Morphological features of Novo-Hispanic grid cities

Morphological features of Novo-Hispanic grid cities

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Doctoral Dissertation, 2007

Fujii Akira Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Tokyo

Printed in Tokyo, Japan 2007

Abstract of Dissertation

Morphological features of Novo-Hispanic grid cities 「格子状街路を持つメキシコの植民都市に関する形態学的研究」 Author: 「ゴメス タグレ モラレス、ホセ マルティン」GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin1 Advisor: 「藤井 1

明」 FUJII, Akira2

PhD Candidate, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo 2 Prof. Dr., Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo

Abstract Five centuries ago after the discovering of the “New World” thousands of new cities were designed and built in the American Continent. The phenomenon of the “grid city” started to be developed massively up-to-day. Searching on those cities to create a catalog of a wide number of Novo-Hispanic settlements with regular urban pattern and; based on the graphical comparison of the latest aerial and satellite photographs and a selection of the original collection of the vintage maps/blue prints used to design the cities; the spatial situation and the dynamic multi-timing changes and/or conservation of the urban morphology of streets, squares, and urban blocks of small villages or either ecumenopolis’ urban tissues in the actual Mexican territory and its morphological features are analyzed by digital image processing.

Keywords: Grid city; town-planning law; morphological features; Laws for the West Indies; Archivo de Indias; Google Earth.

1 Introduction: The American Continent: the “mecca” of old and new grid cities ...ET DIXIT QUI SEDEBAT IN THRONO ECCE NOVA FACIO OMNIA. -…The one who sits in the throne said: Behold, I am making all things newBook of the Apocalypses.

From the first 98 biggest urban areas in the world, 1/3 are in the American Continent where about the 20% were founded by the Spanish Kingdom in the XVI and XVII Centuries. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns owned almost all the American Continent in the “Age of discovering”.

Nowadays, those cities are part of different countries that got their independence in the XIX Century and form new Republics: Mexico City Metropolitan Zone (22.09 millions), Greater Sao Paulo Area (19.09), Southern California Area (17.54), Metro-Manila (16.61), Gran Buenos Aires (13.33), Rio (11.72), Bogota (11.6), Lima and Callao Metropolitan Area (7.74), San Francisco Bay Area (7.53), Madrid (6.16), Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex (5.9), Houston Metropolitan Area (5.19), Caracas (5.1), Barcelona (4.97), Belo Horizonte (4.92), Santiago de Chile (4.84), Tijuana-San Diego (4.69), South Florida (4.29), Guadalajara (4.01), Valley of the sun Arizona (3.79), Porto Alegre (3.76) and Monterrey (3.68).

Contact Author: GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin PhD. Candidate. The University of Tokyo Institute of Industrial Science. Urban Morphology Lab. Akira Fujii Lab Cw-701, 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8505 JAPAN e-mail: gomeztag@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp martingomeztagle@gmail.com

格子状街路を持つメキシコの植民都市に関する形態学的研究

After the discovering of the “West Indies”, the “New World” or the “American Continent”, as we named nowadays these territories, the European crowns started to colonize them using the figure of “the city” as the physical point to start to populate and explode the richness of the natural and human resources found in the new lands. During the next four centuries after the discovering of the New World the Spaniards were the first to started and uninterrupted process to found new cities counted by hundreds in their “Viceroyalties” in the American territory followed by other crowns as the Portuguese, British, Hollanders and Francs. This was the most important, intense, huge and eager city development of the modern history.

2 The non-visible layer: the “Leyes de Indias” -Painting is mute poetry, poetry a speaking pictureSimonides

Basically in Europe the cities doesn’t used the urban planning to generate their cities until the XIII Century.

They use to grow spontaneously around the castle or church but to have a very control of the new lands the cities must be (military) organized and controlled. Since the new comers started founding new cities some rules were applied in order to make the simplest pattern or to adapt to the existing urban tissue in some cases.

