Esperanto revolutionaries and geeks language politics digital media and the making of an internation

Esperanto

Revolutionaries and Geeks:

Language Politics, Digital Media and the Making of an International Community Guilherme Fians

Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://ebookmass.com/product/esperanto-revolutionaries-and-geeks-language-politic s-digital-media-and-the-making-of-an-international-community-guilherme-fians/

Esperanto Revolutionaries and Geeks

Language Politics, Digital Media and the Making of an International Community

Guilherme Fians

EsperantoRevolutionariesandGeeks

GuilhermeFians

Esperanto Revolutionaries andGeeks

LanguagePolitics,DigitalMediaand theMakingofanInternational Community

GuilhermeFians

DepartmentofAnthropology

UniversityofBrasília Brasília,Brazil

ISBN978-3-030-84229-1ISBN978-3-030-84230-7(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84230-7

©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicencetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2021

Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher, whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation, reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyother physicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computer software,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped.

Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthis publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexempt fromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.

Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthis bookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernorthe authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontained hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwith regardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations.

Coverillustration:ZEN-ZanetaRazaite/AlamyStockPhoto

ThisPalgraveMacmillanimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerland AG

Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland

Esperantoisalanguagelikeanyother–exceptwhenitisn’t. (HumphreyTonkin,2020,personalcommunication)

We’renotasnumerousaswewanted,butwe’remorethanyoucanimagine. (AnonymousEsperantistfromFrance,2017)

ForNgânandRegina, thewomenofmylife

Acknowledgements

Thisbookbeganasasimplequestforanswersandneverended.Butit neverendedforaverygoodreason:onequestionconstantlyledmeto othersandIfrequentlyencounteredpeoplealongthewaywhopushed mefurther.Istartedtowriteitalmostonmyown.Yet,similarlyto DeleuzeandGuattari’s ThousandPlateaus —butinamuchlesspoetic manner—attheendofit,wewerequiteacrowd,withanumberof peoplesharinganinterestinwhatIwasdoing,thinkingwithmeand encouragingmyendeavour.

MyfirstthanksgototheEsperantoassociationsandEsperantiststhat allowedmetoconductmyresearchwiththem,inbothFranceand theNetherlands,aswellastothosewhowelcomedmeduringmystay inFranceandalmostinstantlybecamemyfriends.Duetomyuseof pseudonyms,IcannotthanktheseEsperantistsbyname,buttheyknow whotheyare.TheytaughtmealmosteverythingIknowaboutFrance, digitalmediaandpoliticalactivismandwereresponsibleforturning Parisintoahomeforme.IalsooweaprofounddebttoArandiGomes Teixeira,whointroducedmetoEsperanto.Withoutourconversations,I

mighthaveneverlearnedthelanguage.IwasalsoluckytomeetFernando Pita,whohelpedmegiveshapetothisresearch.

AttheUniversityofManchester—whereIbeganwritingthisbook— Iwishtothankthosewhostayedbymysideonalloccasions.Firstly, StefJansen,whoalwayshadencouragingwordstoshare,notonly aboutanthropology,butaboutlifeingeneral.Asacarefulreaderand sharpinterlocutor,Stefcontinuouslyinstigatedmycuriosityand,above all,mademywritingproperlyinductive.Iamalsoverygratefulto my‘mates’DiegoValdivieso,PedroSilvaRochaLima,NoahWalkerCrawfordandJérémyVoirol.Throughourheatedargumentsaround eachother’smanuscripts,IlearnedalotaboutanthropologywhiledevelopingfriendshipsthatIhopetocarryforlife.Inaddition,Ithank Haobin‘Henry’HuangandShotaKukuladze,whohelpedmeovercomethechallengesofbeingaforeignerintheUnitedKingdom;toBill Chapman,whofirstintroducedmetoEsperantospeakersinEurope; tothegloriousFallowfieldFellowshipanditsfoundingfathers,Sammy KennedyandMarcoPedroni,forforcingmetotakebreaksfrommy research;andtoRosileneandMarioGalindo,whobroughtsomeofthe flavourofmycountryoforigintomycountryofresidence.Also,my thanksgotothefriendsIleftinRiodeJaneiroandwhoalwayswelcomed mebackduringmyyearslivingintheUnitedKingdom,amongwhich MarceloMeirelles,LeonardoSouteloandJoséMaurícioGrigorovski.

ThisresearchwasfundedbytheUniversityofManchester,the ManchesterJeanMonnetCentreofExcellence,theCentreforResearch andDocumentationonWorldLanguageProblemsandtheEsperantic StudiesFoundation.Ialsowishtothankmanyothers,whosenames cannotfitinapage,withoutwhomthisbookwouldneverhaveseen thelightofday.Amongthem,HumphreyTonkin—whosesupport andencouragementIcanneverthankenough—SabineFiedler,Javier Alcalde,UlrichLins,ManuelaBurghelea,BertdeWit,FedericoGobbo, MarcioGoldman,BrunaFranchetto,DouglasHolmes,ChristinaToren, PennyHarvey,MattCandea,AngelaTorresanandmyall-timecolleagues

fromUniversidadeFederaldoRiodeJaneiro,MuseuNacionalandthe UniversityofManchester.Morerecently,theUniversityofBrasíliatook mein,andcolleaguesinmynewacademichomeweretheonesencouragingandsupportingmeduringmylastmanuscript-editingrounds. Also,ofcourse,IthanktheeditorialteamofPalgraveMacmillan, particularlyCathyScott,whopromptlywelcomedmyprojectandwho, togetherwithManikandanMurthyandtwoanonymousreviewers,gave meallthesupporttoimprovethismanuscript.

