticVision, Recognizance, CapitalElll, Wcs187, WhatWasDone, Haeinous, Greenboite, Citation bot 1, Peterstrempel, Dlc.usa, Rameshguru, Gaba p, Pinethicket, Andrei Rublev, DTMGO, NiceGuyEduardo, Yahia.barie, Skyerise, RedBot, Serols, Grungey baby, FormerIP, Apagogeron, Sengupta6931, Pomoblackbird, Leasnam, Astrosutraindia, Removedbelow, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Someot, Bzzzzzzzzster, Vrenator, Leonid 2, MisterTin, Usability 3, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Nederlandse Leeuw, Astromaze, Onel5969, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Jimmy5466, Ripchip Bot, Mishabogic, Becritical, DASHBot, EmausBot, JohnnyJr, John of Reading, Philippe Ginouillac, Dominus Vobisdu, SummitFreeze, Griswaldo, Syncategoremata, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Ellenlongo, Werieth, AvicBot, Sinhala Jyotishaya, LuzoGraal, Checkingfax, Other Choices, Sgerbic, Ocaasi, Intelligentqa, Sbmeirow, TyA, Jembooth, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Deutschgirl, Donner60, Inka 888, Polisher of Cobwebs, Expertricky, Nmaxcom, AndyTheGrump, Fdearmas, ClamDip, Xpaulk, LikeLakers2, Teapeat, DASHBotAV, Santbetra, Mmpant, Amitsystem, ClueBot NG, Erik Lönnrot, Avoratio, Satellizer, Chesseball97, Dr.Siju, Masteryorlando, Jbhunley, Cmicovich, Movses-bot, Quantamflux, WhatProbablyKnow, Amitranjanamit, Moneya, O.Koslowski, Huxtopic, Erekint, James Chamberlan, Widr, Costmary, Gary PH, Helpful Pixie Bot, Martin Berka, Curb Chain, Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, Nashhinton, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Vagobot, ArtifexMayhem, Sharks554, Kaltenmeyer, OpenMind, Frze, Coaster92, Solomon7968, Mark Arsten, StarLightPiazza, Minerva20, Toccata quarta, WP Editor 2011, Ninewind, Neckbrace, Givedarkkk, Risingstar12, Angry Python, Zedshort, Alarbus, Haidam, Loriendrew, Rafkha86, Achowat, Wikitrololo, Sidewalkvendor, BattyBot, Dharmaruci, Brianbryant, Darylgolden, Csamschick, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Saedon, Tdonelson, Echosthefall, EagerToddler39, 12text12, Dandylian, TippyGoomba, Thoross, Lugia2453, Scepticalidealist, Jamesx12345, Iamamm, Doctor Girl, PebblesMeow, Jilethemile, Hillbillyholiday, Fzvarun, Vedicfolks, BreakfastJr, Julian Felsenburgh, François Robere, Macadoods, ZarhanFastfire, Pottage99, Der zukünftige Führer von Amerika, Garryj145, Rampratapbishnoi, Vashikaran11, IM-yb, Anuragblogger, Anarcham, Bladesmulti, Cantelo, Kartikay1955, Ankit4321, History by Christians, CyberSeraph, Kathrinalewis, Suelru, 7Sidz, Shan2014, VanishedUser000000000, Monkbot, K.J.Grey, Second Quantisation, Edwardjones2320, VinceCarter32, Astrochologist13, Jackk Slattery, DarkMystik1, Rzvas, Zach bender, Macofe, Amortias, Outlookc, Signedzzz, Aluracein82, Vishal4092832, Jlakshminarayan, Searchingsachin, VeNeMousKAT, Pixal Storm, Bernalicious, Mikey McNeilly, Khgtcv, StanfordLinkBot, Isambard Kingdom, Arctos889, Jason.nlw, Astrologyjunction, UnknownBungHole, Faisalwani, Jerodlycett, KasparBot, Gegacha, Arunprakash1990, CAPTAIN RAJU, Astrologer 8284988896, Astrologer+91-8284988896 in jalandhar, 12thdimension12, Scorpius1975, Png4lyfe, Thebriggs, Outedexits, Astrologer Seth Morris, Uttertrash, Silva1978, Jdecuffa, Vishnu123teja, Goodhealthify and Anonymous: 1116 • Soul Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul?oldid=714846947 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Derek Ross, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ed Poor, RK, BenBaker, Danny, SimonP, Heron, Hephaestos, Elian, Stevertigo, Spiff~enwiki, Lir, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Llywrch, Asereje, Islandboy99, Karada, Kistaro, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Ijon, Usedbook, Glenn, BenKovitz, Poor Yorick, Rob Hooft, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Dyss, Peter Damian (original account), Charles Matthews, EmphasisMine, Fuzheado, Selket, Pedant17, Martinphi, Dogface, Mir Harven, Scott Sanchez, George m, Bearcat, Nufy8, RedWolf, Naddy, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Mayooranathan, Mirv, Babbage, Ashley Y, Texture, Meelar, UtherSRG, Benc, Johnstone, Xanzzibar, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Gtrmp, Nat Krause, Wolfkeeper, Aphaia, Jorend, Niteowlneils, Alensha, 20040302, Gracefool, Eequor, Falcon Kirtaran, Brockert, Rparle, Kukkurovaca, Ragib, Slurslee, Gyrofrog, Wmahan, Chowbok, Gadfium, Andycjp, K.M.