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Etnomusicolog铆a Eje cronol贸gico 2. "Autores"

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Contents Articles Pre-"Etnomusicología"

1

Musicology

1

Friedrich Chrysander

7

William Thoms

9

Primer Paradigma: "La Escuela de Berlín"

11

Alexander John Ellis

11

Béla Bartók

12

Constantin Brăiloiu

23

Carl Stumpf

24

Erich von Hornbostel

26

Curt Sachs

28

Augustus Pitt Rivers

29

Bronisław Malinowski

32

Berlin Musical Instrument Museum

37

Segundo Paradigma: "La Escuela Americana".

40

Francis La Flesche

40

Alice Cunningham Fletcher

44

Ethnomusicology

46

Jaap Kunst

48

Mantle Hood

49

Franz Boas

62

Alan P. Merriam

83

Bruno Nettl

84

Zoltán Kodály

85

Alan Lomax

88

Pete Seeger

102

Meyer Fortes

123

Kenneth Lee Pike

125

Charles Seeger

128

Library of Congress

130

Smithsonian Folkways

140

International Council for Traditional Music

144

References Article Sources and Contributors

146

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

149

Article Licenses License

151

1

Pre-"Etnomusicología" Musicology Musicology (from Greek μουσική (mousikē), meaning "music", and -λογία (-logia), meaning "study of-") is the scholarly study of music. A person who studies music is a musicologist. The word is used in narrow, broad and intermediate senses. In the narrow sense, musicology is confined to the music history of Western culture. In the intermediate sense, it includes all relevant cultures and a range of musical forms, styles, genres and traditions, but tends to be confined to the humanities - a combination of historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and the humanities of systematic musicology (philosophy, theoretical sociology, aesthetics). In the broad sense, it includes all musically relevant disciplines (both humanities and sciences) and all manifestations of music in all cultures, so it also includes all of systematic musicology (including psychology, biology, and computing). The broad meaning corresponds most closely to the word's etymology, the entry on "musicology" in Grove's dictionary, the entry on "Musikwissenschaft" in Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, and the classic approach of Adler (1885).

In the broad definition, the parent disciplines of musicology include history; cultural studies and gender studies; philosophy, aesthetics and semiotics; ethnology and cultural anthropology; archeology and prehistory; psychology and sociology; physiology and neuroscience; acoustics and psychoacoustics; and computer/information sciences and mathematics. Musicology also has two central, practically oriented subdisciplines with no parent discipline: performance practice and research, and the theory, analysis and composition of music. The disciplinary neighbors of musicology address other forms of art, performance, ritual and communication, including the history and theory of the visual and plastic arts and of architecture; linguistics, literature and theater; religion and theology; and sport.

Musical knowledge and know-how are applied in medicine, education and music therapy, which may be regarded as the parent disciplines of Applied Musicology.

Traditionally, historical musicology has been considered the largest and most important subdiscipline of musicology.

Today, historical musicology is one of several large subdisciplines. Historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and systematic musicology are approximately equal in size - if numbers of active participants at international conferences is any guide. Systematic musicology includes music acoustics, the science and technology of acoustical musical instruments, physiology, psychology, sociology, philosophy and computing. Cognitive Musicology is the set of phenomena surrounding the computational modeling of music.

Subdisciplines Historical musicology Music history or historical musicology studies the composition, performance, reception, and criticism of music over time. Historical studies of music are for example concerned with a composer's life and works, the developments of styles and genres (e. g. baroque concertos), the social function of music for a particular group of people (e. g. court music), or modes of performance at a particular place and time (e. g. Johann Sebastian Bach's choir in Leipzig).

Like the comparable field of art history, different branches and schools of historical musicology emphasize different types of musical works and different approaches to music. There are also national differences in the definition of historical musicology. In theory, "music history" could refer to the study of the history of any type or genre of music (e.g., the history of Indian music or the history of rock). In practice, these research topics are more often considered within ethnomusicology (see below) and "historical musicology" is assumed to imply Western Art music.

Musicology The methods of historical musicology include source studies (esp. manuscript studies), paleography, philology (especially textual criticism), style criticism, historiography (the choice of historical method), musical analysis (the analysis of music in order to find "inner coherence"),[1] and iconography. The application of musical analysis to further these goals is often a part of music history, though pure analysis or the development of new tools of music analysis is more likely to be seen in the field of music theory. Music historians create a number of written products, ranging from journal articles describing their current research, new editions of musical works, biography of composers and other musicians, or book-length studies. Music historians may examine issues in a close focus, as in the case of scholars who examine the relationship between words and music for a given composer. On the other hand, some scholars take a broader view, and assess the place of a given type of music in society using techniques drawn from other fields, such as economics, sociology, or philosophy.

New musicology is a term applied since the late 1980s to a wide body of work emphasizing cultural study, analysis, and criticism of music. Such work may be based on feminist, gender studies, queer theory, or postcolonial theory, or the work of Theodor Adorno. Although New Musicology emerged from within historical musicology, the emphasis on cultural study within the Western art music tradition places New Musicology at the junction between historical, ethnological and sociological research in music.

New musicology was a reaction against traditional historical musicology, which according to Susan McClary, "fastidiously declares issues of musical signification off-limits to those engaged in legitimate scholarship." Charles Rosen, however, retorts that McClary "sets up, like so many of the 'new musicologists', a straw man to knock down, the dogma that music has no meaning, and no political or social significance".[2] (I doubt that anyone, except perhaps the nineteenth-century critic Hanslick, has ever really believed that, although some musicians have been goaded into proclaiming it by the sillier interpretations of music with which we are often assailed.)' (Rosen 2000).Today, many musicologists no longer distinguish between musicology and New Musicology, since many of the scholarly concerns that used to be associated New Musicology have now become mainstream, and the term "new" clearly no longer applies.

Ethnomusicology Ethnomusicology, formerly comparative musicology, is the study of music in its cultural context. It is often considered the anthropology or ethnography of music. Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of "people making music". Although it is most often concerned with the study of non-Western musics, it also includes the study of Western music from an anthropological or sociological perspective, cultural studies and sociology as well as other disciplines in the social sciences and humanities. Though some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, the majority are involved in long-term participant observation. Therefore, ethnomusiological work can be characterized as featuring a substantial, intensive ethnographic component. Closely related to ethnomusiology is the emerging branch of sociomusicology.

Popular music studies Popular music studies, known, "misleadingly," (Moore 2003, p. 2) as popular musicology, emerged in the 1980s as an increasing number of musicologists, ethnomusicologists, and other varieties of historians of American and European culture began to write about popular musics past and present. The first journal focusing on popular music studies was Popular Music [3], which began publication in 1981. It was not until 1994 that an academic society solely devoted to the topic was formed, the International Association for the Study of Popular Music [4]. The Association's founding was partly motivated by the interdisciplinary agenda of popular musicology though the group has been characterized by a polarized 'musicological' and 'sociological' approach also typical of popular musicology (Moore ibid, p. 4).

2

Musicology

Music theory, analysis and composition Music theory is a field of study that describes the elements of music and includes the development and application of methods for composing and for analyzing music through both notation and, on occasion, musical sound itself.

Broadly, theory may include any statement, belief, or conception of or about music (Boretz, 1995). A person who studies or practices music theory is a music theorist.

Some music theorists attempt to explain the techniques composers use by establishing rules and patterns. Others model the experience of listening to or performing music. Though extremely diverse in their interests and commitments, many Western music theorists are united in their belief that the acts of composing, performing, and listening to music may be explicated to a high degree of detail (this, as opposed to a conception of musical expression as fundamentally ineffable except in musical sounds). Generally, works of music theory are both descriptive and prescriptive, attempting both to define practice and to influence later practice. Thus, music theory generally lags behind practice in important ways, but also points towards future exploration, composition, and performance.

Musicians study music theory in order to be able to understand the structural relationships in the (nearly always notated) music, and composers study music theory in order to be able to understand how to produce effects and to structure their own works. Composers may study music theory in order to guide their precompositional and compositional decisions. Broadly speaking, music theory in the Western tradition focuses on harmony and counterpoint, and then uses these to explain large scale structure and the creation of melody.

Music psychology and cognition There is considerable overlap between the fields of music psychology, music cognition, and the cognitive neuroscience of music. Music psychology applies the content and methods of all subdisciplines of psychology (perception, cognition, motivation, personality and so on) to all aspects of musical behaviour and experience (performance, listening, composition). Music cognition is the study of music as information, from the viewpoint of cognitive science. The discipline shares the interdisciplinary nature of fields such as cognitive linguistics. Cognitive musicology emphasizes the use of computational models for human musical abilities. The cognitive neuroscience of music studies the way that music appreciation and ability is implemented in the brain and uses a methodology similar to cognitive neuroscience.

Performance practice and research Performance practice draws on many of the tools of historical musicology to answer the specific question of how music was performed in various places at various times in the past. Although previously confined to early music, recent research in performance practice has embraced questions such as how the early history of recording affected the use of vibrato in classical music, or instruments in Klezmer.

Within the rubric of musicology, performance practice tends to emphasize the collection and synthesis of evidence about how music should be performed. The important other side, learning how to sing authentically or perform a historical instrument is usually part of conservatory or other performance training. However, many top researchers in performance practice are also excellent musicians.

Music performance research (or music performance science) is strongly associated with music psychology. It aims to document and explain the psychological, physiological, sociological and cultural details of how music is actually performed (rather than how it should be performed). The approach to research tends to be systematic and empirical, and to involve the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. The findings of music performance research can often be applied in music education.

3

Musicology

Critiques Exclusion of disciplines and musics In its most narrow definition, historical musicology is the music history of Western culture. Such a definition arbitrarily excludes disciplines other than history, cultures other than Western, and forms of music other than "classical" ("art", "serious", "high culture") or notated ("artificial"). A somewhat broader definition incorporating all musical humanities is still problematic, because it arbitrarily excludes the relevant (natural) sciences (acoustics, psychology, physiology, neurosciences, information and computer sciences, empirical sociology and aesthetics) as well as musical practice.

Within historical musicology, scholars have been reluctant to adopt postmodern and critical approaches that are common elsewhere in the humanities. According to Susan McClary (2000, p. 1285) the discipline of "music lags behind the other arts; it picks up ideas from other media just when they have become outmoded." Only in the 1990s did historical musicologists, preceded by feminist musicologists in the late 1980s, begin to address issues such as gender, sexualities, bodies, emotions, and subjectivities which dominated the humanities for twenty years before (ibid, p. 10). In McClary's words (1991, p. 5), "It almost seems that musicology managed miraculously to pass directly from pre- to postfeminism without ever having to change - or even examine - its ways." Furthermore, in their discussion on musicology and rock music, Susan McClary and Robert Walser also address a key struggle within the discipline: how musicology has often "dismisse[d] questions of socio-musical interaction out of hand, that part of classical music's greatness is ascribed to its autonomy from society." (1988, p. 283). Since the 1990s, however, musicology has increasingly turned to socio-cultural methods.

Exclusion of popular music According to Richard Middleton, the strongest criticism of (historical) musicology has been that it by and large ignores popular music. Though musicological study of popular music has vastly increased in quantity recently, Middleton's assertion in 1990—that most major "works of musicology, theoretical or historical, act as though popular music did not exist" -- holds true. Academic and conservatory training typically only peripherally addresses this broad spectrum of musics, and many (historical) musicologists who are "both contemptuous and condescending are looking for types of production, musical form, and listening which they associate with a different kind of music...'classical music'...and they generally find popular music lacking. He cites three main aspects of this problem (p.104-6). The terminology of historical musicology is "slanted by the needs and history of a particular music ('classical music')." He acknowledges that "there is a rich vocabulary for certain areas [harmony, tonality, certain part-writing and forms], important in musicology's typical corpus"; yet he points out that there is "an impoverished vocabulary for other areas [rhythm, pitch nuance and gradation, and timbre], which are less well developed" in Classical music. Middleton argues that a number of "terms are ideologically loaded" in that "they always involve selective, and often unconsciously formulated, conceptions of what music is."

4

Musicology

Notes [1] [2] [3] [4]

Beard, David; Kenneth Gloag (2005). Musicology: the key concepts. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-31692-7.

Rosen, Charles (2001). Critical Entertainments: Music Old and New. Harvard University Press. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-674-00684-3. http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ journals/ journal_catalogue. asp?mnemonic=pmu http:/ / www. iaspm. net/

References • Adler, Guido (1885). Umfang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft. Vierteljahresschrift für Musikwissenschaft, 1, 5-20.

• Babich, Babette (2003) " Postmodern Musicology (http://fordham.bepress.com/phil_babich/35/)" in Victor E. Taylor and Charles Winquist, eds., Routledge Encyclopedia of Postmodernism, London: Routledge, 2003. pp. 153–159. ISBN 978-0-415-30886-1.

• Honing, Henkjan (2006). " On the growing role of observation, formalization and experimental method in musicology. (https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/1811/21901/1/EMR000002a-honing.pdf) " Empirical Musicology Review.

• Kerman, Joseph (1985). Musicology. London: Fontana. ISBN 0-00-197170-0.

• McClary, Susan, and Robert Walser (1988). "Start Making Sense! Musicology Wrestles with Rock" in On Record ed. by Frith and Goodwin (1990), pp. 277–292. ISBN 0-394-56475-8.

• McClary, Susan (1991). Feminine Endings. Music, Gender, and Sexuality. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1899-2 (pbk).

• McClary, Susan (2000). "Women and Music on the Verge of the New Millennium (Special Issue: Feminists at a Millennium)", Signs 25/4 (Summer): 1283-1286.

• Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9.

• Moore, Allan, ed. (2003). Analyzing Popular Music, p. 2. ISBN 978-0-521-77120-7. p. 2n2 reads: "'Popular musicology' should be read as the musicological investigation of popular music, rather than the accessible investigation of music!"

• Parncutt, Richard. (2007). " Systematic musicology and the history and future of Western musical scholarship (http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/staff/parncutt/publications/Pa07_SystematicMusicology.pdf)", Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies, 1, 1-32.

• Pruett, James W., and Thomas P. Slavens (1985). Research guide to musicology. Chicago: American Library Association. ISBN 0-8389-0331-2.

• Randel, Don Michael, ed. (4th ed. 2003). Harvard Dictionary of Music, pp. 452–454. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01163-5.

• Rosen, Charles (2000). "The New Musicology", in Critical Entertainments: Music Old and New, pp. 255–272.

Harvard University Press.

• Tagg, Philip (1979, ed. 2000). Kojak - 50 Seconds of Television Music: Toward the Analysis of Affect in Popular Music, pp. 38–45. The Mass Media Music Scholar's Press. ISBN 0-9701684-0-3.

5

Musicology

Further reading • Winkler, Peter (1978). "Toward a theory of pop harmony", In Theory Only, 4, pp. 3–26., cited in Moore (2003), p. 9.

• Tagg, Philip (1982). "Analysing Popular Music: Theory, Method and Practice", Popular Music, Vol. 2, Theory and Method, pp. 37–67., ibid.

• van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth Century Popular Music.

ISBN 0-19-816305-3 (1992)., ibid.

• Middleton, Richard (1990) Studying Popular Music. ISBN 0-335-15275-9., ibid. and van der Merwe (2007), p. 515.

• Brackett, David (1995). Interpreting Popular Music. ISBN 0-520-22541-1 ., ibid.

• Everett, Walter, ed. (2000). Expression in Pop-Rock Music. ISBN 0-8153-3160-6., ibid.

• Moore, A.F. (2001). Rock: The Primary Text, 2nd edn., ISBN 0-7546-0298-2., ibid.

External links • The American Musicological Society (http://www.ams-net.org/) (Wikipedia entry) • Doctoral Dissertations in Musicology Online (http://www.music.indiana.edu/ddm/) • • • • • • • •

AMS: Web sites of interest to Musicologists (http://www.ams-net.org/www-musicology.php) The Society for American Music (http://www.american-music.org/) Graduate Programs in Musicology (http://www.ams-net.org/gradprog.php) Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology (http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/staff/parncutt/cim/) International Association for the Study of Popular Music (http://www.iaspm.net/) Society for Ethnomusicology (http://webdb.iu.edu/sem/scripts/home.cfm) Wikiquote - quotes about musicology (http://quote.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicology) Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM) - database of musical sources from around the world (http://www.rism.info)

On-line Journals Although many musicology journals are not available on-line, or are only available through pay-for-access portals, a sampling of peer reviewed journals in various subfields gives some idea of musicological writings: • • • • • • • • • • • •

JIMS: Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies (http://www.musicstudies.org/) Echo: a music centered journal (http://www.echo.ucla.edu/) Empirical Musicology Review (http://emusicology.org/) Ethnomusicology Review (http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu/) Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies (http://www.musicstudies.org/) JMM: The Journal of Music and Meaning (http://www.musicandmeaning.net/index.php) Music Theory Online (http://mto.societymusictheory.org/) Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music (http://sscm-jscm.press.uiuc.edu/jscm/) Ethnomusicology OnLine (http://umbc7.umbc.edu/efhm/eol.html) Min-Ad: Israel Studies in Musicology Online (http://www.biu.ac.il/hu/mu/ims/Min-ad/) Music and Politics (http://www.music.ucsb.edu/projects/musicandpolitics/) Volume ! The French journal of popular music studies (http://volume.revues.org) all articles available for free download up to n-2.

The following musicology journals can be accessed on-line through JSTOR (requires subscription for full access).

Many of them have their latest issues available on-line via publisher portals (usually requiring a fee for access).

• 19th-Century Music (1977–2004)

6

Musicology • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

7

Acta Musicologica (1931–2002) (current organ of the International Musicological Society) American Music (1983–2005) (Society for American Music) Asian Music (1968–2002) Black Music Research Journal (1980–2004) (Center for Black Music Research) British Journal of Ethnomusicology (1992–2002) Early Music History (1981–2002) Ethnomusicology (1953–2003) (Society for Ethnomusicology) Journal of Music Theory (1957–2002) The Journal of Musicology (1982–2004) Journal of the American Musicological Society (1948–2004) (American Musicological Society) Music Educators Journal (1934–2007) Music Theory Spectrum (1979–2003) (Society for Music Theory) The Musical Quarterly (1915–1999) Perspectives of New Music (1962–2000) Popular Music (1981–2003) Yearbook for Traditional Music (1981–2003)

Friedrich Chrysander Karl Franz Friedrich Chrysander (July 8, 1826 – September 3, 1901) was a German music historian and critic, whose edition of the works of George Frideric Handel and authoritative writings on many other composers established him as a pioneer of 19th-century musicology.

Born at Lübtheen, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Chrysander was the son of a miller. He earned a Doctorate in Philosophy from the University of Rostock in 1853. He then focused his studies on music, and in an obituary for Chrysander in October 1901, the Musical Times said of him that "From the beginning he assumed the role of an historian in rigorously defending the right and claims of musical masterpieces of a distant past to a legitimate and faithful reproduction, i.e., without modernising, and without instrumental or vocal additions."[1]

Friedrich Chrysander

Chrysander is also credited with rediscovering the autograph score of Johann Sebastian Bach's Mass in B Minor, which he then sold to the Royal Library in Berlin, generously doing so only for the same sum that he himself paid for it.[2] He also edited the music of many other composers, including (in collaboration with Johannes Brahms) the collected harpsichord music of François Couperin le Grand, published from 1871 to 1888.[3]

Friedrich Chrysander

Publications Between 1858 and 1902, the Händel-Gesellschaft or "German Handel Society" edition of Handel's collected works was published, and this was almost entirely the work of Chrysander;[4] however, Julius Rietz prepared the first volume (with results that were much to Chrysander's dissatisfaction),[5] and Max Seiffert also assisted with some of the later editing.[6] Early in the publication of the edition, the publisher dropped out of the project, after which Chrysander set up an engraving shop at his home and produced subsequent volumes himself. Additionally, he sold fruits and vegetables raised in his garden as a way of bringing in further income during the publication years.[7] The quality of some of the editing has been challenged in subsequent decades, with one writer calling the Händel-Gesellschaft edition "anything but complete and reliable"[8] and another criticizing Chrysander's "arbitrary selection of material in the more complex works and his failure to explain his methods."[9] Nevertheless, this publication, which produced over 100 volumes of music, is acknowledged to have been a remarkable achievement for its day.[10]

References [1] Karl Franz Friedrich Chrysander (http:/ / www. musicaltimes. co. uk/ archive/ misc/ chrysander. html)--October 1901 obituary from The Musical Times. (This is also the source for Chrysander's birth and death dates and the facts cited above about his early life.)

[2] October 1901 obituary from The Musical Times.

[3] Ralph David Lichtensteiger, "François Couperin le Grand" (http:/ / www. lichtensteiger. de/ couperin01. html) at lichtensteiger.de.

[4] Winton Dean, The New Grove Handel. NY: Norton, 1982, p. 116. ISBN 0-393-30086-2.

[5] "Handel's Scores," (http:/ / www. hoasm. org/ X/ HandelScores. html) at WBAI'S "Here Of A Sunday Morning" website.

[6] "Editions of Handel's Music" (http:/ / gfhandel. org/ edition. htm) from gfhandel.org; October 1901 obituary from The Musical Times.

[7] "Editions of Handel's Music," op. cit..

[8] "Handel's Scores," op. cit..

[9] Dean, New Grove Handel, p. 117.

[10] "Editions of Handel's Music," op. cit..

Further reading • Karl Franz Friedrich Chrysander (http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/misc/chrysander.html)--The October 1901 obituary on Chrysander from The Musical Times.

• Ferdinand Pfohl: Friedrich Chrysander. (Hamburg-)Bergedorf, Köster & Wobbe, 1926 (in German)

External links • Chrysander's biography of Händel, unabridged text (in German) (http://www.zeno.org/Musik/M/ Chrysander,+Friedrich/G.F.+Händel)

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William Thoms

9

William Thoms William John Thoms (November 16, 1803 – August 15, 1885) was a British writer credited with coining the term "folklore" in the 1840s. Thoms's investigation of folklore and myth led to a later career of debunking longevity myths. Hence, he is the "father of age validation research" to demographers.

Life Thoms was an antiquary, and miscellaneous writer, for many years a clerk in the secretary's office of Chelsea Hospital. He was made a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and became secretary to the Camden Society in 1838.

In 1845 he was appointed Clerk, and subsequently Deputy Librarian, to the House of Lords. He was the founder in 1849 of Notes and Queries, which for some years he also edited.

William Thoms

Thoms is credited with inventing the word 'folklore' in an 1846 letter to the Athenaeum. He invented this compound word to replace the various other terms used at the time, including "popular antiquities" or "popular literature". He was fond of the works of Jacob Grimm, which he considered remarkable.

His first book, Early Prose Romances (3 vol. 1827-1828), was published with encouragement from Francis Douce, and gave versions of English tales such as "Robert the Devyl, Thomas a Reading, Friar Bacon, Friar Rush, Virgilius, Robin Hood, George a Green, Tom a Lincolne, Helyas, and Dr. Faustus". Among his publications are Lays and Legends (1834), The Book of the Court (1838), Gammer Gurton's Famous Histories (1846), Gammer Gurton's Pleasant Stories (1848). He also edited Stow's Survey of London in 1842. Thoms was a leading member of the Folklore Society, founded in 1878, though his involvement in its establishment is poorly investigated.

In the 1870s, William Thoms began investigating claims to "ultra-centenarianism." His essays and in particular his book, Human Longevity: Its Facts and Fictions (1879) make William Thoms the "father of age validation research," especially relevant to the topic of supercentenarians.

Thoms is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London.

William John Thoms

Works Thoms is associated with many publications, as editor, compiler or author. He used the pseudonym Ambrose Merton for several works. He began a column titled Folk-Lore in Charles Wentworth Dilke's Athenaeum in 1846, the same publisher encouraged him to begin Notes and Queries and was editor of this until 1872. His early attempt to produce a collection of folk tales, advertised as "Folk-Lore of England", did not appear, but his later antiquarian publications sometimes reprinted his articles and material from subscribers.

The following is an incomplete list of works: • The Book of the Court, 1838 • Anecdotes and Traditions illustrative of Early English History and Literature from Manuscript Sources, Camden Society 1839.

• Stow's Survey of London (London, 8vo), 1842 ed.

• In he prepared for the Early English Poetry series (Percy Society) The History of Reynard the Fox, 1844, (Caxton in 1481) • Gammer Gurton's Famous Histories of Sir Guy of Warwick, Sir Bevis of Hampton, Tom Hickathrift, Friar Bacon, Robin Hood, and the King and the Cobbler (Westminster, 16mo)

William Thoms • Gammer Gurton's Pleasant Stories of Patient Grissel, the Princess Rosetta, and Robin Goodfellow, and ballads of the Beggar's Daughter, the Babes in the Wood, and Fair Rosamond (Westminster, 16mo).

• Primeval Antiquities of Denmark London, 1849. translating Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae • The Longevity of Man. Its Facts and Its Fictions. With a prefatory letter to Prof. Owen, C.B., F.R.S. on the limits and frequency of exceptional cases. London: F. Norgate, 1879.

Sources • New General Catalog of Old Books and Authors [1]

External links • "Thoms, William John". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.

• Intro to folklore [2] • The old story books of England, 1845 [3] • Roper, Jonathan 'Thoms and the Unachieved "Folk-Lore of England [4]"', Folklore, 118:2, 203 - 216 Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London, J. M. Dent & Sons; New York, E. P. Dutton.

References [1] http:/ / google. com/ search/ cache?ei=UTF-8& p=%22William+ John+ Thoms%22+ 1803& y=15& xa=hdOyHmcqOsG88igb.

FbmVQ--%2C1253309958& fr=yfp-t-501& u=www. authorandbookinfo. com/ ngcoba/ th. htm& w=%22william+ john+ thoms%22+ 1803& d=c2ibV929Ta27& icp=1& . intl=us& sig=f5oJWbm8pvtOlvxj2AXtoA-[2] http:/ / www. ciil-ebooks. net/ html/ folkintro/ ch1. htm#8 [3] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ oldstorybooksofe00thomiala [4] http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ 375693970-84622304/ section?content=a780581414& fulltext=713240928

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Primer Paradigma: "La Escuela de BerlĂ­n" Alexander John Ellis Alexander John Ellis FRS (14 June 1814 - 28 October 1890) was an English mathematician and philologist. He changed his name from his father's name Sharpe to his mother's maiden name Ellis in 1825, based on a condition for receiving significant financial support from a relative on his mother's side.[1]

Biography He was born Alexander John Sharpe in Hoxton, Middlesex to a wealthy family. His father, James Birch Sharpe, was a notable artist and physician, who was later appointed Esquire of Windlesham. His mother, Ann Ellis, was from a noble background herself, but was not known by anyone, even to this day, from where her family fortune arose. His brother James Birch Sharpe junior, died at the Battle of Inkerman, during the Crimean War, and his other brother William Henry Sharpe, served with the Lancashire Fusiliers, after moving north with his family, to Cumberland, due to military work.

Alexander John Ellis

Alexander was educated at Shrewsbury School, Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge (BA 1837). Initially trained in mathematics and the classics, he became a well-known phonetician of his time. Through his work in phonetics he also became interested in vocal pitch and by extension in musical pitch as well as speech and song.

Ellis is also noted for translating and extensively annotating Hermann Helmholtz's On the Sensations of Tone. The second edition of this translation, published in 1885, contains an appendix which summarizes Ellis' own work on related matters.

In his writings on musical pitch and scales,[2] Ellis elaborates his notion and notation of cents for musical intervals which became especially influential in Comparative musicology, a predecessor of ethnomusicology. Analyzing the scales (tone systems) of various extra-European musical traditions, Ellis also showed that the diversity of tone systems cannot be explained by a single physical law, as had been argued by earlier scholars.

In part V of his work On early English pronunciation, he applied the Dialect Test across Britain, and distinguished forty-two different dialects in England and the Scottish Lowlands.

There are claims that Ellis himself was tone deaf, i.e. could not distinguish different pitches with his own ears.

Today, this claim is often not supported anymore.[3] He was acknowledged by Shaw as the prototype of Professor Henry Higgins of Pygmalion (the basis for the musical My Fair Lady).[4] He was elected in June 1864 a Fellow of the Royal Society [5]

Alexander John Ellis

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Notes [1] John Hannavy (2008). Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PJ8DHBay4_EC& pg=PA481& dq=alexander-ellis+ sharpe& ei=v6LlSO7kFYOQsgOikpjABQ& sig=ACfU3U2pCRynP2CIc0C5HDqhzBIy7HwSnw#PPA481,M1). CRC Press. ISBN 0-415-97235-3. .

[2] Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol. 28 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hnkWAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA295#v=onepage& q& f=false), p.

295 [3] W.R. THOMAS, J.J.K. RHODES, Ellis [Sharpe], Alexander J(ohn), Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 11/05/2008), http:/ / www. grovemusic. com [4] Ross Duffin, "How Equal Temperament Ruined Harmony" W.W. Norton and Co. 2007 [5] "Library and Archive catalogue" (http:/ / www2. royalsociety. org/ DServe/ dserve. exe?dsqIni=Dserve. ini& dsqApp=Archive& dsqCmd=Show. tcl& dsqDb=Persons& dsqPos=1& dsqSearch=(Surname='ellis')). Royal Society. . Retrieved 30 November 2010.

Works • • • •

1845, The Alphabet of Nature 1848, A Plea for Phonetic Spelling: or, The Necessity of Orthographic Reform 1869, On early English pronunciation, Greenwood Press: New York (1968).

1885, On the Musical Scales of Various Nations (http://stuart.sfa.googlepages.com/MSVN00.html). Journal of the Society of Arts 33, p. 485. (Link is to a HTML transcription (Accessed September 2008)

• 1890, English Dialects - Their Sounds and Homes

References • M. K. C. MacMahon, Ellis , Alexander John (1814–1890), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 14 June 2006 (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8683,)

Béla Bartók Béla Viktor János Bartók ( /ˈbɑrtɒk/; Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈbeːlɒ ˈbɒrtoːk]; March 25, 1881 – September 26, 1945) was a Hungarian composer and pianist. He is considered one of the most important composers of the 20th century and is regarded, along with Liszt, as Hungary's greatest composer (Gillies 2001). Through his collection and analytical study of folk music, he was one of the founders of ethnomusicology.

Biography Childhood and early years (1881–98) Béla Bartók was born in the small Banatian town of Nagyszentmiklós in the Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary (since 1920 Sânnicolau Mare,

Béla Bartók in 1927

Romania) on March 25, 1881. Bartók's family reflected some of the ethno-cultural diversities of the country. His father, Béla Sr., considered himself thoroughly Hungarian, because on his father's side the Bartók family was a

Béla Bartók

13

Hungarian lower noble family, originating from Borsod county (Móser 2006a, 44; Bartók 1981, 13), though his mother was from a Roman Catholic Serbian family (Bayley 2001, 16). His mother, Paula (born Paula Voit), had German as a mother tongue, but was ethnically of "mixed Hungarian" origin: Her maiden name Voit is German, probably of Saxon origin from Upper Hungary (Since 1920 in Czechoslovakia, since 1993 in Slovakia), though she spoke Hungarian fluently. Among her closest forefathers there were family names like Polereczky (Magyarized Polish or Slovak) and Fegyveres (Magyar). Béla displayed notable musical talent very early in life: according to his mother, he could distinguish between different dance rhythms that she played on the piano before he learned to speak in complete sentences (Gillies 1990, 6). By the age of four, he was able to play 40 pieces on the piano; his mother began formally teaching him the next year.

Béla was a small and sickly child and suffered from severe eczema until the age of five (Gillies 1990, 5). In 1888, when he was seven, his father (the director of an agricultural school) died suddenly. Béla's mother then took him and his sister, Erzsébet, to live in Nagyszőlős (today Vinogradiv, Ukraine) and then to Pozsony (German: Pressburg, today Bratislava, Slovakia). In Pozsony, Béla gave his first public recital at age eleven to a warm critical reception.

Among the pieces he played was his own first composition, written two years previously: a short piece called "The Course of the Danube" (de Toth 1999). Shortly thereafter László Erkel accepted him as a pupil.

Early musical career (1899–1908) From 1899 to 1903, Bartók studied piano under István Thomán, a former student of Franz Liszt, and composition under János Koessler at the Royal Academy of Music in Budapest. There he met Zoltán Kodály, who influenced him greatly and became his lifelong friend and colleague. In 1903, Bartók wrote his first major orchestral work, Kossuth, a symphonic poem which honored Lajos Kossuth, hero of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.

The music of Richard Strauss, whom he met in 1902 at the Budapest premiere of Also sprach Zarathustra, strongly influenced his early work. When visiting a holiday resort in the summer of 1904, Bartók overheard a young nanny, Lidi Dósa from Kibéd in Transylvania, sing folk songs to the children in her care. This sparked his life-long dedication to folk music.

From 1907 he also began to be influenced by the French composer Claude Debussy, whose compositions Kodály had brought back from Paris. Bartók's large-scale orchestral works were still in the style of Johannes Brahms and Richard Strauss, but he wrote a number of small piano pieces which showed his growing interest in folk music. The first piece to show clear signs of this new interest is the String Quartet No. 1 in A minor (1908), which contains folk-like elements.

Bartók's signature on his high school graduation photograph, dated September 9, 1899

In 1907, Bartók began teaching as a piano professor at the Royal Academy. This position freed him from touring Europe as a pianist and enabled him to work in Hungary. Among his notable students were Fritz Reiner, Sir Georg Solti, György Sándor, Ernő Balogh, and Lili Kraus. After Bartók moved to the United States, he taught Jack Beeson and Violet Archer.

In 1908, he and Kodály traveled into the countryside to collect and research old Magyar folk melodies. Their growing interest in folk music coincided with a contemporary social interest in traditional national culture. They made some surprising discoveries. Magyar folk music had previously been categorised as Gypsy music. The classic example is Franz Liszt's famous Hungarian Rhapsodies for piano, which he based on popular art songs performed by

Béla Bartók Romani bands of the time. In contrast, Bartók and Kodály discovered that the old Magyar folk melodies were based on pentatonic scales, similar to those in Asian folk traditions, such as those of Central Asia and Siberia.

Bartók and Kodály quickly set about incorporating elements of such Magyar peasant music into their compositions.

They both frequently quoted folk song melodies verbatim and wrote pieces derived entirely from authentic songs. An example is his two volumes entitled For Children for solo piano, containing 80 folk tunes to which he wrote accompaniment. Bartók's style in his art music compositions was a synthesis of folk music, classicism, and modernism. His melodic and harmonic sense was profoundly influenced by the folk music of Hungary, Romania, and other nations. He was especially fond of the asymmetrical dance rhythms and pungent harmonies found in Bulgarian music. Most of his early compositions offer a blend of nationalist and late Romanticism elements.

Personal life In 1909, Bartók married Márta Ziegler. Their son, Béla III, was born on August 22, 1910. After nearly 15 years together, Bartók divorced Márta in 1923.

He then married Ditta Pásztory, a piano student. She had his second son, Péter, born in 1924.

Opera In 1911, Bartók wrote what was to be his only opera, Bluebeard's Castle, dedicated to Márta. He entered it for a prize by the Hungarian Fine Arts Commission, but they rejected his work as not fit for the stage (Chalmers 1995, 93). In 1917 Bartók revised the score for the 1918 première, and rewrote the ending. Following the 1919 revolution, he was pressured by the new Soviet government to remove the name of the librettist Béla Balázs from the opera (Chalmers 1995, 123), as he was blacklisted and had left the country for Vienna. Bluebeard's Castle received only one revival, in 1936, before Bartók emigrated. For the remainder of his life, although he was passionately devoted to Hungary, its people and its culture, he never felt much loyalty to the government or its official establishments.

Folk music and composition After his disappointment over the Fine Arts Commission competition, Bartók wrote little for two or three years, preferring to concentrate on collecting and arranging folk music. He collected first in the Carpathian Basin (the then-Kingdom of Hungary), where he notated Hungarian, Slovakian, Romanian and Bulgarian folk music. He also collected in Moldavia, Wallachia and in 1913 in Algeria. The outbreak of World War I forced him to stop the expeditions, and he returned to composing, writing the ballet The Wooden Prince in 1914–16 and the String Quartet No. 2 in 1915–17, both influenced by Debussy.

Raised as a Roman Catholic, by his early adulthood Bartók had become an atheist. He believed that the existence of God could not be determined and was unnecessary. He later became attracted to Unitarianism and publicly converted to the Unitarian faith in 1916. As an adult, his son later became president of the Hungarian Unitarian Church (Hughes 1999–2007).

Bartók wrote another ballet, The Miraculous Mandarin influenced by Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, as well as Richard Strauss. He next wrote his two violin sonatas (written in 1921 and 1922 respectively), which are harmonically and structurally some of his most complex pieces. The Miraculous Mandarin, a modern story of prostitution, robbery, and murder, was started in 1918, but not performed until 1926 because of its sexual content.

In 1927–28, Bartók wrote his third and fourth string quartets, after which his compositions demonstrate his mature style. Notable examples of this period are Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936) and Divertimento for String Orchestra BB 118 (1939). The String Quartet No. 5 was composed in 1934, and the sixth and last string quartet in 1939.

In 1936 he travelled to Turkey to collect and study folk music. He worked in collaboration with Turkish composer Ahmet Adnan Saygun mostly around Adana (Özgentürk 2008; Sipos 2000).

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Béla Bartók

World War II and last years in America (1940–45) In 1940, as the European political situation worsened after the outbreak of World War II, Bartók was increasingly tempted to flee Hungary. He was strongly opposed to the Nazis and Hungary's siding with Germany. After the Nazis came to power in the early 1930s, Bartók refused to give concerts in Germany and broke with his publisher there.

His anti-fascist political views caused him a great deal of trouble with the establishment in Hungary. Having first sent his manuscripts out of the country, Bartók reluctantly emigrated to the U.S. with Ditta Pásztory in July that year.

They settled in New York City. After joining them in 1942, his younger son, Péter Bartók, enlisted in the United States Navy where he served in the Pacific during the remainder of the war and later settled in Florida where he became a recording and sound engineer. His oldest son, Béla Bartók, Jr., remained in Hungary where he survived the war and later worked as a railroad official until his retirement in the early 1980s.

Bartók never became fully at home in the US. He initially found it difficult to compose. Although well known in America as a pianist, ethnomusicologist and teacher, he was not well known as a composer. There was little American interest in his music during his final years. He and his wife Ditta gave concerts. Bartók, who had made some recordings in Hungary also recorded for Columbia Records after he came to the US; many of these recordings (some with Bartók's own spoken introductions) were later issued on LP and CD (Bartók 1994, 1995a, 1995b, 2003, 2007, 2008).

Supported by a research fellowship from Columbia University, for several years, Bartók and Ditta worked on a large collection of Serbian and Croatian folk songs in Columbia's libraries. They also translated some old Hungarian textbooks into English which were also from Columbia's libraries. Bartók's economic difficulties during his first years in America were mitigated by publication royalties, teaching and performance tours. While his finances were always precarious, he did not live and die in poverty as was the common myth. He had enough supporters to ensure that there was sufficient money and work available for him to live on. Bartók was a proud man and did not easily accept charity. Despite being short on cash at times, he often refused money that his friends offered him out of their own pockets. Although he was not a member of the ASCAP, the society paid for any medical care he needed during his last two years. Bartók reluctantly accepted this (Chalmers 1995, 196–203).

The first symptoms of his health problems began late in 1940, when his right shoulder began to show signs of stiffening. In 1942, symptoms increased and he started having bouts of fever, but no underlying disease was diagnosed, in spite of medical examinations. Finally, in April 1944, leukemia was diagnosed, but by this time, little could be done (Chalmers 1995, 202–207).

As his body slowly failed, Bartók found more creative energy, and he produced a final set of masterpieces, partly thanks to the violinist Joseph Szigeti and the conductor Fritz Reiner (Reiner had been Bartók's friend and champion since his days as Bartók's student at the Royal Academy). Bartók's last work might well have been the String Quartet No. 6 but for Serge Koussevitsky's commission for the Concerto for Orchestra. Koussevitsky's Boston Symphony Orchestra premièred the work in December 1944 to highly positive reviews. Concerto for Orchestra quickly became Bartók's most popular work, although he did not live to see its full impact. In 1944, he was also commissioned by Yehudi Menuhin to write a Sonata for Solo Violin. In 1945, Bartók composed his Piano Concerto No. 3, a graceful and almost neo-classical work. He began work on his Viola Concerto, but had not completed the scoring at his death.

15

Béla Bartók

Béla Bartók died at age 64 in a hospital in New York City from complications of leukemia (specifically, of secondary polycythemia) on September 26, 1945. His funeral was attended by only ten people.

Among them were his wife Ditta, their son Péter, and his pianist friend György Sándor (anon. 2006).

Bartok's body was initially interred in Béla Bartók's portrait on 1,000 Hungarian forint banknote (printed in 1983; no Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. longer in circulation).

During the final year of communist Hungary in the late 1980s, the Hungarian government, along with his two sons, Béla III and Péter, requested that his remains be exhumed and transferred back to Budapest for burial, where Hungary arranged a state funeral for him on July 7, 1988. He was reinterred at Budapest's Farkasréti Cemetery (Chalmers 1995, 214).

The Third Piano Concerto was nearly finished at his death. For his Viola Concerto, Bartok had completed only the viola part and sketches of the orchestral part. Both works were later completed by his pupil, Tibor Serly. György Sándor was the soloist in the first performance of the Third Piano Concerto on February 8, 1946. The Viola Concerto was revised and polished in the 1990s by Bartók's son, Peter; this version may be closer to what Bartók intended (Chalmers 1995, 210).

Statues • A statue of Béla Bartók stands in Brussels, Belgium near the central train station in a public square, Spanjeplein-Place d'Espagne.

• A statue stands outside Malvern Court, south of South Kensington Underground Station, and just north of Sydney Place, where he stayed when performing in London.

• A statue of him was installed in front of one of the houses which Bartók owned in the hills above Budapest. It is now operated as a house museum.

• A bust and plaque located at his last residence, in New York City at 309 W. 57th Street, inscribed: "The Great Hungarian Composer / Béla Bartók / (1881–1945) / Made His Home In This House / During the Last Year of His Life".

• A bust of him is located in in the front yard of Ankara State Conservatory, Ankara, Turkey right next to the bust of Ahmet Adnan Saygun.

Compositions Further information: List of compositions by Béla Bartók Bartók's music reflects two trends that dramatically changed the sound of music in the 20th century: the breakdown of the diatonic system of harmony that had served composers for the previous two hundred years (Griffiths 1978, 7); and the revival of nationalism as a source for musical inspiration, a trend that began with Mikhail Glinka and Antonín Dvořák in the last half of the 19th century (Einstein 1947, 332). In his search for new forms of tonality, Bartók turned to Hungarian folk music, as well as to other folk music of the Carpathian Basin and even of Algeria and Turkey; in so doing he became influential in that stream of modernism which exploited indigenous music and techniques (Botstein [n.d.], §6).

One characteristic style of music is his Night music, which he used mostly in slow movements of multi-movement ensemble or orchestral compositions in his mature period. It is characterised by "eerie dissonances providing a backdrop to sounds of nature and lonely melodies" (Schneider 2006, 84). An example is the third movement Adagio

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Béla Bartók of his Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta.

His music can be grouped roughly in accordance with the different periods in his life.

Youth: Late-Romanticism (1890–1902) The works of his youth are of a late-Romantic style. Between 1890 and 1894 (nine to 13 years of age) he wrote 31 pieces with corresponding opus numbers. He started numbering his works anew with ‘opus 1’ in 1894 with his first large scale work, a piano sonata. Up to 1902, Bartók wrote in total 74 works which can be considered in Romantic style. Most of these early compositions are either scored for piano solo or include a piano. Additionally, there is some chamber music for strings. Compared to his later achievements, these works are of less importance.

New influences (1903–11) Under the influence of Richard Strauss (among other works Also sprach Zarathustra) (Stevens 1993, 15–17), Bartók composed in 1903 Kossuth, a symphonic poem in ten tableaux. In 1904 followed his Rhapsody for piano and orchestra which he numbered opus 1 again, marking it himself as the start of a new era in his music. An even more important occurrence of this year was his overhearing the eighteen-year-old nanny Lidi Dósa from Transylvania sing folk songs, sparking Bartók’s lifelong dedication to folk music (Stevens 1993, 22). When criticised for not composing his own melodies Bartók pointed out that Molière and Shakespeare mostly based their plays on well-known stories too. Regarding the incorporation of folk music into art music he said: The question is, what are the ways in which peasant music is taken over and becomes transmuted into modern music? We may, for instance, take over a peasant melody unchanged or only slightly varied, write an accompaniment to it and possibly some opening and concluding phrases. This kind of work would show a certain analogy with Bach’s treatment of chorales. [...] Another method [...] is the following: the composer does not make use of a real peasant melody but invents his own imitation of such melodies. There is no true difference between this method and the one described above. [...] There is yet a third way [...] Neither peasant melodies nor imitations of peasant melodies can be found in his music, but it is pervaded by the atmosphere of peasant music. In this case we may say, he has completely absorbed the idiom of peasant music which has become his musical mother tongue. (Bartók 1931/1976, 341–44.)

Bartók became first acquainted with Debussy’s music in 1907 and regarded his music highly. In an interview in 1939 Bartók said Debussy's great service to music was to reawaken among all musicians an awareness of harmony and its possibilities. In that, he was just as important as Beethoven, who revealed to us the possibilities of progressive form, or as Bach, who showed us the transcendent significance of counterpoint. Now, what I am always asking myself is this: is it possible to make a synthesis of these three great masters, a living synthesis that will be valid for our time? (Moreux 1953, 92) Debussy's influence is present in the Fourteen Bagatelles (1908). These made Ferruccio Busoni exclaim ‘At last something truly new!’ (Bartók, 1948, 2:83). Until 1911, Bartók composed widely differing works which ranged from adherence to romantic-style, to folk song arrangements and to his modernist opera Bluebeard’s Castle. The negative reception of his work led him to focus on folk music research after 1911 and abandon composition with the exception of folk music arrangements (Gillies 1993, 404; Stevens 1964, 47–49).

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Béla Bartók

New inspiration and experimentation (1916–21) His pessimistic attitude towards composing was lifted by the stormy and inspiring contact with Klára Gombossy in the summer of 1915 (Gillies 1993, 405). This interesting episode in Bartók's life remained hidden until it was researched by Denijs Dille between 1979 and 1989 (Dille 1990, 257–77). Bartók started composing again, including the Suite for piano opus 14 (1916), and The Miraculous Mandarin (1918) and he completed The Wooden Prince (1917).

Bartók felt the result of World War I as a personal tragedy (Stevens 1993, 3). Many regions he loved were severed from Hungary: Transylvania, the Banat where he was born, and Pozsony where his mother lived. Additionally, the political relations between Hungary and the other successor states to the Austro-Hungarian empire prohibited his folk music research outside of Hungary (Somfai, 1996, 18). Thrown largely onto himself, he experimented with extreme compositional practices, the peak being his Sonata for Violin and Piano No. 1 (Op. 21) and No. 2. Bartók also wrote the noteworthy Eight Improvisations on Hungarian Peasant Songs in 1920, and the sunny Dance Suite in 1923, the year of his second marriage.

"Synthesis of East and West" (1926–45) In 1926, Bartók needed a significant piece for piano and orchestra with which he could tour in Europe and America.

In the preparation for writing his First Piano Concerto, he wrote his Sonata, Out of Doors, and Nine Little Pieces, all for solo piano (Gillies 1993, 173). He increasingly found his own voice in his maturity. The style of his last period—named "Synthesis of East and West" (Gillies 1993, 189)—is hard to define let alone to put under one term.

In his mature period, Bartók wrote relatively few works but most of them are large-scale compositions for large settings. Only his voice works have programmatic titles and his late works often adhere to classical forms.

Among his masterworks are all the six string quartets (1908, 1917, 1927, 1928, 1934, and 1939), the Cantata Profana (1930, Bartók declared that this was the work he felt and professed to be his most personal "credo", Szabolcsi 1974, 186), the Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936), the Concerto for Orchestra (1943) and the Third Piano Concerto (1945).

Bartók also made a lasting contribution to the literature for younger students: for his son Péter's music lessons, he composed Mikrokosmos, a six-volume collection of graded piano pieces.

Analysis Analytic approaches Paul Wilson lists as the most prominent characteristics of Bartók's music from late 1920s onwards the influence of the Carpathian basin and European art music, and his changing attitude toward (and use of) tonality, but without the use of the traditional harmonic functions associated with major and minor scales (Wilson 1992, 2–4).

Although Bartók claimed in his writings that his music was always tonal, it rarely uses the chords or scales of tonality, and so the descriptive resources of tonal theory are of limited use. George Perle and Elliott Antokoletz focus on alternative methods of signaling tonal centers, via axes of inversional symmetry. Others view Bartok's axes of symmetry in terms of atonal analytic protocols. Richard Cohn argues that inversional symmetry is often a byproduct of another atonal procedure, the formation of chords from transpositionally related dyads. Atonal pitch-class theory also furnishes the resources for exploring polymodal chromaticism, projected sets, privileged patterns, and large set types used as source sets such as the equal tempered twelve tone aggregate, octatonic scale (and alpha chord), the diatonic and heptatonia seconda seven-note scales, and less often the whole tone scale and the primary pentatonic collection (Wilson 1992, 24–29).

He rarely used the simple aggregate actively to shape musical structure, though there are notable examples such as the second theme from the first movement of his Second Violin Concerto, commenting that he "wanted to show

18

Béla Bartók

19

Schoenberg that one can use all twelve tones and still remain tonal" (Gillies 1990, 185). More thoroughly, in the first eight measures of the last movement of his Second Quartet, all notes gradually gather with the twelfth (G♭) sounding for the first time on the last beat of measure 8, marking the end of the first section. The aggregate is partitioned in the opening of the Third String Quartet with C♯–D–D♯–E in the accompaniment (strings) while the remaining pitch classes are used in the melody (violin 1) and more often as 7–35 (diatonic or "white-key" collection) and 5–35 (pentatonic or "black-key" collection) such as in no. 6 of the Eight Improvisations. There, the primary theme is on the black keys in the left hand, while the right accompanies with triads from the white keys. In measures 50–51 in the third movement of the Fourth Quartet, the first violin and 'cello play black-key chords, while the second violin and viola play stepwise diatonic lines (Wilson 1992, 25). On the other hand, from as early as the Suite for piano, op.

14 (1914), he occasionally employed a form of serialism based on compound interval cycles, some of which are maximally distributed, multi-aggregate cycles (Martins 2004, Gollin 2007).

Ernő Lendvaï (1971) analyses Bartók's works as being based on two opposing tonal systems, that of the acoustic scale and the axis system, as well as using the golden section as a structural principle.

Milton Babbitt, in his 1949 critique of Bartók's string quartets, criticized Bartók for using tonality and non tonal methods unique to each piece. Babbitt noted that "Bartók's solution was a specific one, it cannot be duplicated" (Babbitt 1949, 385). Bartók's use of "two organizational principles"—tonality for large scale relationships and the piece-specific method for moment to moment thematic elements—was a problem for Babbitt, who worried that the "highly attenuated tonality" requires extreme non-harmonic methods to create a feeling of closure (Babbitt 1949, 377–78).

Catalogues and opus numbers

Béla Bartók memorial plaque in Baja, Hungary

The cataloguing of Bartók's works is somewhat complex. Bartók assigned opus numbers to his works three times, the last of these series ending with the Sonata for Violin and Piano No. 1, Op. 21 in 1921. He ended this practice because of the difficulty of distinguishing between original works and ethnographic arrangements, and between major and minor works. Since his death, three attempts—two full and one partial—have been made at cataloguing.

The first, and still most widely used, is András Szőllősy's chronological Sz. numbers, from 1 to 121. Denijs Dille subsequently reorganised the juvenilia (Sz. 1–25) thematically, as DD numbers 1 to 77. The most recent catalogue is that of László Somfai; this is a chronological index with works identified by BB numbers 1 to 129, incorporating corrections based on the Béla Bartók Thematic Catalogue..

Discography • • • • • •

Bartók, Béla. 1994. Bartók at the Piano. Hungaroton 12326. 6-CD set.

Bartók, Béla. 1995a. Bartok Plays Bartok – Bartok At The Piano 1929–41. Pearl 9166. CD recording.

Bartók, Béla. 1995b. Bartók Recordings From Private Collections. Hungaroton 12334. CD recording.

Bartók, Béla. 2003. Bartók Plays Bartók. Pearl 179. CD recording.

Bartók, Béla. 2007. Bartók: Contrasts, Mikrokosmos. Membran/Documents 223546. CD recording.

Bartók, Béla. 2008. Bartok Plays Bartok. Urania 340. CD recording.