Lastbutnotleast,Iowemydeepestgratitudetomyfamily.ToThu NgânNgô,whoinsistsonturningmeintoabetterhumanbeingand withwhomIshareeverything;toReginaFians,whokeepsteachingand inspiringmeanddoingmorethanamothercoulddo.ToNgânand Regina,Ialsothankfortheirpatienceduringmyabsencesandtheir eternalwillingnesstolistentomeattentivelywhenIaskedtheiropinion aboutanthropologicalmatterstheyweretotallyunfamiliarwith.Ialso wishtothankPedroFians,whoalwaysencouragedmeandraisedme withaffection;toWilsonandSuelyMoreira,foralltheconversationsand happymomentswespenttogether;toEricaandViniciusMoreiraandto AiltonPachecodaCostaJunior,forlisteningattentivelytomyall-toofrequentcomplaintsaboutlife;andtoNeuzaFians,forthesmilesand kisses.Besides,impossiblenottomentionEdsonandArleteMoreira:my memoriesofthemalwaysmakemestrongerandgivemethecourageto keepgoing.

Someofthedataandargumentsonvocabularychoiceandlinguistic authorityonChapter 5 appearedinEsperantoonachapteratthe editedvolume TheInterculturalRoleofEsperanto ,editedbyIlonaKoutny, IdaStriaandMarkFarrisandpublishedbyAdamMickiewiczUniversity/WydawnictwoRys.ApreliminaryversionofChapter 7’sdiscussion onintergenerationallanguagetransmissionwaspublishedas‘Mindthe agegap:Communicationtechnologiesandintergenerationallanguage transmissionamongEsperantospeakersinFrance’,in LanguageProblems andLanguagePlanning (2020,44:1:87–108).

AbouttheAuthor

GuilhermeFians isLecturerinAnthropologyattheUniversityof Brasília(Brazil)andCo-DirectoroftheCentreforResearchandDocumentationonWorldLanguageProblems(Netherlands/USA).Heholdsa

Ph.D.inSocialAnthropologyfromtheUniversityofManchester(UK), wherehealsotaughtforthreeyears.Hisresearchinterestsandpublicationsrevolvearoundsocialmovements,nationalism,languagepolitics anddigitalmedia,withafocusonFrance.Inlinewithhiscommitmenttomultilingualisminacademia,hispublicationtrackrecord includesarticlesandbooksinEnglish,Portuguese,French,Esperanto andGerman.

GlossaryandListofAcronyms

AkademiodeEsperantoTheAcademyofEsperanto,theinstitutionalbody responsibleforoverseeingandstewardingthedevelopmentofthelanguage

AmikumuAGPS-basedmobilephoneappthroughwhich userscanlocateandcontactlearnersandspeakers ofthesamelanguagenearby

BabilrondoDebatecircle,heldweeklyatSAT-Amikaro’sheadquarters,inParis,wherepeoplediscusscontemporarypoliticsinEsperanto

DuolingoLanguagelearningplatform,availableonawebsite andmobilephoneapp,offeringseveralgamified languagecoursesfreeofcharge

EsperantistThosewhospeakEsperantoregularlyand/or joinEsperantoassociationsandthemovementas activists,volunteersandmembers,andwhoparticipateintheEsperantocommunity

EsperantospeakerThosewhoarelearningorwhocanspeakEsperanto, regardlessoffluency,butwhodonotusethe languageonaregularbasisnorclaimtoparticipate intheEsperantocommunity

Espéranto-FranceFrenchNationalEsperantoAssociation,headquarteredinParis.AffiliatedtoUEA,itistheFrench nationalrepresentativeoftheneutralEsperanto movement

Esperanto-movadoEsperantomovement

Esperantujo/EsperantioEsperantocommunity,sometimesreferredtoin Englishas Esperantoland

Finvenkisto/Finavenko Finvenkismo referstotheaspirationofmaking Esperantoeffectivelyuniversal,asthedefacto globallanguage.Theardentpromotersofthe fina venko (thefinalvictory)arecalled finvenkistoj ,even thoughfewEsperantistswouldadoptthistermas self-referential

HomaranismoPoliticalandphilosophicalprogrammeenvisaged byZamenhoftoinspireEsperantiststoperceive humankindasabrotherhoodofpeoples,regardless ofone’soriginsorbackground. Homaranismo isthe basisofwhatthisbookcallsEsperanto’s‘humanist cosmopolitanism’

Internaideo Inneridea.CloselylinkedtoHomaranismo,it conveysZamenhof’sintenttouseEsperantoto promotefraternityandjusticeamongpeoples

JEFOJunularaEsperantaFrancaOrganizo,French EsperantoYouthOrganisation,alsoknownas Espéranto-jeunes.HeadquarteredinParis,itoccasionallyusesEspéranto-France’sheadquartersforits activitiesandgatherings

PasportaServoHospitalityserviceorientedatEsperantistsand basedonadirectory(printedandonline)ofpotentialhostsandguests.Workssimilarlytoservices suchasCouchsurfing.com,havingprecededthe latter

SamideanoFellowthinker,referringtothosewhobothspeak Esperantoandpartakeofits internaideo

SATSennaciecaAsocioTutmonda,WorldNon-National EsperantoAssociation.HeadquarteredinParis,it isamajororganisationintheleft-wing,workers’ Esperantomovement

SAT-AmikaroUniondesTravailleursEspérantistesdeLangue Française,UnionofEsperantistFrench-Speaking Workers.HeadquarteredinParis,itistheFrenchspeakingwingofSAT

TEJOTutmondaEsperantistaJunularaOrganizo,World EsperantoYouthOrganisation,headquarteredin Rotterdam