~enwiki, Nick-in-South-Africa, Kevin B12, EuroTom, Atemperman, Gscshoyru, HunterX, Gary D, Rantaro, Joyous!, Quota, Aponar Kestrel, Esperant, Jayjg, Venu62, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Vsmith, YUL89YYZ, Mal~enwiki, Dbachmann, Paul August, Stbalbach, Bender235, Duemellon, Theodoranian, Hayabusa future, Bobo192, Adraeus, Redlentil, Duk, Skywalker, Gauravjames007, Pyramide~enwiki, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Giraffedata, Hajenso, MPerel, Sam Korn, Caeruleancentaur, Hagerman, Jonathunder, Stabilo~enwiki, Nsaa, HasharBot~enwiki, Espoo, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Nazli, Gary, Fleacircus, Wiki-uk, Plumbago, Arved Deecke, JoaoRicardo, Truthaboutchabad, SlimVirgin, Bibh wkp, Hdeasy, Hu, Wtmitchell, Stephen Hodge, Cromwellt, Almafeta, ReyBrujo, Shepshep, Grenavitar, Kusma, Drbreznjev, Memenen, Dan100, BerserkerBen, Scndlbrkrttmc, Preaky, Roland2~enwiki, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Vashti, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, RHaworth, Kzollman, Scjessey, Nefertum17, Jeff3000, Tylerni7, -Ril-, Mpatel, Marcus22, Wikiklrsc, Ametrica, Mary Calm, M Alan Kazlev, RedxelaSinnak, Jordan Yang, Halcatalyst, Palica, GSlicer, Mandarax, Gettingtoit, Graham87, Alienus, Deltabeignet, $cirisme, BD2412, Surnólë, Chun-hian, Psm, Yurik, RxS, Bikeable, Grammarbot, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Syndicate, Gryffindor, Wikibofh, Saujad, PinchasC, Jiohdi, Bruce1ee, SMC, Smithfarm, Afterwriting, Bhadani, Margosbot~enwiki, Vsion, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, DaGizza, Kazuba, Bgwhite, Adoniscik, Satanael, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, Musicpvm, ThomistGuy, Pigman, RadioFan, Clemondo, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Yyy, Muchosucko, Big Brother 1984, Ratso, Amosglenn, The Merciful, Grafen, Ragesoss, Ajwad, Blu Aardvark, RUL3R, Ctobola, Rwalker, AdelaMae, Hakeem.gadi, Thegreyanomaly, Ninly, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, Thomas Auge, GraemeL, LeonardoRob0t, Fram, Onboleman, Kungfuadam, RG2, GrinBot~enwiki, Draicone, DVD R W, Finell, Benhoyt, Veinor, SmackBot, PiCo, Urania3, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Trojo~enwiki, Jagged 85, Rhetoricalwater, Kintetsubuffalo, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi 先生, Vassyana, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Holy Ganga, Jeffro77, David Ludwig, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Ian13, MK8, Fuzzform, Jon513, SchfiftyThree, CSWarren, StrangeAttractor, Springeragh, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Qorbit, Fairychild, WSaindon, Raoul-Duke, Nixeagle, JonHarder, Clinkophonist, BarryTheUnicorn, Khoikhoi, SQB, MrRadioGuy, Nakon, JonasRH, Alister T, RandomP, Vectrax, BullRangifer, Hgilbert, Andrew c, Divine.androgyne, Soulwork, Qmwne235, Saitia, Ohconfucius, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Nareek, Kuru, Khazar, Fremte, Jrjennings, Summerwind, DHBoggs, Arborescence, IronGargoyle, Physis, RomanSpa, Extremophile, Musashiaharon, Abdullah Tahir, Lim Wei Quan, Hvn0413, Muadd, Mauro Bieg, Wega14, InedibleHulk, Waggers, Eridani, Epiphyllumlover, TheOtherStephan, Reccanboy, Tasfan, Keahapana, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Dporretta, Aeternus, Blehfu, J. S. Freeman, Tawkerbot2, DKqwerty, ChrisCork, Ewan G Keenowe, JForget, Pradhangeorge, Van helsing, Wahdawi dunk, ShelfSkewed, Ndru01, Bakanov, Neelix, Abdurahman49, Gregbard, Addude, Gremagor, A876, Aristophanes68, Spazborg, Rush4hire, Gogo Dodo, Tonymora, ST47, Shirulashem, Christian75, Kevin Kidd, Ejectgoose, Paddles, Handle taken, Abtract, SpK, Jamiego, Phra, Niculaegeorgepion~enwiki, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Sochwa, PerfectStorm, Blue Milk Mathematician, Pjvpjv, Smile a While, Waelwulf, Second Quantization, E. Ripley, Warfwar3, Gmack1, Iulius, Nick Number, Santaj, Arosophos, Dawnseeker2000, Monkeykiss, Mmortal03, Escarbot, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Malcolmlow, QuiteUnusual, Bishopw, Geogeogeo, D. Webb, Oolon Colluphid, Darklilac, Minhtung91, ARTEST4ECHO, Ran4, Indian Chronicles, Zagsa, Erxnmedia, Arsenikk, MER-C, Roleplayer, Leolaursen, Dp76764, Bongwarrior, ImtiazAA, JamesBWatson, Nojogo, Email4mobile, Chesdovi, Tonyfaull, KCon-