Béla Bartók

Bibliography • Anon. 2003. "Béla Bartók 1881–1945 [1]". Websophia.com [2]. (Accessed March 25, 2009) • Anon. 2006. "Gyorgy Sandor, Pianist and Bartok Authority, Dies at 93 [3]". The Juilliard Journal Online 21, no. 5 (February). (Accessed September 15, 2010) • Antokoletz, Elliott. 1984. The Music of Béla Bartók. University of California Press.

• Babbitt, Milton. 1949. "The String Quartets of Bartók". Musical Quarterly 35 (July): 377–85. Reprinted in The Collected Essays of Milton Babbitt, edited by Stephen Peles, with Stephen Dembski, Andrew Mead, and Joseph N. Straus, [4]. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-691-08966-3 • Bartók, Béla. 1948. Levelek, fényképek, kéziratok, kották. ("Letters, photographs, manuscripts, scores"), ed. János Demény, 2 vols. A Muvészeti Tanács könyvei, 1.–2. sz. Budapest: Magyar Muvészeti Tanács. English edition, as Béla Bartók: Letters, translated by Péter Balabán and István Farkas; translation revised by Elisabeth West and Colin Mason (London: Faber and Faber Ltd.; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1971). ISBN 978-0-571-09638-1 • Bartók, Béla. 1976. "The Influence of Peasant Music on Modern Music (1931)". In Béla Bartók Essays, edited by Benjamin Suchoff, 340–44. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-10120-8 OCLC 60900461 • Bartók, Béla. 1981. The Hungarian Folk Song [5], second English edition, edited by Benjamin Suchoff, translated

by Michel D. Calvocoressi, with annotations by Zoltán Kodály. The New York Bartok Archive Studies in Musicology 13. Albany: State University of New York Press.

• Bartók, Peter. 2002. "My Father". Homosassa, Florida, Bartók Records (ISBN 0-9641961-2-3).

• Bayley, Amanda. 2001. Cambridge Companion to Bartók [6]. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

• Bónis, Ferenc. 2006. Élet-képek: Bartók Béla [7]. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó: Vávi Kft., Alföldi Nyomda Zrt. ISBN 963-506-649-X. • Botstein, Leon. [n.d.] "Modernism", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed April 29, 2008), (subscription access) [8] • Boys, Henry. 1945. "Béla Bartók 1881–1945". Musical Times 86, no. 1233 (November): 329–31.

• Chalmers, Kenneth. 1995. Béla Bartók. 20th-Century Composers. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0-7148-3164-6 (pbk.)

• Cohn, Richard, 1988. "Inversional Symmetry and Transpositional Combination in Bartok." Music Theory Spectrum 10.

• Cohn, Richard, 1992. "Bartok's Octatonic Strategies: A Motivic Approach." Journal of the American Musicological Society 44 • Czeizel, Endre. 1992. Családfa: honnan jövünk, mik vagyunk, hová megyünk? [Budapest]: Kossuth Könyvkiadó.

ISBN 963-09-3569-4 • de Toth, June. 1999. "Béla Bartók: A Biography". Bela Bartok Biography Liner notes to Béla Bartók: Complete Piano Works [9] 7-CD set, Eroica Classical Recordings • Dille, Denijs. 1990. Béla Bartók: Regard sur le Passé. (French, no English version available). Namur: Presses universitaires de Namur. ISBN 2-87037-168-3 ISBN 978-2870371688 • Einstein, Alfred. 1947. Music in the Romantic Era. New York: W.W. Norton.

• Gillies, Malcolm (ed.). 1990. Bartók Remembered. London: Faber. ISBN 0-571-14243-5 (cased) ISBN 0-571-14244-3 (pbk) • Gillies, Malcolm (ed.). 1993. The Bartók Companion. London: Faber. ISBN 0-571-15330-5 (cloth), ISBN 0-571-15331-3 (pbk) New York: Hal Leonard. ISBN 0-931340-74-8 • Gillies, Malcolm. 2001. "Béla Bartók". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Press; New York: Grove's Dictionaries of Music.

Also in Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed May 23, 2006), (subscription access) [8] • Gollin, Edward. 2007. "Multi-Aggregate Cycles and Multi-Aggregate Serial Techniques in the Music of Béla Bartók". Music Theory Spectrum 29, no. 2 (Fall): 143–76.

20

Béla Bartók • Griffiths, Paul. 1978. A Concise History of Modern Music. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20164-1 • Hughes, Peter. 1999–2007. "Béla Bartók [10]" in Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography. [n.p.]: Unitarian Universalist Historical Society.

• Leafstedt, Carl S. 1999. Inside Bluebeard's Castle. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510999-6 • Lendvaï, Ernő. 1971. Béla Bartók: An Analysis of His Music, introduced by Alan Bush. London: Kahn & Averill.

ISBN 0-900707-04-6 OCLC 240301 • Loxdale, Hugh D., and Adalbert Balog. 2009. "Bela Bartok: Musician, Musicologist, Composer, and Entomologist!." Antenna – Bulletin of the Royal Entomological Society of London 33, no. 4:175–82.

• Moreux, Serge. 1953. Béla Bartók, translated G. S. Fraser and Erik de Mauny. London: The Harvill Press.

• Móser, Zoltán. 2006a. "Szavak, feliratok, kivonatok [11]". Tiszatáj 60, no. 3 (March): 41–45.

• Móser, Zoltán. 2006b. "Bartók-õsök Gömörben". Honismeret: A Honismereti Szövetség folyóirata [12] 34, no. 2 (April): 9–11.

• Özgentürk, Nebil. 2008. Türkiye'nin Hatıra Defteri, episode 3. Istanbul: Bir Yudum İnsan Prodüksiyon LTD. ŞTİ.

Turkish CNN television documentary series.

• Sipos, János (ed.). 2000. In the Wake of Bartók in Anatolia 1: Collection Near Adana. Budapest: Ethnofon Records.

• Somfai, Laszlo (1996). Béla Bartók: Composition, Concepts, and Autograph Sources. Ernest Bloch Lectures in Music 9. Berkeley : University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08485-8 • Schneider, David E. 2006. Bartók, Hungary, and the Renewal of Tradition: Case Studies in the Intersection of Modernity and Nationality. California Studies in 20th-Century Music 5. Berkeley: University of California Press.

ISBN 978-0-520-24503-7 • Stevens, Halsey. 1964. The Life and Music of Béla Bartók, second edition. New York: Oxford University Press.

ASIN: B000NZ54ZS (Third edition 1993, ISBN 978-0-19-816349-7) • Szabolcsi, Bence. 1974. Bartók Béla: Cantata profana in "Miért szép századunk zenéje?" (Why is the music of the Twentieth century so beautiful), ed. György Kroó. Budapest.

• Wells, John C. 1990. "Bartók", in Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 63. Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 0-582-05383-8 • Wilson, Paul. 1992. The Music of Béla Bartók. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05111-5.

Further reading • Antokoletz, Elliott. 1984. The Music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twentieth-Century Music. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04604-8.

• Jyrkiäinen, Reijo. 2012. "Form, Monothematicism, Variation and Symmetry in Béla Bartók’s String Quartets".

Ph.D. diss. Helsinki: University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-952-10-8040-1 (Abstract [13]).

• Kárpáti, János. 1975. Bartók's String Quartets, translated by Fred MacNicol. Budapest: Corvina Press.

• Somfai, László. 1981. Tizennyolc Bartók-tanulmány [Eighteen Bartók Studies]. Budapest: Zeneműkiadó. ISBN 963-330-370-2.

• Somfai, Lászlo. 1996. Béla Bartók: Composition, Concepts, and Autograph Sources. Ernest Bloch Lectures.

Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08485-3.

21

Béla Bartók

External links • Béla Bartók [14] biography and works on the UE website (publisher) • The Lied and Art Song Texts Page [15] Original texts of the songs of Bartok with translations in various languages.

• Bartók Béla Memorial House, Budapest [16] • The Belgian Bartók Archives, housed in the Brussels Royal Library and founded by Denijs Dille [17] • Bartók and his relationship with Unitarianism [18] • Gallery of Bartók portraits [19] • Béla Bartók [20] at the Notable Names Database • Don Gabor and Laszlo Halasz recorded Béla Bartók at his home in New York [21] • Béla Bartók [22] at Find a Grave • Plaque #94 on Open Plaques [23]. in Sydney Place, London Recordings • Kunst der Fuge: Béla Bartók—MIDI files [24] • Excerpts from sound archives [25] of Bartok's works.

• In the BBC Discovering Music: Listening Library [26] Sheet music • Free scores by Béla Bartók at the International Music Score Library Project

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

http:/ / www. websophia. com/ faces/ bartok. html http:/ / www. websophia. com/ http:/ / www. juilliard. edu/ update/ journal/ j_articles785. html http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ chapters/ s7616. pdf http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DxsJAQAAMAAJ& q=szuhafo+ bartok& dq=szuhafo+ bartok& hl=en& ei=-UIiTfrUK4bNhAf486G3Dg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=6& ved=0CD4Q6AEwBQ [6] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=4uInwtVVfxMC& pg=PA16& dq=Bela+ Bartok+ his+ father+ mother+ serb& hl=en& ei=khYiTf-JJMimhAfPxuG3Dg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=falseThe [7] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=W7-iAQAACAAJ& dq=%C3%89LET-K%C3%89PEK:+ BART%C3%93K+ B%C3%89LA& hl=en& ei=TxkiTdOfFcG2hAfIhJG3Dg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA [8] http:/ / www. grovemusic. com [9] http:/ / www. bartokcds. com/ bio. html [10] http:/ / www25. uua. org/ uuhs/ duub/ articles/ belabartok. html [11] http:/ / epa. oszk. hu/ 00700/ 00713/ 00175/ pdf/ 2006_03. pdf [12] http:/ / www. hnm. hu/ honismeret/ folyoirat/ 2006-2-honismeret1. pdf [13] https:/ / helda. helsinki. fi/ handle/ 10138/ 33683 [14] http:/ / www. universaledition. com/ Bela-Bartok/ composers-and-works/ composer/ 38 [15] http:/ / www. recmusic. org/ lieder/ b/ bartok. html [16] http:/ / www. bartokmuseum. hu/ [17] http:/ / bartok. kbr. be/ [18] http:/ / www. harvardsquarelibrary. org/ unitarians/ bartok. html [19] http:/ / www. gallery-diabolus. com/ gallery/ artist. php?language=english& id=utisz& page=205/ [20] http:/ / www. nndb. com/ people/ 925/ 000026847 [21] http:/ / www. soundfountain. org/ rem/ dongabor2. html#bartok [22] http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=4241 [23] http:/ / openplaques. org/ plaques/ 94 [24] http:/ / www. kunstderfuge. com/ bartok. htm [25] http:/ / www. musiquecontemporaine. fr/ en/ search?disp=all& query=Bartok& exp_inl=on& exp_aud=on& so=ta [26] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio3/ discoveringmusic/ listeninglibrary. shtml

22

Constantin Brăiloiu

Constantin Brăiloiu Constantin Brăiloiu (August 13, 1893 - December 20, 1958) was a Romanian composer and internationally known ethnomusicologist.

He was born in Bucharest. He studied in Bucharest (1901–1907), Vienna (1907–1909), Vevey and Lausanne (1909–1912) as well as Paris (1912–1914). In 1920 he founded the Societatea Compozitorilor Român (SCR, Society of Romanian Composers) along with other composers, and he served as general secretary of the organization between 1926 and 1943.

In 1928 he initiated the composer's collective Arhiva de folklore (folklore archive), which soon became one of the largest folk music archives of its time. From 1928 he and sociology professor Dimitrie Gusti visited the various regions of Romania in order to make sound recordings. In 1931 he published the article "Schiţa a unei Metode de folklore Muzical" (Sketch of a method for music folklore), which became one of the foundational texts for ethnomusicology.

In 1943 he became cultural consultant for the Romanian embassy in Bern. Due to the political incidents in his homeland he stayed from then on in Switzerland. In 1944 he organized another archive in Geneva, Les Archives internationales de musique populaire (AIMP), that was part of the Musée d'ethnographie de Genève (Geneva Museum of Ethnography). He served as director for the AIMP from 1944 until his death in 1958, and collected musical recordings from all over the world. In particular, between 1951 and 1958 he released 40 volumes in the series Collection universelle de musique populaire enregistrée (Universal collection of recorded popular music) on 78 rpm records. In 1948 he became assistant professor (maître de conférence) at the CNRS in Paris.

Writings • Schiţa a unei Metode de folklore Muzical. In: Boabe de Grâu, Jg. 2, Nr. 4, 1931.

• Sur une ballade roumaine : (la Mioritza). Kundig, Geneva 1946.

• A propos du Jodel. In: Kongressbericht der Internationalen Gesellschaft für Musikwissenschaft, 4. Kongress, Basel 1949. Bärenreiter Verlag, Basel 1951, S. 69-71.

• Le rythme aksak. Abbeville 1952.

• Sur une mélodie russe. In: Pierre Souvtchinsky, Vladimir Fédorov, Gisèle Brelet (Hrsg.): Musique russe. Presses universitaires de France, Paris 1953.

• Le vers populaire roumain chanté. Ed. de l'Institut universitaire roumain Charles I, Paris 1956.

• La rythmique enfantine : notions liminaires. Elsevier, Paris/Brussels 1956.

• Folklore musical. Encyclopédie de la musique Fasquelle, Paris 1959.

• Réflexions sur la création musicale collective. In: Diogène. (Paris) Nr. 25, 1959, S. 83–93.

• Vie musicale d'un village: recherches sur le répertoire de Dragus (Roumanie) 1929-1932. Institut universitaire roumain Charles Ier, Paris 1960.

• Problèmes d'ethnomusicologie. Minkoff Reprint, Geneva 1973. (Collected works edited by Gilbert Rouget) • Problems of ethnomusicology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984. (English translation by A.L. Lloyd of the collected works), digitally printed (Cambridge 2009) ISBN 978-0-521-24528-9 (hbk.), ISBN 978-0-521-11744-9 (pbk.)

• Opere 1-5. Ed. Muzicală a Uniunii compozitorilor din Republica Socialistă România, Bukarest, Bd. 1: 1967, Bd. 2: 1969, Bd. 3: 1974, Bd. 4: 1979, Bd. 5: 1981. (Collected works, translated and edited by Emilia Comişel) • Opere 6. Prima Parte. Editura Muzicală, Bucharest 1998. (with Emilia Comişel)

23

Constantin Brăiloiu

External links • short article (Romanian) [1] • Biography on the homepage of Musée d'Ethnographie de Genève [2] (French) • Online Data bank of the Brailoiu collection [3] This article incorporates information from the German Wikipedia.

References [1] http:/ / www. crestinortodox. ro/ Constantin_Brailoiu_-51-387. html [2] http:/ / www. ville-ge. ch/ meg/ brailoiu. php [3] http:/ / www. ville-ge. ch/ meg/ musinfo_ph. php

Carl Stumpf Carl Stumpf (21 April 1848, Wiesentheid – 25 December 1936, Berlin) was a German philosopher and psychologist. Inspired by Franz Brentano and Hermann Lotze, he is known for his impact on phenomenology, one of the most important philosophical trends of the twentieth century. He had an important influence on Edmund Husserl, the founder of modern phenomenology, as well as Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka, co-founders of Gestalt psychology.

Stumpf is also considered one of the pioneers of comparative musicology and ethnomusicology. He held positions in the philosophy departments at the Universities of Göttingen, Würzburg, Prague, Munich and Halle, before obtaining a professorship at the University of Berlin.[1]

Early life Carl Stumpf was born in Wiesentheid, Franconia, in southern Carl Stumpf.

Germany. His father was the country court physician, and his immediate family included scientists and academicians, like his grandfather, who studied eighteenth century French literature and the philosophers Kant and Schelling. Stumpf showed precocious musical talent as a child, learning the violin by the age of 7 and five other instruments by age 10.[2]

Education Stumpf attended the local Gymnasium, where he developed a passion for philosophy, especially the works of Plato, before enrolling at the University of Würzberg at the age of 17.[3] He spent one semester studying aesthetics and one studying law. Then, in his third semester, he met Franz Brentano, who taught Stumpf to think logically and empirically. Brentano also encouraged Stumpf to take courses on the natural sciences because he considered both the substance and methods of science important to philosophy.[3] After two semesters of studying with Brentano, he transferred to the University of Göttingen to study under Hermann Lotze, a German perceptual theorist. After receiving a degree from Lotze in 1868, Stumpf returned to Würzberg to prepare for Catholic priesthood. He entered a seminary in 1869 and studied theology, but left almost immediately due to a crisis over papal infallibility.[2]

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Carl Stumpf

Academic career Upon return from seminary, Stumpf was granted a position as an instructor at the University of GĂśttingen in the Department of Philosophy. There Stumpf met Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner, and served as an observer in their psychological experiments. Their careful approach to a problem of aesthetics, specifically the visual appeal of rectangles of different proportions, appealed to Stumpf and reinforced the notion learned from Brentano that psychological acts or functions can be studied empirically.[2] In 1873, Stumpf returned to the University of WĂźrzberg as a professor in the Department of Philosophy. Although he was forced to teach all of the philosophy and psychology courses due to Brentano's forced departure from the university, Stumpf completed his first major psychological work, an examination of visual perception, particularly depth perception. He proposed a nativist explanation for depth perception, and his book has been cited as an outstanding early contribution to the debate between the nativist and empiricist views of perception.[2] In 1894, Stumpf was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin. At Berlin, he also held an adjunct appointment as director of the Institute of Experimental Psychology at Berlin. The Institute originally occupied three dark rooms, but by 1920, had moved to twenty-five rooms in the former Imperial Palace. In 1896, Stumpf presided over the Third International Congress of Psychology, and delivered the inaugural address on the relation between mind and body; he advocated an interactionalist position that opposed the popular notion of psychophysical parallelism. Finally, from 1907 to 1908, Stump served as the rector of the University of Berlin.[2]

Phenomenology Stumpf began his Tonpsychologie (Tone Psychology) in 1875, a work considered to be his greatest contribution to psychology. He distinguished between phenomena and mental functions, suggesting that phenomena such as tones, colors, and images are either sensory or imaginary. Stumpf termed the study of such phenomena as phenomenology.

He did a wide range of studies of the phenomenological characteristics of the sounds of different instruments, the determinants of melody, tonal fusion, and the consonance and dissonance of tones.[2] This research was made possible by the excellent collection of acoustic devices at the Institute of Physics.[3]

Sensational Phenomena In 1903 and 1904, Stumpf was involved in two well-publicized debunking episodes related to sensational phenomena. First, an engineer from Prague claimed to have invented a machine that could change photographs of sound waves into sound. Stumpf, after attending a demonstration, wrote an article challenging its legitimacy, causing it to never be heard about again.[2] However, the case of Clever Hans, an apparently brilliant horse owned by Herr von Osten, was even more sensational.

Clever Hans Herr von Ostem, to all appearances, had successfully trained Hans to add, subtract, multiply, divide, work with fractions, and even tell time and keep track of the calendar. Von Osten would pose questions would be posed both orally or printed on cards. Due to the great public interest in Hans and his achievements, the German Board of Education appointed a commission to evaluate von Osten's claims. This commission issued a report concluding that there were no tricks or intentional influences during Hans' performances. Recommending an additional investigation, one of Stumpf's assistants at the Berlin Institute, Oskar Pfungst was recruited.[2] First, Pfungst investigated the role of visual cues. Hans was fitted with large blinkers and was questioned with the questioner standing either directly in front of Hans or to the side. He found that Hans answered the questions correctly only 6 percent of the time when the questioner stood to the side, but when the questioner stood directly in front of Hans, 89 percent of the answers were correct. Pfungst was able to discern that when the horse was given a problem, the questioner would lean forward to watch Hans' response; at the correct response, the questioner would make a slight involuntary upward movement of the eyebrows. Once this cue was determined, Pfungst was able to

25

Carl Stumpf elicit any response he wanted by making the slight upward movement. The case of Clever Hans indicated the importance of subtle cues and movements an observer may provide.[2]

Later Years The majority of Stumpf's later work did not include sensational or interesting research, like that of Clever Hans.

With the outbreak of World War I, many students left the Institute of Experimental Psychology to fight in the war.

Furthermore, the war between Germany and the allied nations disrupted many professional relationships he had with other psychologists. Stumpf retired from the University of Berlin in 1921 and was succeeded as director of the psychological institute by his former student, Wolfgang Köhler. Unfortunately, many of Stunpf's contributions to the field of auditory perception and aesthetics was lost within sensory psychology because his work was not elaborated by later generations, due to the severing of contact with Stumpf by the war.[2]

References [1] (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ stumpf/ ), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

[2] History of Psychology, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Co., 2004.

[3] http:/ / psychclassics. yorku. ca/ Stumpf/ murchison. htm, Autobiography of Carl Stumpf.

External links • Short biography, bibliography, and links on digitized sources (http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ references?id=per307) in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science • Autobiography (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Stumpf/murchison.htm) from History of Psychology in Autobiography Vol. 1 (1930), p. 389-441, at York University "Classics in the History of Psychology"

Erich von Hornbostel Erich Moritz von Hornbostel (25 February 1877 - 28 November 1935) was an Austrian ethnomusicologist and scholar of music. He is remembered for his pioneering work in the field of ethnomusicology, and for the Sachs–Hornbostel system of musical instrument classification which he co-authored with Curt Sachs.

Life Hornbostel was born in Vienna into a musical family. The House of Hornbostel is a Saxon nobility. He studied the piano, harmony and counterpoint as a child, but his PhD at the University of Vienna was in chemistry. He moved to Berlin, where he fell under the influence of Carl Stumpf and worked with him on musical psychology and psychoacoustics. He was Stumpf's assistant at the Berlin Psychological Institute, and when the archives of the Institute were used as the basis for the Berliner Phonogramm-Archiv, he became its first director in 1905. It was during his time there that he worked with Curt Sachs to produce the Sachs–Hornbostel system of musical instrument classification (published 1914).

In 1933, he was sacked from all his posts by the Nazi Party because his mother was a Jew. He moved first to Switzerland, then the United States, and finally to Cambridge in England, where he worked on an archive of non-European folk music recordings. He died there in 1935.[1]

26

Erich von Hornbostel

Contributions Hornbostel did much work in the field of ethnomusicology, then usually referred to as comparative musicology. In 1906, he was in America to study the music and psychology of the Pawnee people, native Americans in the state of Oklahoma; he had by that time already studied the native music of Tunisia and of South Sea Islanders.[2] A highly regarded teacher, Hornbostel's students included American composer Henry Cowell. Hornbostel specialized in African and Asian music, making many recordings and developing a system that facilitated the transcription of non-Western music from recordings to paper. He saw the musical tunings used by various cultural groups as an essential element in determining the character of their music, and did much work in comparing different tunings. A lot of this work has been criticized since, but in its time, this was a rarely explored area. Hornbostel also argued that music should be a part of more general anthropological research.

Hornbostel also contributed to the theory of binaural hearing, proposing the theory of interaural time difference as the main cue, and developing sound localization devices (for finding the directions to artillery, aircraft, submarines, etc.) for the German war effort during World War I. With Max Wertheimer, he developed a directional listening device that they referred to as the Wertbostel.[3]

Selected works • Hornbostel, Erich M. von. 1910. Über vergleichende akustische und musikpsychologische Untersuchungen.

Beiträge zur Akustik und Musikwissenschaft 5: 143-167 • Stumpf, C. and E. v. Hornbostel. 1911. Über die Bedeutung ethnologischer Untersuchungen für die Psychologie und Ästhetik der Tonkunst. Beiträge zur Akustik und Musikwissenschaft 6: 102-115 • Hornbostel, E. v. 1913. Über ein akustisches Kriterium für Kulturzusammenhänge. Beiträge zur Akustik und Musikwissenschaft 7: 1-20 • Erich M. v. Hornbostel and Curt Sachs: Systematik der Musikinstrumente. Ein Versuch. In: Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. Band 46, 1914, Heft 4–5, S. 553–590.

• Beobachtungen über ein- und zweiohriges Hören [4]. In: Zeitschrift für Psychologie und ihre Grenzwissenschaften. Band 4, 1923, S. 64–114.

References [1] Fritz Bose (1972) " Hornbostel, Erich M. von (http:/ / daten. digitale-sammlungen. de/ 0001/ bsb00016326/ images/ index. html?seite=649) ".

In Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). 9. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. pp. 633 et seq.. (German) [2] James Mooney (1907). "Anthropological Miscellanea" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AIF0AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA242). American Anthropologist (American Anthropological Association) 9: 242. .

[3] Mitchell G. Ash (1998). Gestalt psychology in German culture, 1890-1967: holism and the quest for objectivity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=D51jFkXYFf4C& pg=PA236). Cambridge University Press. pp. 188–190, 236–238. ISBN 978-0-521-64627-7. .

[4] http:/ / vlp. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ references?id=lit38302

External links • Short biography with links on digitized sources (http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/references?id=per634) in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science

27

Curt Sachs

Curt Sachs Curt Sachs (June 29, 1881 – February 5, 1959) was a German-born but American-domiciled musicologist. He was one of the founders of modern organology (the study of musical instruments), and is probably best remembered today for co-authoring the Sachs-Hornbostel scheme of musical instrument classification with his fellow scholar Erich von Hornbostel.

Born in Berlin, Sachs studied piano, music theory and composition as a youth in that city. However, his doctorate from Berlin University (where he was later professor of musicology) in 1904 was on the history of art, with his thesis on the sculpture of Verrocchio. He began a career as an art historian, but promptly became more and more devoted to music, eventually being appointed director of the Staatliche Instrumentensammlung, a large collection of musical instruments. He reorganised and restored much of the collection, and his career as an organologist began.

In 1913, Sachs saw the publication of his book Real-Lexicon der Musikinstrumente, probably the most comprehensive survey of musical instruments in 200 years. The following year, he and Erich Moritz von Hornbostel published the work for which they are probably now best known in Zeitschrift fĂźr Ethnologie, a new system of musical instrument classification. It is today known as the Sachs-Hornbostel system. It has been much revised over the years, and has been the subject of some criticism, but it remains the most widely used system of classification by ethnomusicologists and organologists.

When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Sachs was dismissed from his posts in Germany by the Nazi Party because he was a Jew. As a result, he moved to Paris, and later to the United States, where he settled in New York City. From 1937 to 1953 he taught at New York University, and also worked at the New York Public Library.

His numerous books include works on rhythm, dance and musical instruments, with his The History of Musical Instruments (1940), a comprehensive survey of musical instruments worldwide throughout history, seen as one of the most important. The long relationship he had with W. W. Norton & Company began with The Rise of Music in the Ancient World (1943).[1] Although these works have been superseded by more recent research in some respects, they are still seen as essential texts in the field.

Sachs died in 1959 in New York City. The American Musical Instrument Society has a "Curt Sachs Award", which it gives each year to individuals for their contributions to organology.

References [1] Allen, Warren Dwight (1962), "Philosophies of Music History - A Study of General Histories of Music - 1600-1960", pg vi, Dover 0-486-20282-8

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Augustus Pitt Rivers

29

Augustus Pitt Rivers Augustus Pitt Rivers

Born

14 April 1827 Bramham cum Oglethorpe, Wetherby, Yorkshire

Died

4 May 1900 (aged 73)

Nationality English Fields

Ethnology, archaeology

Lieutenant-General Augustus Henry Lane-Fox Pitt Rivers (14 April 1827 – 4 May 1900) was an English army officer, ethnologist, and archaeologist. He was noted for his innovations in archaeological methods, and in the museum display of archaeological and ethnological collections.

Early life and family Born Augustus Henry Lane-Fox at Bramham cum Oglethorpe, Wetherby, Yorkshire, he was the son of William Lane-Fox and Lady Caroline Douglas, a sister of George Douglas, 17th Earl of Morton. George Lane-Fox and Sackville Lane-Fox were his uncles. In 1880, Lane-Fox inherited the estates of a cousin: Henry Pitt-Rivers, 6th Baron Rivers and consequently the remainder of the Richard Rigby fortune. He thereafter adopted the surname Pitt Rivers in honour of his benefactor.

Three notable descendants of Augustus are his grandson, the notorious anthropologist, eugenicist, anti-Semite and detainee in 1940 under Defence Regulation 18B George Pitt-Rivers[1] , his great-grandson, the anthropologist and ethnographer, Julian A. Pitt-Rivers, and his great-great-grandson, William Fox-Pitt, the equestrian. Another grandson was Michael Pitt-Rivers who gained notoriety in Britain in the 1950s when he was put on trial charged with buggery.

Augustus Pitt Rivers

30

Military career Lane-Fox had a long and successful military career, primarily as a staff officer. He was educated at the Royal Military College Sandhurst and commissioned into the Grenadier Guards on the 16 May 1845 as an Ensign.[2] He immediately bought his promotion to Lieutenant.[2] He bought a further promotion to Captain on 2 August 1850.[3] He was promoted to the brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel of the army "for distinguished Service in the Field" during the Crimean War.[4] On 15 May 1857, he bought the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the Grenadier Guards.[5] He was promoted to colonel on 22 January 1867.[6] The then Brevet-Major Lane-Fox, was appointed a member of the Fifth Class of the Order of the Medjidie in 1858 for "distinguished services before the enemy during the [Crimean War]".[7]

Archaeological career Pitt Rivers' interests in archaeology and ethnology began in the 1850s, during postings overseas, and he became a noted scientist while he was still a serving military officer. He was elected, in the space of five years, to the Ethnological Society of London (1861), the Society of Antiquaries of London (1864) and the Anthropological Society of London (1865). By the time he retired he had amassed ethnographic collections numbering tens of thousands of items from all over the world. Influenced by the evolutionary writings of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer, he arranged them typologically and (within types) chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artefacts, was a revolutionary innovation in museum design. Pitt Rivers' ethnological collections today form the basis of the Pitt Rivers Museum which is still one of Oxford's leading attractions.

The estates that Pitt Rivers inherited in 1880 contained a wealth of archaeological material from the Roman and Saxon periods. He excavated these over seventeen seasons, beginning in the mid-1880s and ending with his death.

His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist to work in Britain. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artefacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued. This focus on everyday objects as the key to understanding the past broke decisively with past archaeological practice, which had often verged on treasure hunting. It is Pitt Rivers' most important, and most lasting, scientific legacy. Moreover his work inspired Mortimer Wheeler among others to add to the scientific approach of archaeological excavation techniques.

Pitt Rivers created the Larmer Tree Gardens, a public pleasure garden, on the Rushmore estate near Tollard Royal in Wiltshire.

From 1882 Pitt Rivers served as Britain's first Inspector of Ancient Monuments: a post created by anthropologist and parliamentarian John Lubbock who was married to Pitt Rivers' daughter, Alice. Charged with cataloguing archaeological sites and protecting them from destruction, he worked with his customary methodical zeal but was hampered by the limitations of the law, which gave him little real power over the landowners on whose property the sites stood.

In 1884 he served as High Sheriff of Dorset.[8]

Memorial to Augustus Pitt Rivers in St Peter's Church at Tollard Royal.

Augustus Pitt Rivers

Publications • Excavations on Cranborne Chase (4 volumes) • Excavations on Bokerly and Wansdyke.

References • Bowden, Mark (1984) General Pitt Rivers: The father of scientific archaeology. Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum. ISBN 0-947535-00-4.

• Bowden, Mark (1991) Pitt Rivers: The life and archaeological work of Lieutenant-General Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt Rivers. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40077-5 • Bowden, Mark (2000) "Lieutenant-General A.H.L.F. Pitt Rivers [9]", Past - Newsletter of the Prehistoric Society, 34 (April) • Thompson, M.W. (1977) General Pitt Rivers: Evolution and archaeology in the nineteenth century.

Bradford-on-Avon : Moonraker Press. ISBN 0-239-00162-1

External links • The Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford [10] • The Pitt Rivers Galleries at Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum [11] • Pitt Rivers Museum biography of Pitt Rivers [12]

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

Griffiths, Richard (1998). Patriotism Perverted: Captain Ramsay, the Right Club and British Anti-Semitism 1939-40. Constable. pp. 54, 65.

London Gazette: no. 20471. p. 1472 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 20471/ pages/ 1472). 16 May 1845. Retrieved 2012-05-07.

London Gazette: no. 21123. p. 2132 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 21123/ pages/ 2132). 2 August 1850. Retrieved 2012-05-07.

London Gazette: no. 21640. p. 4052 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 21640/ pages/ 4052). 12 December 1854. Retrieved 2012-05-07.

[5] London Gazette: no. 22002. p. 1734 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 22002/ pages/ 1734). 15 May 1857. Retrieved 2012-05-07.

[6] London Gazette: no. 23223. p. 1025 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 23223/ pages/ 1025). 26 February 1867. Retrieved 2012-05-07.

[7] London Gazette: no. 22107. p. 1258 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 22107/ pages/ 1258). 2 March 1858. Retrieved 2012-05-07.

[8] London Gazette: no. 25325. p. 1117 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 25325/ pages/ 1117). 4 March 1884.

[9] http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ prehistoric/ past/ past34. html#pittrivers [10] http:/ / www. prm. ox. ac. uk/ [11] http:/ / www. salisburymuseum. org. uk/ galleries/ index. php?Action=2& obID=10 [12] http:/ / history. prm. ox. ac. uk/ collector_pittrivers. html

Further reading • Waterfield, Herminone; King, J. C. H. (2006). Provenance: Collectors of Ethnographic Art in England 1760–1990. Paris: Somogy éditions d'art. ISBN 30436-333-2.

31

Bronisław Malinowski

32

Bronisław Malinowski Bronislaw Malinowski

Born

7 April 1884 Kraków, Poland, Austro-Hungarian Empire

Died

16 May 1942 (aged 58) New Haven, Connecticut, USA

Education

PhD, Philosophy from Jagiellonian University, Physical Chemistry at University of Leipzig, PhD, Science from London School of Economics

Known for

Father of Social Anthropology

Bronisław Kasper Malinowski (Polish: [ˌmaliˈnɔfski]; 1884–1942) was a Polish-born[1]- British-naturalized anthropologist, one of the most important 20th-century anthropologists.[2][3][4][5][6] From 1910, Malinowski studied exchange and economics at the London School of Economics under Seligman and Westermarck, analysing patterns of exchange in aboriginal Australia through ethnographic documents. In 1914 he was given a chance to travel to New Guinea accompanying anthropologist R. R. Marett, but as war broke out and Malinowski was an Austrian subject, and thereby an enemy of the British commonwealth, he was unable to travel back to England. The Australian government nonetheless provided him with permission and funds to undertake ethnographic work within their territories and Malinowski chose to go to the Trobriand Islands, in Melanesia where he stayed for several years, studying the indigenous culture. Upon his return to England after the war he published his main work Argonauts of the Western Pacific which established him as one of the most important anthropologists in Europe of that time. He took posts as lecturer and later as a chair in Anthropology at the LSE, attracting large numbers of students and exerting great influence on the development of British Social Anthropology. Among his students in this period were such prominent anthropologists as Raymond Firth, E.E. Evans-Pritchard, Hortense Powdermaker, Edmund Leach and Meyer Fortes. From 1933 he visited several American universities and when the second World War broke out he decided to stay there, taking an appointment at Yale. Here he stayed the remainder of his life, also influencing a generation of American anthropologists.

His ethnography of the Trobriand Islands described the complex institution of the Kula ring, and became foundational for subsequent theories of reciprocity and exchange. He was also widely regarded as an eminent fieldworker[7] and his texts regarding the anthropological field methods were foundational to early anthropology, for example coining the term participatory observation. His approach to social theory was a brand of functionalism

Bronisław Malinowski emphasizing how social and cultural institutions serve basic human needs, a perspective opposed to Radcliffe-Brown's social functionalism that emphasized the ways in which social institutions function in relation to society as a whole.

Life Malinowski was born in Kraków, Poland, then part of the Austro-Hungarian province known as the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, to an upper-middle-class family. His father was a professor, and his mother was the daughter of a landowning family. As a child he was frail, often suffering from ill health, yet he excelled academically. In 1908 he received a doctorate in philosophy from Kraków's Jagiellonian University, where he focused on mathematics and the physical sciences. While attending the university he became ill and, while recuperating, decided to be an anthropologist as a result of reading James Frazer's The Golden Bough. This book turned his interest to ethnology, which he pursued at the University of Leipzig, where he studied under economist Karl Bücher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. In 1910 he went to England, studying at the London School of Economics under C. G. Seligman and Edvard Westermarck.

In 1914 he traveled to Papua (in what would later become Papua New Guinea), where he conducted fieldwork at Mailu Island and then, more famously, in the Trobriand Islands. On his most famous trip to the area, he became stranded due to the outbreak of World War I. Malinowski was not allowed to return to Europe from the British-controlled region because, though Polish by ethnicity, his was a subject of Austria-Hungary. Australian authorities gave him the opportunity of conducting research in Melanesia, an opportunity he happily embraced. It was during this period that he conducted his fieldwork on the Kula ring and advanced the practice of participant observation, which remains the hallmark of ethnographic research today.[8][9] In 1920, he published a scientific article on the Kula Ring,[10] perhaps the first documentation of generalized exchange. In 1922, he earned a doctorate of science in anthropology and was teaching at the London School of Economics. That year his book Argonauts of the Western Pacific was published. It was widely regarded as a masterpiece, and Malinowski became one of the best-known anthropologists in the world. For the next two decades, he would establish the London School of Economics as Europe's main center of anthropology. He became a British citizen in 1931.

Malinowski taught intermittently in the United States. When World War II broke out during one of his American visits, he stayed there. He took up a position at Yale University, where he remained until his death. In 1942 he cofounded the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America.

Malinowski died on 16 May 1942, just after his 58th birthday, of a heart attack while preparing to conduct summer fieldwork in Oaxaca, Mexico. He was interred at Evergreen Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut.[11]

33

Bronisław Malinowski

Ideas Malinowski is often considered one of anthropology's most skilled ethnographers, especially because of the highly methodical and well theorized approach to the study of social systems. He is often referred to as the first researcher to bring anthropology "off the verandah" (a phrase that is also the name of a documentary about his work), that is, experiencing the everyday life of his subjects along with them.[12] Malinowski with natives, Trobriand Islands, 1918 Malinowski emphasised the importance of detailed participant observation and argued that anthropologists must have daily contact with their informants if they are to adequately record the "imponderabilia of everyday life" that are so important to understanding a different culture.

He stated that the goal of the anthropologist, or ethnographer, is "to grasp the native's point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world" (Argonauts of the Western Pacific, Dutton 1961 edition, p. 25.)

However, in reference to the Kula ring, Malinowski also stated, in the same edition, pp. 83–84: Yet it must be remembered that what appears to us an extensive, complicated, and yet well ordered institution is the outcome of so many doings and pursuits, carried on by savages, who have no laws or aims or charters definitely laid down. They have no knowledge of the total outline of any of their social structure. They know their own motives, know the purpose of individual actions and the rules which apply to them, but how, out of these, the whole collective institution shapes, this is beyond their mental range. Not even the most intelligent native has any clear idea of the Kula as a big, organised social construction, still less of its sociological function and implications....The integration of all the details observed, the achievement of a sociological synthesis of all the various, relevant symptoms, is the task of the Ethnographer...the Ethnographer has to construct the picture of the big institution, very much as the physicist constructs his theory from the experimental data, which always have been within reach of everybody, but needed a consistent interpretation.

In these two passages, Malinowski anticipated the distinction between description and analysis, and between the views of actors and analysts. This distinction continues to inform anthropological method and theory.

His study of the Kula ring was also vital to the development of an anthropological theory of reciprocity, and his material from the Trobriands was extensively discussed in Marcel Mauss's seminal essay The Gift.

Malinowski originated the school of social anthropology known as functionalism. In contrast to Radcliffe-Brown's structural functionalism, Malinowski argued that culture functioned to meet the needs of individuals rather than society as a whole. He reasoned that when the needs of individuals, who comprise society, are met, then the needs of society are met. To Malinowski, the feelings of people and their motives were crucial knowledge to understand the way their society functioned: Besides the firm outline of tribal constitution and crystallised cultural items which form the skeleton, besides the data of daily life and ordinary behaviour, which are, so to speak, its flesh and blood, there is still to be recorded the spirit—the natives' views and opinions and utterances.

—Argonauts, p. 22.

34

Bronisław Malinowski Apart from fieldwork, Malinowski also challenged common western views such as Freud's Oedipus complex and their claim for universality. He initiated a cross-cultural approach in Sex and Repression in Savage Society (1927) where he demonstrated that specific psychological complexes are not universal.

Malinowski likewise influenced the course of African history, serving as an academic mentor to Jomo Kenyatta, the father and first president of modern-day Kenya. Malinowski also wrote the introduction to Facing Mount Kenya, Kenyatta's ethnographic study of the Gikuyu tribe.

Works • Malinowski, B. (1913,). The family among the Australian Aborigines: a sociological study [13]. "London: University of London Press.

• Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An account of native enterprise and adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

• Malinowski, B. (1924) (in German). Mutterrechtliche Familie und Ödipus-Komplex. Eine psychoanalytische Studie" [14]. Leipzig: Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag.

• Malinowski, B. (1926). Myth in primitive psychology. London: Norton.

• Malinowski, B. (1926). Crime and custom in savage society [15]. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co..

• Malinowski, B. (1927). Sex and Repression in Savage Society. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co..

• Malinowski, B.; H. Ellis (1929). The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia. An Ethnographic Account of Courtship, Marriage, and Family Life Among the Natives of the Trobriand Islands, British New Guinea. London.

• Malinowski, B.; E.R. Leach, J. Berry (1935). Coral gardens and their magic. London: Allen & Unwin.

• Malinowski, B. (1944). A Scientific Theory of Culture and Others Essays. Chapel Hill, N. Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press.

• Malinowski, B. (1947). Freedom & Civilization. London.

• Malinowski, B. (1946). P.M. Kaberry. ed. The Dynamics of Culture Change: An Inquiry Into Race Relations in Africa. New Haven: Yale University Press.

• Malinowski, B. (1948). Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press.

• Malinowski, B. (1967). A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Word. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

• Malinowski, B. (1993). R.J. Thornton & P. Skalnik. ed. The early writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Universities • • • • • •

Cornell University Harvard University Jagiellonian University London School of Economics University of London Yale University

35

Bronisław Malinowski

Further reading • Firth, Raymond (1960). Man and culture: an evaluation of the work of Bronislaw Malinowski. London: Routledge.

Notes [1] Bronisław Malinowski, A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term, Stanford University Press, 1989, ISBN 0-8047-1707-9, p. 160.

[2] Murdock, G. P. 1943. in American Anthropologist, 45:441-451 (http:/ / www. aaanet. org/ committees/ commissions/ centennial/ history/ 095malobit. pdf) [3] Firth, Raymond. 1957. Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

[4] Senft, Günter. 1997. Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski. in Verschueren, Ostman, Blommaert & Bulcaen (eds.) Handbook of Pragmatics Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins (http:/ / pubman. mpdl. mpg. de/ pubman/ item/ escidoc:64592:3/ component/ escidoc:468416/ Book Chapter_Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski_1999. pdf) [5] Young, Michael. 2004 Malinowski : Odyssey of an Anthropologist, 1884-1920. Yale University Press.

[6] Gaillard, Gérald (2004). The Routledge Dictionary of Anthropologists. Peter James Bowman (trans.) (English translation of Dictionnaire des ethnologues et des anthropologues [1997] ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22825-5. OCLC 52288643.

[7] Gaillard 2004 p. 141 [8] Gaillard 2004 p. 139 [9] Senft 1997 p. 217 [10] Malinowski, B. (1920). Kula: the Circulating Exchange of Valuables in the Archipelagoes of Eastern New Guinea. Man, 20, 97-105.

[11] H. Wayne, The Story of a Marriage: The Letters of Bronisław Malinowski and Elsie Masson, London, Routledge, 1995, p. 241.

[12] but see Kluckhohn (1943. "Bronislaw Malinowski 1884-1942", The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 56, No. 221 (Jul. - Sep., 1943), pp.

208-219) for another viewpoint, emphasizing the existence of an ethnographic tradition in the US prior to Malinowski's research.

[13] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ familyamongaustr00mali [14] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ MutterrechtlicheFamilieUndoumldipuskomplex [15] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ crimecustominsav00mali

External links • Malinowski (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/rams/thinkingallowed_20040714.ram); Archive (Real audio stream) of BBC Radio 4 edition of 'Thinking allowed' on Malinowski • Baloma; the Spirits of the Dead in the Trobriand Islands (http://www.sacred-texts.com/pac/baloma/index. htm), at sacred-texts.com • Papers of Bronislaw Malinowski at LSE Archives (http://www2.lse.ac.uk/library/archive/holdings/ malinowski_bronislaw.aspx) • Malinowski's fieldwork photographs, Trobriand Islands, 1915-1918 (http://archives.lse.ac.uk/TreeBrowse. aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&field=RefNo&key=MALINOWSKI/3) • About the functional theory (selected chapters) (http://www.scribd.com/doc/20226/ Bronislaw-Malinowski-Embryology-and-Obstetrics)

36

Berlin Musical Instrument Museum

37

Berlin Musical Instrument Museum The Berlin Musical Instrument Museum (German: Musikinstrumenten-Museum Berlin) is located at the Kulturforum on Tiergartenstraße in Berlin, Germany. The Museum holds over 3,500 musical instruments from the 16th century onward and is one of the largest and most representative musical instrument collections in Germany. Objects include a portable harpsichord once owned by Prussia’s Queen Sophie Charlotte, flutes from the collection of Frederick the Great, and Benjamin Franklin’s glass harmonica.[1]

Exterior

History The Museum was founded in 1888 at the Royal Academy of Music in Berlin from a collection assembled by Philipp Spitta and Joseph Joachim. Thirty-four instruments from the Museum of Decorative Arts, which had once been heard at the state court of the Kingdom of Prussia, formed the basis of the collection. By 1890 the Museum had purchased hundreds more from Leipzig publisher and music dealer Interior Paul de Wit. The world famous "Bach Cembalo" is one of these. The largest acquisitions were made by Oskar Fleischer, first Director from 1892-1919, with financial support from Wilhelm II. In 1902 over 1,400 instruments from the private collection Ghent Attorney César Snoeck were acquired, including four 17th century Ruckers harpsichords as well as one of the few original transverse flutes by Jean Hotteterre.[2] Curt Sachs, Director from 1919-1933, brought a scientific approach to the collections. He was one of the founders of modern organology (the study of musical instruments) and co-authored the Sachs-Hornbostel system of instrument classification. The Museum rose to international importance and his catalogs form the basis of academic research papers to this day. [3] When the Nazis seized power in 1933, Sachs was dismissed from his post by the Nazi Party and forced to emigrate because he was Jewish. In 1935, the musical instrument collection was removed from the Academy to the new National Institute for German Music Research headed by Max Seiffert. The new Museum opened its doors at the Palais von Kreutz at Klosterstraße 36 in 1936, and by World War II it owned over 4000 instruments.[4] During the war, the Museum and its collection was almost completely destroyed. In 1943, holdings were evacuated from Berlin to protect them from Allied bombing. Despite extensive security measures, a large portion was lost. In January 1945 "by decree of the Reich Minister for Science, Education and Public Education," the Museum was closed. By war's end, the building was a ruin and only 700 instruments of the original collection survived.[5] In the immediate aftermath of the war, what was left of the Museum and Institute was directly administered by the government of West Berlin and in 1949 moved to temporary quarters at Charlottenburg Palace. Despite sparse funding, a painstaking effort was mounted to reconstruct the musical instrument collection. In 1950, on the 200th anniversary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach, the Institute held its first chamber concert on the Museum's historical instruments in the Oak Gallery of the Palace. Alfred Berner, Director until 1975, largely succeeded in rebuilding the Museum and in addition a comprehensive library focusing on organology.

Since 1984, the museum has been located in an Wisniewski-designed building at the Kemper Platz, next to the Berlin Philharmonic on the Kulturforum. Today there are over 3,200 instruments in the collection and about 800 exhibits are presented in permanent exhibition. Those instruments that are still playable are played regularly. Today the Musical Instrument Museum (MIM) is part of the State Institute for Music Research, under the auspices of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation.

Berlin Musical Instrument Museum

38

The Building The Musical Instrument Museum (MIM) and the State Institute for Music Research (SIM) form a unit in Berlin. Their common building was constructed between 1979 and 1984 by Edgar Wisniewski after the designs of architect Hans Scharoun, who had died in 1972. The museum is one of the few places where a theater organ can be heard live: the 1929 Mighty Wurlitzer organ (with 1228 pipes, 175 stops and 43 pistons), which had been formerly in the concert hall of Ferdinand Werner von Siemens's villa, the grandson of the Siemens founder.

Every Thursday after the guided tour at 6 pm and every Saturday at noon the instrument is played publicly. The museum also has its own concert hall, the Curt-Sachs-Saal, where chamber concerts take place regularly.

Interior

The Collection • Keyboard Instruments • • • • •

The "Bach Cembalo" Fortepianos, virginals and clavichords Bechstein upright pianos and grand piano Ruckers Harpsichords from the first half of the 17th century "Weber-Flügel": from Vienna workshop Joseph Brodkorb, on this pianoforte Carl Maria von Weber composed his "Freischütz".

• Organs • The Mighty Wurlitzer Theater organ • Gray Organ: An English master instrument of the early 19th century.

• String Instruments • • • •

Master Violins by Antonio Stradivari, Amati and Guarneri.

Master Violins from the Northern Alpine region Instruments of the Viennese Classical period Möckel violins

• Wind Instruments • • • •

Flutes owned by Frederick the Great Moritz brass Naumburg Wind Instruments: from the Naumburg town church of St. Wenceslas.

Rare wind instruments from the Baroque period

• Automatic musical instruments: (music boxes, orchestrion) • Electronic musical instruments: Hammond organ and Trautonium • Glass Harmonica of Benjamin Franklin • Musical Curiosities • Aeolian harp: A favorite of Goethe's • Arpeggione: An instrument-making experiment that would have been forgotten, had Franz Schubert not composed a Sonata for it • Sausage Bassoon and Bush Trumpet • Travel-harpsichord: a rarity at the Prussian Court

Berlin Musical Instrument Museum

39

References [1] "Berlin.de Musikinstrumenten-Museum" (http:/ / www. berlin. de/ orte/ museum/ musikinstrumenten-museum/ index. en. php) (in English).

Berlin.de. 2012. . Retrieved 2012-02-06.

[2] "Staatliches Institut für Musikforschung: Musikinstrumenten-Museum" (http:/ / www. sim. spk-berlin. de/ Uebersicht_532. html) (in German). SPK. 2012. . Retrieved 2012-02-05.

[3] Allen, Warren Dwight (1962), "Philosophies of Music History: A Study of General Histories of Music 1600-1960", p. vi, Dover 0-486-20282-8 [4] "Musikinstrumenten-Museum: Geschichte" (http:/ / www. sim. spk-berlin. de/ Uebersicht_532. html) (in German). MIM-SPK. 2012. .

Retrieved 2012-02-05.

[5] "Staatliches Institut für Musikforschung: Geschichte" (http:/ / www. sim. spk-berlin. de/ Uebersicht_453. html) (in German). SIM-SPK. 2012. . Retrieved 2012-02-05.

Gallery

Harpsichord possibly used by J.S. Bach

Lyre piano

Mixtur-Trautonium

French harpsichord

German virginal

Harmonium

Organ

Mighty Wurlitzer

External links • Official site (http://www.sim.spk-berlin.de) (German)

40

Segundo Paradigma: "La Escuela Americana".

Francis La Flesche Francis La Flesche (1857–1932) was the first professional Native American ethnologist; he worked with the Smithsonian Institution, specializing first in his own Omaha culture, followed by that of the Osage. Working closely as a translator and researcher with the anthropologist Alice C. Fletcher, La Flesche wrote several articles and a book on the Omaha, plus more numerous works on the Osage. He made valuable original recordings of their traditional songs and chants.

Beginning in 1908 he collaborated with the composer Charles Wakefield Cadman to develop an opera, Da O Ma (1912), based on his stories of Omaha life. A collection of his stories was published in 1998.

Of Omaha, Ponca, and French descent, La Flesche was the son of the Omaha chief Joseph LaFlesche (also known as Iron Eye) and his second wife Ta-in-ne. He grew up on the Omaha Reservation at a time Francis La Flesche, first Native American of major transition for the tribe. Before the establishment of anthropologist, Smithsonian Institution anthropology programs, he earned undergraduate and master's degrees at the National University Law School in Washington, DC. He made his professional life among European Americans.