UEAUniversalaEsperanto-Asocio,UniversalEsperanto Association.HeadquarteredinRotterdam,itisthe leadingorganisationintheneutralEsperantomovement

ListofFigures

Fig.1.1ComicstripinEnglish,basedonawidelyused exploitable (i.e.animageeasytoreplicateandedit) andadaptedbyyoungEsperantospeakers,joking aboutseveralparent’sreactionstowardsEsperanto languagelearning(Source Facebookpage Stevethesilly andvagabondlinguist ,retrievedSeptember2017)5

Fig.3.1Esperanto-speakinghostsregisteredonPasportaServo. Asonezoomsin,themapshowsthepreciselocation ofeachhost.Itisworthnotingthatthegeographical distributionofPasportaServousersdoesnotnecessarily correspondtothatofEsperantospeakers(Source PasportaServo’swebsite,retrievedOctober2021)72

Fig.4.1Postcard,producedbyRaphaelTuck&Sons,in1922, intheUnitedKingdom,praisingtherapprochement ofpeoplesthroughEsperanto.Itreads,inEsperanto: ‘FriendlySalutations.Oh,Letussingasong/About thelanguageEsperanto/Bywritersandpoets/In poemsandodes’(Source HectorHodlerLibrary,UEA, Rotterdam)105

Fig.4.2PostcardrelatedtotheFirstWorkers’Esperantist Congress,whichwouldbeheldinParis,in1914, butnevertookplaceduetotheFirstWorldWar.The image,byLudovic-RodoPissarrocirca1914,portrays Esperantoguidingthepeople’sfightagainstcapitalism, thelatterbeingdepictedasavulture(Source Department ofPlannedLanguages,AustrianNationalLibrary, Vienna)107

Fig.6.1Postersaying,inEsperanto:‘Whatareyoudoingtostop this?Esperantistsoftheworld,putyourstrengthagainst internationalfascism’(Source ComissariatdePropaganda delaGeneralitatdeCatalunya,c.1936.Available attheUSLibraryofCongress,WashingtonD.C.)152

Fig.6.2PosterinFrench,encouragingworkersoftheworld tocometogetherandbreakdownthelanguagebarriers thatkeepthemapart(Source SAT-Amikaro,c.1955. AvailableatthearchivesofSAT-Amikaro,Paris)153

Fig.7.1MemeinEsperanto(basedonascenefromthecartoon FamilyGuy )thatjokinglyreferstoNoah’sArk.This kindofmemeiscalled objectlabellingexploitable , asthehumourcomesfromthelabelsaddedtotheimage. Inthiscase,theanimalstotheleftstandforFacebook experts,coursesonYouTube,Lernu.net,apps,online courses,‘teachyourself’booksandDuolingo,whereas Noahpointsatthehybridresultingfromtheircrossbreed (‘mylanguageskills’)andasks‘Whatisthat?’(Source Facebookgroup EsperantajMemeoj ,retrievedDecember 2020)184

IntheBeginningWastheWord

In2003,therenownedlinguistNoamChomskywasinvitedtogive aseriesofinterviews,inEnglish,atStonyBrookUniversity.Inthe secondpartoftheseStonyBrookInterviews,thelinguistMarkAronoff askedChomskywhy,inhisopinion,theincreasinginterestthatlinguists oncehadin‘universallanguages’hadalmostvanishedbetweentheearly twentiethandtheearlytwenty-firstcenturies.Referringspecificallyto Esperanto,aconstructedlanguagedesignedtobeusedforinternational communication,thedefiningpartofChomsky’sanswerwas:

So,nowit’sunderstoodthatEsperantoisnotalanguage.It’sjustparasitic onotherlanguages.Thencomesaquestion,whichisnotalinguistic question,butaquestionofpracticalutility.Isitmoreefficienttoteach peopleasystemwhichisparasiticonactuallanguages,andsomewhat simplifies,eliminatessomeofthedetailsofactualhistoricallanguages;or isitmoreefficientjusttohavethenawholelotoflanguages?AndIthink it’snowprettywidelyacceptedthatthelatterisbetterandnothard.

Earlieronthesameinterview,ChomskyhadevincedhismiscomprehensionofEsperantobypresentingitasahelter-skeltervariationof ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusive licencetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2021 G.Fians, EsperantoRevolutionariesandGeeks, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84230-7_1

Spanish—whichiscurious,giventhatthecreatorofEsperantowasnot familiarwithSpanish.Mostimportantly,ChomskyarguesthatEsperanto couldnotbecharacterisedasa‘language’becauseofitslimitednumber ofexplicitgrammarrules,whichrequiresitsspeakerstoconstantlyfill inEsperanto’sgapswithtransfersfromone’spriorknowledgeofother languages.Yet,regardlessofEsperantobeingdeemedbyformallinguisticsa‘language’ornot,alooselyestimatedtwomillionpeopleworldwide ensureEsperanto’scontinuoususeandsurvival.AmongsuchEsperanto speakers,adozenofthemmeetregularlyatasmallofficeinthethirteenthdistrictofParis,France,intheheadquartersoftheleft-leaning associationSAT-Amikaro.

EveryFridayevening,SAT-Amikaroholdsa babilrondo ,adebate circlewherepeoplemeetforinformalconversationsinEsperantoabout contemporarypolitics.IfirstjoinedthesedebatesinlateSeptember 2016,inmyfirstweeklivinginParis.Thetopicsdiscussedinprevious weeksincludedtheupcomingFrenchelections,nuclearenergy,mental healthandlinguisticdiscrimination.Bycontrast,thatFriday’sdebatewas open:eachparticipantwassupposedtobringanewspaperormagazine articletopresentanddiscusswiththegroup.