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

295

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23.10.2

Images

• File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:4Q201.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/4Q201.jpg License: Public domain Contribuhttp://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/scr3.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' titors: tle='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Abraham-And-The-Three-Angels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/ Abraham-And-The-Three-Angels.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Ludovico Carracci • File:Abraham_abulafia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Abraham_abulafia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Vatican Library, Vat. ebr. 597 leaf 113 recto. Original artist: Unknown artist; the author of the book is Abulafia.

• File:Abraxas,_Nordisk_familjebok.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Abraxas%2C_Nordisk_ familjebok.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Akivakever.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Akivakever.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Almog • File:Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Alchemik_Sedziwoj_ Matejko.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl Original artist: Jan Matejko

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• File:Alchemy_of_Happiness.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Alchemy_of_Happiness.png License: Public domain Contributors: Bibliothèque nationale de France Original artist: Abū Hāmid al-Ghazzālī • File:Alfred_Russel_Wallace.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Alfred_Russel_Wallace.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:America_Speaks_event_-_Flickr_-_Knight_Foundation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/ America_Speaks_event_-_Flickr_-_Knight_Foundation.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: America Speaks event Original artist: Knight Foundation • File:Anahata_blue.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Anahata_blue.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mirzolot2 • File:Ark_of_the_Covenant_19th-century.png 19th-century.png License: PD-US Contributors: Personal scan Original artist: User:Reddi

Source:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2b/Ark_of_the_Covenant_