During the kingdom of Carlos I (or Carlos V) exists a series of regulations that tried to better organize the laws for the new colonies. Was necessary to put out together all the tryouts of regulations and make strong guidelines to control the new lands and was on June the 31st of 1573, just 50 years after the conquest of Tenochtitlan and 80 after the foundation of the first city in the New World

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

when the king Felipe II promulgated a law called “Ordenanzas del Descubrimiento y Poblacion dadas por Felipe II” (Rules of the discovering and population given

by Phillip the 2nd, considered the first urban code of the Modern Era) regarding to how must be the parameters to design the cities and control the people and discovers in the New World. The main characteristic of the Hispanic City, besides the grid pattern (Fig. 1), was the Plaza Mayor that works as a “Civic Center” for the overall city as well as the “heart” of it. Surrounded by magnificent buildings gives the main character to the Hispano-American cities.

Campeche and many others were superior in architecture and urbanism compared to the magnificent cities they left in Europe.

Fig. 2. Parameters for the design in the “Leyes de Indias”, the numbers refers to specific points on the text.

Fig. 1. Flat perspective of Buenos Aires, Argentine.

3 Research: From the non-visible to the visible: The grid cities in Nova-Hispania -The cities conserve in its sub-soil the meticulous registry of its history, and in its urban tissue the fingerprints of its evolutionArcheological Museum of Seville.

Its squared or rectangular module urban mesh defines a grid city. In the Americas in the center of the grid there is a void public area called “La Plaza”. It uses to be the central point of the city that can be considered to evaluate it in terms of symmetry and mirroring.

Since the conquest, the Spanish Crown started to develop hundreds of new settlements over the American territory (911 cities that are known to have been created between 1492 and 1810), but even several cities were founded by the same rule, their urban evolution reaches wide ranks of physical development after centuries. Some small towns (specially near the coast) already disappeared due to the migration of its people to better lands; some others still remain as their original stage while their foundation due to its ultra-low economic development -specially in the countryside. In the case of Mexico City, after re-shaped the city over the old Aztec Empire Capital’s ruins –Tenochtitlan- new streets, buildings and life started following and says that surpassed the European urban lifestyle standards. This city was considered at that time better city than Madrid, Barcelona, Paris or even Venice due to its beautifulness and magnificence. But not only Mexico City, but also Guadalajara, Puebla, Matamoros, Valladolid de Mechoacan, Veracruz,

2

格子状街路を持つメキシコの植民都市に関する形態学的研究

From 1519 to 1823, 170 cities were founded or re-founded in the Mexican Territory. The colonial cities use to have the elements mentioned by Felipe II in the “Leyes de Indias” and the main points are: -(1) Plaza centralized / open public space -(2) Straight streets / traced by “cord and ruler” -(3) Regular blocks semi-rectangular, rectangular or square shaped / prisms -Main public buildings around the central plaza (as the Church or (4) Cathedral, (5) Government Palace, (6) Commerce colonnade and (7) Royal Houses.

In the Ordinances can also be found features regarding to the orientation, green belt around the city or specific measurements for the Central Plaza.

Based on this we should search visually what information (analogue or digital) shows these characteristics and make our selection of grid cities considering that we need both: the old of the settlement and the nowadays-city views with the aim to evaluate the accuracy of the implementation of the urban design dictated in the Leyes de Indias based on a coding-decoding of the Urban Features. (Fig. 2) It is well known that historically the urban proposals of the Leyes de Indias were based on European theories, but also the tryouts on the New World complimenting in and transforming this regulation. Pre-Hispanic cities as Cuzco or Teotihuacan also contribute to define the unique pattern that distinguishes the Latinamerican colonial city from the rest of the grid cities in the world.

The European and American “mestizaje” -or fusion- is the most important issue that influences the urban design.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

4 Analysis of the visual comparatives of each selected urban patterns -The perceived city, which is in the mind of the chroniclers, actually is rather different that the real city of the cartographers. It has a difference like a metaphor that is poetry and an equation that is mathematics.