Thatevening,by6.30p.m.,sixteenEsperantospeakershadarrived andsataroundthelongtableatSAT-Amikaro,chatting,nibblingon snacksandsippingdrinkstheyhadbrought.Paul,1 aretiredProfessor ofMedicine,kickedoffthedebatebypresentinganewspaperarticle from LeMondediplomatique aboutrecentscholarlyresearchonwhat motivatespeopletosmokeandtoquitsmoking.Commentingonthe article,hearguedthathumanbeingsalwaysdotheoppositeofwhatthey shoulddoandendupsacrificingimportantthingsliketheirownhealth. Then,Gilbertsharedanarticlehehadreceivedbye-mailfromtheUnion desfédéralisteseuropéens.Asamemberofthisassociation,heoften receivednewsletterssupportingEuropeanfederalismandthestrengtheningoftheEuropeanUnion.Highlightingthecommonalitiesbetween

1 Allthepersonalnamesinthisbookarepseudonymsinordertopreservetheidentityofmy interlocutors.Thesepseudonymsarebasedonpopularnamesaccordingtomyinterlocutors’ nationality,ageandsex.Theexceptionsarehistoricalandpublicfigures,towhichIreferby nameandsurname.

Esperanto’sinternationalcharacterandEuropeanintegration,heenthusiasticallyclaimedthat‘wereZamenhof[Esperanto’screator]alivetoday, hewouldsurelysupportEuropeanfederalism!’2 Unbuttoningthecollar ofhisPostOfficestaffshirt,GilbertrushedtoaddthatEsperantocould evenplayaroleintheEU,sinceaninternationallanguagebuiltwith elementsofEuropeanlanguagescouldunderplaynationalismsamong EUcountries.Yet,otherparticipantsofthe babilrondo didnotseem equallysupportiveoffederalism.Valentin,aretiredmanuallabourerin hislatesixties,tookoffhisdarkgreenforagecap,putitonthetable withagestureofdismissalandgrumbledthat‘nomatterhowmuchwe changetheEU,itwillstillbearesultofcapitalismtryingtoco-optevery socialrelationintoacommercialframework’.

Next,Pascal—amiddle-agedstatisticianwhoworkedattheFrench MinistryofAgricultureandFishing—contributedtothedebatewith anarticleaboutJoséMujica,aformerpresidentofUruguay.Hehad foundthetextonapreviousissueof Sennaciulo (TheNon-National), anEsperantoperiodicaleditedbySennaciecaAsocioTutmonda(SAT, theWorldNon-NationalEsperantoAssociation,anassociationlinked toSAT-Amikaro).ThearticlearguedthatMujicawasoneofthefew twenty-first-centurypoliticianswholegitimatelystoodforminoritiesand theworkingclasses.Pascal’scommentsaboutthearticleelicitedvibrant reactionsfromotherparticipantsandquicklybecamethefocusofthat evening’sdiscussion.AsIwastheonlyLatinAmericaninaroomfilled withFrenchnationals,oneCroatianandoneTunisian,Pascalturnedto metoaskanumberofquestionsaboutpolitics,electoralsystemsand protestsagainstpastandcurrentpresidentsinLatinAmerica.

TheparticipantsweresurprisedwithsomeofthethingsIsaid,and Pascalcomplained:‘Wedon’thearmuchaboutLatinAmericainthe mainstreamFrenchmedia,that’swhyweneedthiskindofdebatehere!’ Later,wieldinghiscopyof Sennaciulo,headded:‘Without Sennaciulo andourdebateshere,Iwouldhaveknownnothingabouthim[Mujica] andUruguayanpolitics!’UsingEsperantoasameanstogainaccessto

2 Unlessotherwiseindicated,theconversationsreferredtoconcernlinguisticexchangesoriginallycarriedoutinEsperantotranslatedintoEnglishbymyself.Throughoutthebook,direct transcriptionsandquotesthatwereoriginallyinalanguageotherthanEsperantowillbe indicated.

informationtheywouldperhapsnotobtainotherwise,theEsperanto speakersgatheredatSAT-Amikaroframetheseweeklydebatesashorizontallearningspaces,wherefederalistpostmen,communistmanual labourers,anarchistpublicservants—and,sometimes,ananthropologist—discussleft-leaningpoliticaltopicsandlearnfromeachother’s perspectivesandexperiences.

YetEsperantoalsobearsrelevancebeyondtheframeworkofpolitical debatesandactivism.Inonlinesettings,forinstance,youngspeakers frequentlyuseEsperantototalkabouttravellingandprogrammingor topractiseforeignlanguageswithEsperantospeakersfromdifferent linguisticbackgrounds.Postingonlineinotherlanguagestoreachout tonon-Esperanto-speakingpublics,Esperantospeakersalsomocktheir ownnicheinterestina‘useless’language.Acommonplacewayof expressingsuchformofself-deprecatinghumouristhroughoneofthe mostpopularandfast-spreadingtoolstotransmitideasonline:Internet memesconsistingofhumorousimageposts(Fig. 1.1).

Whethertofosterpoliticaldebates,sharethelatestworldnewsor makejokes,thisinternationalauxiliarylanguageconstructedinthelate nineteenthcenturyhasconsolidateditspresenceintheearlytwentyfirstcentury.Whileitdoesnotcompetedirectlywithlanguagesmore widelyspokenininternationalcontexts,suchasEnglish,Spanish,Arabic orSwahili,Esperantohassecureditsexistenceasalivinglanguage throughitscontinuoususeinspokenandwrittenformsbyalivelyspeech community.