• File:Astrologia-tynkä.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Astrologia-tynk%C3%A4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Astrologo_Fingido_Calderon_de_la_Barca_title_page_1641.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ e7/Astrologo_Fingido_Calderon_de_la_Barca_title_page_1641.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cervantesvirtual. com/obra/el-astrologo-fingido-$-$0/ Original artist: Pedro Calderon de la Barca • File:Astrologyproject.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Astrologyproject.svg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Chris Brennan on en.wikipedia Original artist: User Chris Brennan on en.wikipedia • File:Athame.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Athame.JPG License: FAL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kim Dent-Brown • File:Baphosimb.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Baphosimb.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gustavo89 • File:Barrel_House.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Barrel_House.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: W. L. Tarbert • File:Basmala.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Basmala.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Creator: ‫( خالد حسني‬previous version Baba66) • File:Bdrates_of_Japan_since_1950.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Bdrates_of_Japan_since_ 1950.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This image was created with gnuplot. Original artist: Demmo • File:Bernhard_Plockhorst_-_Schutzengel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Bernhard_Plockhorst_ -_Schutzengel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://eu.art.com/asp/sp-asp/_/PD-$-$10302816/SP--A/IGID-$-$1009314/ Blessed_Are_the_Children.htm?sOrig=CAT&sOrigID=12124&ui=6C19473B2A154BB399A10A16F08022BB Original artist: Bernhard Plockhorst • File:Besht_Shul2_Medzhibozh.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Besht_Shul2_Medzhibozh.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Klezmer~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Bijou_fm_18eme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Bijou_fm_18eme.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Personal Photo by user Cro-maat @fr.Wikipedia; Cro-maat's authorization into GFDL: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Image:Bijou_fm_18eme.jpg Original artist: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Maksim. The original description page was here. All following user names refer to en.wikipedia.

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JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Fotografiert von Philipp Spinnler Original artist: Philipp Spinnler • File:Erzengel_Michael_und_Gabriel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Erzengel_Michael_und_ Gabriel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai Original artist: • File:Esoteric_Taijitu.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Esoteric_Taijitu.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kenny Shen • File:Eusapia_Palladino_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Eusapia_Palladino_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.pflyceum.org/193.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Falguiere_Diana_p1070131.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Falguiere_Diana_p1070131.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Copyright © 2006 David Monniaux Original artist: Copyright © 2006 David Monniaux • File:Fama.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2b/Fama.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Gema_o_Piedra_Abraxas_de_la_obra_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}The_Gnostics_and_their_ remains\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}_de_Charles_W._King,_1887.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/3/33/Gema_o_Piedra_Abraxas_de_la_obra_%22The_Gnostics_and_their_remains%22_de_Charles_W._King% 2C_1887.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Gnostics and their remains en Open Library Original artist: Charles W. King • File:Geograph_6oct09_014.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Geograph_6oct09_014.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/1523842 Geograph website Original artist: Graham Hale • File:Gerald_Massey_1856.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Gerald_Massey_1856.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gerald_Massey_1856.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Gethsemane_Carl_Bloch.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Gethsemane_Carl_Bloch.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://freechristimages.org and Sidsel Maria Søndergård, Gerd Rathje, Jens Toft, Carl Bloch 1834 −1890, ISBN 978-87-987465-9-1 p. 313 Original artist: Carl Heinrich Bloch • File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/ Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart. svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides • File:Guido_Reni_031.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Guido_Reni_031.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Guido Reni • File:Gustave_Dore_XIV.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Gustave_Dore_XIV.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Gustave Dore Original artist: Gustave Dore • File:Headstone_of_Moshe_Chaim_Luzzatto_in_Tiberias.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/ Headstone_of_Moshe_Chaim_Luzzatto_in_Tiberias.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jonat • File:Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Helen_Duncan_fake_ ectoplasm.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Harry Price. Leaves from a Psychist's Case-Book (Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1933) Original artist: Harvey Metcalfe • File:HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: user:Tomisti • File:Hindu_last_rites_for_departed_souls.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Hindu_last_rites_for_ departed_souls.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ravindraboopathi • File:Holst-_mars.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Holst-_mars.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.heritageofamericaband.af.mil/recordings/frontiers.asp Original artist: • Composition: Gustav Holst • File:Holst-_uranus.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Holst-_uranus.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.heritageofamericaband.af.mil/recordings/frontiers.asp Original artist: Gustav Holst • File:Holst-_venus.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Holst-_venus.ogg License: Contributors: http://www.heritageofamericaband.af.mil/recordings/frontiers.asp Original artist: Gustav Holst