Early life and education Francis La Flesche was born in 1857 on the Omaha Reservation, the first child of his father Joseph LaFlesche's second wife Ta-in-ne, and half-brother to his father's first five children.[1] Their mother was Mary Gale, daughter of an American surgeon and his Iowa wife. After Mary's death, the widower Joseph (also known as Iron Eye) married Ta-in-ne, an Omaha woman. Francis attended the Presbyterian Mission School at Bellevue, Nebraska. Later he attended college and law school in Washington, DC. By 1853, Iron Eye was a chief of the Omaha; he helped negotiate the 1854 treaty by which the tribe sold most of their land in Nebraska. He led the tribe as a head chief soon after their removal to a reservation and in the major transition to more sedentary lives. Joseph (Iron Eye) was MĂŠtis, of French and Ponca descent, and grew up mostly with the Omaha people. Working first as a fur trader, as an adult he had been adopted as a son by the chief Big Elk, who designated Iron Eyes as his successor.

Joseph emphasized education for all his children; several went to schools and colleges in the East. They were encouraged to contribute to their people. Francis' half-siblings became accomplished adults: Susette LaFlesche was an activist and nationally known speaker on issues of Indian rights and reform; Rosalie LaFlesche Farley was an activist and managed Omaha tribal financial affairs; and Susan La Flesche was the first Native American woman to become a western-style doctor; she treated the Omaha for years.

Francis La Flesche

Career In 1879, Judge Elmer Dundy of the US District Court made a landmark civil rights decision affirming the rights of American Indians as citizens under the Constitution. In Standing Bear v. Crook, Dundy had ruled that "an Indian is a person" under the Fourteenth Amendment. Susette "Bright Eyes" La Flesche had been involved as an interpreter for the chief Standing Bear and an expert witness on Indian issues. She invited Francis to accompany her with Standing Bear on a lecture tour of the eastern United States during 1879-1880. They took turns acting as interpreter for the chief.

In 1881 Susette and the journalist Thomas Tibbles accompanied Alice C. Fletcher, an anthropologist, on her unprecedented trip to live with and study Sioux women on the Rosebud Indian Reservation.[2] Susette acted as her interpreter. Francis La Flesche also met and assisted Fletcher at this time, and they started a lifelong professional partnership.

Nearly 20 years older than he, Fletcher encouraged his education to become a professional anthropologist. He started working with her in Washington, DC about 1881. After the lecture tour on American Indian issues, in 1881, La Flesche went to Washington, DC, where he worked as an interpreter for the US Senate Committee on Indian Affairs.[3] La Flesche gained a position with the Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution, with which Fletcher collaborated on her research. He served as a copyist, translator and interpreter. At the beginning, he helped classify Omaha and Osage artifacts, but he went on to do professional-level research with her, and acted as a translator and interpreter. He graduated from the National University Law School in 1892 and earned a master's degree there in 1893.[3] In 1891 she informally adopted the 34-year-old La Flesche.[3] With their joint book and articles on the Omaha, La Flesche followed the anthropological approach of describing rituals and practices in detail. During his regular visits to the Omaha and Osage, and study of their rituals, La Flesche also made recordings (now invaluable) of their songs, as well as documenting them in writing. The young composer Charles Wakefield Cadman was interested in American Indian music and influenced by La Flesche's work.[4] Cadman spent time on the Omaha reservation to learn many songs and how to use the traditional instruments.

La Flesche's recordings are held by the Library of Congress and some are available online. Contemporary Osage tribal members have compared the impact of hearing the recordings of their traditional rituals to that of Western scholars reading the newly discovered Dead Sea Scrolls.[5] In 1908 La Flesche proposed a collaboration with Cadman and Nelle Richmond Eberhart, to create an opera based on his Omaha stories. Eberhart had written lyrics for Cadman's Four American Indian Songs, as well as other of his songs. The team worked for four years on Da O Ma, which was changed to feature Sioux characters. Each approached the collaboration from a different point of view, and the opera was never published or performed.[4] Beginning in 1910, La Flesche gained a professional position as an anthropologist in the Smithsonian's Bureau of American Ethnology. This marked the second part of his career, as his focus changed with his independent research on the music and religion of the Osage, who are closely related to the Omaha.

"His primary objective was to explain Osage ideas, beliefs, and concepts. He wanted his readers to see the world of the Osages for what it was in reality-not the world of simple "children of nature" but a highly complex world reflecting an intellectual tradition as sophisticated and imaginative as that of any Old World people."[6] La Flesche worked on the professional staff of the Smithsonian from 1910 until 1929, and wrote and lectured extensively on his research. He wrote and published most of his works during this time.

41

Francis La Flesche

Marriage and family La Flesche married Alice Mitchell in June 1877, but she died the next year.[7] In 1879 he married a young Omaha woman Rosa Bourassa, about the time of his tour in 1879-1880 with his sister and Standing Bear, but they separated shortly before he began working in Washington in 1881 and divorced in 1884.[7][6] For most of his years in Washington, La Flesche shared a house on Capitol Hill with Alice Fletcher, with whom he worked closely, and Jane Gay.[7] Fletcher and La Flesche kept the nature of their relationship private. She willed money to him at her death.[6]

Legacy and honors • • • •

1922, La Flesche was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences 1922-23, he was elected as president of the Anthropological Society of Washington 1926, awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Nebraska[3] Because of the close working relationship between Fletcher and La Flesche, the Smithsonian Institution has collected their papers in a joint archive.[3]

Works • • • • • • • • • • •

1900, The Middle Five: Indian Boys at School (memoir) 1911, The Omaha Tribe, with Alice Cunningham Fletcher 1912, Da O Ma (unpublished)[8] 1914/-1915/1921, The Osage Tribe: Rite of Chiefs[8] 1917-1918/1925, The Osage Tribe: the Rite of Vigil[8] 1925-1926/1928, The Osage Tribe: Two Versions of the Child-Naming Rite[8] 1927-1928/1930, The Osage Tribe: Rite of the Waxo'be[8] 1932, Dictionary of the Osage Language (linguistics) 1939, War Ceremony and Peace Ceremony of the Osage Indians, published posthumously[3] 1999, The Osage and the Invisible World, edited by Garrick A. Bailey[9] 1998 Ke-ma-ha: The Omaha Stories of Francis La Flesche, edited by Daniel Littlefield and James Parins, Nebraska University Press, previously unpublished work[8]

References [1] LaFlesche Family Papers (http:/ / www. nebraskahistory. org/ lib-arch/ research/ manuscripts/ family/ laflesche-family. htm), Nebraska State Historical Society, accessed 22 August 2011 [2] Camping With the Sioux: Fieldwork Diary of Alice Cunningham Fletcher (http:/ / www. nmnh. si. edu/ naa/ fletcher/ ), National Museum of Natural History, Archives of the Smithsonian Institution, accessed 26 August 2011 [3] "Register to the Papers of Alice Cunningham Fletcher and Francis La Flesche" (http:/ / www. nmnh. si. edu/ naa/ fa/ fletcher_la_flesche. htm), National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution [4] Introduction, Francis La Flesche, Ke-ma-ha: The Omaha Stories of Francis La Flesche (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bHad9ZQd61sC& pg=PR32& lpg=PR32& dq=Da+ O+ Ma,+ Omaha+ opera& source=bl& ots=qKgZb5UspP& sig=hDWMkHevxA8QzOktbMqJ3LcYKCw& hl=en& ei=DthXTvPFBu6ssAKJvrTQDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=6& ved=0CD4Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=Da O Ma, Omaha opera& f=false), Lincoln: Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1998, accessed 26 August 2011 [5] Time Life Books. (1993). The Wild West, Time Life Books. p. 318 [6] Introduction, The Osage and the Invisible World (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LusCaIOmsNEC& dq=isbn:0806131322), edited by Garrick A. Bailey, University of Oklahoma Press, 1999, 26 August 2011 [7] Joan T. Mark, A Stranger in Her Native Land: Alice Fletcher and the American Indians (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lI6Su1vwuY8C& pg=PA411& lpg=PA411& dq=Native+ American+ 'Informants':+ The+ Contribution+ of+ Francis+ La+ Flesche"& source=bl& ots=Ixu_V9iuo_& sig=9TmOWcg0HMGhzP1YXkaOkq_xBR0& hl=en& ei=QXhZTrL_MeX40gHT4LitDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=6& ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=Francis La Flesche& f=false), University of Nebraska Press, 1988, p. 308

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Francis La Flesche [8] "Francis La Flesche, The Cambridge Companion to Native American Literature (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=I3_cSqmbXd8C& dq=The+ Cambridge+ Companion+ to+ Native+ American+ Literature& source=gbs_navlinks_s), edited by Joy Porter, Kenneth M. Roemer, Cambridge University Press, 2005, accessed 26 August 2011 [9] The Osage and the Invisible World (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LusCaIOmsNEC& dq=isbn:0806131322), edited by Garrick A. Bailey, University of Oklahoma Press, 1999, 26 August 2011

Further reading • Green, Norma Kidd, Iron Eye's Family: The Children of Joseph LaFlesche, Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1969.

• Liberty, Margot, "Native American 'Informants': The Contribution of Francis La Flesche", in American Anthropology: The Early Years, ed. by John V. Murra, 1974 Proceedings of the American Ethnological Society.

St. Paul: West Publishing Co. 1976, pp. 99-110 • Liberty, Margot, "Francis La Flesche, Omaha, 1857—1932", in American Indian Intellectuals, ed. by Margot Liberty, 1976 Proceedings of the American Ethnological Society. St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1978, pp.

45—60 • Mark, Joan (1982). "Francis La Flesche: The American Indian as Anthropologist", in Isis 73(269)495—510.

External links • "Francis La Flesche" (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/omhhtml/omhfcn1.html), American Memory, Library of Congress • Omaha Indian Music (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/omhhtml/omhhome.html), Library of Congress.

Recordings of traditional Omaha music by Francis La Flesche from the 1890s, as well as recordings and photographs from the late 20th century.

• "Register to the Papers of Alice Cunningham Fletcher and Francis La Flesche" (http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/ fa/fletcher_la_flesche.htm), National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution • LaFlesche Family Papers (http://www.nebraskahistory.org/lib-arch/research/manuscripts/family/ laflesche-family.htm), Nebraska State Historical Society

43

Alice Cunningham Fletcher

44

Alice Cunningham Fletcher Alice Cunningham Fletcher

Born

March 15, 1838 Havana, Cuba

Died

April 6, 1923 (aged 85) Washington, D.C.

Nationality USA Fields

Ethnology

Institutions Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Anthropological Society of Washington American Folklore Society

Alice Cunningham Fletcher (March 15, 1838, Havana - April 6, 1923, Washington, D.C.) was an American ethnologist who studied and documented American Indian culture.

Biography Fletcher credited Frederic Ward Putnam for stimulating her interest in American Indian culture and began working with him at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University.[1] She studied the remains of the Indian civilization in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and became a member of the Archaeological Institute of America in 1879.

In 1881, Fletcher made an unprecedented trip to live with and study the Sioux on their reservation as a representative of the Peabody Museum.[2] She was accompanied by Susette "Bright Eyes" La Flesche, an Omaha spokeswoman who had served as interpreter for Standing Bear in 1879 in his landmark civil rights trial.[2] Also with them was Thomas Tibbles, a journalist who had helped publicize Standing Bear's cause and arranged a several-month lecture tour in the United States.[2] These times also marked the beginning of Fletcher's 40-year association with Francis La Flesche, Susette's half brother. They collaborated professionally and had an informal mother-son relationship. They shared a house in Washington, D.C., beginning in 1890.[3] In addition to her research and writing, Fletcher worked in several special appointed positions during the late nineteenth century. In 1883 she was appointed special agent by the US to allot lands to the Miwok tribes, in 1884 she prepared and sent to the World Cotton Centennial an exhibit showing the progress of civilization among the Indians of North America in the quarter-century previous, and in 1886 visited the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands on a mission from the commissioner of education. In 1887 she was appointed United States special agent in the allotment of lands among the Winnebago and the Nez Perce under the Dawes Act.

Alice Cunningham Fletcher

45

She was made assistant in ethnology at the Peabody Museum in 1882, and in 1891 received the Thaw fellowship, which was created for her.[1] Active in professional societies, she was elected president of the Anthropological Society of Washington and in 1905 as the first woman president of the American Folklore Society. She also served as vice-president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Working through the Womans National Indian Association, Fletcher introduced a system of making small loans to Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. She also helped secure a loan for Susan LaFlesche, an Omaha woman, to enable her studies at medical school. Graduating at the top of her class, LaFlesche became the first Native American woman doctor in the United States.

Later Fletcher helped write, lobbied for and helped administer the Dawes Act of 1887, which broke up reservations and distributed communal land in allotments for individual household ownership of land parcels.[3] At the time, she thought it would enable American Indians to assimilate to European-American ways, as their best means of survival.

The government also wanted to gain "surplus" land for sale to other Americans.

Fletcher and Chief Joseph at the Nez Percé Lapwai Reservation in Idaho

In 1888 Fletcher published Indian Education and Civilization, a special report of the Bureau of Education. She was a pioneer in the study of American Indian music, a field of research inaugurated by a paper she gave in 1893 before the Chicago Anthropological Conference.[1] In 1898 at the Congress of Musicians held in Omaha during the Trans-Mississippi Exposition, she read several essays upon the songs of the North American Indians. A number of Omaha Indians sang their native melodies. Out of this grew her Indian Story and Song from North America (1900), exploring a stage of development antecedent to that in which culture music appeared.

In 1911, with Francis La Flesche, she published The Omaha Tribe. It is still considered to be the definitive work on the subject. Altogether she

wrote 46 monographs on ethnology.[1]

References [1] Frederick H. Martens (1931/1959). "Fletcher, Alice Cunningham". Dictionary of American Biography. III, Part 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 463–4.

[2] Camping With the Sioux: Fieldwork Diary of Alice Cunningham Fletcher (http:/ / www. nmnh. si. edu/ naa/ fletcher/ ), National Museum of Natural History, Archives of the Smithsonian Institution, accessed 26 August 2011 [3] Joan Mark (1999). "Fletcher, Alice Cunningham". American National Biography. New York: Oxford University Press.

Attribution • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Fletcher, Alice Cunningham". Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 496.

Alice Cunningham Fletcher

46

External links • Camping With the Sioux: Fieldwork Diary of Alice Cunningham Fletcher (http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/ fletcher/), National Museum of Natural History, Archives of the Smithsonian Institution • "Review of Camping with the Sioux" (http://teachinghistory.org/history-content/website-reviews/23102), Teaching History Website • Works by Alice Cunningham Fletcher (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Alice+C.+Fletcher) at Project Gutenberg • Register to the Papers of Alice Cunningham Fletcher and Francis La Flesche (http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/fa/ fletcher_la_flesche.htm), National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution • "Fletcher, Alice Cunningham". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900.

• César Saerchinger, ed. (1918). "Fletcher, Alice Cunningham" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=qIEFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA194). International who's who in music and musical gazetteer. Current Literature Publishing Co.. p. 194.

Ethnomusicology Ethnomusicology is defined as "the study of social and cultural aspects of music and dance in local and global contexts."[1] Coined by the musician Jaap Kunst from the Greek words ἔθνος ethnos (nation) and μουσική mousike (music), it is often considered the anthropology or ethnography of music. Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of "people making music."[2] Although it is often thought of as a study of non-Western musics, ethnomusicology also includes the study of Western music from an anthropological or sociological perspective. Bruno Nettl (1983) believes it is a product of Western thinking, proclaiming "ethnomusicology as western culture knows it is actually a western phenomenon."[3] Nettl believes that there are limits to the extraction of meaning from a culture's music because of a Western observer's perceptual distance from the culture; however, the growing prevalence of scholars who study their own musical traditions, and an increasing range of different theoretical frameworks and research methodologies has done much to address criticisms such as Nettl's.

Ethnomusicologist Frances Densmore recording Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief for the Bureau of American Ethnology (1916)

History While musicology's traditional subject has been the history and literature of Western art music, ethnomusicologists study all music as a human social and cultural phenomenon. The primary precursor to ethnomusicology, comparative musicology, emerged in the late 19th century and early 20th century through the practice of people such as Béla Bartók, Zoltán Kodály, Alan Lomax, Constantin Brăiloiu, Vinko Zganec, Franjo Kuhač, Carl Stumpf, Erich von

Ethnomusicology Hornbostel, Curt Sachs, Hugh Tracey, and Alexander J. Ellis.[4] Comparative musicology and early ethnomusicology tended to focus on non-Western music that was transmitted through oral traditions. But, in more recent years, the field has expanded to embrace all musical styles from all parts of the world.

The International Council for Traditional Music (founded 1947) and the Society for Ethnomusicology (founded 1958) are the primary international academic organizations for the discipline of ethnomusicology.

Theories and methods Ethnomusicologists often apply theories and methods from cultural anthropology, cultural studies and sociology as well as other disciplines in the social sciences and humanities. Though some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, the majority are involved in long-term participant observation. Therefore, ethnomusicological work can be characterized as featuring a substantial, intensive ethnographic component.

Some ethnomusicological works are created not necessarily by 'ethnomusicologists' proper, but instead by anthropologists examining music as an aspect of a culture. A well-known example of such work is Colin Turnbull's study of the Mbuti pygmies. Another is Jaime de Angulo, a linguist who intensively studied the music of the natives of Northern California.[5] Additionally, Anthony Seeger, Distinguished Professor of Ethnomusicology and the Director of the Ethnomusicology Archive at the University of California, Los Angeles, studied the music and society of the Suya people in Mato Grosso, Brazil.[6]

Academic programs Many universities in North America and Europe offer ethnomusicology classes and act as centers for ethnomusicological research. The linked list includes graduate and undergraduate degree-granting programs.[7]

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

Pegg, Carole: 'Ethnomusicology', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed February 3, 2008), <http://www.grovemusic.com> Titon, Jeff Todd: Worlds of Music, 2nd ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1992, p. xxi.

Bruno Nettl 1983:25 - The Study of Ethnomusicology. Urbana, Chicago, and London: University of Illinois Press.

Ellis, Alexander: On the Musical Scales of Various Nations (http:/ / stuart. sfa. googlepages. com/ MSVN00. html) HTML transcription of the 1885 article in the Journal of the Society of Arts (Accessed September 2008) [5] Jaime de Angulo (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ sk/ syukhtun/ Jaime. html) [6] Anthony Seeger, Professor, Ethnomusicology UCLA (http:/ / www. ethnomusic. ucla. edu/ people/ seeger. htm) [7] SEM: Guide to Programs (http:/ / webdb. iu. edu/ sem/ scripts/ guidetoprograms/ guidelist. cfm)

External links • • • • • • • •

Ethnomusicology Review (EMR) (http://ethnomusicologyreview.ucla.edu) Academic ethnomusicology journal.

International Council for Traditional Music (http://www.ictmusic.org) International Library of African Music (ILAM) (http://ilam.ru.ac.za/) Links: Ethnomusicology, Folk Music, and World Music (University of Washington) (http://guides.lib. washington.edu/ethnomusicology) Outreach Ethnomusicology (http://www.o-em.org/) Ethnomusicology Fieldwork Research Resource SIL publications on Ethnomusicology listed by country (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_subject. asp?code=ETM) Society for Ethnomusicology (http://www.ethnomusicology.org) University of Washington Digital Collections – Ethnomusicology Musical Instrument Collection (http://content. lib.washington.edu/ethnomusicweb/index.html) Images of musical instruments from around the world

• The World and Traditional Music Section at the British Library Sound Archive (http://www.bl.uk/wtm)

47

Ethnomusicology • [[Yale (http://guides.musiclib.yale.edu/content.php?pid=23177)]] Music Library Research Guide for Ethnomusicology • [[BGSU (http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/music/departments/MUCT/ethno/)]] offers Master of Music in Ethnomusicology

Jaap Kunst Jaap (or Jakob) Kunst (b. Groningen, 12 August 1891, d. Amsterdam, 7 December 1960) was a Dutch ethnomusicologist, particularly associated with the study of gamelan music of Indonesia. He is known for coining the word "ethnomusicology" as a more accurate alternative to the then-preferred term, "comparative musicology".

Biography Kunst was the only child of two musicians, and began to study the violin at only 18 months old. Drawn toward the study of Dutch folk songs, he continued to play violin throughout his life. He earned a degree in law from the University of Groningen in 1917, and pursued a career in banking and law for the next two years. While touring with a string trio the Dutch East Indies, he decided to remain on Java, and found a government post in Bandung.

Meanwhile, he became interested in the Indonesian music, especially that of Java.

He began an archive of musical instruments, field recordings, books, and photographs for the Batavia Museum (Batavia is the colonial name of Jakarta). In 1936 he returned to the Netherlands, and in that same year became the curator of the Royal Tropical Institute in Amsterdam, which developed into one of the most important institutes of its kind in Europe. Later, he gave lectures on Indonesian music at the University of Amsterdam in 1953 and became a member of the faculty there in 1958. In 1956, Kunst released a bestselling album of folksongs, on Folkways Records, entitled Living Folksongs and Dance-Tunes from the Netherlands.

Writings • with C. Kunst Van-Wely. De Toonkunst van Bali. (Weltevreden, 1924; part 2 in Tijdschrift voor Indische taal-, land-, en volkenkunde, LXV, Batavia, 1925) • with R. Goris. Hindoe-Javaansche muziekinstrumenten. (Batavia, 1927; 2nd ed., revised, Hindu-Javanese Musical Instruments, 1968) • A Study on Papuan Music (Weltevreden, 1931) • Musicologisch onderzoek 1931 (Batavia, 1931) • Over zeldzame fluiten en veelstemmige muziek in het Ngada- en Nagehgebied, West-Flores (Batavia, 1931) • De toonkunst van Java (The Hague, 1934; English translation, Music in Java, 1949; 3rd ed., expanded, 1973) • Een en ander over den Javaanschen gamelan (Amsterdam, 1940; 4th ed. 1945) • Music in Flores: A Study of the Vocal and Instrumental Music Among the Tribes Living in Flores (Leiden, 1942) • Music in Nias (Leiden, 1942) • Around von Hornbostel's Theory of the Cycle of Blown Fifths (Amsterdam, 1948) • The Cultural Background of Indonesian Music (Amsterdam, 1949) • Begdja, het gamelanjongetje (Amsterdam, 1950) • De inheemsche muziek in Westelijk Nieuw-Guinea (Amsterdam, 1950) • Metre, Rhythm, and Multi-part Music (Leiden, 1950) • Musicologica: A Study of the Nature of Ethnomusicology, Its Problems, Methods, and Representative Personalities (Amsterdam, 1950; 2nd ed., expanded, retitled Ethnomusicology, 1955; 3rd ed. 1959) • Kultur-historische Beziehungen zwischen dem Balkan und Indonesien (Amsterdam, 1953, English translation, 1954)

48

Jaap Kunst â&#x20AC;˘ Sociologische bindingen in de muziek (The Hague, 1953) Kunst also edited collections of folksongs from the Netherlands and New Guinea.

Jaap Kunst prize The Society for Ethnomusicology offers a yearly prize named after Kunst for the most erudite published article in the field by a member of the society.

Mantle Hood Mantle Hood (June 24, 1918 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; July 31, 2005) was an American ethnomusicologist. Among other areas, he specialized in studying gamelan music from Indonesia. Hood pioneered, in the 1950s and 1960s, a new approach to the study of music, and the creation at UCLA of the first American university program devoted to ethnomusicology.

He was known for a suggestion, somewhat novel at the time, that his students actually learn to play the music they were studying.

Biography Born and reared in Springfield, Illinois, Hood studied piano as a child and played clarinet and tenor saxophone in regional jazz clubs in his teens. Despite his talent as a musician, he had no plans to make it his profession. He moved to Los Angeles in the 1930s and wrote pulp fiction while employed as a draftsman in the aeronautical industry.

After Army service in Europe during World War II, he returned to Los Angeles. He enrolled in the School of Agriculture at the University of California before transferring to UCLA. Between 1945 and 1950 Mantle Hood studied Western music under composer Ernst Toch and composed several classical pieces. Hood earned both his BA in music and MA in composition from UCLA in 1951. As a Fulbright scholar, Hood studied Indonesian music under Jaap Kunst at the University of Amsterdam.

He wrote his Ph.D. dissertation on pathet, translated as the modal system of Central Javanese music. He proposed that the contours of the balungan (nuclear theme) melody are the primary determinants of Javanese musical modes.

The dissertation, The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Patet in Javanese Music was published in 1954.

After completing his doctoral work in 1954, Hood spent two years in Indonesia doing field research funded by a Ford Foundation fellowship. He joined the faculty at UCLA where he established the first gamelan performance program in the United States in 1958. He also founded the Institute for Ethnomusicology at UCLA in 1960. UCLA quickly became an important American hub of this rapidly developing field. Hood's work spawned a legion of teachers and leaders of the more than 100 gamelan groups in the United States today.

A renowned expert in Javanese and Balinese music and culture, Hood received honors from the Indonesian government for his research, among them the conferral of the title Ki (literally "the venerable") in 1986, and in 1992 was one of the first non-Indonesians to be honored with membership into the Dharma Kusuma (Society of National Heroes).

Hood wrote numerous novels, scholarly books and articles in journals and encyclopedias. Some of his works include The Ethnomusicologist (1971, 1982), Music in Indonesia (1972), the three-volumed The Evolution of Javanese Gamelan.

In 1973, Hood left UCLA and retired to Hawaii where he composed music and served as an editor of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. He also wrote contributions for the Harvard Dictionary of Music and the Encyclopedie de la Musique.

49

Mantle Hood In the 1980s, he came out of retirement in Hawaii to become Senior Distinguished Professor at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, where he remained until 1996, establishing an ethnomusicology program. He was a professor of music at West Virginia University and a visiting professor at Harvard, Yale, Wesleyan, Indiana, and Drake Universities and the University of Ghana. He also served as President of the Society for Ethnomusicology from 1965 to 1967. In 1999 he was the Charles Seeger Lecturer at the annual conference of the SEM. Mantle Hood's wife, Hazel Chung, was a teacher of Indonesian and African dance. Hood, with Chung, shot footage in Ghana and Nigeria for their film, Atumpan: The Talking Drums of Ghana (1964).

In 1990, Mantle Hood presented a paper at the 7th International Congress of the European Seminar in Ethnomusicology in Berlin under the title "The Quantum Theory of Music." The concept sought to revolutionize research in music by developing theoretical and practical constructs to close a 75-year gap between the 1920s, which were the beginning of the quantum age in the sciences, and the present. An international consortium was formed (England, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia, and the United States). This consortium resulted in an interdisciplinary five-day workshop with the keynote paper on this subject held in Trieste, Italy, including scholars in physics, mathematics, acoustics, computer-based musical composition, and ethnomusicology. In the following year, seminars in ethnomusicology were held in Venice, Italy. In subsequent years, a core group continued to explore new paradigms inspired by Hood's concepts, and worked through correspondence and meetings. The group included Giovanni Giuriati of the University of Rome, Rudiger Schumacher of the University of Cologne, John E. Myers of Bard College at Simon’s Rock, and others. Schumacher and Myers delivered related papers at the annual conference of the European Seminar in Ethnomusicology, held in Barcelona, Spain, Sept. 20-25, 1993. In 1999, Hood outlined key principles of his quantum theory - influenced thinking in his paper "Ethnomusicology's Bronze Age in Y2K," delivered as the Seeger Lecture at the congress of the Society for Ethnomusicology held in Austin, Texas.

Hood died in Ellicott City, Maryland. His son Made Mantle Hood (BA (Maryland), MA (Hawaii), PhD (Cologne)) is a Research Fellow in ethnomusicology at The University of Melbourne in Australia.[1]

Curriculum vitae Degrees UCLA, B.A., Highest Honors in Music, Phi Beta Kappa, 195l UCLA, M.A. in Music, 1952 University of Amsterdam, Ph.D. cum laude, 1954 University of Cologne, 2003 Doctoris Philosophiae Honoris Causa Teaching Visiting Professor, Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia Denpasar, Summer, 1998. Senior Distinguished Professor, West Virginia University, 1995–1998 Housewright Eminent Scholar, Florida State University, 1996-1997 (in residence: March, 1997). Distinguished Visiting Professor, University of Massachusetts, Boston, 1993–94 Adjunct Professor, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1993-94 Senior Distinguished Professor Retired, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1993 Visiting Professor, The Queen's University of Belfast, 1985 Visiting Professor, The Academy of Arts, Cairo, Egypt, 1984 Visiting Professor, Central Academy of Music, Beijing, 1983 Visiting Professor, The Queen's University of Belfast, 1983 Senior Distinguished Professor of Ethnomusicology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1980–1996 Visiting Distinguished Professor of Folklore, Indiana University, 1977–78 Visiting Professor, Yale University, 1977 Adjunct Professor, UMBC, 1976 Professor Emeritus, UCLA, 1974 Visiting Distinguished Professor, Drake University, 1972 Visiting Colleague, University of Hawaii, 1967–68 Visiting Professor, University of Ghana, 1963–64 Professor, UCLA, 1962–74 Visiting Professor, Harvard University, 196l Associate Professor, UCLA, 1959 Assistant Professor, UCLA, 1956 Instructor, UCLA, 1954 Courses: Pro-seminar in Ethnomusicology Music of Africa Music of Bali Music of Hawaii Music of Indonesia Music of Java Musical Cultures of the World Advanced Orchestration Advanced Harmony Advanced Modal Counterpoint Music Appreciation Musicianship Form and Analysis Balinese Gamelan Performance Balinese Gender Wayang Performance Javanese Gamelan Performance Seminars: Seminar in Ethnomusicology Seminar in Field and

50

Mantle Hood Laboratory Methods Seminar in Bibliography and Research Methods Seminar in Guided Writing Seminar in Organology Seminar in Aesthetics Individual Guidance many Special Projects and the guidance of a large number of M.A. and Ph.D. candidates Administration President of the Academic Senate, UMBC, 1981–82 Progenitor and Program Coordinator of M.A./Ph.D., 1980 program in ethnomusicology, UMBC; including budgetary responsibility, staffing, research program, curriculum Founder-Director Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, 1961-1974. Responsibilities: instigating and coordinating interdisciplinary research programs involving many departments, several colleges of UCLA, and occasionally other campuses of the University; budgets, grant proposals (for the Institute, for UCLA, for Univ. of California), curriculum planning and staffing with emphasis on the ethnic arts. Graduate degree candidates averaged 50 annually; majors and non-majors involved in performances and areas courses in ethnomusicology numbered between 500-600 annually.

Honors and Awards Award 2002 for Outstanding Contribution to the United States-Indonesia Relationship, September 12, 2002, Washington D.C., The United States-Indonesia Society The Charles Seeger Lecture, Austin Texas, SEM, November 20, 1999: “Ethnomusicology’s Bronze Age in Y2K”.

Housewright Eminent Scholar, academic year 1996-1997, Florida State University, (in residence: March, 1997).

John Blacking Memorial Lecture, “The Musical River of Change and Innovation,” Triple Congress, ESEM, Rotterdam, 1995.

One of the first five non-Indonesians honored by membership in Dharma Kusuma, (Society of National Heroes)in a ceremony led by the Governor of Bali, August 14, 1992.

Inaugural Address: “The Quantum Theory of Music II,” for the founding of the Jaap Kunst Stichting (Foundation), October 3, 1991, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Honorary Life-Time President, Jaap Kunst Stichting.

Adjudicator for an international competition of research in ethonmusicology (Premio internazionale Latina di studi musicali), sponspored by Campus Internazionale di Musica Associazione Circe-Eurora, Latina, Italy, September 27–29, 1990.

Ditto 1995.

Canadian Broadcasting Company purchased mechanical reproduction rights for "Implosion," percussion quartet (1981), for broadcast throughout Canada and 1,000 affiliated stations worldwide, 1989; (composers: VARESE, BELUSE, MOREL, LANZA, KONDO, HOOD).

Principal Speaker, "Gamelan in America," lecture-concert "Double Concerto" by Lou Harrison, Japan Musical Education and Culture Promotion Society, Tokyo, May, 1989.

Keynote address, "Music from Galileo to Einstein -- a Quantum Leap," Southern California Chapter of the Society for Ethnomusicology, UCLA, May, 1989.

The title "KI" (Javanese: "KHJAI"), “The Venerable,” conferred by the Indonesian Government, August, 1986, (the only non-Indonesian ever so-honored).

Documentary film Atumpan (42' color) selected for Milan Film Festival, 1985, filmed in West Africa, 1963–64.

Invitation from Under-Secretary of Culture in Oman to research collection of Omani folklore, make recommendations to the Omani Government (Muscat, Oman, April, 1985), and to participate in a two-week congress (Muscat, October, 1985).

Senior Fulbright to Australia, summer, 1985 (declined).

51

Mantle Hood Keynote address: "Music the 'Ha' of Culture," Silver Jubilee, April, 1984, Cairo University Keynote address: "The Epic Identity and the Arts," Section 12 Tradition and Intercultural Relations in Music, Dance and Theater, XXXI International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa, 31 August to 7 September, Tokyo and Kyoto, 1983.

Certificate of Merit, Prime Minister Suharto (now ex-President Suharto), Indonesia, 1983.

NEH Summer Seminar for College Teachers, UMBC, 1982, "Are All Musical Cultures about Equally Complex?"

Director, Summer Institute for Elementary-Secondary Teachers, U.S. Office of Education, 1982.

Elected to Scientific Board, International Institute of Comparative Music Studies and Documentation, Berlin, 1978.

Keynote address: Pacific Basin Conference, University of California Santa Cruz, 1977.

Senior Fulbright to Bombay, India, 1975.

Certificate of Outstanding Contributions to Indonesia, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia, 1975.

Research Fellowship, Center for Twentieth Century Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1973 (declined).

Senior Fulbright Lectureship to Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia, 1972-73 (declined in favor of consultancy).

Senior Fellow Specialist, East-West Center, Honolulu, 197l Fellowship, California Institute of the Humanities, 1970–71, (declined).

Senior Fellowship, NEH, 1971.

Senior Fulbright Lecturer, Australia, 1969-70 (declined).

Elected to American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1969.

Fellowship, Institute of Creative Arts, University of California, 1967–68.

Visiting Colleague, University of Hawaii, 1967–68.

Fellowship, American Council of Learned Societies, 1964-65.

Fellowship, African-American Universities Program, Ghana-Nigeria, 1963–64.

Fellow, Princeton Council on Humanities, 1962-63.

Elected to the Research Group, UCLA, 1962.

Two successive Ford Foundation Fellowships to Indonesia, 1956-58.

Two successive Fulbright Fellowships, The Netherlands, 1952-54.

Guggenheim Fellowship, 1952 (declined).

University Fellowships, UCLA, 195l-53 (second year declined).

University Committees UMBC (1980–1995): Provost's Advisory Committee Academic Planning and Budget Committee Graduate Council President of Academic Senate U. of Maryland President's Task Force on Admission Requirements Committee on General Distribution Requirements Committee on Core Curricula Chairman, Graduate Committee Chancellor's Faculty Review Committee of Promotion, Tenure, Contracts numerous ad hoc committees UCLA (1954–74): Committee on Committees of the Academic Senate Committee on the University of the Future Chancellor's Committee on International and Comparative Studies University Cultural Policy Committee Arts and Literature Committee University of California-University of Chile Committee Committee on Asian Studies Lower Division College Steering Committee (five annual) Steering Committees for UC All-Faculty Conferences, held on Davis Campus Library Committee of the Academic Senate Committee for African Studies Center Committee for the

52

Mantle Hood Institute of Ethnomusicology Committee for the Center for Mythology and Folklore Committee for the Center for Near Eastern Studies Committee for the Center for Latin American Studies numerous ad hoc committees of the Senate, UCLA campus, the greater University Departmental Committees (UCLA): Graduate Advisor Chairman, Council Ethnomusicology Composers' Council Graduate Committee Committee on T.A.s Library Committee numerous ad hoc interdepartmental and college committees PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES Consulting 1999-2000 appointed Adunct Distinguished Senior Professor; continuing as consultant and Editor-in-Chief of journal World Music Reports (see EDITORIAL) to the present 1995-98 Dean Philip Faini, College of Creative Arts, West Virginia University 1994-95 - Asian Cultural Council 1993-94 - University of Massachusetts 1993 - Asian Cultural Council 1992 - Asian Cultural Council 1991 - Ford Foundation Indonesia 1991 - Asian Cultural Council 1991 - Jaap Kunst Stichting, Amsterdam 1991 - Constitution and By laws, European Seminar in Ethnomusicology, Lucerne, Switzerland 1991 - Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia, Bali, Indonesia 1990-96 - Reader for the National Humanities Center 1989 - Japan Victor Company, Editorial Board for American Edition (U.S. and Canada), 30 video tapes of music-dance worldwide (Japanese version released 1987) 1988- - The (international) Hawaiian Steel Guitar Association.

1988- - The Research Foundation, San Francisco 1987- - Asian Cultural Council 1987-88 - Aspen Institute, Wye Plantation, re. studies in Balinese culture 1986 - Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX of Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia 1985 - Ministry of Culture, Indonesia, re. Vancouver World's Fair 1986 1985 - Minister of Communications and Director of Center for Omani Traditional Music, the Sultanate of Oman 1985-96 - International Institute of Comparative Music Studies and Documentation, Berlin 1984-85 - Academy of the Arts and four of its seven Institutes, Cairo 1983 - Central Academy of Music, Beijing, China 1983 - External Examiner of Ph.D. candidate, University of Toronto, 1983 - Advisor on faculty - University of Ibadan 1983 - Ford Foundation re. establishment of archive in Poona, Inda 1982 - Advisor to Dr. Djelantik (son of the late Radja of Bali and sponsor of educational institutions in the arts) re. training program at UMBC for arts faculty of ASTI and ASKI, Bali, Indonesia 1976 - for Brown University President Howard Swearer re. expansion of program in ethnomusicology 1976 - for faculty and administrators of Visual and Performing Arts Program, UMBC 1973-76 - Senior Fulbright-Hays Program, Committee on International Exchange of Persons 1972 - Minister of Education, Minister of Culture, three universities of Malaysia re. establishing three-year curriculum in performing arts, School of Humanities, Sains Malaysia Universiti

53

Mantle Hood 1972 - for Brown University President Donald F. Hornig, re. all Music Programs of the University 1971 - Her Imperial Majesty, The Shahbanou, Empress of Iran and the Vice-Chancellor, University of Tehran re. establishing a research center for the performing arts 1971 - External Examiner of candidate for Doctor of Literature, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 1971 - Southwest Regional Laboratories re. audio-visual products designed for schools and universities 1970 - External Examiner of candidate for Ph.D., University of Melbourne 1969 - California Institute for the Arts re. curricular planning and staffing for program in the performing arts 1968 - Asia Society re. selection of Indonesian touring artists 1968 - External Examiner of candidate for Ph.D., Sydney University 1967-68 - East-West Center re. Humanities program 1967-68 - Music Department, University of Hawaii re. graduate program in ethnomusicology 1967-86 - JDR IIIrd Fund (now Asian Arts Council) re. cultural exchange program with Indonesia 1962-74 - External Examiner of M.A., Ph.D. candidates, University of Ghana 1964 - Columbia Pictures re. motion picture Lord Jim, starring Peter O'Toole; screen credit: "Advisor in Oriental Music" 1964-66 - Dean, University of Chile re. program in ethnomusicology, exchange of scholars and students, film project 1964-78 - American Society for Eastern Arts re. school curriculum, visiting artists, programs, special projects 1963 - J. F. Kennedy's Advisors in the Sciences; two-week conference at Yale University on the problems of teaching music in the elementary and secondary schools of the nation 1963 - Universal Motion Picture Studios re. motion picture The Spiral Road, starring Rock Hudson 1958-86 - International Music Council of UNESCO 1957-68 - Asia Foundation (San Francisco office and Indonesian office) re. cultural projects in Indonesia 1957-68 - Asia Society re. Asian cultural programs Editorial Founder and Editor-in-Chief, World Music Reports, Center for World Music, West Virginia University, 1996 Editorial Board, Japan Victor Company for American Edition of series of 30 video tapes of music-dance worldwide, 1989–90 Founder and Editor-in-Chief, Progress Reports in Ethnomusicology, SEMPOD Laboratory, UMBC, 1983–1995 Founder and Editor Ha'ilono Mele, monthly publication of The Hawaiian Music Foundation, 1974–76 Member of the Board of Editors and Area Editor for the field of ethnomusicology (editorial responsibility for ca. one and a half million words) for The New Grove International Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 6th ed., British Macmillan, London, 1980 Founder and Editor-in-Chief, Selected Reports, Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, 1966–74 Consulting Editor for the field of music and dance, African Arts Magazine, African Studies Center, UCLA, 1967–74 Founder and Editor-in-Chief, I.E. Records Series (LP recordings and accompanying books), Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, 1966–74 Reader for various commercial and university publishers, 1960 – the present Professional Societies European Seminar in Ethnomusicology American Academy of Arts and Sciences Society for Ethnomusicology (Past President and other offices) American Council of Learned Societies (past SEM rep.) American Musicological Society International Council for Traditional Music International Musicological Society Congresses et al.

54

Mantle Hood Congresses, papers read, public lectures, symposia, seminars, panel discussions, etc. in universities, colleges, governmental bureaus, and public forums in the United States and abroad, 1953 – the present PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS Books Mantle Hood, six novels: The Keepers [1998], The Celestial Connection [1999], Just a Stone’s Throw [2000], The Wisdom Knot [200l], From Out of the Blue, Trompin’ the Wraparound [2002].

Books and Articles in Books Mantle Hood, “Balinese Gamelan Semar Pegulingan: the Modal System,” To the Four Corners, a Festschrift in Honor of Rose Brandel, edited by Ellen C. Leichtman, Michigan: Harmonie Park Press, 1994, 11-23.

- - - - "Voiceprints in Omani Traditional Music," in a festschrift for J. H. Nketia African Musicology.

- - - - Current Trends, Vol. II, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992, 191-244.

- - - - ditto, co-published as another festscrift by the Sultanate of Oman, Muscat, Oman, 1995.

- - - - Paragon of the Roaring Sea. THE EVOLUTION OF JAVANESE GAMELAN, BOOK III. Wilhelmshaven: Florian Noetzel Verlag, 1988.

- - - - "All Musical Cultures are about Equally Complex." (chapter in) More than Drumming. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1985.

- - - - Legacy of the Roaring Sea. THE EVOLUTION OF JAVANESE GAMELAN, BOOK II. Wilhelmshaven: Heinrichshofen, 1984.

- - - - The Ethnomusicologist. New Edition. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1982; translations complete or in process: Arabic, Chinese, Indonesian, Korean, Polish (1986 -).

- - - - Music of the Roaring Sea. THE EVOLUTION OF JAVANESE GAMELAN, BOOK I. Wilhelmshaven: Heinrichshofen, 1980.

- - - - The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Patet in Javanese Music. Deluxe Editions (reprint of dissertation), New York: Da Capo Press, 1977.

- - - - "Slendro and Pelog Redefined" (chapter in) Readings in Ethnomusicology. David P. McAllester, editor; reprint, 2nd ed. New York: Johnson Reprint, 1976.

- - - - The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Patet in Javanese Music, (reprint of 1954 dissertation), New York: Da Capo., 1977.

- - - - "The Consensus Makers of Asian Music." (chapter in) Perspectives in Musicology. Editors: Barry S. Brook, Edward O. D. Downes, Sherman Van Solkema. New York: W. W. Norton, 1972.

- - - - "Music of Indonesia." (chapter in) Handbuch der Orientalistik. Leiden: E. J. Brille, 1972.

- - - - The Ethnomusicologist. New York: McGraw-Hill, 197l.

Toch, Ernst. Placed as a Link in this Chain - a Medley of Observations. Selection, organization, and Introduction by Mantle Hood. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 197l.

Hood, Mantle and Hardja Susilo. Music of the Venerable Dark Cloud. Los Angeles: Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, 1967.

McPhee, Colin. Music in Bali. Forward and indices by Mantle Hood. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966.

Harrison, Frank, Mantle Hood, Claud Palisca. Musicology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963.

Hood, Mantle. "Indonesia." (chapter in) Asia in the Modern World. Helen G. Mathew, ed. New York: Mentor Books, 1963.

- - - - "The Enduring Traditions." (chapter in) Indonesia. Ruth McVey, ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963.

- - - - Institute of Ethnomusicology. Los Angeles: Institute of Ethnomusicology, 196l.

55

Mantle Hood

56

- - - - Javanese Gamelan in the World of Music. (Gamelan Djawa Dilihat Dari Segi Dunia Musik, Trans. H. Susilo) Jogyakarta: Kedaulatan Rakjat, 1958.

Mellema, R. Wayang Puppets, Carving, Coloring, Symbols. Trans. from the Dutch by Mantle Hood. Amsterdam: Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, 1954.

Hood, Mantle. The Nuclear Theme as a Determinant of Patet in Javanese Music. Groningen: J. B. Wolters, 1954.

Encyclopedias Mantle Hood, "Composition and Improvisation," Encyclopedia of Communications, University of Pennsylvania, 1987.

- - - - "Southeast Asia."

The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 6th ed.

London: Macmillan, 1980, 20 vols.

- - - - “Bronze drum.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 6th ed. London: Macmillan, 1980, 20 vols.

- - - - "Indonesia." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 6th ed. London: Macmillan, 1980, 20 vols.

- - - - "Ethnomusicology." Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969.

- - - - "Pelog." Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969.

- - - - "Slendro." Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969.

- - - - "Indonesie.” Encyclopedie de la musique. Paris: Fosquelle, 1963.

- - - - "Pelog." Encyclopedie de la musique. Paris: Fosquelle, 1963.

- - - - "Slendro." Encyclopedie de la musique. Paris: Fosquelle, 1963.

- - - - "Music in History, II - The Orient," Home Encyclopedia of Music, Columbia Records, 196l.

- - - - "Balinesische Musik." Riekmann Musiklexikon. Reiburg: Briesgau, 1960.

- - - - "Javanische Musik." Riemann Musiklexikon. Reiburg: Briesgau, 1960.

- - - - "Indonesie." Encyclopedia van de Muziek. Amsterdam: Elseviers, 1958.

- - - - "Pelog." Encyclopedia van de Muziek. Amsterdam: Elseviers, 1958.

- - - - "Slendro." Encyclopedia van de Muziek. Amsterdam: Elseviers, 1958.

Articles Hood, Mantle, “Ethnomusicology”s Bronze Age in Y2K,” Ethnomusicology, Vo. 44, No. 3, 2000 - - - -, “Ethnomusioclogy’s Bronze Age in Y2K,” World Music Reports, Vol. I, No. 4, 2000 - - - -, “Il Rasa del suono,” Musica/Realta, 53, Luglio, 1997.

- - - -, "The Quantum Theory of Music II," World Music Reports, Vol. I, No.l, Center for World Music, 1996; published in Chinese (China News, 1992); published in Croat, 1992 (see below).

- - - -, “The Quantum Theory of Music (I),” (prepublished and read in ESEM Congress, Berlin, 1990),China News, (published in Chinese), Beijing, 199l; (viz II) in Croat, 1992; Mudra, (in English) Bali, 1996.

- - - -, John Blacking Memorial Lecture, “The Musical River of Change and Innovation,” European Seminar in Ethnomusicology, pub. By Oideion, Internet, 1995.

- - - -, “Angkep-angkepan,” Ndroje balendro, Musiques, terrains et disciplines, Peters, Paris, 1995.

- - - -, “ENTRETIENS: LA VOIE DUR GAMELAN, Entretien avec Ki Mantle Hood,” Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, 6, 1993.

- - - -, "Gli 'Indescrivibili' della Musica," EM, Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia, Archivi di Etnomusicologia, Libreria Musicale Italiana, Rome, 1993 - - - -, "The Untalkables of Music," International Workshop SONIC REPRESENTATION AND TRANSFORM, International School for Advanced Studies, Laboratorio Interdisciplinare per le Scienze Naturali ed Umanistiche,

Mantle Hood Trieste, Italy, in press, 1992.

- - - -, "Teorija kvantuma u glazbi (II)," Arti Musices 23/2, Zagreb, 1992, 157-164.

- - - -, "Polyphonic Stratification in the Music of Southeast Asia," Proceedings, ESEM, 1992.

- - - -, "Universal Aspects of Javanese Musical Improvisation," Premio Internazionale Latina di Studi Musicali, Camp Internazionale di Musica, Latina, Italy, 1990; also in Chinese translation in Chinese News, Central Academy of Music, Beijing, 1991.

- - - -, "Balinese Gamelan Semar Pegulingan, The Modal System," Progress Reports in Ethnomusicology, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1990.

- - - - "Ethnomusicology in the United States," Campus Internazionale di Musica, Latina, Italy; also in Chinese Translation in Chinese News, Central Academy of Music, Beijing, 1990.

- - - - "The Quantum Theory of Music,"European Seminar in Ethnomusicology, VII,International Institute for Comparative Music Studies and Documentation, 1990, 273- 277; also in Chinese translation in Chinese News, Central Academy of Music, Beijing, 1990.

- - - - , Frank L. Vice, and others,"Cervical Auscultation of Suckle Feeding in Newborn Infants," Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 32, 1990, 760-768.

- - - - "L'Arte della composiqione e dell improvvisazion nella dMusica tradizionale Giavanese," Ethnomusicologica, Seminari Internazionali di Ethnomusicologica, 1977â&#x20AC;&#x201C;89, XLIII, 91-106.

- - - - "Music from Galileo to Einstein - A Quantum Leap," keynote address, Progress Reports in Ethnomusicology, Vol. II, No. 3., 1989.

- - - - "Music from Galileo to Einstein . . ." Chinese transl., Chinese News, Journal of The Central Academy of Music, Beijing, China, 1989.

- - - - "The 'Ha' of Music," Keynote Address, Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the Academy of the Arts, Cairo; in press, 1989.

- - - - "A Courtly Edict for Javanese Music," Papers of the Third International Conference on Chinese Ethnomusicology, Taipai, Taiwan, 1988, 13-23.

- - - - "Musical Ornamentation as History: the Hawaiian Steel Guitar," Newsletter, Hawaiian Steel Guitar Association, 1988.

- - - - "Indonesia Antica, Musica Nova," Musica e Dossier, Anno II,. Numbero IV, Septembre, 1987, 28-31.

- - - - "Indonesian New Music, " Journal, Accadmia Musicale Chigiana, Siena, Italy (in press), 1987.

- - - - "Javanese Gamelan Sekati, Its Sanctity and Age," Acta Musicologica, Vol. LVII, Fasc. I, 1985. 33-37.

- - - - "The Computer in Ethnomusicology." Marlene Brown and C. Herbert Gilliland, eds. Anapolis: U. S. Naval Academy, 1984. 65-70.

- - - - "Bronze Drum," International Dictonary of Musical Instruments. London: Macmillan, 1984. 3 vols.

- - - - "The Epic Identity and the Arts," keynote address (summary), XXXI International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa 1983, the Toho Solskai: Tokyo, 1984. 663-665.

- - - - "Musical Ornamentation as History: the Hawaiian Steel Guitar," Yearbook for Traditional Music, 15:141-48.

Biblio., music, 1983.

- - - - "The Bronze Drums of Dongson Culture as Musical Instruments," Proceedings, International Musicological Society, 1982 - - - - "Historical Reconstructions for Oral Traditions of Music," The World of Music, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, 198l.

- - - - "Reminiscent of Charles Seeger," Bulletin, IFMC, 1980.

- - - - "Tribute to Charles Seeger," The World of Music, 1979

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Mantle Hood - - - - "Universal Attributes of Music," The World of Music, 1977.

- - - - "Improvisation in the Stratified Ensembles of Southeast Asia," Selected Reports, Vol. II, No. 2, 1974.

- - - - "Aspects of Group Improvisation in the Javanese Gamelan," Musics of Asia, National Music Council, Manila, 197l.

- - - - "Epilogue," Musics of Asia, National Music Council, Manila, 197l.

- - - - "Musical Literacy in the 1970's," Journal, College Music Society, Vol. II, Fall, 197l.

- - - - "Effect of Medieval Technology on Musical Style in the Orient," Selected Reports, Vol. I, No. 3, 1970.

- - - - "Music of the Venerable Dark Cloud," Harper's Bazar, January, 1968.

- - - - "Slendro and Pelog Redefined," Selected Reports, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1966.

- - - - "Non-Western Music in Western Education," Education News, Vol. 10 (North Sydney, Australia), 1965.

- - - - "Improvisation as a Discipline in Javanese Music" (reprint), Music Educators Journal, Washington, D.C., 1964.

- - - - "Improvisation as a Discipline in Javanese Music," International Music Education, No. 8, Washington, D.C., 1963.

- - - - "The Quest for Norms in Ethnomusicology," Inter-American Music Bulletin, No. 35, Washington, D.C., 1963.

- - - - "Musical Significance," Ethnomusicology, Anniversary edition, 1963.

- - - - "Javanese Music for American Children," Music Educators Journal, 1962.

- - - - "The Javanese Rebab," Music, Libraries and Instruments, Hinrichsen, 196l.