Asanationalism-freeconstructedlanguage,Esperantoisnotmeant toreplacehegemonicorminoritylanguages,butrathertoestablish alinguisticmiddlegroundforforeignerstocommunicatewithout resortingtoanyone’smothertongue.Esperantoisassumedtobeno one’sfirstlanguage,asnobodyisraisedinanEsperanto-speakingneighbourhoodorsimilarly,fluencyinitisnotnormallyarequirementwhen peopleapplyforjobsormoveabroad.Esperantoisgenerallyplaced outsidetherealmofcoercion,sincepeoplewhodonotwanttolearn orspeakitareunlikelytofeelsomesortofconstraintoranexternal obligationtodoso.Initiallysupportedbythebourgeoisie,intellectuals, revolutionariesandleft-wingactivists,Esperantocurrentlyalsodraws theattentionofyoungpolyglotsandgeeksattractedbynon-mainstream

Fig.1.1 ComicstripinEnglish,basedonawidelyused exploitable (i.e. animageeasytoreplicateandedit)andadaptedbyyoungEsperanto speakers,jokingaboutseveralparent’sreactionstowardsEsperantolanguage learning(Source Facebookpage Stevethesillyandvagabondlinguist,retrieved September2017)

intellectualactivities.Thelattergroupsoftencomeacross,studyanduse Esperantothroughonlinecoursesanddigitalmedia,andoccasionally compareittofictionallanguagessuchasTolkien’sElvish(TheLordofthe Rings ),MarcOkrand’sKlingon(StarTrek )andGeorgeR.R.Martin’s Dothraki(GameofThrones ).Inits130yearsofexistence,Esperanto hasdevelopedintoasetofcosmopolitanprinciples,awidespreadspeech communityandalanguage-basedsocialmovement,beingalternatively seenasahobby,anintellectualgameandalanguage-basedcritiqueof thecontemporary.

ThosewhoarescepticalaboutEsperanto’spresent-dayrelevancetend toregarditasautopianprojectthatwentwrong—anartificiallanguage thataspiredtouniversalitybutthatendedupforgotten.Severalof itsenthusiasticsupporters,bycontrast,seeitasalivinglanguage thatcontributestofairerandmoreegalitariancommunication,asa peace-promotingtooltobringtogetherforward-thinkerscommittedto buildingabetterworld.Betweenafailedprojectcircumscribedtothe pastandafuture-orientedglobaljusticemovement,whatistheplaceof Esperantointhepresent?

Beyondsuchcontrastingperceptionsof‘thelanguageofthepast’ and‘thelanguageofthefuture’,thisbookaimstomapoutthe variousconstituenciesinwhichEsperantobearsrelevanceinthepresent, takingthereaderfromleft-leaningdebategroupsandalterglobalisationmovementstointernationalEsperantomeetingsandonline forums.UnpackingEsperanto-mediatedrelationships,code-switching andcosmopolitansociabilities,thisbookasks:ifEsperantohasbeen historicallylinkedwithradicalpolitics,whatisitscurrentpoliticalrelevance?Giventhatthisspeechcommunityisunboundedanddispersed bydefinition,howdospeakersgatherandcreatecontextstocommunicateinthelanguage?Relatedly,whatimpactshavecommunication technologiessuchasdigitalmediahadontheorganisationofthisspeech communityandlanguagemovement?

Researchforthisbookwasconductedthrough13monthsofface-tofaceethnographicfieldworkin2016–2017andalongerperiodofdigital ethnography,from2016to2020.Thisincludedlong-termparticipant observationandsemi-structuredinterviews,aswellascomplementary archivalresearch.ConcentratingmyethnographicfieldworkinParis,

France—aplacewhere,sincetheearlytwentiethcentury,thislanguage hasbeencloselyassociatedwithleft-wingactivism—thisstudytranscendedFrenchterritoryasIfollowedEsperantospeakers,gatheringsand publications,aswellasonlineandface-to-faceinstancesofcommunicationinotherplacesinEuropeandinAsia.

Thisbookproposesanovelapproachtolanguagepoliticsand community-buildingbytracingEsperantospeakers’perceptionsand practicesregardingcosmopolitanism,digitalmediause,languageideologiesandradicalpolitics.Attheheartofthisinquiryisthequestionof whatittakestoensurethestabilityofalanguagethatnearlynooneis requiredtospeakandofaspeechcommunitythatcannotrelyonintergenerationallanguagetransmission.Iarguethattheunsteadystatusof thislanguageandthetransientcharacterofthematerialisationsofits speechcommunityareactuallycentraltowhatfuelstheperceptionof Esperantoasalanguagethatyieldsmoreegalitariancommunicationand aninclusivecommunity.

1.1WheretoBegintheConstruction ofaLanguage?

Itwasinthelatenineteenth-centuryRussianEmpire,throughthepenof LudwikLejzerZamenhof,thatalanguagecalledEsperantobegantotake shape.Aimingtobringaboutarapprochementofpeoplefromdifferent nationalandlinguisticbackgroundsthroughmutualunderstanding, ZamenhofconceivedEsperantoasarationallanguagethatcouldaddress thenationalist-ladenclashesbetweenpeoplelivinginZamenhof’shometown,Bialystok.Withfewerbasicgrammarrulesandbeingmoreregular thanthealreadyexistinglanguagesatthetime,Esperantocametobe linkedtoitscreator’spacifistidealsoffraternity,solidarityandworld peace,asanalysedinthechapterstocome.Throughoutitshistory, Esperantohasbeenwidelylearned,spoken,forgottenandtakenup again,havingarousedtheinterestandsupportofpeoplesuchasLeo Tolstoy,JulesVerne,CharlesChaplin,MarshalTitoandTivadarSoros,as wellasthedisavowalofLudwigWittgenstein,GeorgeOrwellandNoam Chomsky.Whateveritisandwhateveritiscapableof,Esperantoseems

tohavesucceededincontinuouslyattractingpeople’sattentionandin gatheringspeakers,makingitaphenomenonremarkableinitself.