Eugenio Pérez Montás.

The aim of this thesis is to make a visual re-integration matching old maps of 22 selected cities/towns in order to compare them visually and do some comment/analysis about the hypothetical grid city to the real city using our digitized images and photographs of the sites.

For this we have basically two processes that we called “from the one-dimension towards the two dimensions” (1D-2D) and “from the three dimensions to the fourth dimensions” (3D-4D). We called 1D to the Leyes de Indias that are composed just by literature. From the lecture of the Ordinances we plan to create theoretical model 2D to apply on it some points to understand the guidelines gave in this law. 3D means the physical space of the grid city and finally matching the layers using two stages of time (the old maps of a city and the up to date satellite views) we will try to understand the urban features generated by the Ordinances and its application to the Mexican territory. (figs 3&4)

Figs. 3&4. (up) Analogy that will be used as our methodology regarding to the four dimensioning elements mentioned in this text (down) 1-map, 2-satellite view, 3-overlaying, 4-comparison.

5 –Conclusions -Nostalgia is the poetic awareness of our personal past, and since the artist’s own past is the mainspring of his creative potential, the architecture must listen and heed his nostalgic revelationsLuis Barragan.

To comprehend our contemporary culture it is necessary to travel to the past to understand its roots. We tried to catch the evolution of the urban pattern visualizing the elements of the city.

After the foundation of cities, the destiny of them was definitely difficult to imagine. Many cities in the New World have similar conditions while others have different “tonalities” or “flavors” but worked over the same initial scheme… and that was a very important point of equilibrium of the Ordinances, which gave the basis but were also flexible in order to let each place finds its own identity. Actually all the cities that were designed based on these rules have their own elements, their own materials, styles and spaces, making them unique and in most cases, similar with slight differences from each other and a unique personality. Spanish foundation traces were based on Indian towns, in brand new flat or uneven terrains; therefore, the urban pattern was not always the same perfect, regular or imperfect grid. From the several Mexican cities we studied, we could not find a precise or defined pattern related to any parameter in order to find a premise of grids, which means that every city had a unique adaptation of the rules. When we see the colonial cities of Latinamerica, with their own styles, we know that they had the same background due to their urban elements. The urban trace, which can be mathematically measured, always will impress us due to its perfection. Its changes thru time could be identified revealing us the reasons why.

The answer to the origin of an urban physiognomy could be found in the urban core of the metropolises or villages, in its central plazas, in the people that receive its space as a heritage, who appropriate the street as they move from one point to another, or lie on the plaza to meet with other inhabitants, or go to the church to devote their faith… or just stay in the house, in a planned urban plot… where he was born in and will remain until the end of his days… or this space can be appreciated as a reticular object placed on a piece of the planet to be the dome that covers the interesting experiences for millions of people that was simply initiated by a rule that was followed, studied and applied. And we cannot define the colonial city as its portals that give protection to the rain, or the empty space of the main plaza to gather with the other settlers; we cannot say that the city is the magnificence of its public buildings… but probably is a mix of all of these urban features that was put together five centuries ago to give a particular way of life into one of the greatest creations of the humankind: the city.

MAGTAM2007

格子状街路を持つメキシコの植民都市に関する形態学的研究

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

3

Morphological Features of Novo-Hispanic Grid Cities

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Morphological features of Novo-Hispanic grid cities

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin1 1

PhD. Candidate. Fujii Akira Laboratory, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Tokyo

Abstract Five centuries ago after the discovering of the “New World” thousands of new cities were designed and built in the American Continent. The phenomenon of the “grid city” started to be developed massively up-to-day. Searching on those cities to create a catalog of a wide number of Novo-Hispanic settlements with regular urban pattern and; based on the graphical comparison of the latest aerial and satellite photographs and a selection of the original collection of the vintage maps/blue prints used to design the cities; the spatial situation and the dynamic multi-timing changes and/or conservation of the urban morphology of streets, squares, and urban blocks of small villages or either ecumenopolis’ urban tissues in the actual Mexican territory and its morphological features are analyzed by digital image processing.