- - - - "The Reliability of Oral Tradition," Journal, American Musicological Society,1960.

- - - - "The Challenge of 'Bi-musicality'," Ethnomusicology, 1960; (numerous reprints in readers, 1980's.

- - - - "Music of the Javanese Gamelan," Festival of Oriental Music and the Related Arts, May 8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;22, UCLA, 1960.

- - - - "Asian Music on an American Campus," Pan Pipes, 1960.

- - - - "Changing Patterns in the Arts of Java," Bulletin of the Institute of Traditional Cultures, UNESCO, MADRAS, 1959.

- - - - "Wajang Purwa," Catalogue, Los Angeles County Museum, 1959.

- - - - "Asian Music on an American Campus," Asia Society Letter, 1959.

- - - - "Folk Imitations of the Javanese Gamelan," Viltis, 1956.

- - - - "De Componist Roy Harris," Concertgebouw Nieuws, 1953.

- - - - "The First Television Opera," New Outlook, 1952.

- - - - "The Music of Other Peoples," New Outlook, 1952.

- - - - "Back to Pre-Bach," New Outlook, 195l.

- - - - "A New Art Form" (Part I), New Outlook, 195l.

- - - - "Color-Music: a New Art Form" (Part II), New Outlook, 195l.

- - - - "Technique is not Enough," New Outlook, 195l.

- - - - "A 'Sacreligious' Requiem," New Outlook, 195l.

- - - - "A Glance at Gian-Carlo Menotti," New Outlook, 195l.

- - - - "Our Listening Altitude," New Outlook, 195l.

- - - - "The Semantics of Music," New Outlook, 195l.

Documentary Films Atumpan (see Honors and Awards), 1985.

Tari Topeng Sunda, 10' color-sound, masked dance style of West Java, filmed in Indonesia, 1972. (Also VHS)

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Mantle Hood The Puppet Play of West Java, 6' color-sound, filmed in Indonesia, 1970. (Also VHS) The Shadow Play of Bali, 6' color-sound, filmed in Indonesia, 1970. (Also VHS) Atumpan, the Talking Drums of Ghana, edited for Macmillan, New York, 1969.

Ghanaian Dance Ensemble, filmed on UCLA campus, 1968.

Three for Dance, original music, directed and narrated for Educational Television, Honololo, 1968. (Also VHS) 8,000 feet of 16mm film and sound documention of classes given by and attended by Regents Lecturer, Ravi Shankar, l965. (Edited but not released.)

4,000 feet of 16mm film and sound documentation of teaching methods and solo performance techniques of Indian tabla performed by the virtuoso Alla Rhaka, 1965. (Edited but not released.)

Atumpan, the Talking Drums of Ghana, 42' color-sound documentary-narrative, 16mm, filmed in Ghana,1963-64.

(Also VHS) Recordings "Marta Budaja," release by Balungan, Lou Harrison, ed., 1993.

"Implosion" (see HONORS AND AWARDS), 1989.

Supervision of editing and engineering "Bali North, LP recording master from field collection of Dr. Ruby Orstein,.

1972.

"Bali South," LP recording issued by the Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, from the field collection of Gertrude Rivers Robinson, 1972.

Three LP's (untitled) from collection of Mantle Hood for the book The Ethnomusicologist (see Books), 197l.

"Africa East and West," materials selected and edited from Mantle Hood collection and others, LP recording narrated

by Mantle Hood and released by African Studies Center, UCLA, 1969. (IER 675l) "Music of the Venerable Dark Cloud," LP recorded by Columbia Masterworks (CBS studios), programmed by Mantle Hood, including supervision of recording, engineering and mastering, released by the Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA, 1967. (IER 750l) "African Music," LP master, supervison of editing, engineering, and programming of examples from field collection of Professor Klaus Wachsmann, 1967.

"Persian Music," LP master, supervision of editing, engineering, and programming of examples from field collection of Professor Hormoz Farhat, 1967.

"Japanese Traditional Music," LP master of Keiji Yagi, studio recording by Mantle Hood, 1967.

"Lord Jim," LP from sound track of Columia motion picture Lord Jim, 1964. (Colpix CP 52l) "The Exotic Sounds of Bali," LP issued in Columbia Masterworks series (MI 6445, stereo, MI 5845, monaural, 1963), nominated for a Grammy, 1964; reissued on Odyssey, 1963 (No. 32160366); programmed by Mantle Hood, including supervision of engineering and mastering.

Recent Musical Compositions â&#x20AC;&#x153;Gending Shin,â&#x20AC;? a bibaran for Javanese gamelan, adopted by the Japanese club as the closing number for all future concerts, World Premier Kyoto, Japan, May 2, 1998.

"Gending Lou" transcribed for Balinese gamelan Semar Pegulingan, 1989, adapted for dance drama, scheduled for two performances in February, 1990.

"Gendhing Ageng Lou" for Javanese gamelan pelog in two continuous movements, commissioned by Lou Harrison, 1988, scheduled for World Premier Aril 10, 1990.

"Selamat Singapadu" for gender wayang quartet, 1988.

"Saratoga Springs" for Balinese gamelan angklung, dedicated to Lou Harrison, in press, Balungan, 1986.

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Mantle Hood "Marta Budaja" for Javanese gamelan slendro, in three patet; commissioned by the American composer Lou Harrison, 1983; premiered May 8, 1984; two performances at the Saratoga Springs Music festival 1986; performance at Expo '86, Vancouver, B.C.; in press, Balungan, 1986.

"Explosion" for percussion quintet, premiered 1983.

"Implosion" for percussion quartet, premiered 198l, published by Somers, 1982.

"Aloha Is," text and music for Hawaiian anthem, premiered Honolulu International Center, 1976.

"Four Ballads for Tenor Voice, text and music, 1976.

"Sound Partials" for 17 Buddhist gongs, commissioned by Hazel Chung for solo choreography, premiered at Theater Vanguard, Los Angeles, 1974.

"Negotiated Peace" for string quartert premiered at UCLA,1973.

"Sekar Anjar" for Balinese gamelan angklung, commissioned for solo choreography by I Made' Bandem, premiered at Ojai Festival in California, 1972.

"Pandji Kesemaran" for Balinese gamelan angklung, commissioned by I Made' Bandem for choreography for three dancers, premiered at Ojai Festival in California, 1972.

"Time to Mourn" for seven diverse African, Southeast Asian, and East Asia percussion instruments, commissioned

by Hazel Chung for choreography for dance company, premiered at Kennedy Theater, East-West Center, Honolulu, 1968.

"Emergence" for eight players, a synthesis of South Asian, Southeast Asian, Polynesian, East Asian, African, and Western musical instruments and concepts (see Documentary Films, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Three for Dance),â&#x20AC;? 1968.

"Owari" for 11 performers, a synthesis of African, Asian, and Western musical instruments and concepts, premiered at Kennedy Theater, East-West Center, Honolulu, 1968.

Bi-musicality Mantle Hood explained ethnomusicology as being the "study of music wherever and whenever." While his teacher Jaap Kunst wrote the two volumes of Music in Java without actually playing any of the music, Hood required that his students learn to play the music they were studying. While Hood was not the first ethnomusicologist to attempt learning to perform the music being studied, he gave the approach a name in his 1960 article on bi-musicality. It has been an important ethnomusicological research tool ever since. The approach enables the researcher to, in some manner, learn about music "from the inside", and thereby experience its technical, conceptual and aesthetic challenges. The student is also able to better connect socially with the community being studied and have better access to the community's rituals and performances.

The inspiration of "bi-musical" was "bi-lingual". Hood applied the term to music the same way a linguist would when describing someone who spoke two languages. He also strongly proposed that ethnomusicology students should know the spoken language of the musical culture being studied. This led to the breakdown of the steadfast rule of having to have competence in French and German at many ethnomusicology programs. Now Javanese, Spanish, Hindi, Portuguese, Navajo, Finnish, Quechua, Korean or any other topic-relevant language can fulfill foreign language requirements.

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Mantle Hood

Quotations "This emphasis upon music as communication, human understanding, and world peace, not only through musical performance, but also through research, teaching, and other forms of dissemination, is one of the greatest gifts Mantle Hood has given to ethnomusicology." (Encomium for Mantle Hood, Dale Olsen, SEM Newsletter, Vol. 39 No. 3, p. 4, May 2005).

References [1] http:/ / www. conservatorium. unimelb. edu. au/ staff/ made_hood Bot generated title -->]

• Mantle Hood Receives USINDO Award (http://www.international.ucla.edu/cseas/article.asp?parentid=2097) UCLA Center for Southeast Asia Studies • LA Times Obituary (http://articles.latimes.com/2005/aug/09/local/me-hood9) • Washington Post Obituary (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/08/ AR2005080801400.html) • UCLA Obituary (http://www.arts.ucla.edu/news/article.php?date_id=6360)

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Franz Boas

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Franz Boas Franz Boas

Born

July 9, 1858 [1] Minden, Westphalia, Germany

Died

21 December 1942 (aged 84) New York

Education

Ph.D. in physics, University of Kiel (1881)

Occupation Anthropologist Spouse

Marie Krackowizer Boas (1861–1929)

Children

• • • •

Helene Boas Yampolsky (1888–1963) Ernst Philip Boas (1891–1955) Hedwig Boas (1893/94) Gertrud Boas (1897–1924)

• •

Henry Herbert Donaldson Boas (1899–1925) Marie Franziska Boas (1902–1987)

• •

Meier Boas (1823–1899), Sophie Meyer Boas (1828–1916)

Parents

Signature

Franz Boas (/ˈfrɑːnzˈboʊ.æz/; July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942)[2] was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology"[3][4] and "the Father of Modern Anthropology."[5] Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in physics, and did post-doctoral work in geography. He applied the scientific method to the study of human cultures and societies; previously this discipline was based on the formulation of grand theories around anecdotal knowledge.[6] Boas once summed up his approach to anthropology and folklore by saying: "In the course of time I became convinced that a materialistic point of view, for a physicist a very real one, was untenable. This gave me a new point of view and I recognized the importance of studying the interaction between the organic and inorganic, above all the relation between the life of a people and their physical environment."[7]

Franz Boas

Early life and education Franz Uri Boas was born in Minden, Westphalia. Although his grandparents were observant Jews, his parents embraced Enlightenment values, including their assimilation into modern German society. Boas’s parents were educated, well-to-do, and liberal; they did not like dogma of any kind. Due to this, Boas was granted the independence to think for himself and pursue his own interests. Early in life he displayed a penchant for both nature and natural sciences. Boas vocally opposed anti-Semitism and refused to convert to Christianity, he did not identify himself as a Jew;[8] indeed, according to his biographer, "He was an 'ethnic' German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America."[9] In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote: The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the revolution of 1848 were a living force. My father, liberal, but not active in public affairs; my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters; the founder about 1854 of the kindergarten in my home town, devoted to science. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma. My father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom.[10] From kindergarten on, Boas was educated in natural history, a subject he enjoyed. In gymnasium, he was proudest of his research on the geographic distribution of plants. Nevertheless, when it came time for university, he intended to study physics in Berlin, but eventually changed his mind and enrolled in the university at Kiel to be closer to his family. But prior to that, he attended the university of Heidelberg for a time.

For his dissertation, Boas planned to conduct research on Gauss' law of the normal distribution of errors, but his thesis supervisor Gustav Karsten instructed him to work on the optical properties of water instead. Boas received his doctorate in physics from Kiel university in 1881. Unhappy with his dissertation, Boas was intrigued by the problems of perception that had plagued his research. Boas had been interested in Kantian philosophy since taking a course on aesthetics with Kuno Fischer at Heidelberg. This interest led Boas to Psychophysics; he considered moving to Berlin to study with Hermann von Helmholtz, but he had no training in Psychology.[11][12]

Post-graduate studies Boas took up geography as a way to explore his growing interest in the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world. At the time, German geographers were divided over the causes of cultural variation. Many argued that the physical environment was the principal determining factor, but others (notably Friedrich Ratzel) argued that the diffusion of ideas through human migration is more important. In 1883 Boas went to Baffin Island to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native Inuit migrations. The first of many ethnographic field trips, Boas culled his notes to write his first monograph titled The Central Eskimo, which was published in the 6th Annual Report from the Bureau of American Ethnology in 1888. Boas lived and worked closely with the Inuit peoples on Baffin Island, and he developed an abiding interest in the way people lived.

In the perpetual darkness of the Arctic winter, Boas reported, he and his traveling companion became lost and were forced to keep sledding for twenty-six hours through ice, soft snow, and temperatures that dropped below -46 °C. The following day, Boas penciled in his diary: I often ask myself what advantages our 'good society possesses over that of the 'savages' and find, the more I see of their customs, that we have no right to look down upon them. . . We have no right to blame them for their forms and superstitions which may seem ridiculous to us. We 'highly educated people' are much worse, relatively speaking. . . Franz Boas to Marie Krackowizer, December 23, 1883. Franz Boas’ Baffin Island Letter-Diary, 1883-1884, edited by Herbert Cole (1983:33).

Boas went on to explain in the same entry that "all service, therefore, which a man can perform for humanity must serve to promote truth." Boas was forced to depend on various Inuit groups for everything from directions and food to shelter and companionship. It was a difficult year filled with tremendous hardships that included frequent bouts with disease, mistrust, pestilence, and danger. Boas successfully searched for areas not yet surveyed and found

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Franz Boas unique ethnographic objects, but the long winter and the lonely treks across perilous terrain forced him to search his soul to find a direction for his life as a scientist and a citizen.

Boas' interest in indigenous communities grew as he worked at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin where he was introduced to members of the NuxĂĄlk Nation of British Columbia, which sparked a lifelong relationship with the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest.

He returned to Berlin to complete his studies. In 1886, Boas defended (with Helmholtz' support) his habilitation thesis, Baffin Land, and was named privatdozent in geography.

While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (resulting in his book, The Central Eskimo, published in 1888). In 1885 Boas went to work with physical anthropologist Rudolf Virchow and ethnologist Adolf Bastian at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier, while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition. At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate over evolution with his former student, Ernst Haeckel. Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species, and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany. However, like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics in 1900 and the development of the modern synthesis, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability. Accordingly, Virchow favored Lamarckian models of evolution. This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates.

But Boas worked more closely with Bastian, who was noted for his antipathy to environmental determinism. Instead, he argued for the "psychic unity of mankind;" a belief that all humans had the same intellectual capacity, and that all cultures were based on the same basic mental principles. Variations in custom and belief, he argued, were the products of historical accidents. This view resonated with Boas' experiences on Baffin Island, and drew him towards anthropology.

While at the Royal Ethnological Museum Boas became interested in the Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and after defending his habilitation thesis, he left for a three month trip to British Columbia via New York. In January, 1887, he was offered a job as assistant editor of the journal Science, in New York. Alienated by growing antisemitism and nationalism as well as the very limited academic opportunities for a geographer in Germany, Boas decided to stay in the United States. Possibly he received additional motivation for this decision from his romance with Marie Krackowizer, whom he married in the same year.

Aside from his editorial work at Science, Boas secured an appointment as docent in anthropology at Clark University, in 1888. Boas was concerned about university president G. Stanley Hall's interference in his research, yet in 1889 he was appointed as the head of a newly created department of anthropology at Clark University. In the early 1890s he went on a series of expeditions which were referred to as the Morris K. Jesup Expedition. The primary goal of these expeditions was to illuminate Asiatic-American relations.[13][14] In 1892 Boas, together with another member of the Clark faculty, resigned in protest of the alleged infringement by Hall on academic freedom. He took the post of chief assistant in anthropology to F.W. Putnam at the Chicago Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fair. These exhibits later served as the basis for the Field (Columbian) Museum, where Boas served as the curator of anthropology and was succeeded by Wm. H. Homes. In 1896 Boas was named the assistant curator at the American Museum of Natural History, again under Putnam.

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Franz Boas

Fin de Siècle debates Science versus history Some scholars, like Boas' student Alfred Kroeber, believed that Boas used his research in physics as a model for his work in anthropology. Many others, however — including Boas' student Alexander Lesser, and later researchers such as Marian W. Smith, Herbert S. Lewis, and Matti Bunzl — have pointed out that Boas explicitly rejected physics in favor of history as a model for his anthropological research.

This distinction between science and history has its origins in 19th century German academe, which distinguished between Naturwissenschaften (the sciences) and Geisteswissenschaften (the humanities), or between Gesetzwissenschaften (jurisprudence) and Geschichtswissenschaften (history, historiography). Generally, Naturwissenschaften and Gesetzwissenschaften refer to the study of phenomena that are governed by objective natural laws, while the latter terms in the two oppositions refer to those phenomena that have meaning only in terms of human perception or experience. In 1884 Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband coined the terms nomothetic and idiographic to describe these two divergent approaches. He observed that most scientists employ some mix of both, but in differing proportions; he considered physics a perfect example of a nomothetic science, and history, an idiographic science. Moreover, he argued that each approach has its origin in one of the two "interests" of reason Kant had identified in the Critique of Judgement — one "generalizing," the other "specifying." (Winkelband's student Heinrich Rickert elaborated on this distinction in The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science : A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences; Boas' students Alfred Kroeber and Edward Sapir relied extensively on this work in defining their own approach to anthropology.)

Although Kant considered these two interests of reason to be objective and universal, the distinction between the natural and human sciences was institutionalized in Germany, through the organization of scholarly research and teaching, following the Enlightenment. In Germany the Enlightenment was dominated by Kant himself, who sought to establish principles based on universal rationality. In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. In 1795 the great linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. Humboldt founded the University of Berlin in 1809, and his work in geography, history, and psychology provided the milieu in which Boas' intellectual orientation matured.

Historians working in the Humboldtian tradition developed ideas that would become central in Boasian anthropology. Leopold von Ranke defined the task of the historian as "merely to show as it actually was," which is a cornerstone of Boas' empiricism. Wilhelm Dilthey emphasized the centrality of "understanding" to human knowledge, and that the lived experience of an historian could provide a basis for an empathic understanding of the situation of an historical actor. For Boas, both values were well-expressed in a quote from Goethe: "A single action or event is interesting, not because it is explainable, but because it is true."

The influence of these ideas on Boas is apparent in his 1887 essay, "The Study of Geography," in which he distinguished between physical science, which seeks to discover the laws governing phenomena, and historical science, which seeks a thorough understanding of phenomena on their own terms. Boas argued that geography is and must be historical in this sense. In 1887, after his Baffin Island expedition, Boas wrote "The Principles of Ethnological Classification," in which he developed this argument in application to anthropology: Ethnological phenomena are the result of the physical and psychical character of men, and of its development under the influence of the surroundings...'Surroundings' are the physical conditions of the country, and the sociological phenomena, i.e., the relation of man to man. Furthermore, the study of the present surroundings is insufficient: the history of the people, the influence of the regions through which it has passed on its migrations, and the people with whom it came into contact, must be considered.

This formulation echoes Ratzel's focus on historical processes of human migration and culture contact, and Bastian's rejection of environmental determinism. It also emphasizes culture as a context ("surroundings"), and the importance

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Franz Boas of history. These are the hallmarks of Boasian anthropology (which Marvin Harris would later call "historical-particularism"), would guide Boas' research over the next decade, as well as his instructions to future students. (see Lewis 2001b for an alternative view to Harris'.)

Although context and history were essential elements to Boas' understanding of anthropology as Geisteswissenschaften and Geschichtswissenschaften, there is one essential element that Boasian anthropology shares with Naturwissenschaften: empiricism. In 1949 Boas' student, Alfred Kroeber summed up the principles of empiricism that define Boasian anthropology as a science: 1. The method of science is to begin with questions, not with answers, least of all with value judgements.

2. Science is dispassionate inquiry and therefore cannot take over outright any ideologies "already formulated in everyday life," since these are themselves inevitably traditional and normally tinged with emotional prejudice.

3. Sweeping all-or-none, black-and-white judgements are characteristic of categorical attitudes and have no place in science, whose very nature is inferential and judicious.

Orthogenetic versus Darwinian evolution One of the greatest accomplishments of Boas and his students was their critique of theories of physical, social, and cultural evolution current at that time. This critique is central to Boas' work in museums, as well as his work in all four fields of anthropology. As historian George Stocking noted, however, Boas' main project was to distinguish between biological and cultural heredity, and to focus on the cultural processes that he believed had the greatest influence over social life.[15] In fact, Boas supported Darwinian theory, although he did not assume that it automatically applied to cultural and historical phenomena (and indeed was a life-long opponent of 19th century theories of cultural evolution, such as those of Lewis H. Morgan and Edward Burnett Tylor).[16] The notion of evolution that the Boasians ridiculed and rejected was the then dominant belief in orthogenesis â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a determinate or teleological process of evolution in which change occurs progressively regardless of natural selection. Boas rejected the prevalent theories of social evolution developed by Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, and Herbert Spencer not because he rejected the notion of "evolution" per se, but because he rejected orthogenetic notions of evolution in favor of Darwinian evolution.

The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: the orthogeneticists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence. Thus, although the Inuit with whom Boas worked at Baffin Island, and the Germans with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage. This echoed a popular misreading of Darwin that suggested that human beings are descended from chimpanzees. In fact, Darwin argued that chimpanzees and humans are equally evolved. What characterizes Darwinian theory is its attention to the processes by which one species transforms into another; "adaptation" as a key principle in explaining the relationship between a species and its environment; and "natural selection" as a mechanism of change. In contrast, Morgan, Spencer, and Tylor had little to say about the process and mechanics of change.

Furthermore, Darwin built up his theory through a careful examination of considerable empirical data. Boasian research revealed that virtually every claim made by cultural evolutionists was contradicted by the data, or reflected a profound misinterpretation of the data. As Boas' student Robert Lowie remarked, "Contrary to some misleading statements on the subject, there have been no responsible opponents of evolution as scientifically proved, though there has been determined hostility to an evolutionary metaphysics that falsifies the established facts."

In an unpublished lecture, Boas characterized his debt to Darwin thus: Although the idea does not appear quite definitely expressed in Darwin's discussion of the development of mental powers, it seems quite clear that his main object has been to express his conviction that the mental faculties developed essentially without a purposive end, but they originated as variations, and were continued by natural selection. This idea was also brought out very clearly by Wallace, who emphasized that apparently

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reasonable activities of man might very well have developed without an actual application of reasoning.

Thus, Boas suggested that what appear to be patterns or structures in a culture were not a product of conscious design, but rather the outcome of diverse mechanisms that produce cultural variation (such as diffusion and independent invention), shaped by the social environment in which people live and act. Boas concluded his lecture by acknowledging the importance of Darwin's work: I hope I may have succeeded in presenting to you, however imperfectly, the currents of thought due to the work of the immortal Darwin which have helped to make anthropology what it is at the present time. (Boas, 1909 lecture; see Lewis 2001b.)

Early career: museum studies In the late 19th century anthropology in the United States was dominated by the Bureau of American Ethnology, directed by John Wesley Powell, a geologist who favored Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. The BAE was housed at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology, Otis T. Mason, shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution. (The Peabody Museum at Harvard University was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research).

It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline.

During this period Boas made five more trips to the Pacific Northwest.

His continuing field research led him to think of culture as a local context for human action. His emphasis on local context and history led him to oppose the dominant model at the time, Cultural evolution.

Boas initially broke with evolutionary theory over the issue of kinship.

Lewis Henry Morgan had argued that all human societies move from an initial form of matrilineal organization to patrilineal organization.

First Nations groups on the northern coast of British Columbia, like the Tsimshian and Tlingit, were organized into matrilineal clans. First Nations on the southern coast, like the Nootka and the Salish, however, "Franz Boas posing for figure in US Natural were organized into patrilineal groups. Boas focused on the Kwakiutl, History Museum exhibit entitled "Hamats'a who lived between the two clusters. The Kwakiutl seemed to have a coming out of secret room" 1895 or before. mix of features. Prior to marriage, a man would assume his wife's Courtesy of National Anthropology Archives.

(Kwakiutl culture) father's name and crest. His children took on these names and crests as well, although his sons would lose them when they got married. Names and crests thus stayed in the mother's line. At first, Boas â&#x20AC;&#x201D; like Morgan before him â&#x20AC;&#x201D; suggested that the Kwakiutl had been matrilineal like their neighbors to the north, but that they were beginning to evolve patrilineal groups. In 1897, however, he repudiated himself, and argued that the Kwakiutl were changing from a prior patrilineal organization to a matrilineal one, as they learned about matrilineal principles from their northern neighbors.

Boas' rejection of Morgan's theories led him, in an 1887 article, to challenge Mason's principles of museum display.

At stake, however, were more basic issues of causality and classification. The evolutionary approach to material culture led museum curators to organize objects on display according to function or level of technological development. Curators assumed that changes in the forms of artefacts reflect some natural process of progressive evolution. Boas, however, felt that the form an artefact took reflected the circumstances under which it was produced and used. Arguing that "[t]hough like causes have like effects, like effects have not like causes," Boas realized that even artefacts that were similar in form might have developed in very different contexts, for different reasons.

Mason's museum displays, organized along evolutionary lines, mistakenly juxtapose like effects; those organized

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along contextual lines would reveal like causes.

Boas had a chance to apply his approach to exhibits when he was hired to assist Frederic Ward Putnam, director and curator of the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, who had been appointed as head of the Department of Ethnology and Archeology for the Chicago Fair in 1892. Boas arranged for fourteen Kwakiutl aboriginals from British Columbia to come and reside in a mock Kwakiutl village, where they could perform their daily tasks in context.

After the Exposition Boas worked at the newly-created Field Museum in Chicago until 1894, when he was replaced (against his will) by BAE archeologist William Henry Holmes. In 1896 Boas was appointed Assistant Curator of Ethnology and Somatology of the American Museum of Natural History. In 1897 he organized the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, a five-year long field-study of the natives of the Pacific Northwest, whose ancestors had migrated across the Bering Strait from Siberia. He attempted to organize exhibits along contextual, rather than evolutionary, lines. He also developed a research program in line with his curatorial goals: describing his instructions to his students in terms of widening contexts of interpretation within a society, he explained that "...they get the specimens; they get explanations of the specimens; they get connected texts that partly refer to the specimens and partly to abstract things concerning the people; and they get grammatical information." These widening contexts of interpretation were abstracted into one context, the context in which the specimens, or assemblages of specimens, would be displayed: "...we want a collection arranged according to tribes, in order to teach the particular style of each group." His approach, however, brought him into conflict with the President of the Museum, Morris Jesup, and its Director, Hermon Bumpus. He resigned in 1905, never to work for a museum again.

Later career: academic anthropology Boas was appointed lecturer in physical anthropology at Columbia University in 1896, and promoted to professor of anthropology in 1899. However, the various anthropologists teaching at Columbia had been assigned to different departments. When Boas left the Museum of Natural History, he negotiated with Columbia University to consolidate the various professors into one department, of which Boas would take charge. Boas' program at Columbia became the first Ph.D. program in anthropology in America.

Columbia University library in 1903

During this time Boas played a key role in organizing the American Anthropological Association as an umbrella organization for the emerging field. Boas originally wanted the AAA to be limited to professional anthropologists, but W.J. McGee (another geologist who had joined the BAE under Powell's leadership) argued that the organization should have an open membership. McGee's position prevailed and he was elected the organization's first president in 1902; Boas was elected a vice-president, along with Putnam, Powell, and Holmes.

At both Columbia and the AAA, Boas encouraged the "four field" concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to physical anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, as well as cultural anthropology. His work in these fields was pioneering: in physical anthropology he led scholars away from static taxonomical classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic philology and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with Polish-English anthropologist BronisĹ&#x201A;aw Malinowski) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant-observation method of fieldwork.

The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one over-arching object, was one of Boas' fundamental contributions to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that of England, France, or Germany. This approach defines as its object the human

Franz Boas species as a totality. This focus did not lead Boas to seek to reduce all forms of humanity and human activity to some lowest common denominator; rather, he understood the essence of the human species to be the tremendous variation in human form and activity (an approach that parallels Charles Darwin's approach to species in general).

In his 1907 essay, "Anthropology," Boas identified two basic questions for anthropologists: "Why are the tribes and nations of the world different, and how have the present differences developed?" Amplifying these questions, he explained the object of anthropological study thus: We do not discuss the anatomical, physiological, and mental characteristics of man considered as an individual; but we are interested in the diversity of these traits in groups of men found in different geographical areas and in different social classes. It is our task to inquire into the causes that have brought about the observed differentiation, and to investigate the sequence of events that have led to the establishment of the multifarious forms of human life. In other words, we are interested in the anatomical and mental characteristics of men living under the same biological, geographical, and social environment, and as determined by their past.

These questions signal a marked break from then-current ideas about human diversity, which assumed that some people have a history, evident in a historical (or written) record, while other people, lacking writing, also lack history. For some, this distinction between two different kinds of societies explained the difference between history, sociology, economics and other disciplines that focus on people with writing, and anthropology, which was supposed to focus on people without writing. Boas rejected this distinction between kinds of societies, and this division of labor in the academy. He understood all societies to have a history, and all societies to be proper objects of anthropological society. In order to approach literate and non-literate societies the same way, he emphasized the importance on studying human history through the analysis of other things besides written texts. Thus, in his 1904 article, "The History of Anthropology", Boas wrote that The historical development of the work of anthropologists seems to single out clearly a domain of knowledge that heretofore has not been treated by any other science. It is the biological history of mankind in all its varieties; linguistics applied to people without written languages; the ethnology of people without historic records; and prehistoric archeology.

Historians and social theorists in the 18th and 19th centuries had speculated as to the causes of this differentiation, but Boas dismissed these theories, especially the dominant theories of social evolution and cultural evolution as speculative. He endeavored to establish a discipline that would base its claims on rigorous empirical study.

One of Boas' most important books, The Mind of Primitive Man (published in 1911), integrated his theories concerning the history and development of cultures and established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years. In this study he established that in any given population, biology, language, material and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another. In other words, he established that culture does not depend on any independent variables. He emphasized that the biological, linguistic, and cultural traits of any group of people are the product of historical developments involving both cultural and non-cultural forces. He established that cultural plurality is a fundamental feature of humankind, and that the specific cultural environment structures much individual behavior.

Boas also presented himself as a role-model for the citizen-scientist, who understand that even were the truth pursued as its own end, all knowledge has moral consequences. The Mind of Primitive Man ends with an appeal to humanism: I hope the discussions outlined in these pages have shown that the data of anthropology teach us a greater tolerance of forms of civilization different from our own, that we should learn to look on foreign races with greater sympathy and with a conviction that, as all races have contributed in the past to cultural progress in one way or another, so they will be capable of advancing the interests of mankind if we are only willing to give them a fair opportunity.

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Physical anthropology Boas' work in physical anthropology brought together his interest in Darwinian evolution with his interest in migration as a cause of change. His most important research in this field was his study of changes in body form among children of immigrants in New York. Other researchers had already noted differences in height, cranial measurements, and other physical features between Americans and people from different parts of Europe. Many used these differences to argue that there is an innate biological difference between races. Boas' primary interest — in symbolic and material culture and in language — was the study of processes of change; he therefore set out to determine whether bodily forms are also subject to processes of change. Boas studied 17,821 people, divided into seven ethno-national groups. Boas found that average measures of cranial size of immigrants were significantly different from members of these groups who were born in the United States. Moreover, he discovered that average measures of cranial size of children born within ten years of their mothers' arrival were significantly different from those of children born more than ten years after their mothers' arrival. Boas did not deny that physical features such as height or cranial size were inherited; he did, however, argue that the environment has an influence on these features, which is expressed through change over time. This work was central to his influential argument that differences between races were not immutable.[17] These findings were radical at the time and continue to be debated. In 2002 the anthropologists Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz claimed that differences between children born to the same parents in Europe and America were very small and insignificant, and that there was no detectable effect of exposure to the American environment on the cranial index in children. They argued that their results contradicted Boas' original findings and demonstrated that they may no longer be used to support arguments of plasticity in cranial morphology.[18] However Jonathan Marks — a well-known physical anthropologist and former president of the General Anthropology section of the American Anthropological Association – has remarked that this revisionist study of Boas' work "has the ring of desperation to it (if not obfuscation), and has been quickly rebutted by more mainstream biological anthropology."[19] In 2003 anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas' data and concluded that most of Boas' original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas' data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity.[20] In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz' analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas' claims, and that Sparks' and Jantz's data actually support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas' method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.[21] Although some sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists have suggested that Boas was opposed to Darwinian evolution, Boas in fact was a committed proponent of Darwinian evolutionary thought. In 1888 he declared that "the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution;" since Boas' times, physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution. In fact, Boas' research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory.

It is crucial to remember that Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics; Mendelian genetics became widely known only after 1900. Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution. Boas' biometric studies, however, led him to question the use of this method and kind of data. In a speech to anthropologists in Berlin in 1912, Boas argued that at best such statistics could only raise biological questions, and not answer them. It was in this context that anthropologists began turning to genetics as a basis for any understanding of biological variation.

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Linguistics Boas also contributed greatly to the foundation of linguistics as a science in the United States. He published many descriptive studies of Native American languages, and wrote on theoretical difficulties in classifying languages, and laid out a research program for studying the relations between language and culture which his students such as Edward Sapir, Paul Rivet and Alfred Kroeber followed.[22][23][24][25][26][27] His 1889 article "On Alternating Sounds," however, made a singular contribution to the methodology of both linguistics and cultural anthropology. It is a response to a paper presented in 1888 by Daniel Garrison Brinton, at the time a professor of American linguistics and archeology at the University of Pennsylvania. Brinton observed that in the spoken languages of many Native Americans, certain sounds regularly alternated. This is clearly not a function of individual accents; Brinton was not suggesting that some individuals pronounced certain words differently from others. He was arguing that there were many words that, even when repeated by the same speaker, varied considerably in their vocalization. Using evolutionary theory, Brinton argued that this pervasive inconsistency was a sign of linguistic inferiority, and evidence that Native Americans were at a low stage in their evolution.

Boas was familiar with what Brinton was talking about; he had experienced something similar during his research in Baffin Island and in the Pacific Northwest. Nevertheless, he argued that "alternating sounds" is not at all a feature of Native American languages — indeed, he argued, they do not really exist. Rather than take alternating sounds as objective proof of different stages in cultural evolution, Boas considered them in terms of his longstanding interest in the subjective perception of objective physical phenomena. He also considered his earlier critique of evolutionary museum displays. There, he pointed out that two things (artefacts of material culture) that appear to be similar may in fact be quite different. In this article he raises the possibility that two things (sounds) that appear to be different may in fact be the same.

In short, he shifted attention to the perception of different sounds. Boas begins by raising an empirical question: when people describe one sound in different ways, is it because they cannot perceive the difference, or might there be another reason? He immediately establishes that he is not concerned with cases involving perceptual deficit — the aural equivalent of color-blindness. He points out that the question of people who describe one sound in different ways is comparable to that of people who describe different sounds in one way. This is crucial for research in descriptive linguistics: when studying a new language, how are we to note the pronunciation of different words? (in this point, Boas anticipates and lays the groundwork for the distinction between phonemics and phonetics.) People may pronounce a word in a variety of ways and still recognize that they are using the same word. The issue, then, is not "that such sensations are not recognized in their individuality" (in other words, people recognize differences in pronunciations); rather, it is that sounds "are classified according to their similarity" (in other words, that people classify a variety of perceived sounds into one category). A comparable visual example would involve words for colors. The English word "green" can be used to refer to a variety of shades, hues, and tints. But there are some languages that have no word for "green".[28] In such cases, people might classify what we would call "green" as either "yellow" or "blue." This is not an example of color-blindness — people can perceive differences in color, but they categorize similar colors in a different way than English speakers.

Boas applied these principles to his studies of Inuit languages. Researchers have reported a variety of spellings for a given word. In the past, researchers have interpreted this data in a number of ways — it could indicate local variations in the pronunciation of a word, or it could indicate different dialects. Boas argues an alternative explanation: that the difference is not in how Inuit pronounce the word, but rather in how English-speaking scholars perceive the pronunciation of the word. It is not that English speakers are physically incapable of perceiving the sound in question; rather, the phonetic system of English cannot accommodate the perceived sound.

Although Boas was making a very specific contribution to the methods of descriptive linguistics, his ultimate point is far reaching: observer bias need not be personal, it can be cultural. In other words, the perceptual categories of Western researchers may systematically cause a Westerner to misperceive or to fail to perceive entirely a meaningful element in another culture. As in his critique of Otis Mason's museum displays, Boas demonstrated that what

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appeared to be evidence of cultural evolution was really the consequence of unscientific methods, and a reflection of Westerners' beliefs about their own cultural superiority. This point provides the methodological foundation for Boas' cultural relativism: elements of a culture are meaningful in that culture's terms, even if they may be meaningless (or take on a radically different meaning) in another culture.

Cultural anthropology The essence of Boas' approach to ethnography is found in his early essay on "The Study of Geography." There he argued for an approach that ... considers every phenomena as worthy of being studied for its own sake. Its mere existence entitles it to a full share of our attention; and the knowledge of its existence and evolution in space and time fully satisfies the student.

When Boas' student Ruth Benedict gave her presidential address to the American Anthropological Association in 1947, she reminded anthropologists of the importance of this idiographic stance by quoting literary critic A.C. Bradley: "We watch what is, seeing that so it happened and must have happened."

This orientation led Boas to promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to • empiricism (with a resulting skepticism of attempts to formulate "scientific laws" of culture)

Drawing of a Kwakiutl mask from Boas' The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians (1897). Wooden skulls hang from below the mask, which represents one of the cannibal bird helpers of Bakbakwalinooksiwey.

• a notion of culture as fluid and dynamic • ethnographic fieldwork, in which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being researched, conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with native researchers, as a method of collecting data, and • cultural relativism as a methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as heuristic tool while analyzing data.

Boas argued that in order to understand "what is" — in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural traits (behaviors, beliefs, and symbols) – one had to examine them in their local context. He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another, and as the cultural context changes over time, the elements of a culture, and their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local histories for an analysis of cultures.

Although other anthropologists at the time, such as Bronisław Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown focused on the study of societies, which they understood to be clearly bounded, Boas' attention to history, which reveals the extent to which traits diffuse from one place to another, led him to view cultural boundaries as multiple and overlapping, and as highly permeable. Thus, Boas' student Robert Lowie once described culture as a thing of "shreds and patches." Boas and his students understood that as people try to make sense of their world they seek to integrate its disparate elements, with the result that different cultures could be characterized as having different configurations or patterns. But Boasians also understood that such integration was always in tensions with diffusion, and any appearance of a stable configuration is contingent (see Bashkow 2004: 445).

During Boas' lifetime, as today, many Westerners saw a fundamental difference between modern societies, which are characterized by dynamism and individualism, and traditional societies which are stable and homogeneous. Boas' empirical field research, however, led him to argue against this comparison. For example, his 1903 essay, "Decorative Designs of Alaskan Needlecases: A History of Conventional Designs, Based on Materials in a U.S. Museum," provides another example of how Boas made broad theoretical claims based on a detailed analysis of

Franz Boas empirical data. After establishing formal similarities among the needlecases, Boas shows how certain formal features provide a vocabulary out of which individual artisans could create variations in design. Thus, his emphasis on culture as a context for meaningful action made him sensitive to individual variation within a society (William Henry Holmes suggested a similar point in an 1886 paper, "Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art," although unlike Boas he did not develop the ethnographic and theoretical implications).

In a programmatic essay in 1920, "The Methods of Ethnology," Boas argued that instead of "the systematic enumeration of standardized beliefs and customs of a tribe," anthropology needs to document "the way in which the individual reacts to his whole social environment, and to the difference of opinion and of mode of action that occur in primitive society and which are the causes of far-reaching changes." Boas argued that attention to individual agency reveals that "the activities of the individual are determined to a great extent by his social environment, but in turn his own activities influence the society in which he lives, and may bring about modifications in form."

Consequently, Boas thought of culture as fundamentally dynamic: "As soon as these methods are applied, primitive society loses the appearance of absolute stability.... All cultural forms rather appear in a constant state of flux...." (see Lewis 2001b) Having argued against the relevance of the distinction between literate and non-literate societies as a way of defining anthropology's object of study, Boas argued that non-literate and literate societies should be analyzed in the same way. 19th century historians had been applying the techniques of philology to reconstruct the histories of, and relationships between, literate societies. In order to apply these methods to non-literate societies, Boas argued that the task of fieldworkers is to produce and collect texts in non-literate societies. This took the form not only of compiling lexicons and grammars of the local language, but of recording myths, folktales, beliefs about social relationships and institutions, and even recipes for local cuisine. In order to do this, Boas relied heavily on the collaboration of literate native ethnographers (among the Kwakiutl, most often George Hunt), and he urged his students to consider such people valuable partners, inferior in their standing in Western society, but superior in their understanding of their own culture. (see Bunzl 2004: 438-439) Using these methods, Boas published another article in 1920, in which he revisited his earlier research on Kwakiutl kinship. in the late 1890s Boas had tried to reconstruct transformation in the organization of Kwakiutl clans, by comparing them to the organization of clans in other societies neighboring the Kwakiutl to the north and south. Now, however, he argued against translating the Kwakiutl principle of kin groups into any English word. Instead of trying to fit the Kwakiutl into some larger model, he tried to understand their beliefs and practices in their own terms. For example, whereas he had earlier translated the Kwakiutl word numaym as "clan," he now argued that the word is best understood as referring to a bundle of privileges, for which there is no English word. Men secured claims to these privileges through their parents or wives, and there were a variety of ways these privileges could be acquired, used, and transmitted from one generation to the next. As in his work on alternating sounds, Boas had come to realize that different ethnological interpretations of Kwakiutl kinship were the result of the limitations of Western categories. As in his work on Alaskan needlecases, he now saw variation among Kwakiutl practices as the result of the play between social norms and individual creativity.

Before he died, he appointed Helen Codere to edit and publish his manuscripts about the culture of the Kwakiutl people.

Franz Boas and Folklore Franz Boas was an immensely influential figure throughout the development of folklore as a discipline. At first glance it might seem that his only concern was for the discipline of anthropologyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;after all, he fought for most of his life to keep folklore as a part of anthropology. Yet Boas was motivated by his desire to see both anthropology and folklore become more professional and well-respected. Boas was afraid that if folklore was allowed to become its own discipline the standards for folklore scholarship would be lowered. This, combined with the scholarships of "amateurs," would lead folklore to be completely discredited, Boas believed.

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Franz Boas In order to further professionalize folklore, Boas introduced the strict scientific methods which he learned in college to the discipline. Boas championed the use of exhaustive research, fieldwork, and strict scientific guidelines in folklore scholarship. Boas believed that a true theory could only be formed from thorough research, and that even once you had a theory it should be treated as a "work-in-progress" unless it could be proved beyond a shadow of a doubt. This rigid scientific methodology was eventually accepted as one of the major tenets of folklore scholarship, and Boas’s methods remain in use even today. Boas also nurtured many budding folklorists during his time as a professor, and some of his students are counted among the most notable minds in folklore scholarship.

Boas was passionate about the collection of folklore, and believed that the similarity of folktales amongst different folk groups was due to dissemination. Boas strove to prove this theory, and his efforts produced a method for breaking a folktale into parts and then analyzing these parts. His creation of "catch-words" allowed for categorization of these parts, and the ability to analyze them in relation to other similar tales. Boas also fought to prove that not all cultures progressed along the same path, and that, therefore, cultures unlike those of Europe were not primitive, but different.

Boas remained active in the development and scholarship of folklore throughout his life. He became the editor of the Journal of American Folklore in 1908, regularly wrote and published articles on folklore (often in the Journal of American Folklore), and helped to elect Louise Pound as president of the American Folklore Society in 1925.

Scientist as activist There are two things to which I am devoted: absolute academic and spiritual freedom, and the subordination of the state to the interests of the individual; expressed in other forms, the furthering of conditions in which the individual can develop to the best of his ability — as far as it is possible with a full understanding of the fetters imposed upon us by tradition; and the fight against all forms of power policy of states or private organizations.

This means a devotion to principles of true democracy. I object to teaching of slogans intended to befog the mind, of whatever kind they may be. (letter from Boas to John Dewey, 11/6/39) Boas was known for passionately defending what he believed to be right.[29] During his lifetime (and often through his work) Boas combated racism, berated anthropologists and folklorists who used their work as a cover for espionage, worked to protect German and Austrian scientists who fled the Nazi regime, and openly protested Hitlerism.[30] Many social scientists in other disciplines often agonize over the legitimacy of their work as "science," and consequently emphasize the importance of detachment, objectivity, abstraction, and quantifiability in their work.

Perhaps because Boas, like other early anthropologists, was originally trained in the natural sciences, he and his students never expressed such anxiety. Moreover, he did not believe that detachment, objectivity, and quantifiability were required to make anthropology scientific. Since the object of study of anthropologists is different from the object of study of physicists, he assumed that anthropologists would have to employ different methods and different criteria for evaluating their research. Thus, Boas used statistical studies to demonstrate the extent to which variation in data is context-dependent, and argued that the context-dependent nature of human variation rendered many abstractions and generalizations that had been passing as scientific understandings of humankind (especially theories of social evolution popular at the time) in fact unscientific. His understanding of ethnographic fieldwork began with the fact that the objects of ethnographic study (for example, the Inuit of Baffin Island) were not just objects, but subjects, and his research called attention to their creativity and agency. More importantly, he viewed the Inuit as his teachers, thus reversing the typical hierarchical relationship between scientist and object of study.

This emphasis on the relationship between anthropologists and those they study—the point that, while astronomers and stars; chemists and elements; botanists and plants are fundamentally different, anthropologists and those they study are equally human—implied that anthropologists themselves could be objects of anthropological study.

Although Boas did not pursue this reversal systematically, his article on alternating sounds illustrates his awareness that scientists should not be confident about their objectivity, because they too see the world through the prism of

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This emphasis also led Boas to conclude that anthropologists have an obligation to speak out on social issues. Boas was especially concerned with racial inequality, which his research had indicated is not biological in origin, but rather social. Boas is credited as the first scientist to publish the idea that all peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;including white and African-Americansâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;are equal. He often emphasized his abhorrence of racism, and used his work to show that there was no scientific basis for such a bias. An early example of this concern is evident in his 1906 commencement address to Atlanta University, at the invitation of W. E. B. Du Bois. Boas began by remarking that "If you did accept the view that the present weakness of the American Negro, his uncontrollable emotions, his lack of energy, are racially inherent, your work would still be noble one." He then went on, however, to argue against this view. To the claim that European and Asian civilizations are, at the time, more advanced than African societies, Boas objected that against the total history of humankind, the past two thousand years is but a brief span. Moreover, although the technological advances of our early ancestors (such as taming fire and inventing stone tools) might seem insignificant when compared to the invention of the steam engine or control over electricity, we should consider that they might actually be even greater accomplishments. Boas then went on to catalogue advances in Africa, such as smelting iron, cultivating millet, and domesticating chickens and cattle, occurred in Africa well before they spread to Europe and Asia (evidence now suggests that chickens were first domesticated in Asia; the original domestication of cattle is under debate). He then described the activities of African kings, diplomats, merchants, and artists as evidence of cultural achievement. From this, he concluded, any social inferiority of Negroes in the United States cannot be explained by their African origins: If, therefore, it is claimed that your race is doomed to economic inferiority, you may confidently look to the home of your ancestors and say, that you have set out to recover for the colored people the strength that was their own before they set foot on the shores of this continent. You may say that you go to work with bright hopes, and that you will not be discouraged by the slowness of your progress; for you have to recover not only what has been lost in transplanting the Negro race from its native soil to this continent, but you must reach higher levels than your ancestors ever had attained.

Boas proceeds to discuss the arguments for the inferiority of the Negro race, and calls attention to the fact that they were brought to the Americas through force. For Boas, this is just one example of the many times conquest or colonialism has brought different peoples into an unequal relation, and he mentions "the conquest of England by the Normans, the Teutonic invasion of Italy, [and] the Manchoo conquest of China" as resulting in similar conditions.

But the best example, for Boas, of this phenomenon is that of the Jews in Europe: Even now there lingers in the consciousness of the old, sharper divisions which the ages had not been able to efface, and which is strong enough to find -- not only here and there -- expression as antipathy to the Jewish type. In France, that let down the barriers more than a hundred years ago, the feeling of antipathy is still strong enough to sustain an anti-Jewish political party.

Boas' closing advice is that Negroes should not look to Whites for approval or encouragement, because people in power usually take a very long time to learn to sympathize with people out of power. "Remember that in every single case in history the process of adaptation has been one of exceeding slowness. Do not look for the impossible, but do not let your path deviate from the quiet and steadfast insistence on full opportunities for your powers."

Despite Boas' caveat about the intractability of White prejudice, he also considered it the scientist's responsibility to argue against White myths of racial purity and racial superiority, and to use the evidence of his research to fight racism.

Boas was also critical of one nation imposing its power over others. In 1916 Boas wrote a letter to The New York Times which was published under the headline, "Why German-Americans Blame America." Although Boas did begin the letter by protesting bitter attacks against German-Americans at the time of the war in Europe, most of his letter was a critique of American nationalism. "In my youth I had been taught in school and at home not only to love the good of my own country, but also to seek to understand and to respect the individualities of other nations. For

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Franz Boas this reason one-sided nationalism, that is so often found nowadays, is to me unendurable." He writes of his love for American ideals of freedom, and of his growing discomfort with American beliefs about its own superiority over others.

I have always been of the opinion that we have no right to impose our ideals upon other nations, no matter how strange it may seem to us that they enjoy the kind of life they lead, how slow they may be in utilizing the resources of their countries, or how much opposed their ideals may be to ours .... Our intolerant attitude is most pronounced in regard to what we like to call "our free institutions." Modern democracy was no doubt the most wholesome and needed reaction against the abuses of absolutism and of a selfish, often corrupt, bureaucracy. That the wishes and thoughts of the people should find expression, and that the form of government should conform to these wishis is an axiom that has pervaded the whole Western world, and that is even taking root in the Far East. It is a quite different question, however, in how far the particular machinery of democratic government is identical with democratic institutions .... To claim as we often do, that our solution is the only democratic and the ideal one is a one-sided expression of Americanism. I see no reason why we should not allow the Germans, Austrians, and Russians, or whoever else it may be, to solve their problems in their own ways, instead of demanding that they bestow upon themselves the benefactions of our rĂŠgime.

Although Boas felt that scientists have a responsibility to speak out on social and political problems, he was appalled that they might involve themselves in disingenuous and deceitful ways. Thus, in 1919, when he discovered that four anthropologists, in the course of their research in other countries, were serving as spies for the American government, he wrote an angry letter to The Nation. It is perhaps in this letter that he most clearly expresses his understanding of his commitment to science: A soldier whose business is murder as a fine art, a diplomat whose calling is based on deception and secretiveness, a politician whose very life consists in compromises with his conscience, a business man whose aim is personal profit within the limits allowed by a lenient law -- such may be excused if they set patriotic deception above common everyday decency and perform services as spies. They merely accept the code of morality to which modern society still conforms. Not so the scientist. The very essence of his life is the service of truth. We all know scientists who in private life do not come up to the standard of truthfulness, but who, nevertheless, would not consciously falsify the results of their researches. It is bad enough if we have to put up with these, because they reveal a lack of strength of character that is liable to distort the results of their work.

A person, however, who uses science as a cover for political spying, who demeans himself to pose before a foreign government as an investigator and asks for assistance in his alleged researches in order to carry on, under this cloak, his political machinations, prostitutes science in an unpardonable way and forfeits the right to be classed as a scientist.

Although Boas did not name the spies in question, he was referring to a group led by Sylvanus G. Morley,[31] who was affiliated with Harvard University's Peabody Museum. While conducting research in Mexico, Morley and his colleagues looked for evidence of German submarine bases, and collected intelligence on Mexican political figures and German immigrants in Mexico.

Boas' stance against spying took place in the context of his struggle to establish a new model for academic anthropology at Columbia University. Previously, American anthropology was based at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and these anthropologists competed with Boas' students for control over the American Anthropological Association (and its flagship publication American Anthropologist).

When the National Academy of Sciences established the National Research Council in 1916 as a means by which scientists could assist the United States government prepare for entry into the war in Europe, competition between the two groups intensified. Boas' rival, W.H. Holmes (who had gotten the job of Director at the Field Museum for which Boas had been passed over 26 years earlier), was appointed to head the NRC; Morley was a protĂŠgĂŠ of Holmes.