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• File:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: [2] Original artist: Bartolomé Esteban Murillo • File:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence Original artist: (uploaded by user Halfdan) • File:Josep_Benlliure_Gil43.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Josep_Benlliure_Gil43.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.pjvofm.org/75imag/02/1/43.php Original artist: José Benlliure y Gil • File:Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Joseph_Wright_ of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0706/fig3.jpg Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby • File:Kaphtziel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Kaphtziel.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: from a medieval Jewish magic text. Original artist: Kaftziel • File:Karl_Popper.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Karl_Popper.jpg License: No restrictions Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/lselibrary/3833724834/in/set-72157623156680255/ Original artist: LSE library • File:Katie_Walking_Labyrinth_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Katie_Walking_Labyrinth_2. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JamesJen • File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200009J.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Knesset_Menorah_ P5200009J.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Deror avi • File:Knesset_Menorah_Spain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Knesset_Menorah_Spain.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from Knesset Menorah P5200011.JPG: <a href='//commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG' class='image'><img alt='Knesset Menorah P5200011.JPG' src='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG/50px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG' width='50' height='67' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG/ 75px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Knesset_Menorah_ P5200011.JPG/100px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG 2x' data-file-width='1712' data-file-height='2288' /></a> Original artist: Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG: Deror avi • File:Lekah_Dodi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Lekah_Dodi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jewish Encyclopedia Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata: Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/ 40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Leo_Tolstoy_The_Voice_of_the_Silence.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Leo_Tolstoy_The_ Voice_of_the_Silence.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Дом-Музей Л. Н. Толстого в Ясной Поляне Original artist: The theosophical publishing company • File:Lion-faced_deity.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Lion-faced_deity.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: L' antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures, vol. II, parte II, plancha CL, p. 362. Original artist: Desconocido; reproducido por Bernard de Montfaucon en 1722.

• File:Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: MKPiekarska • File:Lukhot_Habrit.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Oren neu dag • File:Manicheans.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Manicheans.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Maksim. The original description page was here. All following user names refer to en.wikipedia. Original artist: unknown artist • File:Marcantonio_Raimondi_-_Two_Women_with_the_Signs_of_Libra_and_Scorpio.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Marcantonio_Raimondi_-_Two_Women_with_the_Signs_of_Libra_and_Scorpio.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Saint Louis Art Museum official site Original artist: Marcantonio Raimondi • File:Mark_Satin_in_2011.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Mark_Satin_in_2011.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sandra Wassilie • File:Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna_004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Meister_von_ San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna • File:Menora.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Menora.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedysty:Marcin_n' class='extiw' title='pl:Wikipedysty:Marcin n'>Marcin n* ®</a> <a href='//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyskusja_Wikipedysty:Marcin_n' class='extiw' title='pl:Dyskusja Wikipedysty: Marcin n'> </a> • File:Mergefrom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Mevlana_Konya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Mevlana_Konya.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mevlanax.jpg Original artist: User:Intension • File:Mferguson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Mferguson.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The personal collection of Marilyn Ferguson (mother of my wife). Original artist: Harmanx

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• File:Michelangelo,_Damned_Soul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Michelangelo%2C_Damned_ Soul.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.wga.hu Original artist: see filename or category • File:Miniature_of_Guru_Nanak_from_Astronomical_treatise.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/ Miniature_of_Guru_Nanak_from_Astronomical_treatise.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ onlineex/apac/other/033ori000005259u00009000.html Original artist: Durgashankar Pathak • File:Mosque02.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Mosque02.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. DarkPhoenix assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Muenster-100725-15996-Überwasserkirche-Schlüssel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/ Muenster-100725-15996-%C3%9Cberwasserkirche-Schl%C3%BCssel.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mbdortmund • File:Mystic_Marriage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Mystic_Marriage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cattolicesimo.eu/forum/viewtopic.php?t=923&postdays=0&postorder=asc&start=15 Original artist: name lost, Italy or Spain • File:NAMA_Mystères_d'Eleusis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/NAMA_Myst%C3%A8res_d% 27Eleusis.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims).

Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Marsyas assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Nahmanides_painting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nahmanides_painting.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Cropped from File:Rabbi Moses ben Nachman (Nahmanides) - Wall painting in Acre, Israel.jpg Original artist: Chesdovi • File:New_Age_Shrine_Glastonbury_-_geograph.org.uk_-_167848.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/ 41/New_Age_Shrine_Glastonbury_-_geograph.org.uk_-_167848.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Glyn Baker • File:Om.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided.

Rugby471 assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Oresme_Spheres_crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Oresme_Spheres_crop.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Paris, BnF, Manuscrits, Fr. 565, fo 69 (detail) http://expositions.bnf.fr/ciel/grand/1-025.htm Original artist: Original art, Nicole Oresme (artist unknown); Scan, Bibliothèque National de France; Current file, SteveMcCluskey • File:P._26_'The_Zodiac_Man'_a_diagram_of_a_human_body_and_astrological_symbols_with_instructions_explaining_the_ importance_of_astrology_from_a_medical_perspective.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/P._26_ %27The_Zodiac_Man%27_a_diagram_of_a_human_body_and_astrological_symbols_with_instructions_explaining_the_importance_ of_astrology_from_a_medical_perspective.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: National Library of Wales Original artist: Gutun Owain • File:P_religion_world.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/P_religion_world.svg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Paganavebury.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Paganavebury.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Paradise_(Paradiso).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Paradise_%28Paradiso%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Gustave Dore, Giulio Campagnola Original artist: Giulio Campagnola, Gustave Dore • File:Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Alighieri, Dante; Cary, Henry Francis (ed) (1892) "Canto XXXI" in The Divine Comedy by Dante, Illustrated, Complete, London, Paris & Melbourne: Cassell & Company Retrieved on 13 July 2009. Original artist: Gustave Doré • File:Paradiso_Illustration_by_Gustave_Doré.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Paradiso_ Illustration_by_Gustave_Dor%C3%A9.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Gustave Doré Original artist: Gustave Doré • File:Pentacle_2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Pentacle_2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Nyo~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Pentagram_(Levi).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Levi, Eliphas (1855) Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie. Original artist: Eliphas Levi • File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Antoine Taveneaux • File:Persian_angel_1555.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Persian_angel_1555.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from ru.wikipedia to Commons by Shakko using CommonsHelper. + [1] Original artist: Anonymous • File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_166.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Peter_Paul_Rubens_166.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: collectie.boijmans.nl : Home : Info : Pic Original artist: Peter Paul Rubens • File:PikiWiki_Israel_11324_The_city_wore_white.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/PikiWiki_ Israel_11324_The_city_wore_white.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: lehava zfat via the PikiWiki - Israel free image collection project Original artist: ‫דוד ברמן‬ • File:Portae_Lucis,_Joseph_Gikatilla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Portae_Lucis%2C_Joseph_ Gikatilla.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Photo of Exhibit at the Diaspora Museum, Tel Aviv - en:Beit Hatefutsot Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

301

• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?

Original artist: ?

• File:Prosphil.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Prosphil.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?

Original artist: ?

• File:Quadritpartitum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Quadritpartitum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Title page of Quadripartitum Original artist: Claudius Ptolemy • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: a 1909 card scanned by Holly Voley (http://home.comcast.net/~{}vilex/) for the public domain, and retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts. com/tarot (see note on that page regarding source of images). Original artist: Copyright holder was Arthur Edward Waite. Pamela Coleman Smith was just doing an artist's 'work for hire.' She was paid for her work and was not the copyright holder.

• File:Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Raimundus_Lullus_ alchemic_page.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Book scan Original artist: Ramon Llull, 1232?−1316 • File:Rainbow_Gathering_Bosnia_2007.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Rainbow_Gathering_ Bosnia_2007.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aljaz Zajc • File:Raja_Fateh_Singh_Ahluwalia_of_Kapurthala.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Raja_Fateh_ Singh_Ahluwalia_of_Kapurthala.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Central Library, Patiala Original artist: Unknown 19th Century Artist • File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_ Sankaracharya.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original source not stated by uploader, however many sources available on web including this. Original artist: Raja Ravi Varma • File:Rakia-Letters.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Rakia-letters.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Rakia, photographed by Orrling at the artist's Bezalel Street studio • File:Randolph-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ad/Randolph-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: scaled from image at http://www.soul.org/PB-Randolph.html Original artist: ?