Keywords: Grid city; town-planning law; morphological features; Laws for the West Indies; Archivo de Indias; Google Earth.

Index

3.3 Searching

1 –Introduction

7

1.1 Thesis scope: from Villages to Ecumenopolis

7

1.2 The American Continent: the “mecca” of old and new grid cities

9

1.3 The non-visible layer: introduction to the “Leyes de Indias”

14

1.4 The visible layer: elements and steps for the creation of the new cities

18

2 –Research

23

2.1 From the non-visible to the visible: The grid city.

23

2.2.1 Grid cities in the World

23

2.2.2 Grid cities in the New World

33

2.2.3 Grid cities in the Mexican Territory

39

3 –Methodology

47

3.1 General proceedings

47

3.2 Parameters

48

3.2.1 Cities founded by the Spanish Crown

48

3.2.2 Cities located in the actual Mexican Territory

49

3.2.3 Characteristics and elements based on the Ordinances

50

3.2.4 Analogue and Digital data of the cities

51

Contact Author: GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin Doctor of Engineering Candidate. The University of Tokyo.

Institute of Industrial Science. Urban Morphology Lab. Fujii Akira Lab Cw-701, 4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8505 JAPAN e-mail: gomeztag@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp martingomeztagle@gmail.com

52

3.3.1 Archivo General de Indias. Seville, Spain

52

3.3.2 INEGI and SINFA. Aguascalientes, Mexico and UNAM, Mexico City

58

3.3.3 NASA and GOOGLE. Virtual location

59

3.4 Classification & Qualification

59

3.4.1 Type of grid of cities in the Mexican territory

60

3.4.2 Urban elements of the central area

61

3.4.2.1 The street

61

3.4.2.2 The plaza

61

3.4.2.3 Urban zoning

62

3.4.2.4 Blocks and plots

63

3.5 Screening and selection of data

63

3.6 Set of procedures

65

3.6.1 Words, Cartesian and Einsteinian Dimensions

65

3.6.2 Analogue to Digital Processing

65

3.6.3 Hyper-contrasted Graphic Urban Spectrum

66

3.6.4 Phosphoric green-glowing image conversion

66

3.6.5 Superimposition of Visual Materials

68

3.6.6 Evaluation of the pureness of the urban design

69

4 –Cataloguing, Analysis & Results

75

4.1 From the “one dimension” towards to the “two dimensions” (1D - 2D)

75

4.1.1 Translation, Semantics, Analytic & Graphic interpretation of the “Leyes de Indias”

75

4.2 From the “three dimensions” towards the “four dimensions” (3D – 4D)

84

4.2.1 City data visual cataloging and settings to managing the image data

84

4.2.1.1 Grid Cities without accurate visual or graphic information

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

84

3

4.2.1.2 Grid Cities with imperfect mesh

84

4.2.1.3 Grid Cities with regular mesh

6 –Appendices

85

i.

Most populated metropolitan areas in the World

4.2.1.4 Grid Cities with perfect mesh

86

ii.

(a) Views of some grid cities around the globe

4.2.1.5 Special grids for Fortifications

86

selected urban patterns

(b) Views of grid cities in Spain until the XVI 87

Century and special mentioned cases

4.2.2.1 Ameca Meca vs. Amecameca

83

(c) Views of the mentioned grid cities in the

4.2.2.2 Antequera vs. Oaxaca

93

U.S.A,

4.2.2.3 Bacalar

98

Community

a- Bacalar vs. Bahia de Bacalar

99

b- Fuerte San Felipe vs. Fuerte de Bacalar

iii.

and

the

Indias” (“Re-compilation of laws for the

4.2.2.5 Campeche vs. San Francisco de

Kingdom of the West Indies.”) Book IV, Titles

4.2.2.7 Ciudad Victoria

247

Copy of the “Original Document” of the “Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las

4.2.2.6 Candelaria de Azanza vs. idem

143

European

103

253

V and VII

109

a- Campeche1 vs. San Francisco de Campeche 110 b- Campeche2 vs. San Francisco de Campeche 113

iv.