Comingtothinkofit,itmaysoundabitoddthatseveralpeople communicate,formulateideasandestablishrelationshipswitheachother usingwordsandstructuresthatstartedinasingleperson’sdesk.Withthis inmind,beforetracingtheusesofEsperantoinvariousplaces,timesand circumstances,amoreimmediatequestionarises:whatkindoflanguage isEsperanto?

Oftenclassifiedasaninternationalauxiliarylanguage,Esperantoin itsphonology,grammar,vocabularyandsemanticsdrawsheavilyon Romance,GermanicandSlaviclanguages.3 Intermsofvocabulary, Zamenhofattemptedtochoosethemostinternationalroots4 forthe initialEsperantowordshecoined.Inpractice,thismeantrootwords presentinmostEuropeanlanguages,sothatEsperantocouldsound familiartospeakersofthoselanguages.ItsalphabetisbasedontheLatin script,withsomelettershavingdiacritics.Itsspellingisphonemic,each lettercorrespondingtoonephonemeandwiththestressalwaysonthe penultimatesyllable.Intermsofmorphologyandsyntax,Esperantois agglutinative,withcompoundwordsformedinahead-finalorder.Words inEsperantoconsistofastem,occasionallywithsuffixesandprefixes attachedtoit,followedbyagrammaticalending:forinstance, -o indicatesnouns, -a adjectives, -e adverbs, -j pluralsandanaccusativecase ending -n marksthedirectobjectinasentence.Itsdominantwordorder isSVO(subject + verb + object).However,thisorderisrelativelyflexibleduetothemorphologicalmarkingoftheaccusative,whichallows Esperantospeakerstorecognisetheconstituentsofasentenceirrespective oftheorderofwordsinthesentence.

Whilenaturalorethniclanguageshaveno‘publicationdate’and developorganicallyastheyareusedbyparticularhumangroups

3 Esperantohasbeencomprehensivelypresentedinbothdescriptiveandprescriptivegrammars. Formypurposeshere,Ionlyapproachitscorelinguisticfeatures,partlybasedonWells(2006).

4 SuchclaimsofinternationalityarefrequentlyquestionedbythosewhoarguethatEsperanto isnotequidistantfromallexistinglanguages(VanParijs 2011:40–42)andthatitsEuropean typologymakesitlessaccessibletospeakersofnon-Europeanlanguages(seeParkvall 2010).It isworthkeepinginmindthatEsperantowascreatedinaspecificplaceandtimeandZamenhof hadmoreaccesstoEuropeanlanguagesthantoanyothers,whichaccountsfortheEuropean weightinEsperanto’sphonology,grammarandvocabulary.

(Miner 2011),Esperantoanditsfundamentalscanbetracedbacktoone man.AshighlightedbyanEsperantistwhoImetatthe101stUniversal CongressofEsperanto,inSlovakia,in2016:‘Esperantoisaninterestingphenomenon,isn’tit?Becausethelanguagecreateditspopulation, whereaswhatusuallyhappensistheopposite:apopulationcreatesits language’.Thisdissimilarity,whenmeasuredagainstnaturallanguages, iswhatcharacterisesEsperantoasaconstructedorplannedlanguage, accountingforitsallegedartificiality.Yet,asinnaturallanguages,the regularuseofEsperantoalsoproduceschanges,updatesandvariations, asitsdiversifyingspeechcommunityhasmadeEsperantointoaliving languagethatevolvesorganicallyfromitsplannedfundamentals.

Justaswithnaturallanguages,Esperantoisalsospokenbychildren. Amongparentsfromdifferentlinguisticbackgroundswhomeeteach otherthroughEsperanto,itiscommonpracticetoraisebilingualor multilingualchildrenandtouseEsperantoasahomelanguage.In addition,itmaybethatyoungergenerationsofafamilybecomeinterestedinEsperantothankstotheoldergenerations’engagementwith it.Yet,howeverorganicthelanguagemayhavebecome,thesecases arenotprevalent:thestabilityoftheEsperantospeechcommunityis continuouslycalledintoquestioninsofaraslanguagetransmissionalong generationallinescannotbeassumedtoensureEsperanto’scontinuity.

Moreover,Esperantoisneithersupportedbygovernmentsnorisit widelyusedfortheprovisionofservicesoreducation.Withoutbeing extensivelytaughtathomeorschools,mostpeopletakeupEsperanto throughself-learning.Inthelanguage’searlydays,thisoccurredmostly throughteach-yourselflearningmaterialsandbooks.Thesewere—and stillare—occasionallycomplementedbylanguagetutoringbycorrespondenceorphone,aswellasbyface-to-facecoursesofferedatEsperanto associations.Morerecently,theInternethasenabledonlinelanguage learning,whichhasbroughtanewwaveofspeakerstothecommunity whilereinforcingEsperanto’spositionoutsidetheframeworkofformal education.

Anotheraspectthatconfiguresitasarathersingularlanguagehastodo withitsrelationtospatiality:Esperantoisnotanofficialorcustomarily spokenlanguageanywhere,inanyboundedlocation,neighbourhood,

regionorcountry.SincenearlynooneisfullyimmersedinanEsperantospeakingenvironment,Esperantohasnonativespeakers—whichraisesa fiercelinguisticdebateaboutwhatitmeanstobeanativespeakerof alanguage.Followingaformalistapproach,KenMiner(2011)drawsa fundamentaldistinctionbetween nativespeakers and speakers-from-birth . ForMiner,beinganativespeakerentailslearningagivenlanguageby receivingandusingitcontinuouslywithinawiderspeechcommunity duringone’searlychildhood.Bycontrast,ifsomechildrenonlyuse Esperantoasahomelanguagewiththeirparentsandsiblingsanduseit initsspokenformsignificantlymorethaninwriting,theyaremorelikely torepeatthemannerisms,grammarmistakesandidiomscomingfrom theircloserelatives,whichcharacterisesthesechildrenasspeakers-frombirth.Thisisalsothecaseofmigrants’children,whousetheirparents’ mothertongueathomeand,outsidehome,theofficiallanguageofwhere theylive.