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Franz Boas When Boas' letter was published, Holmes wrote to a friend complaining about "the Prussian control of anthropology in this country" and the need to end Boas' "Hun regime."[32] Opinion was influenced by anti-German and probably also by anti-Jewish sentiment. The Anthropological Society of Washington passed a resolution condemning Boas' letter for unjustly criticizing President Wilson; attacking the principles of American democracy; and endangering anthropologists abroad, who would now be suspected of being spies (a charge that was especially insulting, given that his concerns about this very issue were what had prompted Boas to write his letter in the first place). This resolution was passed on to the American Anthropological Association and the National Research Council. Members of the American Anthropological Association (among whom Boas was a founding member in 1902), meeting at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard (with which Morley, Lothrop, and Spinden were affiliated), voted by 20 to 10 to censure Boas. As a result, Boas resigned as the AAA's representative to the NRC, although Boas remained an active member of the AAA. The AAA's censure of Boas was not rescinded until 2005.

Boas continued to speak out against racism and for intellectual freedom. When the Nazi Party in Germany denounced "Jewish Science" (which included not only Boasian Anthropology but Freudian psychoanalysis and Einsteinian physics), Boas responded with a public statement signed by over 8,000 other scientists, declaring that there is only one science, to which race and religion are irrelevant. After World War I, Boas created the Emergency Society for German and Austrian Science. This organization was dedicated to assisting scientists to flee the Nazi regime, and its ever-increasing dangers. Boas helped these scientists not only to escape, but to secure positions once they arrived. Additionally, Boas addressed an open letter to Von Hindenburg in protest against Hitlerism.

Boas, and his students such as Melville J. Herskovits opposed the racist pseudoscience developed at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics under its director Eugen Fischer: "Melville J. Herskovits (one of Franz Boas' students) pointed out that the health problems and social prejudices encountered by these children [Rhineland Bastards] (see Bastard studies) and their parents explained what Germans viewed as racial inferiority was not due to racial heredity. This "... provoked polemic invective against the latter [Boas] from Fischer.

"The views of Mr. Boas are in part quite ingenious, but in the field of heredity Mr. Boas is by no means competent [...]." even though "... a great number of research projects at the KWI-A which had picked up on Boas' studies about immigrants in New York had confirmed his findings - including the study by Walter Dornfeldt about Eastern European Jews in Berlin. Fischer resorted to polemic simply because he had no arguments to counter the Boasians' critique."[33][34][35][36]

Students and influence Franz Boas died of a stroke at the Columbia University Faculty Club on December 21, 1942 virtually in the arms of Claude LĂŠvi-Strauss.[37][38][39] By that time he had become one of the most influential and respected scientists of his generation.

Between 1901 and 1911, Columbia University produced 7 PhD.s in anthropology. Although by today's standards this is a very small number, at the time it was sufficient to establish Boas' Anthropology Department at Columbia as the preeminent anthropology program in the country. Moreover, many of Boas' students went on to establish anthropology programs at other major universities.[40] Boas' first doctoral student at Columbia was Alfred L. Kroeber (1901),[41] who, along with fellow Boas student Robert Lowie (1908), started the anthropology program at the University of California, Berkeley. He also trained William Jones (1904), one of the first Native American Indian anthropologists (the Fox nation) who was killed while conducting research in the Philippines in 1909, and Albert B. Lewis (1907). Boas also trained a number of other students who were influential in the development of academic anthropology: Frank Speck (1908) who trained with Boas but received his PhD. from the University of Pennsylvania and immediately proceeded to found the anthropology department there; Edward Sapir (1909) and Fay-Cooper Cole (1914) who developed the anthropology program at the University of Chicago; Alexander Goldenweiser (1910), who, with Elsie Clews Parsons (who received her doctorate in sociology from Columbia in 1899, but then studied ethnology with Boas), started the

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Franz Boas anthropology program at the New School for Social Research; Leslie Spier (1920) who started the anthropology program at the University of Washington together with his wife Erna Gunther, also one of Boas´ students, and Melville Herskovits (1923) who started the anthropology program at Northwestern University. He also trained John R. Swanton (who studied with Boas at Columbia for two years before receiving his doctorate from Harvard in 1900), Paul Radin (1911), Ruth Benedict (1923), Gladys Reichard (1925) who had begun teaching at Barnard College in 1921 and was later promoted to the rank of professor, Ruth Bunzel (1929), Alexander Lesser (1929), Margaret Mead (1929), and Gene Weltfish (who defended her dissertation in 1929, although she did not officially graduate until 1950 when Columbia reduced the expenses required to graduate), E. Adamson Hoebel (1934), Jules Henry (1935), Ashley Montagu (1938).

His students at Columbia also included Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio, who earned his M.A. after studying with Boas from 1909–1911, and became the founding director of Mexico's Bureau of Anthropology in 1917; Clark Wissler, who received his doctorate in psychology from Columbia University in 1901, but proceeded to study anthropology with Boas before turning to research Native Americans; Esther Schiff, later Goldfrank, worked with Boas in the summers of 1920 to 1922 to conduct research among the Cochiti and Laguna Pueblo Indians in New Mexico ; Gilberto Freyre, who shaped the concept of "racial democracy" in Brazil;[42] Viola Garfield, who carried forth Boas' Tsimshian work; Frederica de Laguna, who worked on the Inuit and the Tlingit; and anthropologist, folklorist and novelist Zora Neale Hurston, who graduated from Barnard College, the women's college associated with Columbia, in 1928.

He was also an influence on Claude Lévi-Strauss, whom he met during the latter's stay in New York in the 1940s (and in whose arms Boas expired in 1942).

Several of Boas' students went on to serve as editors of the American Anthropological Association's flagship journal, American Anthropologist: John R. Swanton (1911, 1921–1923), Robert Lowie (1924–1933), Leslie Spier (1934–1938), and Melville Herskovits (1950–1952). Edward Sapir's student John Alden Mason was editor from 1945–1949, and Alfred Kroeber and Robert Lowie's student, Walter Goldschmidt, was editor from 1956-1959.

Most of Boas' students shared his concern for careful, historical reconstruction, and his antipathy towards speculative, evolutionary models. Moreover, Boas encouraged his students, by example, to criticize themselves as much as others. For example, Boas originally defended the cephalic index (systematic variations in head form) as a method for describing hereditary traits, but came to reject his earlier research after further study; he similarly came to criticize his own early work in Kwakiutl (Pacific Northwest) language and mythology.

Encouraged by this drive to self-criticism, as well as the Boasian commitment to learn from one's informants and to let the findings of one's research shape one's agenda, Boas' students quickly diverged from his own research agenda.

Several of his students soon attempted to develop theories of the grand sort that Boas typically rejected. Kroeber called his colleagues' attention to Sigmund Freud and the potential of a union between cultural anthropology and psychoanalysis. Ruth Benedict developed theories of "culture and personality" and "national cultures", and Kroeber's student, Julian Steward developed theories of "cultural ecology" and "multilineal evolution."

Nevertheless, Boas has had an enduring influence on anthropology. Virtually all anthropologists today accept Boas' commitment to empiricism and his methodological cultural relativism. Moreover, virtually all cultural anthropologists today share Boas' commitment to field research involving extended residence, learning the local language, and developing social relationships with informants. Finally, anthropologists continue to honor his critique of racial ideologies. In his 1963 book, Race: The History of an Idea in America, Thomas Gossett wrote that "It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history."

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Leadership Roles and Honors • 1887—Accepted a position as Assistant Editor of Science in New York.

• 1889—Appointed as the head of a newly-created department of anthropology. His adjunct was L. Farrand.

• 1896—Became assistant curator at the American Museum of Natural History, under F.W. Putnam. This was combined with a lecturing position at Columbia University.

• 1900—Elected to the National Academy of Sciences in April.

• 1901—Appointed Honorary Philologist of Bureau of American Ethnology.

• 1908—Became editor of The Journal of American Folklore.

• 1910-Helped create the International School of American Archaeology and Ethnology in Mexico • 1910—Elected president of the New York Academy of Sciences.

• 1917-Founded the International Journal of American Linguistics • 1917-Edited the Publications of the American Ethnological Society • 1931—Elected president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

• 1936—Became "emeritus in residence" at Columbia University in 1936. Became "emeritus" in 1938.

Sources/further reading Writings by Boas • Boas n.d. "The relation of Darwin to anthropology", notes for a lecture; Boas papers (B/B61.5) American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Published on line with Herbert Lewis 2001b.

• Boas, Franz (1911). The Mind of Primitive Man. ISBN 0-313-24004-3 (Online version [43] of the 1938 revised edition at the Internet Archive) • Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).

• Boas, Franz (1912). "Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants". American Anthropologist, Vol. 14, No. 3, July-Sept, 1912. Boas [44] • Boas, Franz (1912). "The History of the American Race". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. XXI, pp. 177–183.

• Boas, Franz (1917) (DJVU). Folk-tales of Salishan and Sahaptin tribes [45]. Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection.. Published for the American Folk-Lore Society by G.E. Stechert.

• Boas, Franz (1914). "Mythology and folk-tales of the North American Indians". Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 27, No. 106, Oct.-Dec. pp. 374–410.

• Boas, Franz (1922). "Report on an Anthropometric Investigation of the Population of the United States". Journal of the American Statistical Association, June 1922.

• Boas, Franz (1906). The Measurement of Differences Between Variable Quantities. New York: The Science Press. (Online version [46] at the Internet Archive) • Boas, Franz (1927). "The Eruption of Deciduous Teeth Among Hebrew Infants". The Journal of Dental Research, Vol. vii, No. 3, September, 1927.

• Boas, Franz (1927). Primitive Art. ISBN 0-486-20025-6 • Boas, Franz (1935). "The Tempo of Growth of Fraternities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 413–418, July, 1935.

• Boas, Franz (1940). Race, Language, and Culture ISBN 0-226-06241-4 • Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1974 A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883-1911 ISBN 0-226-06243-0 • Boas, Franz (1928). Anthropology and Modern Life (2004 ed.) ISBN 0-7658-0535-9 • Boas, Franz, edited by Helen Codere (1966), Kwakiutl Ethnography, Chicago, Chicago University Press.

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Franz Boas • Boas, Franz (2006). Indian Myths & Legends from the North Pacific Coast of America: A Translation of Franz Boas' 1895 Edition of Indianische Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Küste-Amerikas. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks.

ISBN 0-88922-553-2

Writings on Boas and Boasian anthropology • Baker, Lee D. 1994. "The Location of Franz Boas Within the African American Struggle". Critique of Anthropology, Vol 14(2):199-217.

• Baker, Lee D. 2004. "Franz Boas Out of the Ivory Tower". Anthropological Theory 4(1):29-51.

• Bashkow, Ira 2004. "A Neo-Boasian Conception of Cultural Boundaries" in American Anthropologist 106(3): 443-458 Bashkow [47] • Benedict, Ruth. "Franz Boas." Science. New Series, Vol. 97, No. 2507. January 15, 1943. Pages 60–62. The American Association for the Advancement of Science. JSTOR. Print. Franz Boas [48].

• Boas, Norman F. 2004. Franz Boas 1858-1942: An Illustrated Biography ISBN 0-9672626-2-3 • Bunzl, Matti 2004. "Boas, Foucault, and the 'Native Anthropologist'", in American Anthropologist 106(3): 435-442 Bunzl [49] • Cole, Douglas 1999. Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858-1906 ISBN 1-55054-746-1 • Darnell, Regna 1998. And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology. ISBN 1-55619-623-7 • Kroeber, Alfred 1949. "An Authoritarian Panacea" in American Anthropologist 51(2) 318-320 Kroeber [50] • Krupnik, Igor; Müller-Wille, Ludger (2010). "Franz Boas and Inuktitut terminology for ice and snow: from the emergence of the field to the "great Eskimo vocabulary hoax"". In Igor Krupnik, Claudio Aporta, Shari Gearheard, Gita J. Laidler, Lene Kielsen Holm (eds.). SIKU: knowing our ice: documenting Inuit sea ice knowledge and use. Dordrecht; London: Springer Netherlands. pp. 377–400. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8587-0_16.

• Kuper, Adam 1988. The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion ISBN 0-415-00903-0 • Lesser, Alexander 1981. "Franz Boas" in Sydel Silverman, ed. Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology ISBN 0-231-05087-9 • Lewis, Herbert 2001a. "The Passion of Franz Boas" in American Anthropologist 103(2): 447-467 • Lewis, Herbert 2001b. "Boas, Darwin, Science and Anthropology" in Current Anthropology 42(3): 381-406 (On line version contains transcription of Boas' 1909 lecture on Darwin.)

• Lewis, Herbert 2008. "Franz Boas: Boon or Bane" (Review Essay). Reviews in Anthropology 37 (2-3): 169-200.

• Lowie, Robert H. "Franz Boas (1858-1942)." The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number.

Vol. 57, No. 223. January–March 1944. Pages 59–64. The American Folklore Society. JSTOR. Print. Franz Boas (1858-1942) [51].

• Lowie, Robert H. "Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore." The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number. Vol. 57, No. 223. January–March 1944. Pages 65–69. The American Folklore Society.

JSTOR. Print. Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore [52].

• Maud, Ralph. 2000. Transmission Difficulties: Franz Boas and Tsimshian Mythology. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks. ISBN 0-88922-430-7 • Price, David 2000 "Anthropologists as Spies [53]" The Nation Vol. 271, Number 16, 24-27, November 20, 2000.

• Price, David 2001 ‘The Shameful Business’: Leslie Spier On The Censure Of Franz Boas [54] History of Anthropology Newsletter Vol. XXVII(2):9-12.

• Stocking, George @., Jr. 1960. "Franz Boas and the Founding of the American Anthropological Association."

American Anthropologist. Vol. 62, No. 1. Stocking [55] • Stocking, George W., Jr. 1968. Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology ISBN 0-226-77494-5 • Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1996. Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition ISBN 0-299-14554-9

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Franz Boas • Williams, Vernon J. Jr. 1996. Rethinking Race: Franz Boas and His Contemporaries [56]. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.

• Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy. American Folklore Scholarship: A Dialogue of Dissent. Ed. Alan Dundes.

Bloomington and Indianapolis; Indiana University Press, 1988. Print.

Boas, anthropology, and Jewish identity • Glick, Leonard B. 1982 "Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimilation" in American Anthropologist 84(3) pp. 545–565. [57] • Frank, Gelya 1997 "Jews, Multiculturalism, and Boasian Anthropology" in American Anthropologist 99(4), pp. 731–745. [58] • Mitchell Hart 2003 "Franz Boas as German, American, Jew." In German-Jewish Identities in America, eds. C. Mauch and J. Salomon (Madison: Max Kade Institute), pp. 88–105.

• Kevin B. MacDonald 1998 The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements — chapter 2 provides a critique of Boas by discussing Boas' theories as attempts to advance Jewish ethnic group interests.

Notes [1] www.franz-boas.com - further information about the commemoration of the 150th anniversary of Boas´ birth at Minden e. g. an exposition, a scientific meeting, a theatre play, a special medal, an edition of the diary of Wilhelm Weike, Boas´ servant on Baffin Island [2] Norman F. Boas, 2004, p. 291 (photo of the graveyard marker of Franz and Marie Boas, Dale Cemetery, Ossining, N.Y.) [3] Holloway, M. (1997) The Paradoxical Legacy of Franz Boas - father of American anthropology. Natural History. November 1997. (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1134/ is_10_106/ ai_53479059) [4] Stocking. George W., Jr. 1960.Franz Boas and the Founding of the American Anthropological Association. AmericanAnthropologist62: 1-17.

[5] Pinker, Steven. (2003) The Blank Slate. p. 22 [6] Franz Boas (http:/ / www. nndb. com/ people/ 861/ 000097570/ ) [7] Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy "American Folklore Scholarship: A Dialogue of Dissent." Ed. Alan Dundes. Bloomington and Indianapolis; Indiana University Press, 1988. Print.

[8] Glick, L. B. (1982), Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimiliation. American Anthropologist, 84: 545–565.

[9] Douglas Cole 1999 Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858-1906 p. 280. Washington: Douglas and MacIntyre.

[10] Boas, Franz. 1938. An Anthropologist's Credo. The Nation 147:201-204. .

[11] Liss, Julia E. 1995 Patterns of Strangeness: Franz Boas, Modernism, and the Origins of Anthropology. In Prehistories of the Future: The Primitivist Project and the Culture of Modernism. E. Barkan and R. Bush, eds. Pp. 114-130. Stanford. CA: Stanford University Press.

[12] Liss, Julia E. 1996 German Culture and German Science in the Bildung of Franz Boas. In History of Anthropology, vol. 8. Volksgeist as Method and Ethic. G. W. Stocking Jr., ed. Pp. 155-184. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

[13] Cole, Douglas 1983 "The Value of a Person Lies in His Herzensbildung": Franz Boas's Baffin Island Letter-Diay, 1883-1884. In Observers Observed: Essays on Ethnographic Fieldwork. George W. Stocking Jr., ed. pp. 13–52. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

[14] Cole, Douglas. 1999/ Franz Boas: Te Early Years. 1858-1906. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

[15] Stocking, George W., Jr. I968. Race, culture, and evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. New York: Free Press. 264 [16] Alexander Lesser, 1981 "Franz Boas" p. 25 in Sydel Silverman, ed. From Totems to Teachers New York: Columbia University Press [17] Franz Boas's Physical Anthropology: The Critique of Racial Formalism Revisited. John S. Allen. Current Anthropology , Vol. 30, No. 1 (Feb., 1989), pp. 79-84 [18] Sparks, Corey S. and Richard L. Jantz 2002. A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited. PNAS November 12, 2002 vol. 99 no. 23 14636-14639 (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 99/ 23/ 14636) [19] Marks, Jonathan What it Means to be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and Their Genes, University of California Press, 2003 ISBN 0-520-24064-2 p. xviii (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=HUBe0wjowLMC& pg=PR18& lpg=PR18& dq=Jonathan+ Marks+ ring+ of+ desperation+ + Boas& source=web& ots=HJhskHi6ui& sig=zM8mzpjL_FdGN4lkGP9KNJcoIz0& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=1& ct=result#PPR18,M1) [20] New Answers to Old Questions: Did Boas Get It Right? Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: A Reanalysis of Boas’s Immigrant Data (http:/ / lance. qualquant. net/ gravleeetal03a. pdf).

[21] Did Boas Get It Right or Wrong? (http:/ / www. anthro. fsu. edu/ people/ faculty/ CG_pubs/ gravlee03b. pdf) [22] Franz Boas' Approach to Language. Roman Jakobson and Franz Boas. International Journal of American Linguistics , Vol. 10, No. 4 (Oct., 1944), pp. 188-195 [23] Boas' view of grammatical meaning. R Jakobson - American Anthropologist, 1959

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Franz Boas [24] Mackert, Michael. The Roots of Franz Boas' View of Linguistic Categories As a Window to the Human Mind. Historiographia Linguistica, Volume 20, Numbers 2-3, 1993 [25] Darnell, Regna. Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, and the Americanist Text Tradition. Historiographia Linguistica, Volume 17, Numbers 1-2, 1990 , pp. 129-144(16) [26] Stocking, G. W. 1974. "The Boas plan for the study of American Indian languages," in Studies in the history of linguistics: Traditions and paradigms. Edited by D. Hymes, pp. 454–83. Bloomington: Indiana University Press [27] Boas and the Development of Phonology: Comments Based on Iroquoian. Paul M. Postal. International Journal of American Linguistics , Vol. 30, No. 3 (Jul., 1964), pp. 269-280 [28] Berlin, Bretnt and Paul Kay 1969 Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution [29] Lewis, H. S. (2001), The Passion of Franz Boas. American Anthropologist, 103: 447–467.

[30] Liss, J. E. (1998), Diasporic Identities: The Science and Politics of Race in the Work of Franz Boas and W. E. B. Du Bois, 1894–1919.

Cultural Anthropology, 13: 127–166.

[31] David L. Browman, "Spying by American Archaeologists in World War I", Bulletin of the History of Archaeology, 2011, 21(2), pp. 10-17, DOI: http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 5334/ bha. 2123.

[32] Adam Kuper, 1988 The Invention of Primitive Society p. 149. London: Routledge [33] Hans-Walter Schmuhl, "The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics, 1927-1945", Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen, 2003, pp. 212-213 [34] Lee D. Baker2004. Franz Boas out of the ivory tower. Anthropological Theory Vol 4(1): 29–51 [35] Boasian Anthropology and the Critique of American Culture. Richard Handler. American Quarterly , Vol. 42, No. 2 (Jun., 1990), pp.

252-273 [36] Beardsley, Edward H. 1973 The American Scientist as Social Activist: Franz Boas, Burt G. Wilder, and the Cause of Racial Justice, 1900-1915. Isis 64:50-66.

[37] Totems and teachers: key figures in the history of anthropology, Sydel Silverman, Rowman Altamira, 2004 p 16 [38] Anthropology in the Ironic Mode: The Work of Franz Boas, Arnold Krupat and Franz Boas, Social Text No. 19/20 (Autumn, 1988), pp.

105-118 [39] McVICKER, D. (1989), Parallels and Rivalries: Encounters Between Boas and Starr. Curator: The Museum Journal, 32: 212–228 [40] Briggs, Charles, and Richard Baumann 1999 "TheFoundation of All FutureResearches": Franz Boas. George Hunt, Native American Texts, and the Construction of Modernity. American Quarterly 51:479-528.

[41] Jacknis, I. (2002), The First Boasian: Alfred Kroeber and Franz Boas, 1896-1905. American Anthropologist, 104: 520–532. doi: 10.1525/aa.2002.104.2.520 [42] That Freyre was ever Boas' student is under contention. Boas was opposed to racism, as were students such as Ashley Montagu, etc. It seems unlikely that the "father" of the modern racist theory of Lusotropicalism had ever worked closely with Boas. "The invention of Freyre included his self-invention. For example, he too presented himself as if he had been a follower of Boas ever since his student days." See Peter Burke, Maria Lucia G. Pallares-Burke: "Gilberto Freyre: social theory in the tropics", Peter Lang, 2008, p. 19 [43] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ mindofprimitivem031738mbp [44] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 122376519/ abstract [45] http:/ / www. secstate. wa. gov/ history/ publications_detail. aspx?p=42 [46] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ measurementofvar00boasuoft [47] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 120129372/ abstract [48] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1670558 [49] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 120129371/ abstract [50] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 122428290/ abstract [51] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 535755 [52] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 535756 [53] http:/ / www. thenation. com/ doc. mhtml?i=20001120& c=2& s=price [54] http:/ / homepages. stmartin. edu/ fac_staff/ dprice/ HAN-Spier. htm [55] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1525/ aa. 1960. 62. 1. 02a00010 [56] http:/ / www. kentuckypress. com/ viewbook. cfm?Category_ID=1& Group=2& ID=922 [57] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 122472798/ abstract [58] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 120144228/ abstract

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External links • Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History (http://anthro.amnh.org/anthro.html) Objects and Photographs from Jesup North Pacific Expedition 1897-1902 (section Collections Online, option Collections Highlights).

• Franz Boas at Minden, Westphalia (http://www.franz-boas.com) • Franz Boas Papers (http://amphilsoc.org/mole/view?docId=ead/Mss.B.B61-ead.xml) at the American Philosophical Society • Ruth Benedict. "Franz Boas." Science. New Series, Vol. 97, No. 2507. January 15, 1943. Pages 60-62. The American Association for the Advancement of Science. JSTOR. Print. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1670558) • Lewis, Herbert S. "The Passion of Franz Boas." American Anthropologist. New Series, Vol. 103, No. 2. June 2001. Pages 447-467. Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The American Anthropological Association. JSTOR. Print. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/683476) • Lowie, Robert H. "Franz Boas (1858-1942)." The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number.

Vol. 57, No. 223. January-March 1944. Pages 59-64. The American Folklore Society. JSTOR. Print. (http:// www.jstor.org/stable/535755) • Lowie, Robert H. "Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore." The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number. Vol. 57, No. 223. January-March 1944. Pages 65-69. The American Folklore Society. JSTOR. Print. (http://www.jstor.org/stable/535756) • Soylent Communications. "Franz Boas." NNDB. Web. (http://www.nndb.com/people/861/000097570/) • Recordings made by Franz Boas during his field research can be found at the Archives of Traditional Music at Indiana University (http://www.indiana.edu/~libarchm/)

Alan P. Merriam Alan Parkhurst Merriam (1 November 1923 – 14 March 1980) was an ethnomusicologist during the last half of the twentieth century. He is remembered primarily for his book, The Anthropology of Music, in which he promotes the study of music from an anthropological perspective and with anthropological methods.

In The Anthropology of Music [1], Merriam proposed a tripartite model for the study of ethnomusicology, centering around the study of "music in culture." This model suggested that music should be studied on three analytic levels: conceptualization about music; behavior in relation to music; and the sound of music. In later works, Merriam amended his original concept of "music in culture" to "music as culture."

Merriam died in the LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 catastrophe, on March 14, 1980.

References [1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4bUAFf8CWosC& pg=PA167& lpg=PA167& dq=The+ Anthropology+ of+ Music+ famous+ quotes& source=bl& ots=V_2AOH0GI-& sig=HeGytd95ihfG9MEsoAlIA7DV9e4& hl=en& ei=2B2ZTOOoLZT6sAPww8S4DA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false

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Bruno Nettl

Bruno Nettl Bruno Nettl (b. Prague, Czechoslovakia, 14 March 1930) is an active ethnomusicologist and musicologist.

Bruno Nettl was born in Czechoslovakia in 1930, moved to United States in 1939, studied at Indiana University and the University of Michigan, and has taught since 1964 at the University of Illinois, where he is Professor Emeritus of Music and Anthropology, continuing to teach part-time. Active principally in the field of ethnomusicology, he has done field research with Native American peoples (1960s and 1980s, see Blackfoot music), in Iran (1966, 1968–69, 1972, 1974), and in South India (1981-2). He has served as president of the Society for Ethnomusicology and as editor of its journal, Ethnomusicology. Nettl holds honorary doctorates from the University of Illinois, Carleton College, Kenyon College, and the University of Chicago. He is a recipient of the Fumio Koizumi Prize for ethnomusicology, and is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In the course of his long career as a scholar and as a professor, he was the teacher of many of the most visible ethnomusicologists active today in the international scene like, among many others, Philip Bohlman, Chris Waterman, Marcello Sorce Keller, and Victoria Lindsay Levine. The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music holds the Bruno Nettl Papers, 1966-1988, which consists of administrative and personal correspondence while Nettl was a professor and head of the Musicology Division for the University of Illinois School of Music.

Bibliography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

(1956). Music in Primitive Culture. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-59000-7.

(1960). Cheremis Musical Styles. Indiana University Press (1964). Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology. The Free Press of Glencoe.

(1965/1989). Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-323247-6.

(1976). Folk Music In The U.S. An Introduction. WAYNE STATE UNIVERSI (1978). Eight Urban Musical Cultures. ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY (1989). Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives. Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-370-2.

(1983/2005). The Study of Ethnomusicology. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-03033-8.

(1991) Comparative Musicology And Anthropology Of Music. Chicago Press (1995). Heartland Excursions. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02135-5 (1995). Music, Culture, & Experience. CHICAGO UNIVERSITY P (1996). Excursions In World Music. PRENTICE HALL (1996). Musica Folklorica Y Tradicional En Los Continentes ALIANZA (1997). Africa in GARLAND PUBLISHING (1998). South America, Mexico, Central America And The Car (1998). In The Course Of Performance. CHICAGO UNIVERSITY P (1999). Europe in GARLAND ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD MUSIC, V. 8 (2005). Study Of Ethnomusicology ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY (2010). Nettl's Elephant ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY

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85

Further reading Marcello Sorce Keller, "Intervista con un etnomusicologo: Bruno Nettl", Nuova Rivista Musicale Italiana, 1980. no.

4, 567- 576.

External links • • • •

Department of Anthropology@University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign School of Music: Bruno Nettl [1] Native Culture: Midcentury Anthropology At Indiana, Arapaho Bill Shakespear, and Me [2] by Bruno Nettl Review of Nettl's 2005 revised edition of "The Study of Ethnomusicology" [3] Finding Aid for Bruno Nettl Papers, 1966-1988 The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music [4]

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

http:/ / www. anthro. illinois. edu/ people/ b-nettl http:/ / www. nativeculture. com/ featured_music/ BNettl/ http:/ / www. ijea. org/ v8r2/ index. html http:/ / www. library. illinois. edu/ archives/ archon/ index. php?p=collections/ findingaid& id=3549& q=nettl

Zoltán Kodály Zoltán

Kodály

(Hungarian: Kodály Zoltán, Hungarian ˈzoltaːn]; 16 December 1882 – 6 March 1967) was a Hungarian composer, ethnomusicologist, pedagogue, linguist, and philosopher. He is best known internationally as the creator of the Kodály Method. pronunciation: [ˈkodaːj

Life Born in Kecskemét, Kodály learned to play the violin as a child.

In 1905 he visited remote villages to collect songs, recording them on phonograph cylinders. In 1906 he wrote the thesis on Hungarian folk song ("Strophic Construction in Hungarian Folksong"). Around this time Kodály met fellow composer Béla Bartók, whom he took under his wing and introduced to some of the methods involved in folk song collecting. The two became lifelong friends and champions of each other's music.

Zoltán Kodály monument in Pécs

Zoltán Kodály

86

Bust in Balatonlelle, Hungary

All these works show a great originality of form and content, a very interesting blend of highly sophisticated mastery in the Western-European style of music, including classical, late-romantic, impressionistic and modernist tradition and at the other hand profound knowledge and respect for the folk music on Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Albania and other Eastern-European countries. Due to the outbreak of the First World War and subsequent major geopolitical changes in the region and partly because of the personal shyness Kodály had no major public success until 1923 when his Psalmus Hungaricus premiered at a concert to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the union of Buda and Pest (Bartók's Dance Suite premiered on the

same occasion.)

Kodály was very interested in the problems of music education, and he wrote a large amount of material on music education methods as well as composing a large amount of music for children. Beginning in 1935, along with colleague Jenö Ádám, he embarked on a long term project to reform music teaching in the lower and middle schools.

His work resulted in the publication of several highly influential books. The Hungarian music education method that developed in the 1940s became the basis for what is called the "Kodály Method". Kodaly himself did not write a comprehensive method, but he did establish a set of principles to follow in music education. See also: Kodály Hand Signs.

His notable students include Anne Lauber and John Verrall.

In the motion picture Close Encounters of the Third Kind a visual learning aid distributed to members of a conference of UFOlogist was named "Zoltan Kodaly" and referenced musical notes as hand signals.

His wife was Emma Gruber, the dedicatee of Ernő Dohnányi's Waltz for piano four-hands, Op. 3, and Variations and Fugue on a theme by E.G., Op. 4 (1897).[1]

Selected works Operas • Háry János, Op. 15 (1926) • Székelyfonó (The Spinning Room) (1924–1932) Orchestral • Summer Evening (1906, revised 1929) • Háry János Suite (1926)

Commemorative plaque in Andrássy Avenue, Budapest

• Dances of Marosszék (1930) • Dances of Galánta (1933) • Variations on a Hungarian Folksong Fölszállott a páva (The Peacock) (1939) • Concerto for Orchestra (1939–1940) • Symphony (1930s–1961) Chamber/instrumental • Adagio for violin (or viola, or cello) and piano (1905) • Intermezzo for string trio (1905) • String Quartet No. 1 in C minor, Op. 2 (1908–1909) • Cello Sonata, Op. 4 (1909–1910)

Zoltán Kodály • • • • • • •

Duo for violin and cello, Op. 7 (1914) Sonata for solo cello, Op. 8 (1915) String Quartet No. 2, Op. 10 (1916–1918) Szerenád (Serenade) for 2 violins and viola, Op. 12 (1919–1920) Pange lingua, Praeludium for organ (1931) Organoeida ad missam lectam (Csendes mise) (1944) Epigrammak (1954)

Choral • • • • • • • •

Este (1904) Psalmus Hungaricus, Op. 13 (1923) Matrai kepek (1931) Jézus és a kufárok (1934) Te Deum (1939) Missa Brevis for soloists, chorus and organ (1942, 1948) Laudes organi for chorus and organ (1966) Adventi ének (Veni, Veni Emmanuel) for mixed choir a cappella

References [1] Ilona von Dohnányi, James A. Grymes, Ernst von Dohnányi: a song of life (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=RuMfn57fsEQC& pg=PA25& lpg=PA25& dq=dohnanyi+ theme+ EG+ gruber& source=bl& ots=-C2mSt6VOU& sig=3iZLODtBVq3GyncoAehMMM9yYDk& hl=en& ei=UsskTYiKHYHBcejgsLgB& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CD4Q6AEwBg#)

Further reading • Breuer, János (1990) A Guide to Kodály. Budapest: Corvina Books • Kodály, Zoltán (1971) Folk Music of Hungary. New York: Praeger • Lendvai, Erno (1983) The Workshop of Bartók and Kodály. Budapest: Editio Musica Budapest

External links • • • • • •

The Kodály Institute, which educates musicians according to Kodály's practice (http://www.kodaly-inst.hu/) International Kodály Society (http://www.iks.hu) The Organization of American Kodály Educators (http://www.oake.org/) The Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia (http://www.kodaly.org.au/) The British Kodály Academy (Registered Charity) (http://www.britishkodalyacademy.org/) Zoltán Kodály (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7026) at Find a Grave

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Alan Lomax

88

Alan Lomax Alan Lomax

Lomax playing guitar on stage at the Mountain Music Festival, Asheville, North Carolina, in the early 1940s.

Background information Born

[1] January 31, 1915 [1] Austin, Texas, United States ref name=nyt-obit/>

Died

[1] July 19, 2002 (aged 87) [1] Safety Harbor, Florida, United States

Occupations

Folklorist, ethnomusicologist, musician

Alan Lomax (January 31, 1915 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; July 19, 2002) was one of the great American field collectors of folk music of the 20th century. He was also a folklorist, ethnomusicologist, archivist, writer, scholar, political activist, oral historian, and film-maker. Lomax also produced recordings, concerts, and radio shows in the U.S and in England, which played an important role in both the American and British folk revivals of the 1940s, '50s and early '60s. During the New Deal, with his father, famed folklorist and collector John A. Lomax and later alone and with others, Lomax recorded thousands of songs and interviews for the Archive of American Folk Song at the Library of Congress on aluminum and acetate discs.

After 1942, when Congress cut off the Library of Congress's funding for folk song collecting, Lomax continued to collect independently in Britain, Ireland, the Caribbean, Italy, and Spain, as well as the United States, using the latest recording technology, assembling a treasure trove of American and international culture. With the start of the Cold War, Lomax continued to speak out for a public role for folklore,[2] even as academic folklorists turned inward. He devoted much of the latter part of his life to advocating what he called Cultural Equity, which he sought to put on a solid theoretical foundation through to his Cantometrics research (which included a prototype Cantometrics-based educational program, The Global Jukebox). In the 1970s and 80s Lomax advised the Smithsonian Institution's Folklife Festival and produced a series of films about folk music, American Patchwork, which aired on PBS in 1991.

In his late seventies, Lomax completed a long-deferred memoir, The Land Where the Blues Began (1995), linking the birth of the blues to debt peonage, segregation, and forced labor in the American South.

Alan Lomax

Biography Early life Lomax, born in Austin in 1915, was third of the four children of pioneering folklorist and author John A. Lomax, with whom he started his career by recording songs sung by sharecroppers and prisoners in Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. The elder Lomax, a former professor of English at Texas A&M and a celebrated authority on Texas folklore and cowboy songs, had worked as an administrator, and later Secretary of the Alumni Society, of the University of Texas. When Alan was 10, the family moved to Dallas, where John Lomax took a job selling bonds in a bank.

Because of childhood asthma, chronic ear infections, and generally frail health, Lomax had mostly been home schooled in elementary school. In Dallas, he entered the Terrill School for Boys (a tiny prep school), where he excelled. He attended the Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Connecticut for a year, graduating eighth in his class at age 15 in 1930.[3] Because of his mother's declining health, however, rather than going to Harvard, as father wished, Lomax matriculated at the University of Texas at Austin. A roommate, future anthropologist, Walter Goldschmidt, recalled Lomax as "frighteningly smart, probably classifiable as a genius", though Goldschmidt remembers Lomax exploding one night while studying: "Damn it! The hardest thing I've had to learn is that I'm not a genius."[4] At the University of Texas Lomax read Nietzsche and developed an interest in philosophy. He joined and wrote a few columns for the school paper, The Daily Texan but resigned when it refused to publish an editorial he had written on birth control.[5] At this time he also he began collecting "race" records and taking his dates to black-owned night clubs, at the risk of expulsion. During the spring term his mother died, and his youngest sister Bess, age 10, was sent to live with an aunt. Although the Great Depression was rapidly causing his family's resources to plummet, Harvard came up with enough financial aid for the 16-year-old Lomax to spend his sophomore year there. He enrolled in philosophy and physics and also pursued a long-distance informal reading course in Plato and the Pre-Socratics with University of Texas professor Albert P. Brogan.[6] He also became involved in radical politics and came down with pneumonia. His grades suffered, diminishing his financial aid prospects.[7] Lomax, now 17, therefore took a break from studying to join his father's folk song collecting field trips for the Library of Congress, co-authoring American Ballads and Folk Songs (1934) and Negro Folk Songs as Sung by Lead Belly (1936). He did his first field collecting without his father with Zora Neale Hurston and Mary Elizabeth Barnicle in the summer of 1935, finishing his BA in Philosophy at the University of Texas the following year. He would later pursue graduate studies with Melville J. Herskovits at Columbia University and with Ray Birdwhistell at the University of Pennsylvania.

Alan Lomax married Elizabeth Lyttleton Harold in February 1937. They were married for 12 years and had a daughter, Anne (later known as Anna). Elizabeth assisted him in recording in Haiti, Alabama, Appalachia, and Mississippi. Elizabeth also wrote radio scripts of folk operas featuring American music that were broadcast over the BBC Home Service as part of the war effort. During the fifties, after she and Lomax divorced, she conducted lengthy interviews for Lomax with folk music personalities, including Vera Ward Hall and the Reverend Gary Davis. Lomax also did important field work with Elizabeth Barnicle and Zora Neale Hurston in Florida and the Bahamas (1935); with John Wesley Work III and Lewis Jones in Mississippi (1941 and 42); with folksingers Robin Roberts[8] and Jean Ritchie in Ireland (1950); with his second wife Antoinette Marchand in the Caribbean (1961); with Shirley Collins in Britain and the American South (1959); with Joan Halifax in Morocco; and with his daughter. All those who assisted and worked with him were accurately credited on the resultant Library of Congress and other recordings, as well as in his many books, films, and publications.

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Assistant in Charge and Commercial Records and Radio Broadcasts From 1937 to 1942, Lomax was Assistant in Charge of the Archive of Folk Song of the Library of Congress to which he and his father and numerous collaborators contributed more than ten thousand field recordings.

A pioneering oral historian, he also recorded substantial interviews with many legendary folk and jazz musicians, including Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, Muddy Waters, Jelly Roll Morton and other jazz pioneers, and Big Bill Broonzy. He also initiated some of the first (if not the very first) "man-on-the street" radio interviews of ordinary citizens. On December 8, 1941, as "Assistant in Charge at the Library of Congress, he sent telegrams to fieldworkers in ten different localities across the United States, asking them to collect reactions of ordinary Americans to the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declaration of war by the United States. A second series of interviews, called "Dear Mr. President," was recorded in January and February 1942.[9] In late 1939, Lomax hosted a series on CBS's nationally broadcast American School of the Air, called American Folk Songs and Wellsprings of Music, a music appreciation course that aired daily in the schools and was supposed to highlight links between American folk and classical orchestral music. As host, Lomax sang and presented other performers, including Burl Ives, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, Pete Seeger, Josh White, and the Golden Gate Quartet.

The individual programs reached ten million students in 200,000 U.S. classrooms and was also broadcast in Canada, Hawaii, and Alaska, but both Lomax and his father felt that the concept of the show, which portrayed folk music as mere raw material for orchestral music, was deeply flawed and failed to do justice to vernacular culture.

In 1940 under Lomax's supervision, RCA made two groundbreaking suites of commercial folk music recordings: Woody Guthrie's Dust Bowl Ballads and Lead Belly's Midnight Special and Other Southern Prison Songs.[10] Though they did not sell especially well when released, Lomax's biographer, John Szwed calls these "some of the first concept albums."[11] In 1940, Lomax and his close friend Nicholas Ray went on to write and produce a fifteen-minute program, Back Where I Come From, which aired three nights a week on CBS and featured folk tales, proverbs, prose, and sermons, as well as songs, organized thematically. Its racially integrated cast included Burl Ives, Lead Belly, Josh White, Sonny Terry, and Brownie McGhee. In February 1941, Lomax spoke and gave a demonstration of his program along with talks by Nelson A. Rockefeller from the Pan American Union, and the president of the American Museum of Natural History, at a global conference in Mexico of a thousand broadcasters CBS had sponsore to to launch its worldwide programming initiative. Mrs. Roosevelt invited Lomax to Hyde Park.[12] But despite its success and high visibility, Back Where I Come From never picked up a commercial sponsor. The show ran for only twenty-one weeks before it was suddenly canceled in February, 1941.[13] On hearing the news Woody Guthrie wrote Lomax from California, "Too honest again, I suppose? Maybe not purty enough. O well, this country's a getting to where it can't hear its own voice. Someday the deal will change."[14] Lomax himself wrote that in all his work he had tried to capture "the seemingly incoherent diversity of American folk song as an expression of its democratic, inter-racial, international character, as a function of its inchoate and turbulent many-sided development.[15] While serving in the army in World War II Lomax produced and hosted numerous radio programs in connection with the war effort. The 1944 "ballad opera", The Martins and the Coys, broadcast in Britain (but not the USA) by the BBC, featuring Burl Ives, Woody Guthrie, Will Geer, Sonny Terry, Pete Seeger, and Fiddlin' Arthur Smith, among others, was released on Rounder Records in 2000.

In the late 1940s, he produced a highly regarded series of commercial folk music albums for Decca records and organized a series of concerts at New York's Town Hall and Carnegie Hall, featuring blues, calypso, and flamenco music. He also hosted a radio show, Your Ballad Man, in 1949 that was broadcast nationwide on the Mutual Radio Network and featured a highly eclectic program, from gamelan music, to Django Reinhardt, to Klezmer music, to Sidney Bechet and Wild Bill Davison, to jazzy pop songs by Maxine Sullivan and Jo Stafford, to readings of the poetry of Carl Sandburg, to hillbilly music with electric guitars, to Finnish brass bands â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to name a few.[16]

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Move to Europe and later life In December 1949 a newspaper printed a story "Red Convictions Scare 'Travelers'", that mentioned a dinner given by the Civil Rights Association to honor five lawyers who had defended people accused of being Communists. The article mentioned Alan Lomax as one of the sponsors of the dinner, along with C. B. Baldwin, campaign manager for Henry A. Wallace; New York Times music critic Olin Downes; and W.E.B. DuBois, all of whom it accused of being members of Communist front groups.[17] The following June Red Channels, a pamphlet edited by former F.B.I agents which became the basis for entertainment industry blacklist of the 1950s, listed Lomax as an artist or broadcast journalist sympathetic to Communism (others listed included Aaron Copland, Leonard Bernstein Yip Harburg, Lena Horne, Langston Hughes, Burl Ives, Dorothy Parker, Pete Seeger, and Josh White). That summer, congress was debating the McCarran Act, which would require the registration and fingerprinting of all "subversives" in the United States, restrictions of their right to travel, and detention in case of "emergencies",[18] while the House Un-American Activities Committee was broadening its hearings. Feeling sure that the Act would pass and realizing that his career in broadcasting was in jeopardy, Lomax, who was newly divorced and already had an agreement with Goddard Lieberson of Columbia Records to record in Europe,[19] hastened to renew his passport, cancel his speaking engagements, and plan for his departure, telling his agent he hoped to return in January "if things cleared up". He set sail on September 24, 1950, on board the steamer RMS Mauretania. Sure enough, in October, FBI agents were interviewing Lomax's friends and acquaintances. Lomax never told his family exactly why he went to Europe, only that he was developing a library of world folk music for Columbia. Nor would he ever allow anyone to say he was forced to leave. In a letter to the editor of a British newspaper, Lomax took a writer to task for describing him as a "victim of witch-hunting", insisting that he was in the UK only to work on his Columbia Project.[20] Lomax spent the 1950s based in London, from where he edited the 18-volume Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive Music, an anthology issued on newly-invented LP records. He spent seven months in Spain, where in addition to recording three thousand items from most of the regions of Spain, he made copious notes and took hundreds of photos of "not only singers and musicians but anything that interesed him â&#x20AC;&#x201C; empty streets, old buildings, and country roads", bringing to these photos, "a concern for form and composition that went beyond the ethnographic to the artistic".[21] He drew a parallel between photography and field recording: Recording folk songs works like a candid cameraman. I hold the mike, use my hand for shading volume.

It's a big problem in Spain because there is so much emotional excitement, noise all around. Empathy is most important in field work. It's necessary to put your hand on the artist while he sings. They have to react to you. Even if they're mad at you, it's better than nothing.[22] When Columbia Records producer George Avakian gave jazz aranger Gil Evans a copy of the Spanish World Library LP, Miles Davis and Evans were "struck by the beauty of pieces such as the 'Saeta', recorded in Seville, and a panpiper's tune ('Alborada de Vigo') from Galicia, and worked them into the 1960 album, Sketches of Spain."[23] For the Scottish, English, and Irish volumes, he worked with the BBC and folklorists Peter Douglas Kennedy, Scots poet Hamish Henderson, and with SĂŠamus Ennis,[24] recording among others, Margaret Barry and the songs in Irish of Elizabeth Cronin; Scots ballad singer Jeannie Robertson; and Harry Cox of Norfolk, England, and interviewing some of these performers at length about their lives. Lomax also hosted a folk music show on BBC's home service and organized a skiffle group, Alan Lomax and the Ramblers (who included Ewan MacColl, Peggy Seeger, and Shirley Collins, among others), which appeared on British television. His ballad opera, Big Rock Candy Mountain, premiered December 1955 at Joan Littlewood's Theater Workshop and featured Ramblin' Jack Elliot. In Scotland, Lomax is credited with being an inspiration for the School of Scottish Studies, founded in 1951, the year of his first visit there.[25][26] Lomax and Diego Carpitella's survey of Italian folk music for the Columbia World Library, conducted in 1953 and 1954, with the cooperation of the BBC and the Accademia di Santa Cecilia in Rome, helped capture a snapshot of a multitude of important traditional folk styles shortly before they disappeared. The pair amassed one of the most

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Alan Lomax representative folk song collections of any culture. From Lomax's Spanish and Italian recordings emerged one of the first theories explaining the types of folk singing that predominate in particular areas, a theory that incorporates work style, the environment, and the degrees of social and sexual freedom.

Return to the United States Upon his return to New York in 1959, Lomax produced a concert, Folksong '59, in Carnegie Hall, featuring Arkansas singer Jimmy Driftwood; the Selah Jubilee Singers and Drexel Singers (gospel groups); Muddy Waters and Memphis Slim (blues); Earl Taylor and the Stoney Mountain Boys (bluegrass); Pete Seeger, Mike Seeger (urban folk revival); and The Cadillacs (a rock and roll group). The occasion marked the first time rock and roll and bluegrass were performed on the Carnegie Hall Stage. "The time has come for Americans not to be ashamed of what we go for, musically, from primitive ballads to rock 'n' roll songs", Lomax told the audience. According to Izzy Young, the audience booed when he told them to lay down their prejudices and listen to rock 'n' roll. In Young's opinion, "Lomax put on what is probably the turning point in American folk music . . . . At that concert, the point he was trying to make was that Negro and white music were mixing, and rock and roll was that thing."[27] Alan Lomax had met 20-year-old English folk singer Shirley Collins while living in London. The two were romantically involved and lived together for some years. When Lomax obtained a contract from Atlantic Records to re-record some of the American musicians first recorded in the 1940s, using improved equipment, Collins accompanied him. Their folk song collecting trip to the Southern states lasted from July to November 1959 and resulted in many hours of recordings, featuring performers such as Almeda Riddle, Hobart Smith, Wade Ward, Charlie Higgins and Bessie Jones and culminated in the discovery of Mississippi Fred McDowell. Recordings from this trip were issued under the title Sounds of the South and some were also featured in the Coen brothersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; film Oh Brother, Where Art Thou. Lomax wished to marry Collins but when the recording trip was over, she returned to England and married Austin John Marshall. In an interview in The Guardian newspaper, Collins expressed irritation that Alan Lomax's 1993 account of the journey, The Land Where The Blues Began, barely mentioned her. "All it said was, 'Shirley Collins was along for the trip'. It made me hopping mad. I wasn't just 'along for the trip'. I was part of the recording process, I made notes, I drafted contracts, I was involved in every part".[28] Collins addressed the perceived omission in her memoir, America Over the Water, published in 2004.[29] Lomax married Antoinette Marchand on August 26, 1961. They separated the following year and were divorced in 1967.[30] In 1962, Lomax and singer and Civil Rights Activist Guy Carawan, music director at the Highlander Folk School in Monteagle, Tennessee, produced the album, Freedom in the Air: Albany Georgia, 1961-62, on Vanguard Records for the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee.

Lomax was a consultant to Carl Sagan for the Voyager Golden Record sent into space on the 1977 Voyager Spacecraft to represent the music of the earth. Music he helped choose included the blues, jazz, and rock 'n' roll of Blind Willie Johnson, Louis Armstrong, and Chuck Berry; Andean panpipes and Navajo chants; a Sicilian sulfur miner's lament; polyphonic vocal music from the Mbuti Pygmies of Zaire, and the Georgians of the Caucasus; and a shepherdess song from Bulgaria by Valya Balkanska [31]; in addition to Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven, and more.

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Cultural Equity "The dimension of cultural equity needs to be added to the humane continuum of liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and social justice."—Alan Lomax, 1972[32] As a member of the Popular Front and People's Songs in the 1940s, Alan Lomax promoted what was then known as "One World" and today is called multiculturalism.[33] In the late forties he produced a series of concerts at Town Hall and Carnegie Hall that presented flamenco guitar and calypso, along with country blues, Appalachian music, Andean music, and jazz. His radio shows of the '40s and '50s explored musics of all the world's peoples.

Lomax recognized that folklore (like all forms of creativity) occurs at the local and not the national level and flourishes not in isolation but in fruitful interplay with other cultures. He was dismayed that mass communications appeared to be crushing local cultural expressions and languages. In 1950 he echoed anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942), who believed the role of the ethnologist should be that of advocate for primitive man (as indigenous people were then called), when he urged folklorists to similarly advocate for the folk. Some, such as Richard Dorson, objected that scholars shouldn't act as cultural arbiters, but Lomax believed it would be unethical to stand idly by as the magnificent variety of the world's cultures and languages was "grayed out" by centralized commercial entertainment and educational systems. Although he acknowledged potential problems with intervention, he urged that folklorists with their special training actively assist communities in safeguarding and revitalizing their own local traditions.

Similar ideas had been put into practice by Benjamin Botkin, Harold W. Thompson, and Louis C. Jones, who believed that folklore studied by folklorists should be returned to its home communities to enable it to thrive anew.

They have been realized in the annual (since 1967) Smithsonian Folk Festival on the Mall in Washington, D.C. (for which Lomax served as a consultant), in national and regional initiatives by public folklorists and local activists in helping communities gain recognition for their oral traditions and lifeways both in their home communities and in the world at large; and in the National Heritage Awards, concerts, and fellowships given by the NEA and various State governments to master folk and traditional artists.[34] In 1983, Lomax founded The Association for Cultural Equity (ACE). It is housed at the Fine Arts Campus of Hunter College in New York City and is the custodian of the Alan Lomax Archive. The Association's mission is to "facilitate cultural equity" and practice "cultural feedback" and "preserve, publish, repatriate and freely disseminate" its collections.[35] Though Alan Lomax's appeals to anthropology conferences and repeated letters to UNESCO fell on deaf ears, the modern world seems to have caught up to his vision. In an article first published in the 2009 Louisiana Folklore Miscellany, Barry Jean Ancelet, folklorist and chair of the Modern Languages Department at University of Louisiana at Lafayette, wrote: Every time [Lomax] called me over a span of about ten years, he never failed to ask if we were teaching Cajun French in the schools yet. His notions about the importance of cultural and linguistic diversity have been affirmed by many contemporary scholars, including Nobel Prize-winning physicist Murray Gell-Mann who concluded his recent book, The Quark and the Jaguar, with a discussion of these very same issues, insisting on the importance of "cultural DNA" (1994: 338-343). His cautions about "universal popular culture" (1994: 342) sound remarkably like Alan's warning in his "Appeal for Cultural Equity" that the "cultural grey-out" must be checked or there would soon be "no place worth visiting and no place worth staying" (1972). Compare Gell-Mann: Just as it is crazy to squander in a few decades much of the rich biological diversity that has evolved over billions of years, so is it equally crazy to permit the disappearance of much of human cultural diversity, which has evolved in a somewhat analogous way over many tens of thousands of years… The erosion of local cultural patterns around the world is not, however, entirely or even principally the result of contactwith the universalizing effect of scientific enlightenment. Popular culture is in most cases far more effective at erasing distinctions between one place or society and another. Blue jeans, fast food, rock music, and American television serials have been sweeping the world for years. (1994: 338-343)

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Alan Lomax and Lomax: carcasses of dead or dying cultures on the human landscape, that we have learned to dismiss this pollution of the human environment as inevitable, and even sensible, since it is wrongly assumed that the weak and unfit among musics and cultures are eliminated in this way… Not only is such a doctrine anti-human; it is very bad science. It is false Darwinism applied to culture – especially to its expressive systems, such as music language, and art. Scientific study of cultures, notably of their languages and their musics, shows that all are equally expressive and equally communicative, even though they may symbolize technologies of different levels… With the disappearance of each of these systems, the human species not only loses a way of viewing, thinking, and feeling but also a way of adjusting to some zone on the planet which fits it and makes it livable; not only that, but we throw away a system of interaction, of fantasy and symbolizing which, in the future, the human race may sorely need. The only way to halt this degradation of man's culture is to commit ourselves to the principles of political, social, and economic justice. (2003 [1972]: 286)[36] In 2001, in the wake of the attacks in New York and Washington of September 11, UNESCO's Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity declared the safeguarding of languages and intangible culture on a par with protection of individual human rights and as essential for human survival as biodiversity is for nature,[37] ideas remarkably similar to those forcefully articulated by Alan Lomax many years before.