List of Colonial Cities over one million inhabitants nowadays founded by Spain and

257

115

Portugal Crowns in the American Continent

258

119

and its foundational dates

a- Capital del Nuevo Santander vs. Ciudad Victoria 120

v.

Views of colonial grid cities in Latinamerica

b- Santa Maria de Aguayo vs. Ciudad Victoria

121

vi.

List of settlements founded in the New Spain inside

4.2.2.8 Chicoloapa vs. Chicoloapan

125

267

Mexican Territory in the XVI-XVIII Centuries

4.2.2.9 Guadalaxara vs. Guadalajara

130

4.2.2.10 La Puebla vs. Puebla de los Angeles

136

of cities alphabetical ordered showing the date

4.2.2.11 Merida vs. idem

142

of drawing

270

Catalogue of the original maps and drawings

270

4.2.2.12 Orcasitas vs. Bernal de Horcasitas 148 4.2.2.13 Queretaro vs. Santiago de Queretaro

vii.

viii.

Archivo General de Indias codification full list

268

of grid cities in the Mexican territory

152

4.2.2.14 San Francisco de Guemes vs.

(a) Archivo General de Indias, Seville, Spain

Guemes

157

(b) Archivo General de la Nacion and other

4.2.2.15 San Luis Potosi vs. idem

161

collections, Mexico City, Mexico

4.2.2.16 Soto La Marina vs. Soto La Marina

167

4.2.2.17 Tenochtitlan vs. Ciudad de Mexico

171

a- Colonia Centro

172

ix.

281

295

Classification list of the gridiron particulars of the Novo-Hispanic cities

x.

Catalogue

of

aerial-photogrametrics

and

b- Downtown

176

satellite views of Novo-Hispanic grid cities in

c- Zocalo

177

Mexican Territory up-to-date with information

298

181

of INEGI, SINFA, UNAM, Google Earth &

298

World Wind by NASA

307

d- San Pablo vs. Barrio de San Pablo

4.2.2.18 Teutenango vs. Tenango del 185 Valle

(a) Linear grid cities

317

4.2.2.19 Valladolid de Mechoacan vs. 190

(b) Regular grid cities

329

Morelia

196

(c) Squared grid cities

332

4.2.2.20 Ciudad y Puerto de Veracruz

197

(d) Special cases & visual environments

a- Veracruz vs. Puerto de Veracruz

198

b- Fuerte de San Juan de Ulua vs. idem

199

c- Buitron vs. idem

200

d- Nueva Veracruz vs. Veracruz

204

4.2.2.21 Villa de Altamira vs. Altamira

208

4.2.2.22 Villa de Reinosa vs. Reynosa

4

Australia

4.2.2.4 Burgos vs. Nuestra Senora de Loreto 104 Campeche

229

thru the history up to the XVI Century

4.2.2 Analysis of the visual comparatives of each

5 –Conclusions

227

of Novo-Hispanic grid cities xi.

information for the comparisons xii.

349

Matrix of the urban features followed from the Ordinances of/per selected Novo-Hispanic grid cities

xiii.

215

348

Selected cities list. Analogue and graphical

Overlap of temporal city grid layers &

351

Profile Inventory

457

7 -Abbreviations & Definitions

469

8 –Bibliography, References, Image credits & Handout

470

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

INTRODUCTION

1 -Introduction ...ET DIXIT QUI SEDEBAT IN THRONO ECCE NOVA FACIO OMNIA. -…The one who sits in the throne said: Behold, I am making all things newBook of Revelation, Apocalypse.