Nativespeakersoccupyaprestigiouspositioninformallanguage theory(Chomsky 2006).Unlikethosewholearnalanguagelaterin life,nativespeakersunconsciouslydevelopcertaincognitivesystemsthat characterisetheirknowledgeofthelanguageandaccountfortheirnormprovidinglanguageuse(Chomsky 2006:23–25;Miner 2011).The samedoesnotapplytospeakers-from-birth,which,followingChomsky, resultsinEsperantonotbeinga‘language’and,accordingtoMiner, makesEsperantolinguisticsimpossible.

Inarathercontrastingapproach,drawingupontheEsperantoword denaskulo , 5 SabineFiedler(2006, 2012)acknowledgesthatthestatus ofsomeonewhospeaksEsperantofrombirthcannotbeequatedwith thestatusofanativespeakerofanethniclanguageandrecognisesthat thelinguisticcompetenceof denaskuloj doesnotdecideonthestandardsofthelanguage.However,inherview,thisdoesnotinvalidate Esperantolinguistics,asthestudyofEsperanto-speakingchildren,for instance,canbeusefultoexplorelinguisticphenomenasuchasbabytalk,onomatopoeiaandeuphemisms(2012:75–76).Esperantomaynot beanobjectofstudyavailableforformallinguists,butthisdoesnot

5 The‘from-birthperson’,asin de ‘from’, nask ‘birth’, ul ‘person’, o ‘noun’.

precludethepossibilityofstudyingthislanguageandspeechcommunity fromothertheoreticalandanalyticalstandpoints.

ThelackofnativespeakersandtheabsenceofaboundedEsperantospeakingterritoryaccountforthedifficultytoproduceareliableaccount ofhowmanypeoplespeakEsperanto.Accordingtooneestimate,there areovertwomillionL2speakers—meaningthosewhohaveEsperantoas asecondlanguage—whichplacesitas,presumably,thelargestcommunityofspeakersofaninternationalauxiliarylanguage.Thisisthefigure recurrentlyrepeatedbyEsperantistssince1989,whenSidneyCulbert disclosed,inalettertoDavidWolff,theresultsofhisloosesurveyon thenumberofEsperantospeakersintheworld(Culbert 1989).More recently,thesamefigurewasreiterated,inanequallyvaguesurvey,this timebasedontheonlineuseofthelanguage(Wandel 2015).Several factorspreventtheproductionofacrediblecountofEsperantospeakers. Firstly,nationalsurveys,whentheyincludequestionsaboutlinguistic background,tendtofocusonone’sfirst,ratherthansecondlanguages.

Secondly,notallofthosewholearnEsperantobecomemembersofassociations,gotointernationalmeetingsorjoinonlineEsperantogroups, whicharethespacescommonlyanalysedbyEsperantosurveys.Thirdly, notallofthosewhostudythelanguagebecomeproficientorcometouse iteffectively,whichplacesthemoutsidetheframeworkofthedefacto speechcommunity.Thefigureoftwomillionspeakerscannotbeeasily validated,butthefactthatEsperantistsusuallymentionittojustifythe strengthofthelanguagebecomesinitselfethnographicdata.

Itisalsoworthnotingthat,asaconstructedlanguage,Esperantogoes againstthetheoreticalprincipleofthepriorityofspokenlanguageover thewrittenform.6 AsJohnLyons(1968:38–39)argues,therehasnever beenanyknownboundedhumangrouplackingthecapacityforspeech. Bycontrast,severallanguageshavehistoricallyexistedwithoutawriting system,someofthemuptothepointtheyencounteredmissionariesand linguistswhoproposedwrittenformsforthem.Thecontrastingfeature ofEsperantointhisregardisthat,forbeingaconstructedlanguage,it wasfirstdesignedinwrittenformandonlyeffectivelyspokenwhena secondperson(otherthanZamenhof)learnedit.

6 Signlanguagesareexcludedfromthisprinciple.

Insum,theEsperantolanguage—aswellastheotherinternational auxiliarylanguagestobediscussedinChapter 2—camebeforeitsspeech community,wasfirstdevelopedinwrittenformanddoesnotcount norm-providingnativespeakers.Esperantowasmadeforeveryonebut doesnotbelongtoanyone(i.e.itisnotthefirstlanguageofanyethnic ornationalgroup),andnohumangroupfeelsanyimmediateneedor constrainttospeakit.Esperantoisnoone’slanguageand,technically, canbecomeanyone’s—whichdoesnotmeanitwillwellbeeveryone’sin practice.Mostimportantly,Esperantobecame,asmanyofitssupporters argue,‘morethanalanguage’,developingasetofcosmopolitanprinciples,aspeechcommunityandalanguage-basedsocialmovementthat movesindifferentdirections.Againstthisbackground,howcanthis languageyieldassemblagesandsociabilitiesandhowdothesetakeshape inpractice?