• File:Rave_in_the_Henge_2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Rave_in_the_Henge_2005.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Robert_Fludd'{}s_An_Astrologer_Casting_a_Horoscope_1617.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ Public domain Contributors: commons/b/b5/Robert_Fludd%27s_An_Astrologer_Casting_a_Horoscope_1617.jpg License: http://www.bridgemanart.com/asset/202566/German-School-17th-century-after/An-Astrologer-casting-a-Horoscope-copy-of-an-illu? search_context=\protect\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textbraceleft}{{}%22url%22%3A%22\__xunadd_text_character: nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2Fsearch\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2Fartist\__xunadd_text_character: nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2FGerman-School-17th-century-after\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2F16801% 22%2C%22num_results%22%3A19%2C%22search_type%22%3A%22creator_assets%22%2C%22creator_id%22%3A%2216801% 22%2C%22item_index%22%3A16} Original artist: Robert Fludd • File:Rosarium_philosphorum_Soul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Rosarium_ philosphorum_Soul.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Rosarium philosphorum Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Rose_Cross_Lamen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Rose_Cross_Lamen.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by Fuzzypeg using Inkscape Original artist: Fuzzypeg • File:Russian_Hare_Krishnas_singing_on_the_street.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Russian_ Hare_Krishnas_singing_on_the_street.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gaura • File:SafedDSCN4077.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/SafedDSCN4077.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yoav Dothan • File:Saint_Irenaeus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Saint_Irenaeus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Samuel_Liddell_MacGregor_Mathers_in_Egyptian_getup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/ Samuel_Liddell_MacGregor_Mathers_in_Egyptian_getup.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Telrúnya. Original artist: The original uploader was Ihcoyc at English Wikipedia • File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens1.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/ 20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/ 30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens1.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_ icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_ icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Raphael

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• File:Sefiroticky_strom.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Sefiroticky_strom.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Thomazzo Original artist: Thomazzo • File:Sepik_River_initiation_PNG_1975.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Sepik_River_initiation_ PNG_1975.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Originally uploaded on en.wikipedia (Transferred by terraflorin) Original artist: Franz Luthi • File:Seven_spiritualists_1906.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Seven_spiritualists_1906.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Shefa_Tal.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Shefa_Tal.png License: Public domain Contributors: Original uploaded on en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploaded by Zappaz (Transfered by Ineuw) • File:Shrine_of_Abdul_Qadir_Jilani..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Shrine_of_Abdul_Qadir_ Jilani..jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: VrMUSLIM • File:Siete_chakras.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Siete_chakras.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Wikipedia in English Original artist: Peter Weltevrede • File:Snoqualmie_Moondance_meditation_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Snoqualmie_ Moondance_meditation_02.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Photo by Joe Mabel Original artist: Joe Mabel • File:SoulCarriedtoHeaven.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/SoulCarriedtoHeaven.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.oceansbridge.com/oil-paintings/product/55530/soulcarriedtoheaven Original artist: William-Adolphe Bouguereau • File:Souls_of_Pe_and_Nekhen_towing_at_Ramses'{}_Temple_in_Abydos_c.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/d/dc/Souls_of_Pe_and_Nekhen_towing_at_Ramses%27_Temple_in_Abydos_c.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • Souls_of_Pe_and_Nekhen_towing_at_Ramses'_Temple_in_Abydos.jpg Original artist: Souls_of_Pe_and_Nekhen_towing_at_Ramses'_Temple_in_Abydos.jpg: HoremWeb • File:Spirit_rappings_coverpage_to_sheet_music_1853.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Spirit_ rappings_coverpage_to_sheet_music_1853.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: American Memory Original artist: Rossington, W. W. and Garrett, J. Ellwood • File:Square_compasses.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Square_compasses.svg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. 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23.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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CHAPTER 23. SOUL

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