1.1- Thesis scope: from Villages to Ecumenopolis American cities as Buenos Aires, Lima, Nueva Guatemala, Caracas, Sao Luis, Los Angeles, Ciudad de Mexico, Panama, San Francisco, Santiago de Chile and many others have similar morphological patterns in their historical downtowns. The reason is simple: five centuries ago vast area of the American Continent -besides other territories in Asia, Africa and Europewere ruled under the LEYES DE INDIAS (West Indies Laws) decreed by the Spanish Empire in the XVI Century to design and built massively new settlements using a “grid pattern” becoming an urban phenomenon that remains up to day.

Settlements that in the beginning were founded as simple towns, the dynamic multi-timing changes of their spatial situation and/or conservation of its urban features evolved into Ecumenopolis or in other cases still remain as simple Villages. As the actual Mexican area was the most important territory of the Spanish Empire for three centuries (called Nova-Hispania –New Spain) we decided to make an exhaustive list of grid cities and find them on the actual territory, search for the original maps done by the Spanish crown that were based on the Leyes de Indias, study and codify the morphological features in this law and analyze the cities based on historical documents, original old drawings, new satellite images and field study of several downtowns.

The originality of our study is based on the fact that we will study in deep the morphological features manifested in the settlements located in the present Republic of Mexico founded by the Spanish Empire in its three centuries of colonization, using as a source of information the original data that generate the cities: Leyes de Indias and Original Maps. To know the actual stage of cities we will gather the data from the most recent satellite images and aerial photos and field study as well.

In the process to gather information for our study we found that, even there are some recent studies regarding to related topics, their approach is observing in a different ways, therefore, their results are others than the ones we pursue and obtained.

-Basically, researchers studied the details of the

Leyes de Indias and the design that leads to the “ideal city” described in this law. The morphology of the central areas around the main squares of Latinamerican capitals (as Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Lima, etc.) focusing on the measurements of its urban schemes are proposed in the thesis “Considerations Concerning Measurements Relating to the Urban Design of the Spanish-American City” by the Spanish Researchers Juan Ramon Jimenez Verdejo, Jose Maria Cabeza Lainez and Jose Manuel Almodovar Melendo from the University of Shiga Prefecture –the first- and the University of Seville –the last two- in 2006.

-Catalina Romero did one of the most extended publishing in Madrid about photographs of the old maps in her book “La Ciudad Hispanoamericana. El sueno de un orden” (The Hispano-American City. The dream of an order) sponsored by the Ministry of Infrastructure and Urbanism in 1989, where she mention the central squares of the main Latinamerican Capitals doing a sort of catalog, including old maps from the Archivo de Indias de Seville and many historical references.

-As a part of their master and doctoral studies, Akihiro Kashima and Masao Furuyama wrote in the 2,000 “A Study on the basis of Urban Planning found in the Ordinances of 1573 promulgated for the Spanish Colonies” and “A study on the continuity of the Spanish Colonial Laws, Ordinances of Felipe II (1573) and Laws of Carlos II (1680) in terms of the town planning” for the Kyoto Institute of Technology and the E.T.S. de Arquitectura de Barcelona, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain.

-In 1997, Tatsu Matsuda did a reference catalog of grid cities called “Urban Design for Grid Cities.

Reference Maps” that were published for the Nagoya International Urban Design Forum where he gathered 16 reference maps in total for Latin America (where 6 of the maps are in the Mexican territory).

-Another extensive (but not exhaustive) publishing of Spanish Empire possession old maps with its references were publishing in 1981 by the Institute of local Administration Studies in Madrid, leaded by Fernando Checa Goitia and Leopoldo Torres Balbas.

The name of the book is “Planos de ciudades Iberoamericanas y Filipinas existents en el Archivo de Indias. (Plans of Iberoamerican and Philippine cities from the Archivo de Indias). This work specially contains not only the image of some maps but also is transcribed the texts founded in each drawing.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

7

-In 2002 Ma. Teresa Padilla Aguilar, Spanish researcher, wrote the paper “Como aparecieron las ciudades del Nuevo Mundo” (How the cities of the New World appeared) where she mention the important roll that the Leyes de Indias play in the foundation of cities making a historical study of most of the Latinamerican capitals, mentioning, of course, the main cities in Mexico as Puebla, Guadalajara, Veracruz, Campeche and Mexico City.