FBI investigations From 1942 to 1979 Lomax was repeatedly investigated and interviewed by the FBI, although nothing incriminating was ever discovered and the investigation was eventually abandoned. Scholar and jazz pianist Ted Gioia uncovered and published extracts from Alan Lomax's 800-page FBI files.[38] The investigation appears to have started when an anonymous informant reported overhearing Lomax's father telling guests in 1941 about what he considered his son's Communist sympathies. Looking for leads, the FBI seized on the fact that, as a teenager in the 1930s, Lomax had transferred from Harvard to the University of Texas after being arrested in Boston in connection with a political demonstration. In 1942 the FBI sent agents to interview students at Harvard's freshman dorm about Lomax's participation in a demonstration that had occurred at Harvard in 1932 in support of the immigration rights of one Edith Berkman, a Jewish woman, dubbed the "red flame" for her labor organizing activities among the textile workers of Lawrence, Massachusetts, and threatened with deportation as an alleged "Communist agitator".[39] Lomax had been charged with disturbing the peace and fined $25.00. Miss Berkman, however, had been cleared of all accusations against her and was not deported. Nor had Lomax's Harvard academic record been affected in any way by his activities in her defense. Nevertheless, the bureau continued trying vainly to show that in 1932 Lomax had either distributed Communist literature or made public speeches in support of the Communist Party.

According to Ted Gioia: Lomax must have felt it necessary to address the suspicions. He gave a sworn statement to an FBI agent on April 3, 1942, denying both of these charges. He also explained his arrest while at Harvard as the result of police overreaction. He was, he claimed, 15 at the time – he was actually 17 and a college student – and he said he had intended to participate in a peaceful demonstration. Lomax said he and his colleagues agreed to stop their protest when police asked them to, but that he was grabbed by a couple of policemen as he was walking away. "That is pretty much the story there, except that it distressed my father very, very much", Lomax told the FBI. "'I had to defend my righteous position, and he couldn’t understand me and I couldn’t understand him. It has made a lot of unhappiness for the two of us because he loved Harvard and wanted me to be a great success there.' Lomax transferred to the University of Texas the following year".[38] Lomax left Harvard in 1932 after spending his sophomore year there, because his father lost his job and all his money during the depression and could no longer afford to pay his tuition, and not for any political or academic

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Alan Lomax reasons. He probably also had wanted to be near his newly bereaved father, now a widower, the close friends he had made during his freshman year at the University of Texas, and his young sister, Bess.

In June 1942 the FBI approached the Librarian of Congress, Archibald McLeish, in an attempt to have Lomax fired as Assistant in Charge of the Library's Archive of American Folk Song. At the time, Lomax was preparing for a field trip to the Mississippi Delta on behalf of the Library, where he would make landmark recordings of Muddy Waters, Son House, and David "Honeyboy" Edwards, among others. McLeish wrote to Hoover defending Lomax: "I have studied the findings of these reports very carefully. I do not find positive evidence that Mr. Lomax has been engaged in subversive activities and I am therefore taking no disciplinary action toward him." Nevertheless, according to Gioia: Yet what the probe failed to find in terms of prosecutable evidence, it made up for in speculation about his character. An FBI report dated July 23, 1943, describes Lomax as possessing "an erratic, artistic temperament" and a "bohemian attitude." It says: "He has a tendency to neglect his work over a period of time and then just before a deadline he produces excellent results." The file quotes one informant who said that "Lomax was a very peculiar individual, that he seemed to be very absent-minded and that he paid practically no attention to his personal appearance." This same source adds that he suspected Lomax's peculiarity and poor grooming habits came from associating with the hillbillies who provided him with folk tunes".

Lomax, who was a founding member of People's Songs, was in charge of campaign music for Henry A. Wallace's 1948 Presidential run on the Progressive Party ticket on a platform opposing the arms race and supporting civil rights for Jews and African Americans. Subsequently, Lomax was one of the performers listed in the publication Red Channels as a possible Communist sympathizer and was consequently blacklisted from working in US entertainment industries.

A 2007 BBC news article revealed that in the early '50s, the British MI5 placed Alan Lomax under surveillance as a suspected Communist. Its report concluded that although Lomax undoubtedly held "left wing" views, there was no evidence he was a Communist. Released September 4, 2007 (File ref KV 2/2701), a summary of his MI5 file reads as follows: Noted American folk music archivist and collector Alan Lomax first attracted the attention of the Security Service when it was noted that he had made contact with the Romanian press attaché in London while he was working on a series of folk music broadcasts for the BBC in 1952. Correspondence ensued with the American authorities as to Lomax' suspected membership of the Communist Party, though no positive proof is found on this file. The Service took the view that Lomax' work compiling his collections of world folk music gave him a legitimate reason to contact the attaché, and that while his views (as demonstrated by his choice of songs and singers) were undoubtedly left wing, there was no need for any specific action against him.

The file contains a partial record of Lomax' movements, contacts and activities while in Britain, and includes for example a police report of the "Songs of the Iron Road" concert at St Pancras in December 1953. His association with [blacklisted American] film director Joseph Losey is also mentioned (serial 30a).[40] The FBI again investigated Lomax in 1956 and sent a 68-page report to the CIA and the Attorney General's office.

However, William Tompkins, assistant attorney general, wrote to Hoover that the investigation had failed to disclose sufficient evidence to warrant prosecution or the suspension of Lomax's passport.

Then, as late as 1979, an FBI report suggested that Lomax had recently impersonated an FBI agent. The report appears to have been based on mistaken identity. The person who reported the incident to the FBI said that the man in question was around 43, about 5 feet 9 inches and 190 pounds. The FBI file notes that Lomax stood 6 feet (unknown operator: u'strong' m) tall, weighed 240 pounds and was 64 at the time:

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Alan Lomax Lomax resisted the FBI's attempts to interview him about the impersonation charges, but he finally met with agents at his home in November 1979. He denied that he’d been involved in the matter but did note that he’d been in New Hampshire in July 1979, visiting a film editor about a documentary. The FBI's report concluded that "Lomax made no secret of the fact that he disliked the FBI and disliked being interviewed by the FBI. Lomax was extremely nervous throughout the interview".[38] The FBI investigation was concluded the following year, shortly after Lomax's 65th birthday.

Awards Alan Lomax received the National Medal of Arts from President Reagan in 1986; a Library of Congress Living Legend Award[41] in 2000; and was awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Philosophy from Tulane University in 2001.

He won the National Book Critics Circle Award and the Ralph J. Gleason Music Book Award in 1993 for his book The Land Where the Blues Began, connecting the story of the origins of blues music with the prevalence of forced labor in the pre-World War II South (especially on the Mississippi levees). Lomax also received a posthumous Grammy Trustees Award for his lifetime achievements in 2003. Jelly Roll Morton: The Complete Library of Congress Recordings by Alan Lomax (Rounder Records, 8 CDs boxed set) won in two categories at the 48th annual Grammy Awards ceremony held on Feb 8, 2006[42] Alan Lomax In Haiti: Recordings For The Library Of Congress, 1936–1937, issued by Harte Records and made with the support and major funding from Kimberley Green and the Green foundation, and featuring 10 CDs of recorded music and film footage (shot by Elizabeth Lomax, then nineteen), a bound book of Lomax's selected letters and field journals, and notes by musicologist Gage Averill, was nominated for two Grammy Awards in 2011.[43]

World music and digital legacy Brian Eno wrote of Lomax's later recording career in his notes to accompany an anthology of Lomax's world recordings: [He later] turned his intelligent attentions to music from many other parts of the world, securing for them a dignity and status they had not previously been accorded. The "World Music" phenomenon arose partly from those efforts, as did his great book, Folk Song Style and Culture. I believe this is one of the most important books ever written about music, in my all time top ten. It is one of the very rare attempts to put cultural criticism onto a serious, comprehensible, and rational footing by someone who had the experience and breadth of vision to be able to do it."[44] In January 2012, the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, with the Association for Cultural Equity, announced that they would release Lomax's vast archive in digital form. Lomax spent the last 20 years of his life working on an interactive multimedia educational computer project he called the Global Jukebox, which included 5,000 hours of sound recordings, 400,000 feet of film, 3,000 videotapes, and 5,000 photographs.[45] By February 2012, 17,000 music tracks from his archived collection were expected to be made available for free streaming, and later some of that music may be for sale as CDs or digital downloads.[1] As of March, 2012 this has been accomplished. Approximately 17,400 of Lomax's recordings from 1946 and later have been made available free online.[46][47] This is material from Alan Lomax’s independent archive, begun in 1946, which has been digitized and offered by the Association for Cultural Equity. This is "distinct from the thousands of earlier recordings on acetate and aluminum discs he made from 1933 to 1942 under the auspices of the Library of Congress. This earlier collection — which includes the famous Jelly Roll Morton, Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, and Muddy Waters sessions, as well as Lomax’s prodigious collections made in Haiti and Eastern Kentucky (1937) — is the provenance of the American Folklife Center" [46] at the library of Congress.

On August 24, 1997 at a concert at Wolf Trap, Vienna, Virginia, Bob Dylan had this to say about Lomax, who who had helped introduce him to folk music and whom he had known as a young man in Greenwich Village :

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Alan Lomax There is a distinguished gentlemen here who came … I want to introduce him – named Alan Lomax. I don’t know if many of you have heard of him [ Audience applause. ] Yes, he’s here, he’s made a trip out to see me. I used to know him years ago. I learned a lot there and Alan … Alan was one of those who unlocked the secrets of this kind of music. So if we’ve got anybody to thank, it’s Alan. Thanks, Alan.”[48]

Footnotes [1] Jon Pareles (2002-07-20). "Alan Lomax, Who Raised Voice Of Folk Music in U.S., Dies at 87" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2002/ 07/ 20/ arts/ alan-lomax-who-raised-voice-of-folk-music-in-us-dies-at-87. html?pagewanted=all& src=pm). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-02-28.

[2] During the New Deal called "applied folklore" or "functionalism" by Benjamin Botkin, see John Alexander Williams, "The Professionalization of Folklore Studies: a Comparative Perspective", Journal of the Folklore Institute 11: 3 (Mar. 1975); 211–34.

[3] John Szwed, Alan Lomax: The Man Who Recorded the World (New York: Viking, 2010), p. 20.

[4] Szwed, (2010), p. 21.

[5] Szwed (2010), p. 21.

[6] Szwed (2010), p. 22.

[7] Szwed (2010), p. 24.

[8] see Michael Stone, "Irish Music, Roots and Branches" (http:/ / www. popmatters. com/ music/ features/ 020315-stpatrick-stone. html) on the website PopMatters.

[9] After the Day of Infamy: "Man-on-the-Street" Interviews Following the Attack on Pearl Harbor at the Folklife Center of the Library of Congress. (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ ammem/ afcphhtml/ afcphhome. html) [10] Colin Scott and David Evans, liner Notes to Poor Man's Heaven (2003) CD in RCA Bluebird series When the Sun Goes Down, The Secret History of Rock and Roll, ASIN: B000092Q48. Midnight Special and Other Prison Songs was reissued complete on Bluebird in 2003.

[11] Szwed 2010), p. 163.

[12] Szwed (2010), p. 167 [13] Alan put the blame on CBS president William Paley, who he claimed ‘hated all that hillbilly music on his network’" (Szwed [2010], p. 167).

[14] Quoted in Ronald D. Cohen, The Rainbow Quest (University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), p. 25.

[15] Alan Lomax "Songs of the American Folk", Modern Music 18 (Jan.-Feb. 1941), quoted in Cohen (2002), p. 25.

[16] See Matthew Barton and Andrew L. Kaye, in Ronald D. Cohen (ed), Alan Lomax Selected Writings, (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp.

98–99.

[17] Szwed, (2010), pp. 250-51.

[18] Congress passed the Act in Sept. 1950 over the veto of President Truman, who called the it "the greatest danger to freedom of speech, press, and assembly since the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798," a "mockery of the Bill of Rights", and a "long step toward totalitarianism." See Harry S. Truman, "Veto of the Internal Security Bill", Harry S. Truman Library website. (http:/ / trumanlibrary. org/ publicpapers/ viewpapers. php?pid=883) [19] Szwed (2010), p. 248.

[20] Szwed (2010) p. 251.

[21] Szwed (2010), p. 274.

[22] Szwed (2011) p. 274.

[23] Szwed (2010), p. 275.

[24] A recent BBC radio program (May 12, 2012) , The First LP in Ireland (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ iplayer/ episode/ b01h666r/ The_First_LP_in_Ireland/ ) commemorates Ennis and Lomax's Irish collaboration.

[25] Alan Lomax and the Gaels (http:/ / thecroft. wordpress. com/ 2010/ 02/ 06/ alan-lomax-the-gaels/ ) [26] The Gatherer of Songs, November 2002, Tom McKean (http:/ / www. leopardmag. co. uk/ feats/ 29/ alan-lomax) [27] Quoted in Ronald D. Cohen's Rainbow Quest, University of Massachusetts Press, 2002, p. 140 [28] Rogers, jude (March 21, 2008). "'You want no sheen, just the song'" (http:/ / music. guardian. co. uk/ folk/ story/ 0,,2266935,00. html). guardian.co.uk. . Retrieved August 14, 2011.

[29] Collins described her arrival in America 1959 in an interview with Johan Kugelberg:

Kugelberg: Lomax met you?

Collins: He was on the dockside with Anne, his daughter. . . .. I think I arrived in April and I don't think we went south until August. It took quite a long time to get the money together; it kept falling through. I think Columbia was going to pay for it at one point, but they insisted he have a union engineer with him and someone extra like that—in situations we were going to be in would have been hopeless. So he refused, and they withdrew their funding. It was very last minute that the Ertegun brothers at Atlantic gave us the cash and we were gone within days of getting that money. Alan had wanted to do it earlier, but there was just no money to do it with. He had no money, ever. He was always living hand to mouth.

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Alan Lomax Kugelberg: That's the nature of somebody who is making the path as he's going along. Also as a sidebar, considering who the Ertegun brothers were at that point in time, it's surprising to me that they greenlighted that project at that point in time. I love that series, I think it's one of the great series of albums ever. It's surprising that Atlantic Records made that leap of faith because the series is sort of outside of their paradigm. So, those months were spent in New York?

Collins: We went to another place actually, we went to California, to the California Folk festival in Berkeley, this was sometime in the summer. And we stopped off in Chicago and stayed with Studs Terkel who was a hospitable man and his wonderful hospitable wife. Caught the train out to San Francisco from Chicago, which was an incredible experience. Sang at the Berkeley festival and met Jimmy Driftwood there for the first time. We all hit it off wonderfully.

Kugelberg: Your friends in England were dying of envy.

Collins: No, they didn't know. (Kugelberg, Johan. "Shirley Collins interview, part 2 of 5" (http:/ / www. furious. com/ PERFECT/ shirleycollins2. html). furious.com. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110629143844/ http:/ / www. furious. com/ PERFECT/ shirleycollins2. html) from the original on 29 June 2011. . Retrieved August 14, 2011.)

[30] Szwed (2010), p. 344.

[31] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=ng62EsjTK9U [32] "About Cultural Equity" (http:/ / www. culturalequity. org/ ace/ ce_ace_about_ce. php). culturalequity.org. . Retrieved August 14, 2011.

[33] Ironically, perhaps, the phrase originated in an article (http:/ / www. usfamily. net/ web/ timwalker/ sitedocs/ 1world. html), later a best-selling 1943 book by Republican candidate Wendell Willkie.

[34] "National Endowments for the Arts, National Heritage Fellowships 2008" (http:/ / www. nea. gov/ honors/ heritage/ allheritage. html). www.nea.gov. 2008. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110719222738/ http:/ / www. nea. gov/ honors/ heritage/ allheritage. html) from the original on 19 July 2011. . Retrieved August 14, 2011.

[35] "Association for Cultural Equity" (http:/ / www. culturalequity. org/ ace/ ce_ace_index. php). .

[36] Barry Jean Ancelet, "Lomax in Louisiana: Trials and Triumph", Louisiana (http:/ / www. louisianafolklife. org/ LT/ Articles_Essays/ LFMlomax. html) [37] On the vital connection between biological diversity and cultural diversity, see Maywa Montenegro and Terry Glavin, "Scientists Offer New Insight Into What to to Protect of the World's Rapidly Vanishing Languages, Cultures, and Species" in In Defense of Difference: Seed Magazine (Oct. 2008) (http:/ / seedmagazine. com/ content/ article/ in_defense_of_difference/ ): "Last October, when United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) released its Global Outlook 4 report, reiterating the scientific consensus that, ultimately, humans are to blame for current global extinctions, UNEP for the first time made an explicit connection between the ongoing collapse of biological diversity and the rapid, global-scale withering of cultural and linguistic diversity: 'Global social and economic change is driving the loss of biodiversity and disrupting local ways of life by promoting cultural assimilation and homogenization,' the report noted. 'Cultural change, such as loss of cultural and spiritual values, languages, and traditional knowledge and practices, is a driver that can cause increasing pressures on biodiversity...In turn, these pressures impact human well-being'".

[38] Ted Gioia, "The Red-rumor blues" (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 2006/ apr/ 23/ entertainment/ ca-lomax23), Los Angeles Times, 23 April 2006.

[39] See the Ann Burlak papers at the Archives of Smith College (http:/ / asteria. fivecolleges. edu/ findaids/ sophiasmith/ mnsss189_bioghist. html). Miss Berkman was defended by a lawyer from the International Labor Defense, the same organization that later defended the Scottsboro Boys. See "Edith Berkman Will Fight Deportation", Lewiston Daily Sun clip (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?nid=1928& dat=19310729& id=ojYjAAAAIBAJ& sjid=wGoFAAAAIBAJ& pg=4498,2325885) for July 29, 1931.

[40] "Communists and suspected Communist", MI5 Security Services 4 release on George Orwell (September 2007). (http:/ / www. mi5. gov. uk/ output/ communists-and-suspected-communists-3. html) [41] Library of Congress Living Legend page at Library of Congress. (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ awards/ legends/ ) [42] Matt Barton, "Jelly Roll Wins at Grammys: Lomax Recordings of Groundbreaking Jazzman Win Honors, Library of Congress Bulletin, Feb. 2006. (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ loc/ lcib/ 0603/ roll. html) [43] See "The Culture of Haiti Comes to Life" (http:/ / www. grammy. com/ news/ the-culture-of-haiti-comes-to-life) on the Grammy (http:/ / www. grammy365. com/ ) website.

[44] Brian Eno, in liner notes to the Alan Lomax Collection Sampler (Rounder Records, 1997) [45] "The Premiere of the Global Jukebox". (http:/ / www. thetakeaway. org/ 2012/ jan/ 31/ the-global-jukeboxs-premiere/ ) Radio interview with Don Fleming by John Hockenberry on PRI's The Takeaway.

[46] Association for Cultural Equity's intro and search page for Lomax's audio recordings (http:/ / research. culturalequity. org/ home-audio. jsp) [47] National Public Radio March 28, 2012 story on release of Lomax's 1946-on recordings (http:/ / www. npr. org/ blogs/ therecord/ 2012/ 03/ 28/ 148915022/ alan-lomaxs-massive-archive-goes-online).

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Alan Lomax [48] Bob Dylan, quoted in Jeffrey Greenberg, liner notes to Alan Lomax: Popular Songbook, Rounder 82161-1863-2T (http:/ / aln2. albumlinernotes. com/ Popular_Songbook. html), on website Album Liner Notes.com (http:/ / albumlinernotes. com/ Home_Page. html)

Bibliography A partial list of books by Alan Lomax includes: • L'Anno piu' felice della mia vita (The Happiest Year of My Life), a book of ethnographic photos by Alan Lomax from his 1954-55 fieldwork in Italy, edited by Goffredo Plastino, preface by Martin Scorsese. Milano: Il Saggiatore, M2008.

• Alan Lomax: Mirades Miradas Glances. Photos by Alan Lomax, ed. by Antoni Pizà (Barcelona: Lunwerg / Fundacio Sa Nostra, 2006) ISBN 84-9785-271-0 • Alan Lomax: Selected Writings 1934-1997 (http://books.google.com/books?id=iqsoOWIqIAsC& printsec=frontcover). Ronald D. Cohen, Editor (includes a chapter defining all the categories of cantometrics).

New York: Routledge: 2003.

• Brown Girl in the Ring: An Anthology of Song Games from the Eastern Caribbean Compiler, with J. D. Elder and Bess Lomax Hawes. New York: Pantheon Books, 1997 (Cloth, ISBN 0-679-40453-8); New York: Random House, 1998 (Cloth).

• The Land Where The Blues Began. New York: Pantheon, 1993.

• Cantometrics: An Approach to the Anthropology of Music: Audiocassettes and a Handbook. Berkeley: University of California Media Extension Center, 1976.

• Folk Song Style and Culture (http://books.google.com/books?id=AbAiCa0GBjMC&printsec=frontcover).

With contributions by Conrad Arensberg, Edwin E. Erickson, Victor Grauer, Norman Berkowitz, Irmgard Bartenieff, Forrestine Paulay, Joan Halifax, Barbara Ayres, Norman N. Markel, Roswell Rudd, Monika Vizedom, Fred Peng, Roger Wescott, David Brown. Washington, D.C.: Colonial Press Inc, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publication no. 88, 1968.

• Penguin Book of American Folk Songs (1968) • 3000 Years of Black Poetry. Alan Lomax and Raoul Abdul, Editors. New York: Dodd Mead Company, 1969.

Paperback edition, Fawcett Publications, 1971.

• The Leadbelly Songbook. Moses Asch and Alan Lomax, Editors. Musical transcriptions by Jerry Silverman.

Forward by Moses Asch. New York: Oak Publications, 1962.

• Folk Songs of North America. Melodies and guitar chords transcribed by Peggy Seeger. New York: Doubleday, 1960.

• The Rainbow Sign. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pierce, 1959.

• Leadbelly: A Collection of World Famous Songs by Huddie Ledbetter. Edited with John A. Lomax. Hally Wood, Music Editor. Special note on Leadbelly's 12-string guitar by Pete Seeger. New York: Folkways Music Publishers Company, 1959.

• Harriet and Her Harmonium: An American adventure with thirteen folk songs from the Lomax collection.

Illustrated by Pearl Binder. Music arranged by Robert Gill. London: Faber and Faber, 1955.

• Mister Jelly Roll: The Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton, New Orleans Creole and "Inventor of Jazz" (http://books. google.com/books?id=tMR5TvVaZ6UC&printsec=frontcover). Drawings by David Stone Martin. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pierce, 1950.

• Folk Song: USA. With John A. Lomax. Piano accompaniment by Charles and Ruth Crawford Seeger. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pierce, c.1947. Republished as Best Loved American Folk Songs, New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1947 (Cloth).

• Freedom Songs of the United Nations. With Svatava Jakobson. Washington, D.C.: Office of War Information, 1943.

• Our Singing Country: Folk Songs and Ballads (http://books.google.com/books?id=i_J4Ii9oArsC& printsec=frontcover). With John A. Lomax and Ruth Crawford Seeger. New York: MacMillan, 1941.

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Alan Lomax • Check-list of Recorded Songs in the English Language in the Archive of American Folk Song in July 1940.

Washington, D.C.: Music Division, Library of Congress, 1942. Three volumes.

• American Folksong and Folklore: A Regional Bibliography. With Sidney Robertson Cowell. New York, Progressive Education Association, 1942. Reprint, Temecula, California: Reprint Services Corp., 1988 (62 pp. ISBN 0-7812-0767-3).

• Negro Folk Songs as Sung by Lead Belly. With John A. Lomax. New York: Macmillan, 1936.

• American ballads and folk songs (http://books.google.com/books?id=Dn0cSe2ecuoC&printsec=frontcover).

With John Avery Lomax. Macmillan, 1934.

Further reading • Alan Lomax: The Man Who Recorded the World . John Szwed., New York: Viking Press, 2010 (438 pp.: ISBN 978-0-670-02199-4) / London : William Heinemann, 2010 (438 pp.;ISBN 978-0-434-01232-9).

See also: • Books by John A. and Alan Lomax (http://culturalequity.org/alanlomax/ce_alanlomax_books.php) • Articles by Alan Lomax (http://culturalequity.org/alanlomax/ce_alanlomax_articles.php) • Alan Lomax Discography (http://culturalequity.org/alanlomax/ce_alanlomax_discography.php) • Alan Lomax Filmography (http://culturalequity.org/alanlomax/ce_alanlomax_filmography.php) • Alan Lomax Radio Programs (http://research.culturalequity.org/home-radio.jsp)

DVDs • Lomax the Songhunter, documentary directed by Rogier Kappers, 2004 (issued on DVD 2007).

• American Patchwork (http://www.media-generation.com/DVD PAGES/LOMAX/Patchwork/Patchwork. htm) television series, 1990 (five DVDs).

• Oss Oss Wee Oss (http://www.media-generation.com/DVD PAGES/Oss Tales/OSS.htm) 1951 (on a DVD with other films related to the Padstow May Day).

• Rhythms of Earth. (http://www.media-generation.com/DVD PAGES/Rhythms/Rhythm.htm) Four films (Dance & Human History, Step Style, Palm Play, and The Longest Trail) made by Lomax (1974–1984) about his Choreometric cross-cultural analysis of dance and movement style. Two-and-a-half hours, plus one-and-a-half hours of interviews and 177 pages of text.

• The Land Where The Blues Began (http://www.media-generation.com/DVD PAGES/Land/Land.html), expanded, thirtieth-anniversary edition of the 1979 documentary by Alan Lomax and ethnomusicologist and civil rights activist Worth Long, with 3.5 hours of additional music and video.

External links • Alan Lomax Collection, The American Folklife Center, Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/folklife/ lomax/) • Association for Cultural Equity (ACE) (http://www.culturalequity.org/) - Alan Lomax pages • "Remembrances of Alan Lomax, 2002" by Guy Carawan (http://www.culturalequity.org/alanlomax/ ce_alanlomax_remembering_gc.php) • "Alan Lomax: Citizen Activist", by Ronald D. Cohen (http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/isam/cohen1. html) • Archived version of "Remembering Alan Lomax" by Bruce Jackson (http://web.archive.org/web/ 20071227015053/http://www.buffaloreport.com/020726lomax.html) • Interview of Shirley Collins reminiscing about Alan Lomax on Perfect Sound Forever (http://www.furious. com/PERFECT/shirleycollins2.html).

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Alan Lomax • Alan Lomax films for viewing online (http://www.folkstreams.net/filmmaker,121) - Appalachian Journey, Cajun Country, Dreams and Songs of the Noble Old, Jazz Parades: Feet Don't Fail Me Now, The Land Where the Blues Began.

• Lomax: the Songhunter (http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2006/lomax/index.html) from P.O.V. August 22, 2006.

Discussion guide, streaming radio sampler, discussion board.

• Scene taken from Lomax the songhunter (http://www.docsonline.tv/?search=Lomax&type=title& docinfo=78), a musical documentary that travels the world (chiefly Spain) to meet people whom Lomax recorded, and portrays his life through interviews with relatives.

• To Hear Your Banjo Play (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1585962456964293309&q=Pete Seeger&hl=en) (1947), documentary film written by Alan Lomax, narrated by Pete Seeger, with Texas Gladden, Woody Guthrie, Baldwin Hawes, Cisco Houston, Brownie McGhee, Sonny Terry, and the Margot Mayo Square Dancers (The American Square Dance Group) on Google video • Oss Oss Wee Oss (http://www.der.org/films/oss-tales.html) by Alan Lomax and Peter Kennedy, a filmed documentary of the Padstow May Day Ceremony (1951) at Documentary Educational Resources.

• Adam Fisher, "Blues Travelers", T Magazine, New York Times, May 17, 2012 (http://www.nytimes.com/2012/ 05/18/t-magazine/mississippi-blues-travelers.html). Article about families of Otha Turner, exponent of African influenced Colonial-style fife-and-drum playing, whom Alan Lomax recorded in 1942, 1959, and 1978, in Gravel Springs, northern Mississippi, and regarded as one of his greatest discoveries. Turner made his first CD at the age of 90, see Bill Ellis, "Fife Master, Rural Blues Legend Otha Turner dies; Was 94" (http://www.othaturner.com/ bio.html), Commercial Appeal (Memphis, Tennessee), February 27, 2003. Turner's music was featured in Martin Scorsese's film The Gangs of New York.

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Pete Seeger

102

Pete Seeger Pete Seeger

Seeger at the Clearwater Festival, 2007 Background information Birth name

Peter Seeger

Born

May 3, 1919 Manhattan, New York, United States

Genres

Protest music, Americana, American folk music

Occupations

Musician, songwriter, activist, television host

Instruments

Banjo, guitar, recorder, mandolin, piano, ukulele

Years active

1939–present

Labels

Folkways, Columbia, CBS, Vanguard, Sony Kids’, SME

Associated acts The Weavers, The Almanac Singers, Woody Guthrie, Arlo Guthrie, Tao Rodríguez-Seeger, Leadbelly Notable instruments Martin JSO Sing Out 60th Pete Seeger Guitar, Martin J12SO Sing Out 60th Pete Seeger Guitar

Peter "Pete" Seeger (born May 3, 1919) is an American folk singer and an iconic figure in the mid-20th-century American folk music revival.[1] A fixture on nationwide radio in the 1940s, he also had a string of hit records during the early 1950s as a member of The Weavers, most notably their recording of Lead Belly's "Goodnight, Irene", which topped the charts for 13 weeks in 1950.[2] Members of The Weavers were blacklisted during the McCarthy Era. In the 1960s, he re-emerged on the public scene as a prominent singer of protest music in support of international disarmament, civil rights, and environmental causes.

As a song writer, he is best known as the author or co-author of "Where Have All the Flowers Gone?", "If I Had a Hammer (The Hammer Song)", (composed with Lee Hays of The Weavers), and "Turn, Turn, Turn!", which have been recorded by many artists both in and outside the folk revival movement and are still sung throughout the world.

"Flowers" was a hit recording for The Kingston Trio (1962); Marlene Dietrich, who recorded it in English, German and French (1962); and Johnny Rivers (1965). "If I Had a Hammer" was a hit for Peter, Paul & Mary (1962) and Trini Lopez (1963), while The Byrds popularized "Turn, Turn, Turn!" in the mid-1960s, as did Judy Collins in 1964, and The Seekers in 1966. Seeger was one of the folksingers most responsible for popularizing the spiritual "We Shall Overcome" (also recorded by Joan Baez and many other singer-activists) that became the acknowledged anthem of the 1960s American Civil Rights Movement, soon after folk singer and activist Guy Carawan introduced it at the founding meeting of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in 1960. In the PBS "American Masters" episode Pete Seeger: The Power of Song, Seeger states it was he who changed the lyric from the traditional "We will overcome" to the more singable "We shall overcome".

Pete Seeger

Family and personal life Seeger was born in French Hospital, Midtown Manhattan . His Yankee-Protestant family, which Seeger called "enormously Christian, in the Puritan, Calvinist New England tradition",[3] traced its genealogy back over 200 years. A paternal ancestor, Karl Ludwig Seeger, a physician from Wurtemberg, Germany, had emigrated to America in revolutionary times and married into an old New England family in the 1780s.[4] His namesake, Pete's father, Harvard-trained composer and musicologist Charles Louis Seeger, Jr., established the first musicology Pete Seeger, 88 years old, photographed in March curriculum in the U.S. at the University of California in 1913; helped 2008 with his friend, the writer and musician, Ed found the American Musicological Society; and was a key founder of Renehan (left) the academic discipline of ethnomusicology. Pete's mother, Constance de Clyver Edson, raised in Tunisia and trained at the Paris Conservatory of Music, was a concert violinist and later a teacher at the Juilliard School.[5] In 1912 Charles Seeger was hired to establish the music department at the University of California at Berkeley, but was forced to resign in 1918 because of his outspoken Pacifism during World War I.[6] Charles and Constance moved back east, making Charles' parents' estate in Patterson, New York, northeast of New York City, their base of operations. When baby Pete was eighteen months old, they set out with him and his two older brothers in a home-made trailer, on a quixotic mission to bring musical uplift to the working people in the American South.[7] On their return, Constance taught violin and Charles composition at the New York Institute of Musical Art (later Juilliard), whose president, family friend Frank Damrosch, was Constance's adoptive "uncle". Charles also taught part time at the New School for Social Research. Career and money tensions led to quarrels and reconciliations, but when Charles discovered Constance had opened a secret bank account in her own name, they separated, and Charles took custody of their three sons.[8] Beginning in 1936, Charles held various administrative positions in the federal government's Farm Resettlement program, the WPA's Federal Music Project (1938–1940), and the wartime Pan American Union. After World War II, he taught ethnomusicology at the University of California and Yale University.[9][10] Charles and Constance Seeger divorced when Pete Seeger was seven, and in 1932 Charles married his composition student and assistant, Ruth Crawford Seeger, now considered by many one of the most important modernist composers of the 20th century.[11] Deeply interested in folk music, Ruth had contributed musical arrangements to Carl Sandburg's extremely influential folk song anthology the American Songbag (1927) and later created significant original settings to eight of Sandburg's poems.[12] Pete's eldest brother, Charles Seeger III, was a radio astronomer, and his next older brother, John Seeger, taught in the 1950s at the Dalton School in Manhattan and was the principal from 1960 to 1976 at Fieldston Lower School in the Bronx.[13] Pete's uncle, Alan Seeger, a noted poet ("I Have a Rendezvous with Death"), had been one of the first American soldiers to be killed in First World War. All four of Pete's half siblings from his father's second marriage – Margaret (Peggy), Mike, Barbara, and Penelope (Penny) – became folk singers. Peggy Seeger, a well-known performer in her own right, was married for many years to British folk singer and activist Ewan MacColl. Mike Seeger was a founder of the New Lost City Ramblers, one of whose members, John Cohen, married Pete's half-sister Penny (herself a talented singer who died young); Barbara Seeger joined her siblings in recording folks songs for children.

In 1943, Pete married Toshi-Aline Ōta, whom he credits with being the support that helped make the rest of his life possible. Their first child, Peter Ōta Seeger, was born in 1944 and died at six months while Pete was deployed overseas. Pete never saw him.[14] They went on to have three more children: Daniel (an accomplished photographer and filmmaker); Mika (a potter and muralist); and Tinya Seeger (a potter) – and grandchildren Tao (a musician); Cassie Seeger (an artist); Kitama Cahill-Jackson (a filmmaker); Moraya; Penny; and Isabelle. Tao is a folk musician in his own right, singing and playing guitar, banjo and harmonica with the Mammals. Kitama Jackson is a

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Pete Seeger documentary filmmaker who was associate producer of the PBS documentary Pete Seeger: The Power of Song.

Seeger lives in Beacon, New York. He remains very engaged politically and maintains an active lifestyle in the Hudson Valley Region of New York, especially in the nearby City of Beacon, New York. He and Toshi purchased their land in 1949 and lived there first in a trailer, then in a log cabin they built themselves.[15]

Musical career Early work At four, Seeger was sent away to boarding school, but came home two years later, when his parents learned the school had failed to inform them he had contracted scarlet fever.[16] He attended first and second grades in Nyack, New York, where his mother lived, before entering boarding school in Ridgefield, Connecticut.[17] Despite being classical musicians, his parents did not press him to play an instrument. On his own, the otherwise bookish and withdrawn boy gravitated to the ukulele, becoming adept at entertaining his classmates with it, while laying the basis for his subsequent remarkable audience rapport. At thirteen, Seeger enrolled in the Avon Old Farms prep school in Avon, Connecticut where he graduated in 1936. He was selected to attend Camp Rising Sun, the Louis August Jonas Foundation's international summer leadership program. During the summer of 1936, while traveling with his father and stepmother, Pete heard the five-string banjo for the first time at the Mountain Dance and Folk Festival in western North Carolina near Asheville, organized by local folklorist, lecturer, and traditional music performer Bascom Lamar Lunsford, whom Charles Seeger had hired for Farm Resettlement music projects.[18] The festival took place in a covered baseball field. There the Seegers watched square-dance teams from Bear Wallow, Happy Hollow, Cane Creek, Spooks Branch, Cheoah Valley, Bull Creek, and Soco Gap; heard the five-string banjo player Samantha Bumgarner; and family string bands, including a group of Indians from the Cherokee reservation who played string instruments and sang ballads. They wandered among the crowds who camped out at the edge of the field, hearing music being make there as well. As Lunsfordâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s daughter would later recall, those country people "held the riches that Dad had discovered. They could sing, fiddle, pick the banjos, and guitars with traditional grace and style found nowhere else but deep in the mountains. I can still hear those haunting melodies drift over the ball park."[19] For the Seegers, experiencing the beauty of this music firsthand was a "conversion experience". Pete was deeply affected and, after learning basic strokes from Lunsford, spent much of the next four years trying to master the five-string banjo.[19] The teenage Seeger also sometimes accompanied his parents to regular Saturday evening gatherings in at the Greenwich Village loft of painter and art teacher Thomas Hart Benton and his wife Rita. Benton, a lover of Americana, played "Cindy" and "Old Joe Clark" with his students Charlie and Jackson Pollock; friends from the "hillbilly" recording industry; as well as avant-garde composers Carl Ruggles and Henry Cowell. It was at one of Benton's parties that Pete heard "John Henry" for the first time.[20] Seeger enrolled at Harvard College on a partial scholarship, but as he became increasingly involved with politics and folk music, his grades suffered and he lost his scholarship. He dropped out of college in 1938.[21] He dreamed of a career in journalism and also took courses in art. His first musical gig was leading students in folk singing at the Dalton School, where his aunt was principal. He polished his performance skills during summer stint of touring New York State with The Vagabond Puppeteers (Jerry Oberwager, 22; Mary Wallace, 22; and Harriet Holtzman, 23), a traveling puppet theater "inspired by rural education campaigns of post-revolutionary Mexico".[22] One of their shows coincided with a strike by dairy farmers. The group reprised its act in October in New York City. An article in the October 2, 1939, Daily Worker reported on the Puppeteers' six-week tour this way: During the entire trip the group never ate once in a restaurant. They slept out at night under the stars and cooked their own meals in the open, very often they were the guests of farmers. At rural affairs and union meetings, the farm women would bring "suppers" and would vie with each other to see who could

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Pete Seeger feed the troupe most, and after the affair the farmers would have earnest discussions about who would have the honor of taking them home for the night.

"They fed us too well," the girls reported. "And we could live the entire winter just by taking advantage of all the offers to spend a week on the farm."

In the farmers' homes they talked about politics and the farmers’ problems, about antisemitism and Unionism, about war and peace and social security—"and always," the puppeteers report, "the farmers wanted to know what can be done to create a stronger unity between themselves and city workers. They felt the need of this more strongly than ever before, and the support of the CIO in their milk strike has given them a new understanding and a new respect for the power that lies in solidarity. One summer has convinced us that a minimum of organized effort on the part of city organizations—unions, consumers’ bodies, the American Labor Party and similar groups—can not only reach the farmers but weld them into a pretty solid front with city folks that will be one of the best guarantees for progress.[23] That fall Seeger took a job in Washington, D.C., assisting Alan Lomax, a friend of his father's, at the Archive of American Folk Song of the Library of Congress. Seeger's job was to help Lomax sift through commercial "race" and "hillbilly" music and select recordings that best represented American folk music, a project funded by the music division of the Pan American Union (later the Organization of American States), of whose music division his father, Charles Seeger, was head (1938–53).[24] Lomax also encouraged Seeger's folk singing vocation, and Seeger was soon appearing as a regular performer on Alan Lomax and Nicholas Ray's weekly Columbia Broadcasting show Back Where I Come From (1940–41) alongside of Josh White, Burl Ives, Leadbelly, and Woody Guthrie (whom he had first met at Will Geer's Grapes of Wrath benefit concert for migrant workers on March 3, 1940). Back Where I Come From was unique in having a racially integrated cast, which made news when it performed in March 1941 at a command performance at the White House organized by Eleanor Roosevelt called "An Evening of Songs for American Soldiers,"[25] before an audience that included the Secretaries of War, Treasury, and the Navy, among other notables. The show was a success but was not picked up by commercial sponsors for nationwide broadcasting because of its integrated cast. During the war, Seeger also performed on nationwide radio broadcasts by Norman Corwin.

Group recordings As a self-described "split tenor" (between an alto and a tenor),[27] Pete Seeger was a founding member of two highly influential folk groups: The Almanac Singers and The Weavers. The Almanac Singers, which Seeger co-founded in 1941 with Millard Lampell and Arkansas singer and activist Lee Hays, was a topical group, designed to function as a singing newspaper promoting the industrial unionization movement,[28] racial and religious inclusion, and other progressive causes. Its personnel included, at various times: Woody Guthrie, Bess Pete Seeger entertaining Eleanor Roosevelt (center), honored guest at a racially Lomax Hawes, Baldwin "Butch" Hawes, Sis integrated Valentine's Day party marking the opening of a Canteen of the United Federal Labor, CIO, in then-segregated Washington, D.C. Photographed by Joseph Cunningham, Josh White, and Sam Gary.

[26] Horne for the Office of War Information, 1944.

As a controversial Almanac singer, the 21-year-old Seeger performed under the stage name "Pete Bowers" to avoid compromising his father's government career.

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Pete Seeger In 1950, the Almanacs were reconstituted as The Weavers, named after the title of a 1892 play by Gerhart Hauptmann about a workers' strike (which contained the lines, "We'll stand it no more, come what may!"). Besides Pete Seeger (performing under his own name), members of the Weavers included charter Almanac member Lee Hays, Ronnie Gilbert and Fred Hellerman (later, Frank Hamilton, Erik Darling and Bernie Krause serially took the place of Seeger). In the atmosphere of the 1950s red scare, the Weavers' repertoire had to be less overtly topical than that of the Almanacs had been, and its progressive message was couched in indirect languageâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;arguably rendering it even more powerful. The Weavers even on occasion performed in tuxedos (unlike the Almanacs, who had dressed informally) and their managers refused to let them perform at political venues. Because of this, the somewhat hokey string orchestra and chorus arrangements on their hit records with Decca Records, and, no doubt also because of their considerable, if temporary, financial success, the Weavers incurred criticism from some progressives for supposedly compromising their political integrity. It was a tricky dilemma, but Seeger and the other Weavers felt that the imperative of getting their music and their message out to the widest possible audience amply justified these measures. The Weavers' string of major hits began with "On Top of Old Smokey" and an arrangement of Leadbelly's signature waltz, "Goodnight, Irene," which topped the charts for 13 weeks in 1950 and was covered by many other pop singers. On the flip side of "Irene" was the Israeli song "Tzena, Tzena, Tzena." Other Weaver hits included Dusty Old Dust" ("So Long It's Been Good to Know You") (by Woody Guthrie), "Kisses Sweeter Than Wine" (by Hays, Seeger, and Lead Belly), the South African Zulu song, "Wimoweh" (about "the lion," warrior chief Shaka Zulu), to name a few.

The Weavers' performing career was abruptly derailed in 1953 at the peak of their popularity when blacklisting prompted radio stations to refuse to play their records and all their bookings were canceled. They briefly returned to the stage, however, at a sold-out reunion at Carnegie Hall in 1955 and in a subsequent reunion tour, which produced a hit version of Merle Travis's "Sixteen Tons" as well as LPs of their concert performances. "Kumbaya," a Gullah black spiritual dating from slavery days, was also introduced to wide audiences by Pete Seeger and the Weavers (in 1959), becoming a staple of Boy and Girl Scout campfires.

In the late 1950s, the Kingston Trio was formed in direct imitation of (and homage to) the Weavers, covering much of the latter's repertoire, though with a more buttoned-down, uncontroversial, and mainstream collegiate persona.

The Kingston Trio produced another phenomenal succession of Billboard chart hits and in its turn spawned a legion of imitators, laying the groundwork for the 1960s commercial folk revival.

In the documentary film Pete Seeger: The Power of Song (2007), Seeger states that he resigned from the Weavers when the three other band members agreed to perform a jingle for a cigarette commercial.

Banjo and 12-string guitar In 1948, Seeger wrote the first version of his now-classic How to Play the Five-String Banjo, a book that many banjo players credit with starting them off on the instrument. He went on to invent the Long Neck or Seeger banjo. This instrument is three frets longer than a typical banjo, is slightly longer than a bass guitar at 25 frets, and is tuned a minor third lower than the normal 5-string banjo. Hitherto strictly limited to the Appalachian region, the five-string banjo became known nationwide as the American folk instrument par excellence, largely thanks to Seeger's championing of and improvements to it. According to an unnamed musician quoted in David King Dunaway's biography, "by nesting a resonant chord between two precise notes, a melody note and a chiming note on the fifth string", Pete Seeger "gentrified" the more percussive traditional Appalachian "frailing" style, "with its vigorous hammering of the forearm and its percussive rapping of the fingernail on the banjo head."[29] Although what Dunaway's informant describes is the age-old droned frailing style, the implication is that Seeger made this more acceptable to mass audiences by omitting some of its percussive complexities, while presumably still preserving the characteristic driving rhythmic quality associated with the style.

From the late 1950s on, Seeger also accompanied himself on the 12-string guitar, an instrument of Mexican origin that had been associated with Lead Belly, who had styled himself "the King of the 12-String Guitar". Seeger's

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Pete Seeger distinctive custom-made guitars had a triangular soundhole. He combined the long scale length (approximately 28") and capo-to-key techniques that he favored on the banjo with a variant of drop-D (DADGBE) tuning, tuned two whole steps down with very heavy strings, which he played with thumb and finger picks.[30]

Introduction of the "Steel Pan" to U.S. Audiences In 1956, then "Peter" Seeger (see film credits) and his wife, Toshi, traveled to Port of Spain, Trinidad, to seek out information on the steel pan, steel drum or "Ping-Pong" as it was sometimes called. The two searched out a local panyard and proceeded to film the construction, tuning and playing of the then new, national instrument of Trinidad-Tobago.

Recent work Obama Inaugural Celebration On January 18, 2009, Seeger joined Bruce Springsteen, grandson Tao RodrĂ­guez-Seeger, and the crowd in singing the Woody Guthrie song "This Land Is Your Land" in the finale of Barack Obama's Inaugural concert in Washington, D.C.[31][32] The performance was noteworthy for the inclusion of two verses not often included in the song, one about a "private property" sign the narrator cheerfully ignores, and the other making a passing reference to a Depression-era relief office.[31][33] 90th Birthday Celebration On May 3, 2009, at The Clearwater Concert, dozens of musicians gathered in New York at Madison Square Garden to celebrate Seeger's 90th birthday (which was later televised on PBS during the summer),[34] ranging from Dave Matthews, John Mellencamp, Billy Bragg, Bruce Springsteen, Tom Morello, Ani DiFranco and Roger McGuinn to Joan Baez, Richie Havens, Tom Paxton, Ramblin' Jack Elliott and Arlo Guthrie. Cuban singer-songwriter Silvio RodrĂ­guez was also invited to appear but his visa was not approved in time by the US government. Consistent with Seeger's long-time advocacy for environmental concerns, the proceeds from the event benefited the Hudson River Sloop Clearwater,[35] a non-profit organization founded by Seeger in 1966, to defend and restore the Hudson River.

Seeger's 90th Birthday was also celebrated at The College of Staten Island on May 4.[36] Other appearances (2000s) On March 16, 2007, Pete Seeger, his sister Peggy, his brothers Mike and John, his wife Toshi, and other family members spoke and performed at a symposium and concert sponsored by the American Folklife Center in honor of the Seeger family, held at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.,[37] where Pete Seeger had been employed by the Archive of American Folk Song 67 years earlier.

On September 29, 2008, the 89-year-old singer-activist, once banned from commercial TV, made a rare national TV appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, singing "Take It From Dr. King". In September 2008, Appleseed Recordings released At 89, Seeger's first studio album in 12 years. On September 19, Pete Seeger made his first appearance at the 52nd Monterey Jazz Festival, particularly notable because the Festival does not normally feature folk artists.

On April 18, 2009, Pete Seeger performed in front of a small group of Earth Day celebrants at Teachers College in New York City. Among the songs he performed were "This Land is Your Land", "Take it From Dr. King", and "She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain".

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Pete Seeger 2010s In 2010, still active at the age of 91, Seeger co-wrote and performed the song "God's Counting on Me, God's Counting on You" with Lorre Wyatt, commenting on the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.[38] On October 21, 2011, at age 92, Pete Seeger was part of a solidarity march with Occupy Wall Street to Columbus Circle in New York City. [39] The march began with Seeger and fellow musicians exiting Symphony Space (95th and Broadway), where they had performed as part of a benefit for Seeger's Clearwater organization. Thousands of people crowded Pete Seeger by the time they reached Columbus Circle. Pete Seeger performed with his grandson, Tao Rodriguez-Seeger, Arlo Guthrie, David Amram, and other celebrated musicians.[40] The event, promoted under the name #OccupyTheCircle, was LiveStreamed, and dubbed by some as "The Pete Seeger March". [41] He contributed a spoken version of Forever Young to the 2012 album Chimes of Freedom: Songs of Bob Dylan Honoring 50 Years of Amnesty International.

On April 26, 2012, tens of thousands of Norwegians gathered in a show of unity at a rally in Oslo to sing Pete Seeger's song "My Rainbow Race" which a mass murderer had ridiculed as an example of "Marxist" brainwashing.

The shooter was on trial for killing 77 people on July 22, 2011, insisting that his victims, who included 69 children, were traitors.[42] The song, which Seeger wrote in 1971 to protest the war in Vietnam, has long been a popular children's song in Norway. Its lyrics include the lines: "Some want to take the easy way / Poisons, bombs! They think we need 'em. / Don't they know you can't kill all the unbelievers. / There's no shortcut to freedom." Folksinger Lillebjørn Nilsen, author of the Norwegian version, led a crowd of over 40,000 in singing in both Norwegian and English. "I grew up with this song and have sung it to my child," said Lill Hjønnevåg, one of the organizers of the demonstration." Another organizer, blogger Bagnhild Holmås, said that although song might be Utopian, "the message is far from cheesy. [The killer] thinks we're brainwashed anyway, but it's important to show our distance. . . ." Culture ministers from Sweden, Denmark, the Faroe Islands and Iceland joined in the singing.[43] From the U.S. Pete Seeger voiced his support of the event.

Activism 1930s and 1940s In 1936, at the age of 17, Pete Seeger joined the Young Communist League (YCL), then at the height of its popularity and influence. In 1942 he became a member of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) itself. He eventually "drifted away" (his words) from the Party in the late 1940s and 1950s.[44] In the spring of 1941, the twenty-one-year-old Seeger performed as a member of the Almanac Singers along with Millard Lampell, Cisco Houston, Woody Guthrie, Butch and Bess Lomax Hawes, and Lee Hays. Seeger and the Almanacs cut several albums of 78s on Keynote and other labels, Songs for John Doe (recorded in late February or March and released in May 1941), the Talking Union, and an album each of sea chanteys and pioneer songs. Written

by Millard Lampell, Songs for John Doe was performed by Lampell, Seeger, and Hays, joined by Josh White and Sam Gary. It contained lines such as, "It wouldn't be much thrill to die for Du Pont in Brazil," that were sharply critical of Roosevelt's unprecedented peacetime draft (enacted in September 1940). This anti-war/anti-draft tone reflected the Communist Party line after the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which maintained the war was "phony" and a mere pretext for big American corporations to get Hitler to attack Soviet Russia. Seeger has said he believed this line of argument at the time—as did many fellow members of the Young Communist League (YCL). Though nominally members of the Popular Front, which was allied with Roosevelt and more moderate liberals, the YCL's members still smarted from Roosevelt and Churchill's arms embargo to Loyalist Spain (which Roosevelt later called a mistake[45]), and the alliance frayed in the confusing welter of events.