1.2Encounters:OnCommunity,Movement andMediation

Onecantravel,playcertaingames,cultivatehobbies,readliteratureor enactone’spoliticalconvictionsonone’sown.Yet,usingalanguagein allitsgloryrequiresbothreceptiveandproductiveskills,whichturns anymeaningfulengagementwithverbalcommunicationintoacollectiveendeavourandestablishthespeechcommunityasaprecondition forfully-fledgedlanguageuse.However,contrastingwithhowscholars analysingEsperantotendtotreattheemicconceptof Esperantocommunity aslargelyself-evident,itisworthoutlininghowEsperantospeakers effectivelyseethemselvesaspartofthesamerelationalassemblage.

Thinkingof community asasocialconfigurationwhosemembershave somethingincommon,themoststrikingfeatureEsperantistsshareisthe language.Suchasinspeechcommunities(Duranti 1997),membersof theEsperantocommunitysharecertainlinguisticnormsandresources thatenablethemtocommunicateamongthemselvesinspokenand writtenforms,recogniseone’sleveloffluency,refertocomparablesets ofbooksandmediaandtentativelyguessone’smothertonguebased

onone’swayofspeakingEsperanto.Yet,fornotbeinggeographicallybounded,theEsperantocommunityhasafeeblematerialityand atransientcharacter(Mortensen 2017).Bringingitintobeinginvolves ‘work[ing]onsomeformofsharedactivitywhichwilloftenbethereason whythesocialconfigurationwasformedinthefirstplace’(Mortensen 2017:274).

Suchlabourinvolvedinbuildingcommunity,then,gainscurrency. Analogoustothecommunitiesofpractice(Wenger 1998;Eckert 2006; Gobbo 2021)thatmembersofbowlingteams,bookclubsandchurch congregationsbringintobeingthroughmeetinganddevotingtime togethertotheirsharedinterests,theEsperantocommunityrelieson assumedlysharedcosmopolitanorientationsandonepisodesofchatting, meetingandtravellingtotakeshape.Totheserecursivepractices(Kelty 2008)thathelpovercomethegeographicaldispersionofEsperantists, anotherparamountfeatureshouldbeadded:thesharedhistory,literatureandsymbolsthathelpsustainthiscommunity(Anderson 2006). AsIanalyseindetailinthechapterstocome,theseelementsandpracticesconstituteEsperantistsasacommunity—howeveridiosyncraticit maybe(Stria 2015),inbothsocio-anthropologicalandlinguisticterms. Combiningthe communityofpractice , speechcommunity and imagined community approachesyieldsathickeranalysisofcommunity-building inconjunctionwithlanguageuse,makingforconsiderationsofhow languagevariationplaysoutinspokenandwrittenformsaccordingto speakers’mothertongue,age,allegiancetospecificEsperantoassociations anduseofdiversecommunicationtechnologies.

Havingclarifiedtheseanalyticalconcepts,itisworthconsidering theemiccategories Esperantujo and Esperantio —whichIanalyseetymologicallyinChapter 2—usedbyEsperantospeakerstorefertotheir community.Mobilisingthecategories Esperantujo and Esperantio entails referringtothelanguageastheelementthattriggerspeople’sdesireto gatherasacommunity,butalsotothesetsofcosmopolitanprinciples andsociabilitiesnormallyexpectedtobedisplayedbytheideal-typical Esperantist.Theseincludealanguageideologythatvaluesalternativeand moreegalitarianformsofinternationalcommunication;opennesstothe world;andkindnessandhospitalityderivingfromanenhanceddriveto meetandwelcomepeoplefromdifferentnational,linguisticandcultural

backgrounds.ThroughjoiningEsperantujo,Esperantistsareexpectedto expressthesestereotypicalandromanticisedtraits,thuspartiallyturning national,linguisticandculturalOthersintopeers,fellowmembersofa communitythatisinclusiveanddiversebydefinition.

Atthispoint,anotherpreviouslyusedtermdemandsexplanation: Esperantist .IfthosewhospeakFrenchorPortugueseareFrenchor Portuguesespeakers,whysay Esperantist ratherthan Esperantospeaker ? Thesuffix-ist inwordssuchas Africanist , communist or journalist denotesafieldofexpertise,politicalconvictionoroccupation.In Esperantist ,inturn,thesuffixisusedtoestablishadifferenceinmeaning between Esperanto-parolanto (Esperantospeaker)and esperantisto (Esperantist).

Theterm esperantisto wasfirstformalisedinthefifthparagraphof theDeclarationofBoulogne,issuedattheFirstUniversalCongressof Esperanto,inBoulogne-sur-Mer,in1905:

AnEsperantistisapersonwhoknowsandusestheEsperantolanguage withcompleteexactness,forwhateveraimheusesitfor.Membershipin anactiveEsperantistsocialcircleororganisationisrecommendedforall Esperantists,butisnotobligatory.(ZamenhofinBoulet 1905;English translationretrievedfromForster 1982:90)

Despitethisdefinition,inEsperanto, esperantisto isordinarilyusedas anumbrellatermtorefertobothEsperantospeakersandEsperantists.AmongmyFrench-speakingresearchparticipants,however,such adistinctionwasmorecommonlydrawn,inFrench,between espérantophone and espérantiste ,followingfromtheuseofthesuffix -phone inwordssuchas francophone or anglophone .Buildingontheseemic concepts,throughoutthisbookIuse Esperantospeaker tocharacterise thosewhoarelearningorwhocanspeakEsperanto,regardlessoffluency, butwhodonotuseitregularlynorclaimtoparticipateintheEsperanto community.By Esperantist ,inturn,Idesignatethosewhospeakthe languageregularly,joinEsperantoassociationsandthemovementas activists,volunteersandmembers,and/orparticipateinthecommunity. ThemoreoneusesthelanguageandbecomesinvolvedwithEsperantujo, themoreoneisseenasan aktivaesperantisto (activeEsperantist).