-From the Faculty of Architecture and Beaux-Arts of the Universidad Central in Santiago de Chile, Rene Martinez Lemoine wrote about that the Latinamerican city chessboard plan was not only taken from the Leyes de Indias, but also from the Nicolas de Ovando’s City of Santo Domingo Design in 1502, giving all the credits of this type of scheme to this priest in his text “The classical model of the Spanish-American colonial city”. He search on several capitals of Latinamerica comparing the grid urban scheme done by the edges of streets and blocks and the creation of an open central plaza, published in the “Journal of Architecture”, in London 2002.

-Vicente Bielza de Ory, professor of the Universidad de Barcelona, wrote a paper also in 2002 regarding to the influence of the Spanish cities of Aragon in the design of the Novo-Hispanic cities. He did a deep study how the Spanish and Renaissance theories in general influence the conformation of the Leyes de Indias in his text “De la Ciudad Ortogonal Aragonesa a la Cuadricular Hispanoamericana como proceso de innovacion-difusion, condicionado por la Utopia (From the Aragon’s orthogonal city to the squared Hispano-American city as a process o the innovation-diffusion, conditioned by the Utopia).

-A recent study on Mexico City’s downtown was published in 2005 written by the scholar Lucia Mier y Teran Rocha, researcher of the Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana (Metropolitan Autonomous University).

She base his studies on the (Actas del Cabildo) -City Hall lots-acts found in the Archivo de Indias in Seville, and doing a relationship of the historical events from other texts she reconstructed the plot assignation and the land uses of the central area of Mexico City, from the XVI to the XVIII Centuries. Also, based on texts of Dr. Carmona, from the UNAM (National Autonomous University of Mexico), she tried to situate the new division of land into the pre-Hispanic urban layout. This is the most complete historical urban study nowadays based in a single Mexican city.

8

All these works are based on the premise (or paradigm) that the design of the Colonial Cities in the New World was obeying the urban laws written in the “Ordinances for the Discovering, New Town Planning and Pacification of the West Indies “ –or Leyes de Indias- established by the King Felipe II, and, at the same time, the specifications on design of these laws have it basis in European concepts as the Hipodamos grid pattern (Miletus), the Roman Castra camp organization, the Eximenic and Mallorquin studies, the Ideal cities and Utopias of the Renaissance, the Spanish “barriadas” or the French “bastides” and the cities Jaca, Santa Fe de Granada and Santo Domingo –these last two designed by the Spanish priest Fray Nicolas de Ovando in 1492 and 1502 respectively.

In our case, we would like to take for our evaluation study Mexican cities that probably were not studied before. Our interest is extended from multi-centered urban concentrations as the capital city as well as small ranches that are already abandoned but share the same territory, similar foundation dates and were designed under the Leyes de Indias system.

With the challenge to evaluate historical and present urban visual materials and data lead us to create an original catalogue of cities, a graphical comparison based on the coding and decoding of Leyes de Indias as well to present the urban morphological features of several cities in Nova-Hispania (Mexico). After understanding the different situations of foundation of cities, assigning the definition for the FUSION CITIES and the NEW CITIES (sub-chapter 2.2.2), our final conclusion lead us to shift (basically to complete) the paradigm that very few scholars as Ramon Gutierrez (CEDODAL –Center of Documentation of Latinamerican Architecture) in Buenos Aires, Argentine or Dr. Carmona (UNAM) in Mexico City, that believe that the urban base of Indian cities were used to make the new trace of new Spanish-American Colonial Cities.