A June 16, 1941, review in Time magazine, which under its owner, Henry Luce, had become very interventionist, denounced the Almanacs' John Doe, accusing it of scrupulously echoing what it called "the mendacious Moscow tune" that "Franklin Roosevelt is leading an unwilling people into a J. P. Morgan war." Eleanor Roosevelt, a fan of

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Pete Seeger folk music, reportedly found the album "in bad taste," though President Roosevelt, when the album was shown to him, merely observed, correctly as it turned out, that few people would ever hear it. More alarmist was the reaction of eminent German-born Harvard Professor of Government Carl Joachim Friedrich, an adviser on domestic propaganda to the US military. In a review in the June 1941 Atlantic Monthly, entitled "The Poison in Our System," he pronounced Songs for John Doe "...strictly subversive and illegal," "...whether Communist or Nazi financed," and "a matter for the attorney general," observing further that "mere" legal "suppression" would not be sufficient to counteract this type of populist poison,[46] the poison being folk music, and the ease with which it could be spread.[47] At that point, the U.S. had not yet entered the war but was energetically re-arming. African Americans were barred from working in defense plants, a situation that greatly angered both African Americans and white progressives.

Black union leaders A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin, and A. J. Muste began planning a huge march on Washington to protest racial discrimination in war industries and to urge desegregation of the armed forces. The march, which many regard as the first manifestation of the Civil Rights Movement, was canceled after President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 (The Fair Employment Act) of June 25, 1941, barring discrimination in hiring by companies holding federal contracts for defense work. This Presidential act defused black anger considerably, although the US army still refused to desegregate, declining to participate in what it called "social engineering."

Roosevelt's order came three days after Hitler broke the non-aggression pact and invaded the Soviet Union. The Communist Party now immediately directed its members to get behind the draft, and it also forbade participation in strikes for the duration of the war (angering some leftists). Copies of Songs for John Doe were removed from sale, and the remaining inventory destroyed, though a few copies may exist in the hands of private collectors.[48] The Almanac Singers' Talking Union album, on the other hand, was reissued as an LP by Folkways (FH 5285A) in 1955 and is still available. The following year the Almanacs issued Dear Mr. President, an album in support of Roosevelt and the war effort. The title song, "Dear Mr. President," was a solo by Pete Seeger, and its lines expressed his life-long credo: Now, Mr. President, / We haven't always agreed in the past, I know, / But that ain't at all important now. / What is important is what we got to do, / We got to lick Mr. Hitler, and until we do, / Other things can wait.// Now, as I think of our great land . . . / I know it ain't perfect, but it will be someday, / Just give us a little time. // This is the reason that I want to fight, / Not 'cause everything's perfect, or everything's right. / No, it's just the opposite: I'm fightin' because / I want a better America, and better laws, / And better homes, and jobs, and schools, / And no more Jim Crow, and no more rules like / "You can't ride on this train 'cause you're a Negro," / "You can't live here 'cause you're a Jew,"/ "You can't work here 'cause you're a union man."// So, Mr. President, / We got this one big job to do / That's lick Mr. Hitler and when we're through, / Let no one else ever take his place / To trample down the human race. / So what I want is you to give me a gun / So we can hurry up and get the job done.

Seeger's critics, however, have continued to bring up the Almanacs' repudiated Songs for John Doe. In 1942, a year after the John Doe album's brief appearance (and disappearance), the FBI decided that the now-pro-war Almanacs were still endangering the war effort by subverting recruitment. According to the New York World Telegram (February 14, 1942), Carl Friedrich's 1941 article "The Poison in Our System" was printed up as a pamphlet and distributed by the Council for Democracy (an organization that Friedrich and Henry Luce's right hand man, C. D. Jackson, Vice President of Time magazine, had founded "...to combat all the nazi, fascist, communist, pacifist..." antiwar groups in the United States).[49] and was shown to the Almanac's employers in order to keep them off the air.

Coincidentally, defamatory reviews and gossip items appeared in New York newspapers whenever they performed in public, and ultimately the Almanacs had to disband.[50]

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Pete Seeger Seeger served in the US Army in the Pacific. He was trained as an airplane mechanic, but was reassigned to entertain the American troops with music. Later, when people asked him what he did in the war, he always answered "I strummed my banjo." After returning from service, Seeger and others established People's Songs, conceived as a nationwide organization with branches on both coasts and designed to "Create, promote and distribute songs of labor and the American People"[51] With Pete Seeger as its director, People's Songs worked for the 1948 presidential campaign of Roosevelt's former Secretary of Agriculture and Vice President, Henry A. Wallace, who ran as a third-party candidate on the Progressive Party ticket. Despite having attracted enormous crowds nationwide, however, Wallace won only in New York City, and, in the red-baiting frenzy that followed, he was excoriated (as Roosevelt had not been) for accepting the help in his campaign of Communists and fellow travelers such as Seeger and singer Paul Robeson.[52]

Spanish Civil War songs Seeger had been a fervent supporter of the Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War. In 1943, with Tom Glazer and Bess and Baldwin Hawes, he recorded an album of 78s called Songs of the Lincoln Battalion on Moe Asch's Stinson label. This included such songs as "There's a Valley in Spain called Jarama," and "Viva la Quinta Brigada."

In 1960, this collection was re-issued by Moe Asch as one side of a Folkways LP called Songs of the Lincoln and International Brigades. On the other side was a reissue of the legendary Six Songs for Democracy (originally recorded in Barcelona in 1938 while bombs were falling), performed by Ernst Busch and a chorus of members of the Th채lmann Battalion, made up of refugees from Nazi Germany. The songs were: "Moorsoldaten" ("Peat Bog Soldiers", composed by political prisoners of German concentration camps), "Die Thaelmann-Kolonne," "Hans Beimler," "Das Lied Von Der Einheitsfront" ("Song of The United Front" by Hanns Eisler and Bertolt Brecht), "Der Internationalen Brigaden" ("Song Of The International Brigades"), and "Los cuatro generales" ("The Four Generals," known in English as "The Four Insurgent Generals").

1950s and early 1960s In the 1950s and, indeed, consistently throughout his life, Seeger continued his support of civil and labor rights, racial equality, international understanding, and anti-militarism (all of which had characterized the Wallace campaign) and he continued to believe that songs could help people achieve these goals. With the ever-growing revelations of Joseph Stalin's atrocities and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, however, he became increasingly disillusioned with Soviet Communism. In his PBS biography, Seeger said he "drifted away" from the CPUSA beginning in 1949 but remained friends with some who did not leave it, though he argued with them about it.[53][54] On August 18, 1955, Seeger was subpoenaed to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Alone among the many witnesses after the 1950 conviction and imprisonment of the Pete Seeger in 1955 Hollywood Ten for contempt of Congress, Seeger refused to plead the Fifth Amendment (which asserted that his testimony might be self incriminating) and instead (as the Hollywood Ten had done) refused to name personal and political associations on the grounds that this would violate his First Amendment rights: "I am not going to answer any questions as to my association, my philosophical or religious beliefs or my political beliefs, or how I voted in any election, or any of these private affairs. I think these are very improper questions for any American to be asked, especially under such compulsion as this."[55] Seeger's refusal to testify led to a March 26, 1957, indictment for contempt of Congress; for some years, he had to keep the federal government apprised of where he was going any time he left the Southern

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Pete Seeger District of New York. He was convicted in a jury trial of contempt of Congress in March 1961, and sentenced to 10 years in jail (to be served simultaneously), but in May 1962 an appeals court ruled the indictment to be flawed and overturned his conviction.[56][57] In 1960, the San Diego school board told him that he could not play a scheduled concert at a high school unless he signed an oath pledging that the concert would not be used to promote a communist agenda or an overthrow of the government. Seeger refused, and the American Civil Liberties Union obtained an injunction against the school district, allowing the concert to go on as scheduled. In February 2009, the San Diego School District officially extended an apology to Seeger for the actions of their predecessors.[58]

Vietnam War era A longstanding opponent of the arms race and of the Vietnam War, Seeger satirically attacked then-President Lyndon Johnson with his 1966 recording, on the album Dangerous Songs!?, of Len Chandler's children's song, "Beans in My Ears". Beyond Chandler's lyrics, Seeger said that "Mrs. Jay's little son Alby" had "beans in his ears," which, as the lyrics imply,[59] ensures that a person does not hear what is said to them. To those opposed to continuing the Vietnam War, the phrase implied that "Alby Jay" was a loose pronunciation of Johnson's nickname "LBJ," and sarcastically suggested "that must explain why he doesn't respond to the protests against his war policies."

Seeger attracted wider attention starting in 1967 with his song "Waist Deep in the Big Muddy", about a captainâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;referred to in the lyrics as "the big fool"â&#x20AC;&#x201D;who drowned while leading a platoon on maneuvers in Louisiana during World War II. In the face of arguments with the management of CBS about whether the song's political weight was in keeping with the usually light-hearted entertainment of the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, the final lines were "Every time I read the paper/those old feelings come on/We are waist deep in the Big Muddy and the big fool says to push on." The lyrics could be interpreted as an allegory of Johnson as the "big fool" and the Vietnam War as the foreseeable danger. Although the performance was cut from the September 1967 show,[60] after wide publicity[61] it was broadcast when Seeger appeared again on the Smothers' Brothers show in the following January.[62] Inspired by Woody Guthrie, whose guitar was labeled "This machine kills fascists",photo Seeger's banjo was emblazoned with the motto "This Machine Surrounds Hate and Forces It to Surrender." photo [63] In the documentary film The Power of Song, Seeger mentions that he and his family visited North Vietnam in 1972.[64]

Environmentalism Seeger is involved in the environmental organization Hudson River Sloop Clearwater, which he co-founded in 1966.

This organization has worked since then to highlight pollution in the Hudson River and worked to clean it. As part of that effort, the sloop Clearwater was launched in 1969 with its inaugural sail down from Maine to South Street Seaport Museum in New York City, and thence to the Hudson River.[65] Amongst the inaugural crew was Don McLean, who co-edited the book Songs and Sketches of the First Clearwater Crew, with sketches by Thomas B. Allen for which Seeger wrote the foreword.[66] Seeger and McLean sang "Shenandoah" on the 1974 Clearwater album. The sloop regularly sails the river with volunteer and professional crew members, primarily conducting environmental education programs for school groups. The Great Hudson River Revival (aka Clearwater Festival) is an annual two-day music festival held on the banks of the Hudson at Croton Point Park. This festival grew out of early fundraising concerts arranged by Seeger and friends to raise money to pay for Clearwater's construction.

Seeger wrote and performed "That Lonesome Valley" about the then-polluted Hudson River in 1969, and his band members also wrote and performed songs commemorating the Clearwater.

Seeger was inspired to clean the Hudson because he believed the river is a beautiful part of nature, and that if it were taken care of, it could be a place to bring people together. The Hudson was filled with oil pollution, sewage, and

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Pete Seeger toxic chemicals that were killing off any life in it. Pete Seeger had a goal to change this, and took action to accomplish that goal.

The 106-foot-long sailboat, Clearwater, was built to conduct science-based environmental education aboard the sailing ship. Not only has this project allowed for the clean-up of the river, but also for many people to experience a first-hand look into water chemistry, and the river's ecosystem. Clearwater has education programs with many colleges and institutions, including SUNY New Paltz, and Pace University. The sail ship has become widely recognized for its key role in the environmental movement. Every summer, the Clearwater Festival brings Hudson Valley residents together to enjoy music, their cultural heritage, and support a good cause.[67]

Solo career and the folk song revival To earn money during the blacklist period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, Seeger had gigs as a music teacher in schools and summer camps and traveled the college campus circuit. He also recorded as many as five albums a year for Moe Asch's Folkways Records label. As the nuclear disarmament movement picked up steam in the late 1950s and early 1960s, Seeger's anti-war songs, such as, "Where Have All the Flowers Gone?" (co-written with Joe Hickerson), "Turn, Turn, Turn", adapted from the Book of Ecclesiastes, and "The Bells of Rhymney" by the Welsh poet Idris Davies[68] (1957), gained wide currency. Seeger also was closely associated with the 1960s Civil Rights movement and in 1963 helped organize a landmark Carnegie Hall Concert, featuring the youthful Freedom Singers, as a benefit for the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee. This event and Martin Luther King's March on Washington in August of that year, in which Seeger and other folk singers participated, brought the Civil Rights anthem "We Shall Overcome" to wide audiences. A version of this song, submitted by Zilphia Horton of Highlander, had been published in Seeger's People's Songs Bulletin as early as in 1947.

By this time Seeger was a senior figure in the 1960s folk revival centered in Greenwich Village, as a longtime columnist in Sing Out!, the successor to the People's Songs Bulletin, and as a founder of the topical Broadside magazine. To describe the new crop of politically committed folk singers, he coined the phrase "Woody's children", alluding to his associate and traveling companion, Woody Guthrie, who by this time had become a legendary figure.

This urban folk-revival movement, a continuation of the activist tradition of the 1930s and 1940s and of People's Songs, used adaptations of traditional tunes and lyrics to effect social change, a practice that goes back to the Industrial Workers of the World or Wobblies' Little Red Song Book, compiled by Swedish-born union organizer Joe Hill (1879â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1915). (The Little Red Song Book had been a favorite of Woody Guthrie's, who was known to carry it around.)

Pete Seeger toured Australia in 1963. His single "Little Boxes", written by Malvina Reynolds, was number one in the nation's Top 40s. That tour sparked a folk boom throughout the country at a time when post Kennedy assassination popular musical tastes competed between folk, the surfing craze and the British rock boom which gave the world The Beatles, The Rolling Stones among others. Folk clubs sprung up all over the nation, folk performers were accepted in established venues and Australian performers singing Australian folk songs many of their own composing, emerged in concert and festivals, on television and on recordings and overseas performers were encouraged to tour Australia. In 1993 the Australian singer/playwright Maurie Mulheron assembled a musical biography of Seeger's, and friends', work in a stage production One Word ... WE!. It enjoyed a long and sold-out season at the New Theatre in the inner Sydney suburb of Newtown. It was reprised in 2000 and most recently at the Tom Mann Theatre, a Trade Union-owned and operated theatre in Surry Hills, also in inner Sydney, on 12, 13 and 14 June 2009. 2009, and the company has also taken the show on tour to folk festivals at Maleny and Woodford in Queensland, and Port Fairy in Victoria. Mulheron was its Musical Director and it was directed by Frank Barnes.

A DVD of Seeger's 1963 Melbourne Town Hall concert has been released by The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). It is an historical document in black and white and is well worth owning. The Sydney-based instrumental and vocal ensemble Loosely Woven based at Humph Hall on the Northern Beaches of Sydney, showcased Seeger's work and times in one of its 2009 seasons, to celebrate the Pete Seeger ninetieth birthday.

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Pete Seeger Loosely Woven's Artistic Director Wayne Richmond and his new wife Gial, attended the 2011 Clearwater Festival and met Pete Seeger..

The long television blacklist of Seeger began to end in the mid-1960s when he hosted a regionally broadcast, educational folk-music television show, Rainbow Quest. Among his guests were Johnny Cash, June Carter, Reverend Gary Davis, Mississippi John Hurt, Doc Watson, The Stanley Brothers, Elizabeth Cotten, Patrick Sky, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Tom Paxton, Judy Collins, Donovan, Richard Fari単a and Mimi Fari単a, Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee, Mamou Cajun Band, Bernice Johnson Reagon, The Beers Family, Roscoe Holcomb, Malvina Reynolds, and Shawn Phillips. Thirty-nine[53] hour-long programs were recorded at WNJU's Newark studios in 1965 and 1966, produced by Seeger and his wife Toshi, with Sholom Rubinstein. The Smothers Brothers ended Seeger's national blacklisting by broadcasting him singing "Waist Deep in the Big Muddy" on their CBS variety show on February 25, 1968, after his similar performance in September 1967 was censored by CBS.[69] In November 1976 Seeger wrote and recorded the anti-death penalty song "Delbert Tibbs" about then death-row inmate Delbert Tibbs, who was later exonerated. Seeger wrote the music and selected the words from poems written

by Tibbs. [70] Pete Seeger and Bob Dylan Pete Seeger was one of the earliest backers of Bob Dylan and was responsible for urging John Hammond to produce Dylan's first LP on Columbia and for inviting him to perform at the Newport Folk Festival, of which Seeger was a board member.[71] There was a widely repeated story that Seeger was so upset over the extremely loud amplified sound that Dylan, backed by members of the Butterfield Blues Band, brought into the 1965 Newport Folk Festival that he threatened to disconnect the equipment. There are multiple versions of what went on, some fanciful. What is certain is that tensions had been running high between Dylan's manager, Albert Grossman and Festival Board members (who besides Seeger also included Theodore Bikel, Bruce Jackson, Alan Lomax, festival MC Peter Yarrow, and George Wein) over the scheduling of performers and other matters. Two days earlier there had been a scuffle and brief exchange of blows between Grossman and Alan Lomax; and the Board, in an emergency session, had voted to ban Grossman from the grounds, but had backed off when George Wein pointed out that Grossman also managed highly popular draws Odetta and Peter, Paul, and Mary.[72] Seeger has been portrayed as a folk "purist" who was one of the main opponents to Dylan's "going electric".[73] but when asked in 2001 about how he recalled his "objections" to the electric style, he said: I couldn't understand the words. I wanted to hear the words. It was a great song, "Maggie's Farm," and the sound was distorted. I ran over to the guy at the controls and shouted, "Fix the sound so you can hear the words." He hollered back, "This is the way they want it." I said "Damn it, if I had an axe, I'd cut the cable right now." But I was at fault. I was the MC, and I could have said to the part of the crowd that booed Bob, "you didn't boo Howlin' Wolf yesterday. He was electric!" Though I still prefer to hear Dylan acoustic, some of his electric songs are absolutely great. Electric music is the vernacular of the second half of the twentieth century, to use my father's old term.[74]

Repudiation of Stalin In 1982 Seeger performed at a benefit concert for Poland's Solidarity resistance movement. His biographer David Dunaway considers this the first public manifestation of Seeger's decades-long personal dislike of communism in its Soviet form.[75] In the late 1980s Seeger also expressed disapproval of violent revolutions, remarking to an interviewer that he was really in favor of incremental change and that "the most lasting revolutions are those that take place over a period of time."[75] In his autobiography Where Have All the Flowers Gone (1993 and 1997 reissued in 2009), Seeger wrote, "Should I apologize for all this? I think so." He went on to put his thinking in context:

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Pete Seeger

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How could Hitler have been stopped? Litvinov, the Soviet delegate to the League of Nations in '36, proposed a worldwide quarantine but got no takers. For more on those times check out pacifist Dave Dellinger's book, From Yale to Jail....[76] At any rate, today I'll apologize for a number of things, such as thinking that Stalin was merely a "hard driver" and not a "supremely cruel misleader." I guess anyone who calls himself a Christian should be prepared to apologize for the Inquisition, the burning of heretics

by Protestants, the slaughter of Jews and Muslims by Crusaders. White people in the U.S.A ought to apologize for stealing land from Native Americans and enslaving blacks. Europeans could apologize for worldwide conquests, Mongolians for Genghis Khan. And supporters of Roosevelt could apologize for his support of Somoza, of Southern White Democrats, of Franco Spain, for putting Japanese Americans in concentration camps. Who should my granddaughter Moraya apologize to? She's part African, part European, part Chinese, part Japanese, part Native American. Let's look ahead.[77][78] In a 1995 interview, however, he insisted that "I still call myself a communist, because communism is no more what Russia made of it than Christianity is what the churches make of it."[79] In recent years, as the aging Seeger began to garner awards and recognition for his life-long activism, he also found himself attacked once again for his opinions and associations of the 1930s and 1940s. In 2006, David Boaz—Voice of America and NPR commentator and president of the libertarian Cato Institute—wrote an opinion piece in The Guardian, entitled "Stalin's Songbird" in which he excoriated The New Yorker and The New York Times for lauding Seeger. He characterized Seeger as "someone with a longtime habit of following the party line" who had only "eventually" parted ways with the CPUSA. In support of this view, he quoted lines from the Almanac Singers' May 1941 Songs for John Doe, contrasting them darkly with lines supporting the war from Dear Mr. President, issued in 1942, after the USA and the USSR had entered the war.[80][81] In 2007, in response to criticism from a former banjo student—historian Ron Radosh, a former Trotskyite who now writes for the conservative National Review—Seeger wrote a song condemning Stalin, "Big Joe Blues":[82] "I'm singing about old Joe, cruel Joe. / He ruled with an iron hand. /He put an end to the dreams / Of so many in every land. / He had a chance to make / A brand new start for the human race. / Instead he set it back / Right in the same nasty place. / I got the Big Joe Blues. / Keep your mouth shut or you will die fast. / I got the Big Joe Blues. / Do this job, no questions asked. / I got the Big Joe Blues."[83] The song was accompanied by a letter to Radosh, in which Seeger stated, "I think you’re right, I should have asked to see the gulags when I was in U.S.S.R [in 1965]."[78] Thursday, April 26, 2012, Pete Seeger's song "My Rainbow Race" were sung by 40 000 people in Oslo, Norway.

The Norwegian version, "Barn av regnbuen", translated by Lillebjørn Nielsen, 1973. The occasion was the ongoing trial against the fascist Anders Behring Breivik, who shot and killed 69 youths on Utøya, July 22, 2011, and wounded many more.

Selected discography Release Date

Album Title

Record Label

2012

The Complete Bowdoin College Concert 1960

Smithsonian Folkways

2009

American Favorite Ballads, The Complete Collection Vol.1-5

Smithsonian Folkways

2009

"Pete Seeger at Bard College" credited to "Ono Okoy and the Banshees," a student performance art group dedicated to "preserving the footsteps of Pete Seeger" by singing folk music and recording his footsteps.

Appleseed Recordings

2008

At 89

Appleseed Recordings

2007

American Favorite Ballads, Vol. 5

Smithsonian Folkways

Pete Seeger

115

2006

American Favorite Ballads, Vol. 4

Smithsonian Folkways

2004

American Favorite Ballads, Vol. 3

Smithsonian Folkways

2003

American Favorite Ballads, Vol. 2

Smithsonian Folkways

2002

American Favorite Ballads, Vol. 1

Smithsonian Folkways

2000

American Folk, Game and Activity Songs

Smithsonian Folkways

1998

Headlines and Footnotes: A Collection of Topical Songs

Smithsonian Folkways

1998

If I Had a Hammer: Songs of Hope and Struggle

Smithsonian Folkways

1998

Birds, Beasts, Bugs and Fishes (Little and Big)

Smithsonian Folkways

1996

Pete

Living Music [84] Records

1993

Darling Corey/Goofing-Off Suite

Smithsonian Folkways

1992

American Industrial Ballads (Reissue of 1956 album)

Smithsonian Folkways

1991

Abiyoyo and Other Story Songs for Children

Smithsonian Folkways

1990

Folk Songs for Young People

Smithsonian Folkways

1990

American Folk Songs for Children

Smithsonian Folkways

1989

Traditional Christmas Carols

Smithsonian Folkways

1980

God Bless the Grass

Folkways Records

1979

Circles & Seasons

Warner Bros.

Records

1974

Banks of Marble and Other Songs

Folkways Records

1973

Rainbow Race

Columbia Records

1968

Wimoweh and Other Songs of Freedom and Protest

Folkways Records

1967

"Waist Deep In The Big Muddy And Other Love Songs"

Columbia Records

1966

Dangerous Songs!?

Columbia Records

1966

God Bless The Grass

Columbia Records

1964

Songs of Struggle and Protest, 1930-50

Folkways Records

1964

Broadsides - Songs and Ballads

Folkways Records

1962

12-String Guitar as Played by Lead Belly

Folkways Records

1961

"Story Songs"

Columbia Records

1960

At The Village Gate

Folkways Records

Pete Seeger

116

1960

Champlain Valley Songs

Folkways Records

1959

American Play Parties

Folkways Records

1958

Gazette, Vol. 1

Folkways Records

1957

American Ballads

Folkways Records

1956

With Voices Together We Sing

Folkways Records

1956

Love Songs for Friends and Foes

Folkways Records

1955

"The Folksinger's Guitar Guide (Instruction)

Folkways Records

1955

Bantu Choral Folk Songs

Folkways Records

1954

How to Play a 5-String Banjo (instruction)

Folkways Records

1954

The Pete Seeger Sampler

Folkways Records

Tribute albums In 1998 Appleseed Records issued a double-CD tribute album: Where Have All the Flowers Gone: the Songs of Pete Seeger, which included readings by Studs Terkel and songs by Billy Bragg, Jackson Browne, Eliza Carthy, Judy Collins, Bruce Cockburn, Donovan, Ani DiFranco, Dick Gaughan, Nanci Griffith, Richie Havens, Indigo Girls, Roger McGuinn, Holly Near, Odetta, Tom Paxton, Bonnie Raitt, Martin Simpson, and Bruce Springsteen, among others.

In 2001, Appleseed release "If I Had a Song: The Songs of Pete Seeger, Vol. 2." In 2003, it issued the double-CD Seeds: The Songs of Pete Seeger, Volume 3, the final set in its trilogy of releases celebrating Seeger's music.

In April 2006 Bruce Springsteen released a collection of folk songs associated with Seeger's repertoire, titled, We Shall Overcome: The Seeger Sessions (which some reviewers noted that, oddly, contained no songs actually composed by Seeger). Springsteen and his band also toured to sellout crowds in a series of concerts based on those sessions. He had previously performed the Seeger staple, "We Shall Overcome", on Where Have All the Flowers Gone.

In the 1970s Harry Chapin released a song dedicated to Seeger called "Old Folkie".

Awards Seeger has been the recipient of many awards and recognitions throughout his career, including : • The Mid Hudson Civic Center Hall of Fame (2008)

• • • • • • • • • •

• Seeger and Arlo Guthrie performed the first public concert at the Poughkeepsie, New York not-for-profit family entertainment venue, close to Seeger's home, in 1976.[85] Grandson Tao Rodríguez-Seeger accepted the Hall of Fame plaque on behalf of his grandfather.

The Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (1993) The National Medal of Arts from the National Endowment for the Arts (1994) Kennedy Center Lifetime Achievement Honor (1994) The Harvard Arts Medal (1996) "The James Smithson Bicentennial Medal [86]" (1996) Induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (1996) Grammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Album of 1996 for his record "Pete" (1997) The Felix Varela Medal, Cuba's highest honor for "his humanistic and artistic work in defense of the environment and against racism" (1999) The Schneider Family Book Award for his children's picture book "The Deaf Musicians." (2007) The Letelier-Moffitt Human Rights Award (1986)

Pete Seeger • • • •

The Eugene V. Debs Award (1979) Grammy Award for best traditional album of 2008 for his record "At 89" (2008) A proposal to name the Walkway Over the Hudson in his honor.[87] The Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award for his commitment to peace and social justice as a musician, songwriter, activist, and environmentalist that spans over sixty years. (2008) • The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize (2009)

Quotes From Seeger • "Some may find them [songs] merely diverting melodies. Others may find them incitements to Red revolution.

And who will say if either or both is wrong? Not I."[88] • "I like to say I'm more conservative than Goldwater. He just wanted to turn the clock back to when there was no income tax. I want to turn the clock back to when people lived in small villages and took care of each other."[89] • "Technology will save us if it doesn't wipe us out first."[90] • "I still call myself a communist, because communism is no more what Russia made of it than Christianity is what the churches make of it. But if by some freak of history communism had caught up with this country, I would have been one of the first people thrown in jail."[79] • "I certainly should apologize for saying that Stalin was a hard driver rather than a very cruel leader. I don't speak out about a lot of things. I don't talk about slavery. A lot of white people in America could apologize for stealing land from the Indians and enslaving Africans. Europe could apologize for worldwide conquest. Mongolia could apologize for Genghis Khan. But I think the thing to do is look ahead."[78] • "There is hope for the world." – in Pete Seeger: The Power of Song.

• "We sang about Alabama 1955, / But since 9-11, we wonder, will this world survive? / The world learned a lesson from Dr. King: / We can survive, we can, we will, and so we sing – // Don’t say it can’t be done, / The battle's just begun. / Take it from Dr. King, / You too can learn to sing, / So drop the gun."[91] • "I believe God is everywhere."[92] • "Singing with children in the schools has been the most rewarding experience of my life." – Seeger, October 17, 2009, at community concert in Beacon, New York • "I usually quote Plato, who said: It is very dangerous to allow the wrong kind of music in the republic." 0:45 @[93]

From others Jim Musselman (founder of Appleseed Recordings), longtime friend and record producer for Pete Seeger: He was one of the few people who invoked the First Amendment in front of the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HCUA). Everyone else had said the Fifth Amendment, the right against self-incrimination, and then they were dismissed. What Pete did, and what some other very powerful people who had the guts and the intestinal fortitude to stand up to the committee and say, "I'm gonna invoke the First Amendment, the right of freedom of association...." ...I was actually in law school when I read the case of United States v. Seeger, and it really changed my life, because I saw the courage of what he had done and what some other people had done by invoking the First Amendment, saying, "We're all Americans. We can associate with whoever we want to, and it doesn't matter who we associate with." That's what the founding fathers set up democracy to be. So I just really feel it's an important part of history that people need to remember."[90] Raffi on his concert video "Raffi on Broadway" during the introduction of May There Always Be Sunshine:

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Pete Seeger "And this song is the one that I first heard Pete Seeger singing. And he tells me that it was written by a four-year-old boy in Russia. And it's just got four lines and it's been translated into a number of languages."

Notes [1] See Richard Silverstein, "Happy Birthday, Pete Seeger (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ commentisfree/ cifamerica/ 2009/ apr/ 30/ pete-seeger-birthday-90-music), Guardian UK, April 30, 2009: "As the iconic folk singer turns 90, we can say that America is a far better country for his having shared his music with us. Pete Seeger, the American troubadour and balladeer of the common man." For Pete Seeger as a cultural icon see also: Minna Bromberg and Alan Fine, "Resurrecting the Red: Pete Seeger and the Purificaton of Difficult Reputations", Social Forces, Vol. 80 (June 2002), No. 4, pp. 1135–1155. They write:

We chart Seeger's reputation through four historical periods: recognition among his peers on the Left (1940s), ruin in the McCarthy period (1950-62), renown among sympathetic subcultures (1960s), and institutionalization as a cultural icon. While it has clear advantages, institutionalization can also have a dampening effect on an artist's oppositional potency.

[2] Alec Wilkinson, "The Protest Singer: Pete Seeger and American folk music," in The New Yorker (April 17, 2006), pp. 44–53.

[3] David King Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing (New York: [Random House, 1981, 1990], revised edition, Villard Books, 2008), p.

17.

[4] See Ann M. Pescatello, Charles Seeger: A Life in American Music (University of Pittsburg, 1992), pp. 4-5. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LRP0Q7LJU_IC& pg=PA5& dq=Ann+ M. + Pescatello+ great-grandfather+ Karl+ Ludwig+ Seeger& hl=en& sa=X& ei=LZ5iT-uyKuLw0gGH4tCqCA& ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) [5] [6] [7] [8]

Dunaway (2008), p. 20.

According to Dunaway, the British-born president of the university "all but fired" Charles Seeger (How Can I Keep From Singing, p. 26).

Ann Pescatello, Charles Seeger: A Life In Music, 83–85.

Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, p. 32. Frank Damrosch, siding with Constance, fired Charles from Juilliard, see Judith Tick, Ruth Crawford Seeger: a Composer's Search for American Music (Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 224–25.

[9] Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, pp. 22, 24.

[10] Winkler (2009), p. 4.

[11] See Judith Tick, Ruth Crawford Seeger: a Composer's Search for American Music, 1997). (http:/ / books. google. com/ books/ about/ Ruth_Crawford_Seeger. html?id=xwLTDOR8LUYC') [12] David Lewis, Ruth Crawford Seeger Biography in 600 Words on website of her daughter, Peggy Seeger. (http:/ / www. peggyseeger. com/ ruth-crawford-seeger/ ruth-crawford-seeger-biography) [13] "John Seeger Dies at 95" (http:/ / peteseegersite. wordpress. com/ 2010/ 01/ 18/ john-seeger-dies-at-95/ ). WordPress.com. 18 January 2010. . Retrieved 5 November 2010.

[14] Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, p. 131.

[15] Wilkinson, The Protest Singer (2006), pp. 47–48.

[16] Wilkinson, "The Protest Singer" (2006) p. 50 and Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, p. 32.

[17] Alec Wilkinson, The Protest Singer: An Intimate Portrait of Pete Seeger (New York: Knopf, 2009), p. 43.

[18] Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, pp. 48-49.

[19] Judith Tick, Ruth Crawford Seeger, p. 239.

[20] Judith Tick, Ruth Crawford Seeger, p. 235. According to John Szwed, Jackson Pollock, later famous for his "drip" paintings, played harmonica, having smashed his violin in frustration, see: Alan Lomax: The Man Who Recorded the World (Viking, 2010), p. 88.

[21] According to Wilkinson, "The Protest Singer" (2006), p. 51, after failing one of his winter exams and losing his scholarship.

[22] Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, pp. 61–63.

[23] Emery, Lawrence, "Interesting Summer: Young Puppeteers in Unique Tour of Rural Areas," quoted on Pete Seeger website (http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ DW10021939. htm) [24] The resultant 22-page mimeographed "List of American Folk Music on Commercial Recordings", issued in 1940 and mailed by Lomax out to academic folklore scholars, became the basis of Harry Smith's celebrated Anthology of American Folk Music on Folkways Records. Seeger also did similar work for Lomax at Decca in the late 1940s.

[25] Folk Songs in the White House (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,851095,00. html), Time, March 3, 1941. Accessed online 30 September 2008.

[26] From the Washington Post, February 12, 1944: "The Labor Canteen, sponsored by the United Federal Workers of America, CIO, will be opened at 8 p.m. tomorrow at 1212 18th st. nw. Mrs. Roosevelt is expected to attend at 8:30 p.m."

[27] Wilkinson, "The Protest Singer" (2006), p. 47.

[28] See the Wikipedia entry on the CIO. [29] Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, p. 100.

[30] Acoustic Guitar Central (http:/ / www. acousticguitar. com/ issues/ ag115/ gear115. html).

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Pete Seeger [31] Tommy Stevenson, "'This Land Is Your Land' Like Woody Wrote It" (http:/ / blogs. tuscaloosanews. com/ default. asp?item=2317698), Tuscaloosa News, January 18, 2009. Accessed January 19, 2009.

[32] Maria Puente and Elysa Gardner, "Inauguration opening concert celebrates art of the possible" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ life/ music/ news/ 2009-01-18-inaug-concert_N. htm?loc=interstitialskip), USA Today, January 19, 2008. Accessed January 20, 2009.

[33] YouTube: Pete Seeger and Bruce Springsteen at the inaugural concert at the Lincoln Memorial (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=3YlLtmMV8zs). Accessed January 20, 2009.

[34] Web site announcing Seeger's 90th birthday celebration (http:/ / www. seeger90. com) [35] Hudson River Sloop Clearwater (http:/ / www. clearwater. org/ ).

[36] Here are links to other "For Pete's Sake: Sing!" 90th-birthday shows on Sunday, May 3: Seattle, WA (http:/ / thehistoricadmiraltheater. com/ index_files/ Page1277. htm), Sequim, WA (http:/ / www. sequimgazette. com/ topstory/ articleDetail. exm/ Index/ article/ 2009-04-28_For_Pete__146_s_sake__party_in_Sequim/ ), Bellingham, WA (http:/ / www. lindasongs. com/ pages/ itinerary. htm), Huntington, NY (http:/ / fmshny. org/ concerts. htm), Telkwa, BC (http:/ / tools. bcweb. net/ smithers/ events. shtml?x�023& cmd[59]=x-77-14023), Ithaca, NY (http:/ / www. jimharpermusic. com/ forpetessakesing. html), Richmond, VA (http:/ / www. thecamel. org/ ), Rockville, MD (http:/ / upcoming. yahoo. com/ event/ 2396756/ ), Boston, MA (http:/ / www. fssgb. org/ fssprty. shtml#pete), Sherborn, MA (http:/ / my. calendars. net/ peaceabbey/ d01/ 05/ 2009?display=M& style=C& positioning=A), Knoxville, TN (http:/ / www. sparkyandrhonda. com/ schedule. html), Dayton, OH (http:/ / www. daytonpeacemuseum. org/ PETEFLYER2. pdf), in Australia (http:/ / unionsong. com/ seeger90. html), in Scotland (http:/ / www. girvanfolkfestival. co. uk/ 2009programme. html).

[37] "How Can I Keep from Singing?": A Seeger Family Tribute (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ folklife/ Seegersymposium/ ). 2007 symposium and concert, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress (web presentation includes program, photographs, and webcasts).

[38] Patrick Doyle, Video: Pete Seeger Debuts New BP Protest Song: Songwriter talks inspiration behind "God's Counting on Me, God's Counting on You" (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ music/ news/ 17386/ 184956), Rolling Stone online, 26 July 2010. Retrieved 27 July 2010.

[39] http:/ / cityroom. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2011/ 10/ 22/ pete-seeger-leads-protesters-on-foot-and-in-song/ [40] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=4IPd_OkeVtI [41] http:/ / www. livestream. com/ occupywallstnyc/ video?clipId=pla_fd66aee4-aeb5-484d-b024-a115be577628 [42] Balazs Korany and Victoria Klesty, "Tens of thousands gather to sing song Anders Breivik hates", Vancouver Sun, April 26, 2012. (http:/ / www. vancouversun. com/ entertainment/ Some+ Norwegians+ gather+ sing+ song+ Anders+ Behring+ Breivik+ hates+ police/ 6521469/ story. html) [43] "Breivik trial: Norwegians rally around peace song," BBC World News, Europe, 26 April 2012. (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-europe-17852176) [44] He later commented "Innocently I became a member of the Communist Party, and when they said fight for peace, I did, and when they said fight Hitler, I did. I got out in ’49, though.... I should have left much earlier. It was stupid of me not to. My father had got out in ’38, when he read the testimony of the trials in Moscow, and he could tell they were forced confessions. We never talked about it, though, and I didn’t examine closely enough what was going on.... I thought Stalin was the brave secretary Stalin, and had no idea how cruel a leader he was."

Wilkinson, "The Protest Singer" (2006), p. 52; see also The Protest Singer: An Intimate Portrait (2009), p. 114.

[45] Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 180. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xTKvo-cXv3EC& dq=Roosevelt+ refusal+ to+ aid+ Loyalist+ Spain+ mistake& source=gbs_navlinks_s|Robert,) [46] "The Poison in Our System" (excerpt from the Atlantic Monthly) by Carl Joachim Friedrich (http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ poison. htm).

Note: Dunaway misses the significance of military propagandist Carl Joachim Friedrich, when he mistakenly refers to him as "Karl Frederick," an error other writers who relied on Dunaway repeated.

[47] Friedrich's review concluded: "The three records sell for one dollar and you are asked to ‘play them in your home, play them in your union hall, take them back to your people.’ Probably some of these songs fall under the criminal provisions of the Selective Service Act, and to that extent it is a matter for the Attorney-General. But you never can handle situations of this kind democratically by mere suppression. Unless civic groups and individuals will make a determined effort to counteract such appeals by equally effective methods, democratic morale will decline." Upon US entry into the war in 1942, Friedrich became chairman of the Executive Committee of the Council for Democracy, charged with combatting isolationism, and had his article on the Almanacs (http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ poison. htm) reprinted as one of several pamphlets which he sent to radio network executives.

[48] Although the Almanacs were accused -- both at the time and in subsequent histories -- of reversing their attitudes in response to the Communist Party's new party line, "Seeger has pointed out that virtually all progressives reversed course and supported the war. He insists that no one, Communist Party or otherwise, told the Almanacs to change their songs. (Seeger interview with [Richard A.] Reuss 4/9/68)" quoted in William G. Roy, "Who Shall Not Be Moved? Folk Music, Community and Race in the American The Communist Party and the Highlander School," ff p. 16 (http:/ / www. allacademic. com/ / meta/ p_mla_apa_research_citation/ 1/ 0/ 8/ 1/ 2/ pages108124/ p108124-1. php).

[49] Blanche Wiessen Cook, Eisenhower Declassified (Doubleday, 1981), page 122. "The Council was a limited affair," Cook writes, "...that served mostly to highlight Jackson's talents as a propagandist."

[50] See: "Singers on New Morale Show Also Warbled for Communists," New York World Telegram, February 17, 1942 (http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ nywt02171942. htm) [51] People's Songs Inc. People's Songs Newsletter No 1. February 1946. Old Town School of Folk Music Resource center collection.

[52] American Masters: "Pete Seeger: The Power of Song - KQED Broadcast 2-27-08.

119

Pete Seeger [53] "Pete Seeger: The Power of Song" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ americanmasters/ database/ seeger_p. html) - PBS American Masters, 2008-02-27 [54] , p. 52. (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ americanmasters/ database/ seeger_interview/ index. html) [55] Pete Seeger to the House Unamerican Activities Committee, August 18, 1955. Quoted, along with some other exchanges from that hearing, in Wilkinson, "The Protest Singer" (2006), p. 53.

[56] United States v. Seeger, 303 F. 2d 478 (2nd Circuit 1962) [57] Wilkinson, "The Protest Singer" (2006), p. 53.

[58] Dillon, Raquel Maria. "School board offers apology to singer Pete Seeger" (http:/ / www. signonsandiego. com/ news/ 2009/ feb/ 11/ pete-seeger-apology-021109/ ?zIndex=51324). Sign On San Diego. . Retrieved 13 February 2011.

[59] Beans in My Ears (http:/ / sniff. numachi. com/ pages/ tiBEANEARS. html).

[60] Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, CBS, Season 2, Episode 1, September 10, 1967.

[61] How "Waist Deep in the Big Muddy" Finally Got on Network Television in 1968 (http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ givepeacechance. htm).

[62] Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, CBS, Season 2, Episode 24, February 25, 1968.

[63] http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ guano/ 114357902/ in/ photostream/ [64] Brown, Jim (Director) (2005). The Power of Song (DVD). Genius Products LLC. ISBN 1-59445-156-7.

[65] Featured in the PBS documentary, a more specific cite is needed.

[66] Howard, Alan (2007). The Don McLean Story: Killing Us Softly With His Songs. Lulu Press Inc.. p. 420. ISBN 978-1-4303-0682-5.

[67] See the Annual Clearwater Festival website (http:/ / www. clearwater. org/ about/ ).

[68] BBC Wales (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ wales/ southeast/ sites/ caerphilly/ pages/ bellsofrhymney. shtml).

[69] Dangerously Funny: The Uncensored Story of the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, by David Bianculli, Touchstone, 2009.

[70] http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ songwriter_magazine. htm [71] Fellow Newport Board member Bruce Jackson writes, "Pete Seeger, more than any of the other board members, had a personal connection with Bob Dylan: it was he who [in 1962] had convinced the great Columbia A and R man John Hammond, famous for his work with jazz and blues musicians, to produce Dylan's eponymous first album, Bob Dylan. If anyone was responsible for Bob Dylan’s presence on the Newport Stage [in 1965], it was Pete Seeger". See Bruce Jackson, The Story Is True: The Art and Meaning of Telling Stories (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), p. 148.

[72] John Szwed, Alan Lomax, 'The Man Who Recorded the World (Viking, 2010), p. 354. The Butterfield Blues Band, a new, integrated Chicago-based electric band, was the closer in an afternoon blues workshop entitled "Blues: Origins and Offshoots", hosted by Lomax, that had included African-American blues greats Willie Dixon, Son House, Memphis Slim, and a prison work group from Texas, along with bluegrass pioneer Bill Monroe and the Bluegrass Boys. Lomax, upset that Butterfield's group had been shoehorned into his workshop, reportedly complained aloud about how long they took to set up their electrical equipment and introduced them with the words, "Now, let's find out if these guys can play at all." This infuriated Grossman (who was angling to manage the new group), and he responded by attacking Lomax physically. Michael Bloomfield stated, "Alan Lomax, the great folklorist and musicologist, gave us some kind of introduction that I didn’t even hear, but Albert found it offensive. And Albert went upside his head. The next thing we knew, right in the middle of our show, Lomax and Grossman were kicking ass on the floor in the middle of thousands of people at the Newport Folk Festival. Tearing each other's clothes off. We had to pull 'em apart. We figured 'Albert, man, now there's a manager!'" quoted in Jan Mark Wolkin, Bill Keenom, and Carlos Santana's, Michael Bloomfield: If You Love These Blues (San Francisco: Miller Freeman Books), p. 102. See also Ronald D. Cohen's introduction to "Part III, The Folk Revival (1960s)" in Alan Lomax: Selected Writings, Ronald D. Cohen, ed. (London: Routledege), p. 192.

[73] Rock critic Greil Marcus wrote: "Backstage, Peter Seeger and the great ethnomusicologist Alan Lomax attempted to cut the band’s power cables with an axe." See Greil Marcus, Invisible Republic, the Story of the Basement Tapes [1998], republished in paperback as The Old, Weird America: The World of Bob Dylan's Basement Tapes (New York: Holt, 2001), p. 12. Marcus's apocryphal story was elaborated by Maria Muldaur and Paul Nelson in Martin Scorsese's film No Direction Home (2005).

[74] David Kupfer, Longtime Passing: An interview with Pete Seeger (http:/ / www. wholeearthmag. com/ ArticleBin/ 406. html), Whole Earth magazine, Spring 2001. Accessed online October 16, 2007.

[75] David King Dunaway (2008), p. 103.

[76] David T. Dellinger, From Yale to Jail: The Life Story of a Moral Dissenter (New York : Pantheon Books, 1993 ISBN 0-679-40591-7).

[77] Where Have All the Flowers Gone: A Musical Autobiography, edited by Peter Blood (Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: A Sing Out Publication, 1993, 1997), page 22.

[78] Daniel J. Wakin, "This Just In: Pete Seeger Denounced Stalin Over a Decade Ago" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 09/ 01/ arts/ music/ 01seeg. html?_r=1& ref=arts& oref=slogin), New York Times, September 1, 2007. Accessed October 16, 2007.

[79] "The Old Left" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=990CE7D7123BF931A15752C0A963958260& n=Top/ Reference/ Times Topics/ People/ S/ Seeger, Pete). New York Times Magazine. 1995-01-22. . Retrieved May 22, 2010.

[80] Boaz, David (April 14, 2006). "Stalin's songbird" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ commentisfree/ 2006/ apr/ 14/ post33?commentpage=1).

London: Guardian News and Media Limited. . Retrieved 2009-03-27.

[81] Boaz's article is reprinted in his book, The Politics of Freedom (Washington, D.C.: The Cato Institute, 2008) pp. 283-84 [82] Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, p. 422.

[83] Seeger turns on Uncle Joe (http:/ / www. newstatesman. com/ society/ 2007/ 09/ joe-blues-folk-music-seeger), NewStatesMan, 27/9/2007.

[84] http:/ / www. livingmusic. com [85] Mid-Hudson Civic Center (http:/ / www. midhudsonciviccenter. com/ home. aspx), accessed 2009-05-15.

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Pete Seeger [86] http:/ / newsdesk. si. edu/ about/ awards [87] Alan Chartock, "New York has a chance to honor an American hero," Legislative Gazette, April 24, 2009, found at Legislative Gazette website (http:/ / www. legislativegazette. com/ Articles-c-2009-04-24-63866.

113122_New_York_has_a_chance_to_honor_an_American_hero. html). Accessed April 29, 2009.

[88] Rolling Stone, April 13, 1972.

[89] When Will They Ever Learn? (http:/ / www. rutherford. org/ Oldspeak/ Articles/ Art/ oldspeak-Seeger. html), accessed 2009-05-15.

[90] We Shall Overcome: An Hour With Legendary Folk Singer & Activist Pete Seeger (http:/ / www. democracynow. org/ 2006/ 9/ 4/ we_shall_overcome_an_hour_with), Democracy Now!, September 4, 2006. Accessed December 6, 2008. (Interview from 2004).

[91] Lyrics to "Take It From Dr. King" (http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ DRKING. htm).

[92] A Beliefnet interview with the great folk singer on God, religion, and whether music can change the world. (http:/ / www. beliefnet. com/ story/ 198/ story_19846_1. html), accessed 2009-05-15.

[93] (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=ZfXSlmWI_7c)

References • Dunaway, David K. How Can I Keep from Singing: The Ballad of Pete Seeger. [McGraw Hill (1981), DaCapo (1990)] Revised Edition. New York: Villard Trade Paperback, 2008 ISBN 0-07-018150-0, ISBN 0-07-018151-9, ISBN 0-306-80399-2, ISBN 0-345-50608-1. Audio Version (http://www.tradebit.com/filedetail.php/ 5191201-david-dunaway) • Forbes, Linda C. "Pete Seeger on Environmental Advocacy, Organizing, and Education in the Hudson River Valley: An Interview with the Folk Music Legend, Author and Storyteller, Political and Environmental Activist, and Grassroots Organizer." Organization & Environment, 17, No. 4, 2004: pp. 513–522.

• Gardner, Elysa. "Seeger: A 'Power' in music, politics." USA Today, February 27, 2008. p. 8D. • Seeger, Pete. How to Play the Five-String Banjo, New York : People’s Songs, 1948. 3rd edition, New York: Music Sales Corporation, 1969. ISBN 0-8256-0024-3.

• Tick, Judith. Ruth Crawford Seeger: A Composer's Search for American Music. Oxford University Press, 1997.

• Wilkinson, Alec. "The Protest Singer: Pete Seeger and American folk music," (http://www.newyorker.com/ archive/2006/04/17/060417fa_fact_wilkinson) The New Yorker, April 17, 2006, pp. 44–53.

• Wilkinson, Alec. The Protest Singer: An Intimate Portrait of Pete Seeger. New York: Knopf, 2009.

• Winkler, Allan M. (2009). To everything there is a season: Pete Seeger and the power of song. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press.

• Zollo, Paul (January 7, 2005). "Pete Seeger Reflects On His Legendary Songs" (http://www.grammy.com/ features/2005/0107_seeger.aspx). GRAMMY Magazine.

Further reading • Seeger, Pete, (Edited by Jo Metcalf Schwartz), The Incompleat Folksinger, New York : Simon and Schuster, 1972. ISBN 0-671-20954-X ( excerpts (http://www.peteseeger.net/incompleatfolksinger.htm)) Also, reprinted in a Bison Book edition, Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8032-9216-3 "The Music Man." (profile and interview) In Something to Say: Thoughts on Art and Politics in America, text by Richard Klin, photos by Lily Prince (Leapfrog Press, 2011).

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Pete Seeger

External links • PBS's American Masters site for "Pete Seeger: The Power of Song" (http://www.pbs.org/wnet/ americanmasters/database/seeger_p.html) • Pete Seeger Appreciation Page (http://www.peteseeger.net/), a site originally created by Jim Capaldi • "Pete Seeger: The Power of Song" documentary filmmaker Jim Brown interview on The Alcove with Mark Molaro, 2007 (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5987700831372141735) • The short film "To Hear Your Banjo Play (1947)" (http://www.archive.org/details/to_hear_your_banjo_play) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more] • The short film "Music from Oil Drums (1956)" (http://www.archive.org/details/MusicFromOilDrums) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more] • Discography for Pete Seeger on Folkways (http://www.folkways.si.edu/searchresults.aspx?set=1& sPhrase=pete+seeger&sType='phrase'/) • "Pete Seeger: How Can I Keep From Singing?" (http://www.peteseeger.org/) Website by Seeger biographer David Dunaway • How Can I Keep From Singing?: A Seeger Family Tribute (http://www.loc.gov/folklife/Seegersymposium/), Library of Congress, American Folklife Center. Online presentation of the March 2007 symposium and concert.

All events are available as webcasts via the site. Retrieved August 25, 2009.

• "We Shall Overcome: An Hour With Legendary Folk Singer & Activist Pete Seeger" (http://www. democracynow.org/2006/9/4/we_shall_overcome_an_hour_with) on Democracy Now!, September 2006 (video, audio, and print transcript) • "Legendary Folk Singer & Activist Pete Seeger Turns 90, Thousands Turn Out for All-Star Tribute Featuring Bruce Springsteen, Joan Baez, Bernice Johnson Reagon and Dozens More" (http://www.democracynow.org/ 2009/5/4/legendary_folk_singer_activist_pete_seeger) on Democracy Now!, May 2009 (video, audio, and print transcript) • On Point Radio: "The World According to Pete Seeger" (http://www.onpointradio.org/shows/2003/01/ 20030117_b_main.asp) • "Pete Seeger Is 86" (http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20050516&s=terkel), Studs Terkel, The Nation, May 16, 2005 • Folk Legend Pete Seeger Looks Back (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4726633) National Public Radio interview, July 2, 2005 • Peter Seeger (http://www.abc.net.au/rn/musicshow/stories/2006/1670374.htm#) interviewed by Australian composer Andrew Ford (MP3 of interview first broadcast in 1999) • Pete Seeger, Folk Singer and Song Writer (http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/seeger.html) by Thomas Blair. Part of a series of Notable American Unitarians • 1-hour Internet radio interview (http://www.downhomeradioshow.com/2007/10/ interview-with-pete-seeger-down-home-turns-1/)- Seeger discusses the music industry, the world in general, and more (August 2007).

• Works by or about Pete Seeger (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n50-6375) in libraries (WorldCat catalog) • Matthews, Scott (2008-08-06). "John Cohen in Eastern Kentucky: Documentary Expression and the Image of Roscoe Halcomb During the Folk Revival" (http://southernspaces.org/2008/ john-cohen-eastern-kentucky-documentary-expression-and-image-roscoe-halcomb-during-folk-revival). Southern Spaces.

• Pete Seeger 90th birthday celebrations in Australia (http://unionsong.com/seeger90.html) • Pete Seeger 90th birthday cake cutting at the Beacon Sloop Club. (http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=lL4FO7mJY6s) • Pete Seeger (http://www.discogs.com/artist/Pete+Seeger) discography at Discogs

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Meyer Fortes

123

Meyer Fortes Meyer Fortes Born

April 25, 1906

Died

January 27, 1983 (aged 76)

Nationality South African Fields

anthropology

Known for Tallensi and Ashanti

Meyer Fortes (1906–1983) was a South African-born anthropologist, best known for his work among the Tallensi and Ashanti in Ghana.

Originally trained in psychology, Fortes employed the notion of the "person" into his structural-functional analyses of kinship, the family, and ancestor worship setting a standard for studies on African social organization. His famous book, Oedipus and Job in West African Religion (1959), fused his two interests and set a standard for comparative ethnology. He also wrote extensively on issues of the first born, kingship, and divination.

Fortes received his anthropological training from Charles Gabriel Seligman at the London School of Economics.

Fortes also trained with Bronisław Malinowski and Raymond Firth. Along with contemporaries A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, Sir Edmund Leach, Audrey Richards, and Lucy Mair, Fortes held strong functionalist views that insisted upon empirical evidence in order to generate analyses of society. His volume with E. E. Evans-Pritchard, African Political Systems (1940) established the principles of segmentation and balanced opposition, which were to become the hallmarks of African political anthropology. Despite his work in Francophone West Africa, Fortes' work on political systems was influential to other British anthropologists, especially Max Gluckman and played a role in shaping what became known as the Manchester school of social anthropology, which emphasized the problems of working in colonial Central Africa.

Fortes spent much of his career as a Reader at the University of Cambridge and was the William Wyse Professor of Social Anthropology there from 1950-1973.

In 1963, Fortes delivered the inaugural Lewis Henry Morgan Lecture at the University of Rochester, considered by many to be the most important annual lecture series in the field of Anthropology.[1]

Selected bibliography • 1940. African Political Systems (editor, with E. E. Evans-Pritchard). London and New York: International African Institute.

• 1945. The Dynamics of Clanship among the Tallensi.

• 1959. The Web of Kinship among the Tallensi.

• 1959. Oedipus and Job in West African Religion.

• 1969. Kinship and the Social Order.

• 1970. Time and Social Structure.

• 1970. Social Structure (editor).

• 1983. Rules and the Emergence of Society.

Meyer Fortes

References [1] http:/ / www. thecrimson. com/ printerfriendly. aspx?ref=524051

External links • Functionalism (http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/function.htm) • The Manchester School (http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/manchest.htm) • Lecture by Meyer Fortes on Talensi divination followed by a discussion with students. Filmed 1982 by Audio Visual Aids Unit in Cambridge (http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/ancestors/fortes.html) • Brief Biography (http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/fghij/fortes_meyer.html)

124

Kenneth Lee Pike

125

Kenneth Lee Pike Kenneth Lee Pike Born

Woodstock, Connecticut

Died

December 31, 2000 (aged 88) Dallas, Texas

Nationality

American

Fields

Linguistics

Alma mater

University of Michigan

Doctoral advisor Edward Sapir Known for

Tagmemics

Kenneth Lee Pike (June 9, 1912–December 31, 2000) was an American linguist and anthropologist. He was the originator of the theory of tagmemics and coiner of the terms "emic" and "etic".

Life Pike was born in Woodstock, Connecticut, and studied theology at Gordon College, graduating with a B.A. in 1933.

He initially wanted to do missionary work in China; when this was denied him, went on in 1935 to study linguistics with Summer Institute of Linguistics (S.I.L.). He went to Mexico with SIL, learning Mixtec from native speakers there.

In 1937 Pike went to the University of Michigan, where he worked for his doctorate in linguistics under Edward Sapir. His research involved living among the Mixtecs, and he and his wife Evelyn developed a written system for the Mixtec language. After gaining his Ph. D. In 1942, Pike became president of Summer Institute in Linguistics (SIL). The Institute's main function was to produce translations of the Bible into unwritten languages, and in 1951 Pike published the Mixtec New Testament. He was the President of SIL International from 1942 to 1979.

As well as and in parallel with his role at SIL, Pike spent thirty years at the University of Michigan, during which time he served as chairman of its linguistics department, professor of linguistics, and director of its English Language Institute (he did pioneering work in the field of English language learning and teaching) and was later Professor Emeritus of the university.

He was a member of National Academy of Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America (LSA), the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States (LACUS), and the American Anthropological Association. He served as president of LSA and LACUS. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize 15 years in a row and the Templeton Prize three years (Headland 2001:506).

Work Pike is best known for his distinction between the emic and the etic. "Emic" (as in "phonemics") refers to the subjective understanding and account of meaning in the sounds of languages, while "etic" (as in phonetics") refers to the objective study of those sounds. Pike argued that only native speakers are competent judges of emic descriptions, and are thus crucial in providing data for linguistic research, while investigators from outside the linguistic group apply scientific methods in the analysis of language, producing etic descriptions which are verifiable and reproducible. Pike himself carried out studies of indigenous languages in Australia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Ghana, Java, Mexico, Nepal, New Guinea, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Peru.

Kenneth Lee Pike Pike developed his theory of tagmemics to help with the analysis of languages from Central and South America, by identifying (using both semantic and syntactic elements) strings of linguistic elements capable of playing a number of different roles.

Pike's approach to the study of language put him outside the circle of the "generative" movement begun by Noam Chomsky, a dominant linguist, since Pike believed that the structure of language should be studied in context, not just single sentences, as seen in the title of his magnum opus "Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior" (1967).

He became well known for his "monolingual demonstrations". He would stand before an audience, with a large number of chalkboards. A speaker of a language unknown to him would be brought in to work with Pike. Using gestures and objects, not asking questions in a language that the person might know, Pike would begin to analyze the language before the audience.

Pike also developed the constructed language Kalaba-X for use in teaching the theory and practice of translation.

When asked whether he was a missionary or a linguist, he replied "I am a mule." He explained that a mule is part horse, part donkey, combining traits of each. He pointed out that sometimes he did more of the work of a horse, other times he did more of the work of a donkey, but he was always both (Headland 2001:508).

Bibliography Primary texts • See Complete list of Pike's publications [1] (over 250) • 1943: Phonetics, a Critical Analysis of Phonetic Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description of Sounds (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press) • 1967: Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behaviour (The Hague: Mouton) • 1970: Rhetoric: Discovery and Change, with R.E. Young and Alton Becker (New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World)

Secondary texts • Brend, Ruth M. 1987. Kenneth Lee Pike Bibliography. Bloomington, IN: Eurasian Linguistics Association.

• Emily A. Denning, "Kenneth L. Pike", in Encyclopedia of Anthropology ed. H. James Birx (2006, SAGE Publications; ISBN 0-7619-3029-9) • Headland, Thomas N. 2001. "Kenneth Lee Pike (1912-2000)." American Anthropologist 103(2): 505-509.

• Pike, Eunice V. 1981. Ken Pike: Scholar and Christian. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

• Languages for Peace: Tribute to Kenneth L. Pike. 1985. Lake Bluff, IL: Jupiter Press.

126

Kenneth Lee Pike

External links • www.sil.org/klp/ Biographical profile at SIL [2], with autobiographical essays by Pike • Detailed chronology of Pike's life at SIL [3] • Langmaker profile of Kalaba-X [4]

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_author. asp?auth=6224 http:/ / www. sil. org/ klp/ http:/ / www. sil. org/ klp/ klp-chronology. htm http:/ / langmaker. com/ db/ mdl_kalabax. htm

127

Charles Seeger

128

Charles Seeger Charles Seeger

Charles Seeger Background information Birth name

Charles Louis Seeger, Jr.

Born

December 14, 1886

Origin

Mexico City

Died

February 7, 1979 (aged 92) Bridgewater, Connecticut, United States

Occupations Composer, musician, conductor, musicologist

Charles (Louis) Seeger, Jr. (December 14, 1886 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; February 7, 1979) was a noted musicologist, composer, and teacher. He was the father of iconic American folk singer Pete Seeger (b. 1919).

Life He graduated from Harvard University in 1908, then studied in Cologne, Germany and conducted with the Cologne Opera.[1] He left Europe to take a position as Professor of Music at the University of California at Berkeley, where he taught from 1912 to 1916 before being dismissed for his public opposition to U.S. entry into World War I. His brother Alan Seeger was killed in action on July 4, 1916, while serving as a member of the French Foreign Legion.

Charles Seeger then took a position at Juilliard before teaching at the Institute of Musical Art in New York from 1921 to 1933 and the New School for Social Research from 1931 to 1935. In 1936, he was in Washington, DC, working as a technical advisor to the Music Unit of the Special Skills Division of the Resettlement Administration (later renamed the Farm Security Administration).[2] From 1957 to 1961, he taught at the University of California Los Angeles. From 1961 to 1971 he was a research professor at the Institute of Ethnomusicology at UCLA. In 1949-50 he was Visiting Professor of the Theory of Music in the School of Music at Yale University. From 1935 to 1953 he held positions in the federal government's Resettlement Administration, Works Projects Administration (WPA), and Pan American Union, including serving as an administrator for the WPA's Federal Music Project, for which his wife also worked, from 1938 to 1940.

Charles Seeger

Family His first wife was Constance de Clyver Edson, a classical violinist and teacher; they divorced in 1927.[3] They had three sons, Charles III (1912–2002), who was an astronomer,[4] John (1914–2010), an educator,[5] and Peter ("Pete") (b. 1919), the folk singer. His second wife was the composer and musician Ruth Seeger (née Ruth Porter Crawford); by her, he had two children who also achieved musical renown, Peggy Seeger (b. 1935) and Mike Seeger (1933–2009), and another two daughters, Barbara and Penny Seeger.[4] His grandson,Anthony Seeger (b. 1945), is a renowned anthropologist and distinguished professor of ethnomusicology at the University of California Los Angeles, and his wife Judith Seeger is a senior tutor in the New Program and former assistant dean at St. John's College in Annapolis, Maryland.

Contributions He is known, among other reasons, for his formulation of dissonant counterpoint.[6] According to ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl, "Seeger played a unique and central role in tying musicology to other disciplines and domains of culture. This collection shows him to be truly a musical 'man for all seasons,' for what comes across most is the many-sidedness of the man."[7]

References [1] Capaldi, Jim, "Folk Scene: Charles Seeger" (http:/ / www. peteseeger. net/ charless. htm) obituary April 1979 [2] Stone, Peter, Sidney and Henry Cowell, (http:/ / www. culturalequity. org/ alanlomax/ ce_alanlomax_profile_cowells. php) Association for Cultural Equity [3] New York Times, December 19, 1911 wedding announcement (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=990CE6D81E31E233A2575AC1A9649D946096D6CF).

[4] Obituary: Charles Seeger III, San Francisco Chronicle, 14 September 2002 (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2002/ 09/ 14/ BA203068. DTL). Retrieved on 2 May 2009.

[5] Seeger family crest and name history. (http:/ / www. houseofnames. com/ xq/ asp. fc/ qx/ seeger-family-crest. htm) Retrieved on 21 June 2009.

[6] Spilker, John D., "Substituting a New Order": Dissonant Counterpoint, Henry Cowell, and the network of ultra-modern composers (http:/ / etd. lib. fsu. edu/ theses/ available/ etd-04032010-120836/ unrestricted/ Spilker_J_Dissertation_2010. pdf), Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 2010.

[7] Bell Yung and Helen Rees, eds., Understanding Charles Seeger, Pioneer in Musicology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Uvv2RCllbGMC& printsec=frontcover) (University of Illinois Press, 1999). ( publisher's page on the book (http:/ / www. press. uillinois. edu/ f99/ yung. html))

Further reading • Pescatello, Ann M.,"Charles (Louis) Seeger", Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 12 Dec 2006) • Pescatello, Ann M., Charles Seeger: a life in American music (http://books.google.com/ books?id=LRP0Q7LJU_IC&printsec=frontcover), University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992 • Seeger, Charles, Studies in musicology, 1935-1975 (http://books.google.com/books?id=FFKe42mfzAEC& printsec=frontcover), Berkeley : University of California Press, 1977. ISBN 0-520-02000-6

External links • Charles Seeger entry (http://www.nndb.com/people/037/000177503/) - at NNDB.com

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Library of Congress Library of Congress

Library of Congress reading room Established

1800

Location

Washington, D.C.

Branches

N/A Collection

Size

22,765,967 cataloged books in the Library of Congress classification system 5,600 incunabula (books printed before 1500), monographs and serials, music, bound newspapers, pamphlets, technical reports, and other printed material, and 109,029,796 [1] items in the nonclassified (special) collections 151,785,778 total Items Access and use

Circulation

Library does not publicly circulate

Population served

541 members of the United States Congress, their staff, and members of the public Other information [1]

Budget

$613,496,414

Director

James H. Billington (Librarian of Congress)

Staff

3,597

Website

www.loc.gov

[1] [2]

The Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the United States of America, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in four buildings in Washington, D.C., as well as the Packard Campus[3] in Culpeper, Virginia, it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and number of books. The head of the Library is the Librarian of Congress, currently James H. Billington.

The Library of Congress was instituted for Congress in 1800, and was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century. After much of the original collection had been destroyed during the War of 1812, Thomas Jefferson sold 6,487 books, his entire personal collection, to the library in 1815.[4][5] After a period of decline during the mid-19th century the Library of Congress began to grow rapidly in both size and importance after the American Civil War, culminating in the construction of a separate library building and the transference of all copyright deposit holdings to the Library. During the rapid expansion of the 20th century the Library of Congress assumed a

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preeminent public role, becoming a "library of last resort" and expanding its mission for the benefit of scholars and the American people.

The Library's primary mission is researching inquiries made by members of Congress through the Congressional Research Service. Although it is open to the public, only Library employees, Members of Congress, Supreme Court justices and other high-ranking government officials may check out books. As the de facto national library, the Library of Congress promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book and Poet Laureate.

History Origins and Jefferson's contribution (1800â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1851) The Library of Congress was established on April 24, 1800, when President John Adams signed an Act of Congress providing for the transfer of the seat of government from Philadelphia to the new capital city of Washington. Part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 "for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress ..., and for fitting up a suitable apartment for containing them...." Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol.[6] The collection covered a variety of topics but the bulk of the materials were legal in nature, reflecting Congress' role as a maker of laws.

Thomas Jefferson played an important role in the Library's early formation, signing into law on January 26, 1802, the first law establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The law established the presidentially appointed post of Librarian of Congress and a Joint Committee on the Library to regulate and oversee the Library, as well as giving the president and vice president the ability to borrow books.[6] The Library of Congress was destroyed in August 1814, when invading British troops set fire to the Capitol building and the small library of 3,000 volumes within.[6] Within a month, former President Jefferson offered his personal library[7][8] as a replacement. Jefferson had spent 50 years accumulating a wide variety of books, including ones in foreign languages and volumes of philosophy, science, literature, and other topics not normally viewed as part of a legislative library, Construction of the Thomas Jefferson Building, from July 8, 1888, to May such as cookbooks, writing that, "I do not know that it contains any branch of 15, 1894. science which Congress would wish to exclude from their collection; there is, in fact, no subject to which a Member of Congress may not have occasion to refer." In January 1815, Congress accepted Jefferson's offer, appropriating $23,950 to purchase his 6,487 books.[6]

Weakening (1851â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1865) The antebellum period was difficult for the Library. During the 1850s the Smithsonian Institution's librarian Charles Coffin Jewett aggressively tried to move that organization towards becoming the United States' national library. His efforts were blocked by the Smithsonian's Secretary Joseph Henry, who advocated a focus on scientific research and publication and favored the Library of Congress' development into the national library. Henry's dismissal of Jewett in July 1854 ended the Smithsonian's attempts to become the national library, and in 1866 Henry transferred the Smithsonian's forty thousand-volume library to the Library of Congress.[6]

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On December 24, 1851 the largest fire in the Library's history destroyed 35,000 books, about two–thirds of the Library's 55,000 book collection, including two–thirds of Jefferson's original transfer.[6] Congress in 1852 quickly appropriated $168,700 to replace the lost books, but not for the acquisition of new materials. This marked the start of a conservative period in the Library's administration under Librarian John Silva Meehan and Joint Committee Chairman James A. Pearce, who worked to restrict the Library's activities.[6] In 1857, Congress transferred the Library's public document distribution activities to the Department of the Interior and its international book exchange program to the Department of State. Abraham Lincoln's political appointment of John G. Stephenson as Librarian of Congress in 1861 further weakened the Library; Stephenson's focus was on non-library affairs, including service as a volunteer aide-de-camp at the battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg during the American Civil War. By the conclusion of the war, the Library of Congress had a staff of seven for a collection of 80,000 volumes.[6] The centralization of copyright offices into the United States Patent Office in 1859 ended the Library's thirteen year role as a depository of all copyrighted books and pamphlets.

Spofford's expansion (1865–1897) The Library of Congress reasserted itself during the latter half of the 19th century under Librarian Ainsworth Rand Spofford, who directed the Library from 1865 to 1897. Aided by an overall expansion of the federal government and a favorable political climate, Spofford built broad bipartisan support for the Library as a national library and a legislative resource, began comprehensively collecting Americana and American literature, and led the construction of a new building to house the Library, and transformed the Librarian of Congress position into one of strength and independence.[6] Between 1865 and 1870, Congress appropriated funds for the construction of the Thomas Jefferson Building, placed all copyright registration and deposit activities under the Library's control, and restored the Library's international book exchange. The Library also acquired the vast libraries of both the Smithsonian and historian Peter Force, strengthening its scientific and Americana collections significantly. By The Library of Congress inside the U.S. Capitol 1876, the Library of Congress had 300,000 volumes and was tied with Building c. 1890 Boston Public Library as the nation's largest library. When the Library moved from the Capitol building to its new headquarters in 1897, it had over 840,000 volumes, 40% of which had been acquired through copyright deposit.[6] A year before the Library's move to its new location, the Joint Library Committee held a session of hearings to assess the condition of the Library and plan for its future growth and possible reorganization.

Spofford and six experts sent by the American Library Association, including future Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam and Melvil Dewey of the New York State Library, testified before the committee that the Library should continue its expansion towards becoming a true national library.[6] Based on the hearings and with the assistance of Senators Justin Morrill of Vermont and Daniel Voorhees of Indiana, Congress more than doubled the Library's staff from 42 to 108 and established new administrative units for all aspects of the Library's

Some of the Library of Congress' holdings awaiting shelving inside the newly opened Thomas Jefferson Building

Library of Congress collection. Congress also strengthened the office of Librarian of Congress to govern the Library and make staff appointments, as well as requiring Senate approval for presidential appointees to the position.[6]

Post-reorganization (1897â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1939) The Library of Congress, spurred by the 1897 reorganization, began to grow and develop more rapidly. Spofford's successor John Russell Young, though only in office for two years, overhauled the Library's bureaucracy, used his connections as a former diplomat to acquire more materials from around the world, and established the Library's first assistance programs for the blind and physically disabled.[6] Young's successor Herbert Putnam held the office for forty years from 1899 to 1939, entering Main Library of Congress building at the start of the into the position two years before the Library became the first in 20th century the United States to hold one million volumes.[6] Putnam focused his efforts on making the Library more accessible and useful for the public and for other libraries. He instituted the interlibrary loan service, transforming the Library of Congress into what he referred to as a "library of last resort".[9] Putnam also expanded Library access to "scientific investigators and duly qualified individuals" and began publishing primary sources for the benefit of scholars.[6] Putnam's tenure also saw increasing diversity in the Library's acquisitions. In 1903 he persuaded President Theodore Roosevelt to transfer by executive order the papers of the Founding Fathers from the State Department to the Library of Congress. Putnam expanded foreign acquisitions as well, including the 1904 purchase of a four-thousand volume library of Indica, the 1906 purchase of G. V. Yudin's eighty-thousand volume Russian library, the 1908 Schatz collection of early opera librettos, and the early 1930s purchase of the Russian Imperial Collection, consisting of 2,600 volumes from the library of the Romanov family on a variety of topics. Collections of Hebraica and Chinese and Japanese works were also acquired.[6] Congress even took the initiative to acquire materials for the Library in one occasion, when in 1929 Congressman Ross Collins of Mississippi successfully proposed the $1.5 million purchase of Otto Vollbehr's collection of incunabula, including one of four remaining perfect vellum copies of the Gutenberg Bible.[6] In 1914 Putnam established the Legislative Reference Service as a separative administrative unit of the Library. Based in the Progressive era's philosophy of science as a problem-solver, and modeled after successful research branches of state legislatures, the LRS would provide informed answers to Congressional research inquiries on almost any topic.[6] In 1965 Congress passed an act allowing the Library of Congress to establish a trust fund board to accept donations and endowments, giving the Library a role as a patron of the arts. The Library received the donations and A copy of the Gutenberg Bible on display at the endowments of prominent individuals such as John D. Library of Congress Rockefeller, James B. Wilbur and Archer M. Huntington. Gertrude Clarke Whittall donated five Stradivarius violins to the Library and Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge's donations paid for a concert hall within the Library of Congress building and the establishment of an honorarium for the Music Division. A number of chairs and consultantships were established from the donations, the most well-known of which is the Poet Laureate Consultant.[6] The Library's expansion eventually filled the Library's Main Building, despite shelving expansions in 1910 and 1927, forcing the Library to expand into a new structure. Congress acquired nearby land in 1928 and approved

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construction of the Annex Building (later the John Adams Building) in 1930. Although delayed during the Depression years, it was completed in 1938 and opened to the public in 1939.[6]

Modern history (1939â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Present) When Putnam retired in 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Archibald MacLeish as his successor. Occupying the post from 1939 to 1944 during the height of World War II, MacLeish became the most visible Librarian of Congress in the Library's history. MacLeish encouraged librarians to oppose totalitarianism on behalf of democracy; dedicated the South Reading Room of the Adams Building to Thomas Jefferson, commissioning artist Ezra Winter to paint four themed murals for the room; and established a "democracy alcove" in the Main Reading Room of the Jefferson Building for important documents such as the Declaration, Constitution and Federalist Papers.[6] Even the Library of Congress assisted during the war effort, ranging from the storage of the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution in Fort Knox for safekeeping to researching weather data on the Himalayas for Air Force pilots.[6] MacLeish resigned in 1944 to become Assistant Secretary of State, and President Harry Truman appointed Luther H. Evans as Librarian of Congress. Evans, who served until 1953, expanded the Library's acquisitions, cataloging and bibliographic services as much as the fiscal-minded Congress would allow, but his primary achievement was the creation of Library of Congress Missions around the world. Missions played a variety of roles in the postwar world: the mission in San Francisco assisted participants in the meeting that established the United Nations, the mission in Europe acquired European publications for the Library of Congress and other American libraries, and the mission in Japan aided in the creation of the National Diet Library.[6] Evans' successor L. Quincy Mumford took over in 1953.

Mumford's tenure, lasting until 1974, saw the initiation of the construction of the James Madison Memorial Building, the third Library of Congress building. Mumford directed the Library during a period of increased educational spending, the windfall of which allowed the Library to devote energies towards establishing new acquisition centers abroad, including in Cairo and New Delhi.

In 1967 the Library began experimenting with book preservation techniques through a Preservation Office, which grew to become the largest library research and conservation effort in the United States.[6] Mumford's administration also saw the last major public debate about the Library of Congress' role as both a legislative library and a national library. A 1962 memorandum by Douglas

Erotica, mural painting by George Randolph Barse (1861â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1938) in the Library of Congress

Elihu Vedder's Minerva of Peace mosaic

Library of Congress Bryant of the Harvard University Library, compiled at the request of Joint Library Committee chairman Claiborne Pell, proposed a number of institutional reforms, including expansion of national activities and services and various organizational changes, all of which would shift the Library more towards its national role over its legislative role.

Bryant even suggested possibly changing the name of the Library of Congress, which was rebuked by Mumford as "unspeakable violence to tradition".[6] Debate continued within the library community until the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970 shifted the Library back towards its legislative roles, placing greater focus on research for Congress and congressional committees and renaming the Legislative Reference Service to the Congressional Research Service.[6] After Mumford retired in 1974, Gerald Ford appointed Daniel J. Boorstin as Librarian. Boorstin's first challenge was the move to the new Madison Building, which took place between 1980 and 1982. The move released pressures on staff and shelf space, allowing Boorstin to focus on other areas of Library administration such as acquisitions and collections. Taking advantage of steady budgetary growth, from $116 million in 1975 to over $250 million by 1987, Boorstin actively participated in enhancing ties with scholars, authors, publishers, cultural leaders, and the business community. His active and prolific role changed the post of Librarian of Congress so that by the time he retired in 1987, the New York Times called it "perhaps the leading intellectual public position in the nation."[6] Ronald Reagan appointed James H. Billington as the thirteenth Librarian of Congress in 1987, a post he holds as of 2011. Billington took advantage of new technological advancements and the Internet to link the Library to educational institutions around the country in 1991. The end of the Cold War also enabled the Library to develop relationships with newly open Eastern European nations, helping them to establish parliamentary libraries of their own.[6] In the mid-1990s, under Billington's leadership, the Library of Congress began to pursue the development of what it called a "National Digital Library," part of an overall strategic direction that has been somewhat controversial within the library profession.[10] In late November 2005, the Library announced intentions to launch the World Digital Library, digitally preserving books and other objects from all world cultures. In April 2010, it announced plans to archive all public communication on Twitter, including all communication since Twitter's launch in March 2006.[11]

Holdings The collections of the Library of Congress include more than 32 million cataloged books and other print materials in 470 languages; more than 61 million manuscripts; the largest rare book collection in North America, including the rough draft of the Declaration of Independence, a Gutenberg Bible (one of only four perfect vellum copies known to exist);[12] over 1 million US government publications; 1 million issues of world newspapers spanning the past three centuries; 33,000 bound newspaper volumes; 500,000 microfilm reels; over 6,000 Library of Congress, Thomas Jefferson Building comic book[13] titles; films; 5.3 million maps; 6 million works of sheet music; 3 million sound recordings; more than 14.7 million prints and photographic images including fine and popular art pieces and architectural drawings;[14] the Betts Stradivarius; and the Cassavetti Stradivarius.

The Library developed a system of book classification called Library of Congress Classification (LCC), which is used by most US research and university libraries.

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The Library serves as a legal repository for copyright protection and copyright registration, and as the base for the United States Copyright Office. Regardless of whether they register their copyright, all publishers are required to submit two complete copies of their published works to the Library—this requirement is known as mandatory deposit.[15] Nearly 22,000 new items published in the U.S. arrive every business day at the Library. Contrary to popular belief, however, the Library does not retain all of these works in its permanent collection, although it does add an average of 10,000 items per day.

Rejected items are used in trades with other libraries around the world, distributed to federal agencies, or donated to schools, communities, and other organizations within the United States.[16] As is true of many similar libraries, the Library of Congress retains copies of every publication in the English language that is deemed significant.

The Great Hall interior

The Library of Congress states that its collection fills about 838 miles (unknown operator: u'strong' km) of bookshelves,[17] while the British Library reports about 625 kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong' mi) of shelves.[18] The Library of Congress holds about 147 million items with 33 million books against approximately 150 million items with 25 million books for the British Library.[17][18] The Library makes millions of digital objects, comprising tens of petabytes, available at its American Memory site.

American Memory is a source for public domain image resources, as well as audio, video, and archived Web content. Nearly all of the lists of holdings, the catalogs of the library, can be consulted directly on its web site.

Librarians all over the world consult these catalogs, through the Web or through other media better suited to their needs, when they need to catalog for their collection a book published in the United States. They use the Library of Congress Control Number to make sure of the exact identity of the book.

The Library of Congress also provides an online archive of the proceedings of the U.S. Congress at THOMAS, including bill text, Congressional Record text, bill summary and status, the Congressional Record Index, and the United States Constitution.

The Library also administers the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, an audio book and braille library program provided to more than 766,000 Americans.

Buildings of the Library The Library of Congress is physically housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill and a conservation center in rural Virginia. The Library's Capitol Hill buildings are all connected by underground passageways, so that a library user need pass through security only once in a single visit. The library also has off-site storage facilities for less commonly-requested materials.

Jefferson Building

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Thomas Jefferson Building The Thomas Jefferson Building is located between Independence Avenue and East Capitol Street on First Street SE. It first opened in 1897 as the main building of the Library and is the oldest of the three buildings. Known originally as the Library of Congress Building or Main Building, it took its present name on June 13, 1980.

Madison Building

John Adams Building The John Adams Building is located between Independence Avenue and East Capitol Street on 2nd Street SE, the block adjacent to the Jefferson Building. The building was originally built simply as an annex to the Jefferson Building. It opened its doors to the public on January 3, 1939.

James Madison Memorial Building

Packard Campus (Culpeper, Virginia)

The James Madison Memorial Building is located between First and Second Streets on Independence Avenue SE. The building was constructed from 1971 to 1976, and serves as the official memorial to President James Madison.

The Madison Building is also home to the Mary Pickford Theater, the "motion picture and television reading room" of the Library of Congress. The theater hosts regular free screenings of classic and contemporary movies and television shows.

Packard Campus for Audio-Visual Conservation The Packard Campus for Audio-Visual Conservation [19] is the Library of Congress's newest building, opened in 2007 and located in Culpeper, Virginia. It was constructed out of a former Federal Reserve storage center and Cold War bunker. The campus is designed to act as a single site to store all of the library's movie, television, and sound collections. It is named to honor David Woodley Packard, whose Packard Humanities Institute oversaw design and construction of the facility. The centerpiece of the complex is a reproduction Art Deco movie theater that presents free movie screenings to the public on a semi-weekly basis.[20]

Using the Library The library is open to the general public for academic research and tourists. Only those who are issued a Reader Identification Card may enter the reading rooms and access the collection. The Reader Identification Card is available in the Madison building to persons who are at least 16 years of age upon presentation of a government issued picture identification (e.g. driver's license, state ID card or passport).[21] However, only members of Congress, Supreme Court Justices, their staff, Library of Congress staff and certain other government officials may actually remove items from the library buildings. Members of the general public with Reader Identification Cards must use items from the library collection inside the reading rooms only; they are not allowed to remove library items from the reading rooms or the library buildings.

Since 1902, libraries in the United States have been able to request books and other items through interlibrary loan from the Library of Congress if these items are not readily available elsewhere. Through this, the Library of Congress has served as a "library of last resort", according to former Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam.[9] The Library of Congress lends books to other libraries with the stipulation that they be used only inside the borrowing library.[22]

Library of Congress The Library of Congress is sometimes used as an unusual unit of measurement to represent an impressively large quantity of data when discussing digital storage or networking technologies.

Standards In addition to its library services, the Library of Congress is also actively involved in various standard activities in areas related to bibliographical and search and retrieve standards. Areas of work include METS, Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS), Z39.50 and Search/Retrieve Web Service (SRW), and Search/Retrieve via URL (SRU).

Librarians of Congress The Librarian of Congress is the head of the Library of Congress, appointed by the President of the United States with the advice and consent of the Senate, and serves as the chief librarian of all the sections of the Library of Congress. One of the responsibilities of the Librarian of Congress is to appoint the U.S. Poet Laureate.

1. John J. Beckley (1802–1807) 2. Patrick Magruder (1807–1815) 3. George Watterston (1815–1829) 4. John Silva Meehan (1829–1861) 5. John Gould Stephenson (1861–1864) 6. Ainsworth Rand Spofford (1864–1897) 7. John Russell Young (1897–1899) 8. Herbert Putnam (1899–1939) 9. Archibald MacLeish (1939–1944) 10. Luther H. Evans (1945–1953) 11. Lawrence Quincy Mumford (1954–1974) 12. Daniel J. Boorstin (1975–1987) 13. James H. Billington (1987–present)

Annual events • • • • • • •

Archives Fair Fellows in American Letters of the Library of Congress Davidson Fellows Reception Founder's Day Celebration Gershwin Prize for Popular Song Judith P. Austin Memorial Lecture The National Book Festival

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References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

2010 At A Glance (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ generalinfo. html#2010_at_a_glance) http:/ / www. loc. gov "The Packard Campus" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ avconservation/ packard/ ). Library of Congress. Retrieved April 5, 2012. purplemotes.net (http:/ / purplemotes. net/ 2008/ 02/ 03/ thomas-jeffersons-library/ )- Jefferson got $23,940 loc.gov (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ preserv/ history/ growing. html) "Jefferson's Legacy: A Brief History of the Library of Congress" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ loc/ legacy/ loc. html). Library of Congress. March 6, 2006. . Retrieved January 14, 2008.

[7] Thomas Jefferson's personal library at Library Thing, based on scholarship (http:/ / www. librarything. com/ catalog. php?view=ThomasJefferson) [8] Library Thing Profile Page for Thomas Jefferson's library (http:/ / www. librarything. com/ profile/ ThomasJefferson), summarizing contents and indicating sources [9] "Interlibrary Loan (Collections Access, Management and Loan Division, Library of Congress)" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ loan/ ). Library of Congress website. October 25, 2007. . Retrieved December 4, 2007.

[10] Collins, Samuel (2009). Library of Walls: The Library of Congress and the Contradictions of Information Society. Litwin Books.

ISBN 978-0-9802004-2-3.

[11] CSmonitor.com (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ USA/ Politics/ The-Vote/ 2010/ 0416/ Twitter-hits-Library-of-Congress-Would-Founding-Fathers-tweet) [12] See Gutenberg's Bibles— Where to Find Them (http:/ / www. approvedarticles. com/ Article/ Gutenberg-s-Bibles--Where-to-Find-Them/ 1088); Octavo Digital Rare Books (http:/ / www. octavo. com/ editions/ gtnbbl/ index. html); Library of Congress (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ rarebook/ guide/ europe. html).

[13] "About the Serial and Government Publications Division" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ news/ brochure. html). The Library of Congress. April 7, 2006. . Retrieved August 8, 2006.

[14] Annual Report of the Librarian of Congress (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ reports/ annualreports/ fy2009. pdf), Library of Congress, 2009, [15] "Mandatory Deposit" (http:/ / www. copyright. gov/ help/ faq/ mandatory_deposit. html). Copyright.gov. . Retrieved August 8, 2006.

[16] "Fascinating Facts" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ facts. html). Library of Congress. . Retrieved August 8, 2006.

[17] "Fascinating Facts – About the Library" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ facts. html). Library of Congress. . Retrieved June 30, 2011.

[18] "Facts and figures" (http:/ / www. bl. uk/ aboutus/ quickinfo/ facts/ index. html). British Library. . Retrieved June 30, 2011.

[19] http:/ / www. loc. gov/ avconservation/ packard/ [20] Library of Congress events listing (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ loc/ events/ #eventlist9) [21] Library of Congress (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ readerregistration. html) [22] http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ loan/ loanweb1. html

External links • The Library of Congress website (http://www.loc.gov/)

•

• • • • • •

• American Memory (http://memory.loc.gov/) • History of the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/loc/legacy/) • Search the Library of Congress catalog (http://catalog.loc.gov/) • thomas.loc.gov (http://thomas.loc.gov/), legislative information Library Of Congress Meeting Notices and Rule Changes (http://thefederalregister.com/b.p/department/ LIBRARY_OF_CONGRESS/) from The Federal Register RSS Feed (http://thefederalregister.com/rss/ department/LIBRARY_OF_CONGRESS/) Library of Congress photos on Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/) Outdoor sculpture (http://www.dcmemorials.com/Groups_LibraryOfCongress.htm) at the Library of Congress Standards, The Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/standards/) Works by the Library of Congress (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Library+of+Congress) at Project Gutenberg Library of Congress (https://wiki.familysearch.org/en/Library_of_Congress) at FamilySearch Research Wiki for genealogists "Congress, Library of". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.

• C-SPAN's Library of Congress documentary and resources (http://www.c-span.org/loc/)

139

Smithsonian Folkways

140

Smithsonian Folkways Smithsonian Folkways Recording Founded

1987

Founder

Smithsonian Institution

Genre

Folk, World, Children's, Jazz, Blues, and more

Country of origin

United States

Location

Washington, D.C.

Official Website

www.folkways.si.edu

[1]

Smithsonian Folkways is the nonprofit record label of the Smithsonian Institution. It is a part of the Smithsonian's Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage, located at Capital Gallery in downtown Washington, D.C. The label was founded in 1987 after the family of Moses Asch, founder of Folkways Records, donated the entire Folkways Records label to the Smithsonian. The donation was made on the condition that the Institution continue Asch's policy that each of the more than 2,000 albums of Folkways Records remain in print forever, regardless of sales. Since then, the label has expanded on Asch’s vision of documenting the sounds of the world, adding six other record labels to the collection, as well as releasing over 300 new recordings. Some well-known artists have contributed to the Smithsonian Folkways collection, including Pete Seeger, Ella Jenkins, Woody Guthrie, and Lead Belly. Famous songs include "This Land Is Your Land", "Goodnight, Irene", and "Midnight Special". Due to the unique nature of its recordings, which include an extensive collection of traditional American music, children's music, and international music, Smithsonian Folkways has become an important collection to the musical community, especially to ethnomusicologists, who utilize the recordings of "people's music" from all over the world.

History The Smithsonian Folkways Recordings label arose when the Smithsonian’s acquired a vast collection of recordings from Folkways Records, maintained by Moses Asch. The original 2,168 titles produced by Folkways Records now make up the bulk of the label's collection.[2]

Folkways Records In 1905, Moses "Moe" Asch was born in Poland. His father, Sholem Asch, a successful author, made enough money to move the family to Paris in 1912. In 1914, Sholem left Paris for work in New York City and, a year later, sent for his family. The experience at Ellis Island was traumatic for 10-year-old Moe, and, based on his own account, memory was seared into his mind. Sholem believed in educating his fellow man through his literature, and Moe showed that same passion through his chosen career of audio engineering.[3] In the mid-1920s, Asch studied radio engineering in Germany, a center for the new science. When he returned to the United States, he worked for various electronic firms before opening his own radio repair business, Radio Labs, during the Great Depression. In this business, Moe built equipment for radio stations and installed recorders for air use.[4] Asch wrote in a 1961 article, “Forming one of the first independent record companies it was natural for me to want to record folk music and people’s expression of their wants, needs and experiences.”[5] In 1940, Sholem invited his son with him to New Jersey to meet physicist and humanitarian Albert Einstein, who encouraged Moe to record and document the sounds of the world, which Asch took to be his life calling. Soon after that meeting, in early 1940, Asch founded Asch Records with a small staff and studio located in downtown Manhattan, New York. He allowed any artist to come and record at no charge, in contrast to bigger studios that charged artists fees for using recording equipment. Because of his open-door policy, Asch attracted many young

Smithsonian Folkways and/or unique "would-be" artists. Due to the American Federation of Musicians’ 1942 strike against major record labels, small labels such as Asch’s filled the void in sales for distributors. The label grew and became more successful through deals with other producers, including Norman Granz. This partnership proved successful, leading to the concept of recording live concerts. These recordings came close to Asch’s vision of documenting “real” sound, and, because there were no studio fees, were less expensive to produce. Around this time, Asch began another record label, Disc Records, though this fell through in a short time. Asch received recordings from Granz of an up-and-coming pianist named Nat Cole, which he decided to issue on a record in fall 1946. He invested a large amount of money in publicity and advertising, for the first time attempting to break into the pop charts. Due to a snowstorm, shipping was delayed past the holiday rush, causing Asch Records to fall into bankruptcy. As one of the terms of his bankruptcy, Asch was barred from starting another label. To get around this, in July 1948, Marion Distler, Asch’s longtime assistant, became the president of a new label, Folkways Records and Service Corporation.

Asch was hired as her “consultant,” and Folkways Records was created. It was at this time that Asch created his plan for keeping all of the Folkways records in print, regardless of demand. In this way, he figured that demand, though small, would continue for decades. He famously remarked, “Just because the letter J is less popular than the letter S, you don’t take it out of the dictionary.”[6] Folkways Records released over 2,000 recordings between the years 1949 and 1987, spanning many genres, including jazz, folk, classical, avant-garde, and world music. Over the years of Folkways Records, Asch recorded some of the biggest names in music, including Woody Guthrie, Lead Belly, Pete Seeger, Duke Ellington, James P. Johnson, Dizzy Gillespie, John Cage, and Charles Ives. Reissues of the early blues and folk recordings from Folkways, such as Harry Smith's well-known Anthology of American Folk Music, fueled several generations of folk revivals, inspiring young musicians such as Dave van Ronk, Peter, Paul, and Mary, and Bob Dylan.[7]

Smithsonian Institution In 1984, looking for someone to continue the Folkways Records collection after him, Asch found Ralph Rinzler, who was then artistic director of the Smithsonian’s annual Folklife Festival. Asch saw that the Smithsonian had the power to keep the collection alive and keep the sounds of the world in the people’s hands.[8] Asch stipulated one main condition: that every recording was to remain "in print" forever, regardless of its sales. It was the way that he began the label, and he felt that the people deserved to have the sounds of the world preserved. There was opposition to the transfer, with some members of the Smithsonian citing the Folkways collection’s “uneven quality” and “balance of repertory.” Despite these criticisms, Rinzler persevered, and negotiations with Asch continued. Asch died in 1986 before the deal was completed, but his family finished the passing of the Folkways Records to the Smithsonian in 1987.[9] The collection became known as the Moses and Frances Asch Collection, part of the Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections housed in the Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. The recordings on other labels, including Paredon, Cook, Collector, Dyer-Bennet, Fast Folk, Monitor. M.O.R.E. and The Mickey Hart Collection have since been added to the collection.[10] After the creation of the collection in the Smithsonian Archives, only two full-time positions were funded. Rinzler recruited Anthony Seeger, well known in the ethnomusicology community as director of the Archives of Traditional Music at Indiana University, as director, and a full-time archivist, Jeff Place. The Smithsonian also stipulated a condition regarding the transfer: if they accepted the label, it would have to support itself through its sales. Seeger and Place had no experience running a record label, but took on the project. Though they could not retain all of Asch's business practices, they managed to preserve the essence of Folkways Records while creating the new label, Smithsonian Folkways. The label now relies on a small team of full-time staff, part-time staff, interns, and volunteers to continue the mission of Smithsonian Folkways.[11][12]

141

Smithsonian Folkways

Artists Further information: List of Smithsonian Folkways artists

Projects Smithsonian Folkways is engaged in several projects dedicated to increasing the awareness and use of their recordings, as well as the preservation of them.

Digital Distribution As part of their mission in spreading the sounds of the world, Smithsonian Folkways has made the recordings of their archives available digitally in various ways, in addition to retail distribution of CDs and LPs. Smithsonian Global Sound In February 2005, Smithsonian Folkways launched Smithsonian Global Sound, an online MP3 music store, similar to programs such as Apple’s iTunes. The entire collection was made available online, at the cost of $0.99 per track.

Smithsonian Folkways pays royalties to all the artists (and if the artists cannot be found, the money is put in escrow).[13] The purpose of the brand name Smithsonian Global Sound has been altered to provide the entire collection online for streaming for subscribing institutions, such as universities, via the Smithsonian Global Sound for Libraries service, a co-production with Alexander Street Press.

Folkways.si.edu Smithsonian Folkways now offers the entire Folkways collection for digital download through its website [1], at $0.99 for most songs and $9.99 for most albums, available in both MP3 and FLAC format. In addition, Smithsonian Folkways distributes digitally via outlets such as iTunes and eMusic.[14] JAZZ: The Smithsonian Anthology On March 29th, 2011 Smithsonian Folkways released a new Jazz anthology to update their previous release, the 1973 Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz. The anthology includes 111 tracks on six discs, held within a 200-page compilation of historical essays, musical analyses, and contemporary photographs of the musicians.[15]

folkwaysAlive!

In a partnership with the University of Alberta, Smithsonian Folkways is helping to create a “national centre of musical and cultural excellence,” as a part of the Canadian Centre for Ethnomusicology. The mission is to create a research center for the music of the cultures of Alberta and western Canada, as well as cultures from around the world. The center invites local and visiting musicians and artists to present lectures and workshops. More extensive information can be found at the folkwaysAlive! website [16].

Save Our Sounds In 2003, Smithsonian Folkways, in conjunction with the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress, began a project called “Save our Sounds” that aims at preserving the sounds vital to our nation’s history which are deteriorating, such as Thomas Edison’s recordings made on wax cylinders and others done on acetate discs in the early 20th century.[17] The Save America’s Treasures program initiated by the White House Millennium Council awarded a matching grant of $750,000 for the project. The goal of the project is to expose the nation to the need for sound preservation, and to protect the most important and “priceless” records from the combined collections.[18]

142

Smithsonian Folkways

See Also • Folkways Records • List of Smithsonian Folkways artists • List of record labels

References [1] http:/ / www. folkways. si. edu [2] Moses and Frances Asch Collection (http:/ / www. folklife. si. edu/ archives_resources/ collections/ asch. aspx). Smithsonian Folkways (http:/ / folklife. si. edu). Retrieved 2010-05-14.

[3] Carlin, Richard (2008). Worlds of Sound, pp.2-3. New York:HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-156355-3.

[4] Carlin, Richard (2008). Worlds of Sound, p.3. New York:HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-156355-3.

[5] Asch, Moses (Feb/March 1961). “Folk Music – A Personal Statement”. Sing Out!.

[6] Carlin, Richard (2008). Worlds of Sound, pp.4-11. New York:HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-156355-3.

[7] Rogovoy, Seth (Summer 2002). "Moe Asch: Collector of Culture". Pakn Treger, pp.8-10.

[8] Burdick, Alan (01 July 2001). “Now Hear This: historic sound recordings at Smithsonian Folkways Records”. Harpers Magazine.

[9] Carlin, Richard (2008). Worlds of Sound, pp.252-255. New York:HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-156355-3.

[10] “About the Ralph Rinzler Archives and Collections” (http:/ / www. folklife. si. edu/ archives_resources/ about. aspx). Smithsonian Folkways (http:/ / www. folklife. si. edu). Retrieved 2010-05-14.

[11] Carlin, Richard (2008). Worlds of Sound, p.255. New York:HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-156355-3.

[12] http:/ / www. folklife. si. edu Smithsonian Folkways. Retrieved 2010-05-14.

[13] Trescott, Jacqueline (April 1, 2005). “Smithsonian Folkways to Open MP3 Music Store”. Washington Post, p.C01.

[14] (May 25, 2006). “Gigs & Bytes:Downloading Woody”. Pollstar.

[15] Burgess, Richard. "Producer’s Note," liner note essay. JAZZ: The Smithsonian Anthology, 2010, Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

[16] http:/ / www. fwalive. ualberta. ca/ home/ [17] January 27, 2003. ”What’s that Sound?:Could be anything at the Library of Congress”. The Holland Sentinel, p.A12.

[18] “Save Our Sounds:America’s Recorded Sound Heritage Project” (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ folklife/ sos/ index. html). Library of Congress (http:/ / www. locl. gov). Retrieved 2010-05-14.

External links • Smithsonian Folkways Main Site - www.folkways.si.edu (http://www.folkways.si.edu)

143

International Council for Traditional Music

International Council for Traditional Music The International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM) is a UNESCO-recognized NGO, an academic organization focused on musicology and dance research. Founded in London on September 22, 1947, it publishes the Yearbook for Traditional Music once a year, and a twice-yearly bulletin. Since 2005, its President has been Dr. Adrienne L. Kaeppler, curator of Oceanic Ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution.[1] The organization was previously known as The International Folk Music Council (IFMC). In 1949, it helped founded the UNESCO International Music Council.

Conferences Since 1967, the ICTM has hosted a biennial conference.[2] In 2009, it was in Durban, South Africa, and in 2011 it will be in St. John's Newfoundland.[3]

Publications • Yearbook for Traditional Music (originally known as the Journal of the International Folk Music Council from 1949–1958) • Bulletin of the ICTM (originally known as Bulletin of the IFMC)

Study groups The ICTM hosts several study groups which focus on a particular aspect of music or dance research. As of 2010, the groups are: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Anthropology of Music in Mediterranean Cultures Applied Ethnomusicology Computer Aided Research East Asian Historical Musical Sources Ethnochoreology Folk Musical Instruments Historical Sources of Traditional Music Iconography Maqam Multi-Part Music Music And Dance In Southeastern Europe Music and Gender Music and Minorities Music Archaeology Music of the Arab World Music of the Turkic Speaking World Musics of East Asia Music and Dance of Oceania The Performing Arts of South East Asia[3]

144

International Council for Traditional Music

Presidents • • • • • • • • • •

Ralph Vaughan Williams, first president[3] Jaap Kunst Zoltan Kodaly Willard Rhodes Klaus P. Wachsmann Poul Rovsing Olsen Erich Stockmann Anthony Seeger Krister Malm Adrienne L. Kaeppler (since 2005)

References [1] Giurchescu, Anca (2006). "2005-2006 Report" (http:/ / www. ictmusic. org/ group/ 100/ post/ report-and-projects-2005-06). International Council for Traditional Music. . Retrieved December 24, 2010.

[2] Kaeppler, Adrienne L., Dunin, Elsie Ivancich, ed. (2007). Dance structures: Perspectives on the analysis of human movement. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado. ISBN 978-963-05-8542-2.

[3] "ICTM General information" (http:/ / www. ictmusic. org/ general-information). ictmusic.org. . Retrieved December 24, 2010.

External links • Official site (http://ictmusic.org)

145

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors Ethnomusicology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=497452443 Contributors: Aburdett, Addbc, Aditya, AnakngAraw, Andrewa, Antandrus, Aria2, Arminius, Avin, Avoided, B. Wolterding, Barzgf, Bemoeial, Bryan Derksen, Bunnyhop11, Camembert, CharlieHuang, ComputerSherpa, ConnieKent, Cosprings, Cybercobra, D6, Daniel Mietchen, DanielCD, Datageneral, Decltype, DerwalRahas, Dkusic, Drxenocide, EMan32x, Eatonland, Ehjort, El C, Elifd, Eliotbates, Elonka, Emelian1977, Ergative rlt, Erianna, Evil saltine, Excirial, Farras Octara, FayssalF, Floydspinky71, Foxtrotnik, G. B. 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Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=496077905 Contributors: Abd, Airproofing, AnalogWeapon, Arbuthnot666, Bearcat, Binksternet, Bms4880, Brianyoumans, Bruxism, Buchy2009, Buckdj, CTanguy, CalJW, Calliopejen1, Cbrockmon, Chuckiesdad, Colonies Chris, CrazedandInfused, Csbarrett, Cybercobra, CyrilThePig, D6, Daa89563, Daf, Darkskynet, Darwinek, Dblecros, Derek R Bullamore, Dewey Finn, Dooly00000, Dunks58, Durrus, Dwain, E-Kartoffel, Ehjort, Emilyvinson, EricEnfermero, Ettrig, Eumolpo, Everyking, Felix Folio Secundus, Filos96, Finavon, Gartnait, Ghmyrtle, Gil Gamesh, Hellothereitsme, Hertz1888, Hirsches, Hyacinth, Infomuse, Infrogmation, Inkie Struyk, Inscription, Ishmaelblues, Javaweb, JayJasper, Jnc, Joel Russ, John Vandenberg, Johnpacklambert, Johntex, Jorunn, Joseph Solis in Australia, Just Jim Dandy, Jvcturntable, KPH2293, Kaihsu, Kevin Hayes, Kevinpurcell, Kingstowngalway, Kingturtle, Koavf, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ktr101, Lightmouse, Lion King, Lockley, Lotoflower, Maltmomma, 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