Moreover I think that the urban design and the on-the-way experiences of a great number of Fusion and New Cities together with the European experiences participate to code the final document of the Leyes de Indias. Therefore the scope of this thesis is to enlist, code, decipher, gather, decode, compare and analyze the Morphological Features of Novo-Hispanic Grid Cities and to create several catalogs and databases using original visual materials and historical information as well as a new paradigm.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

1.2 The American Continent: the “mecca” of old and new grid cities From the first 98 biggest urban areas in the world around 1/3 are in the American Continent where about the 20% were founded by the Spanish Kingdom in the XVI and XVII Centuries. The Spanish and Portuguese crowns owned almost all the American Continent in the “Age of discovering”.

Fig. 2 Spanish Empire World Map (17 Century) Nowadays, those cities are part of different countries that got their independence in the XIX Century and form new Republics: Mexico City Metropolitan Zone (22.09 millions), Greater Sao Paulo Area (19.09), Southern California Area (17.54), Metro-Manila (16.61), Gran Buenos Aires (13.33), Rio (11.72), Bogota (11.6), Lima and Callao Metropolitan Area (7.74), San Francisco Bay Area (7.53), Madrid (6.16), Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex (5.9), Houston Metropolitan Area (5.19), Caracas (5.1), Barcelona (4.97), Belo Horizonte (4.92), Santiago de Chile (4.84), Tijuana-San Diego (4.69), South Florida (4.29), Guadalajara (4.01), Valley of the sun Arizona (3.79), Porto Alegre (3.76) and Monterrey (3.68) are 22 cities founded by the Spanish and Portuguese crowns and nowadays are inside the first 98 most populated cities in the world. (For reference see table in the Appendix-i)

The American Continent has 42 million square kilometers area; the maximum wide of it represents 5,000 kilometers and the minimum 80 km (in the Isthmus of Panama). Its length, from the territories of Alaska (in the north pole) to the “Tierra del Fuego” (in the south pole) exists 16,000 km, plenty of natural resources and an infinity variety of plants and animals.

Figs. 3-7. (up to down) Mexico City Metropolitan Zone (22.09 million inhabitants); Greater Sao Paulo Area (19.09 million inhabitants); Southern California Area, L.A. (17.54 million inhabitants); Metro-Manila, The Philippines. (16.61 million inhabitants); Gran Buenos Aires (13.33 million inhabitants).

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Finishing the first half of the second millennium, the Spanish and Portuguese had in the Americas all the land they never ever dreamt to build a whole new world and even they couldn’t imagine the real size and richness of the new lands at that time.

For the surprise of the new comers, since their encounter in the Caribbean Islands with small tribes as the “Tainos” and “Caribes”, they started to discover that these “virgin” territory was plenty of great civilizations as the Aztec Empire in the Mesoamerica, the Incas in the South-Pacific and remains of other as the Mayan, Teotihuacana or Olmeca cultures.

Fig. 9. Ruins of the city of Machu Picchu (1450 A.D.), Quechua Culture, Inca Empire. Above the Urubamba Valley, Peru.

Fig. 8. Encounter of Columbus and inhabitants of the Bahamas in the Caribbean islands (1492).

The cultures that inhabit those “New World” knows about arts, poetry, engineering, astronomy, literature, science, biology, medicine, architecture… and almost all the fields of the knowledge including urban planning. What is most striking about Aztec, Inca or Mayan architecture and town planning is that, despite elementary techniques, it reveals an astonishing breadth of concept and sense of grandeur.

The great sacred complexes of the theocratic cities were designed with mathematical precision; there was usually a master plan governing the establishment of large communities.

Pedro Martin in his visit to Tenochtitlan mentioned about his experience with the Aztec blueprints he could see (copied by Juan de Ribera for the Spanish Crown): “About the numerous maps of these territories, we examinee one that is 30 feet long draw over white cotton where was in detail the lake with the provinces of the friends and enemies of Moctezuma… in addition this big map we saw an

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Fig. 10. Image of the city of El Mirador (900 B.C.) with a population of 100,000 inhabitants. Mayan Culture. Guatemala.

Fig. 11. General view of the ruins of Teotihuacan, Mexico (300 B.C.) The city is developed along a large avenue that works as the central axis. The temples, houses, plazas, palaces and streets are all orthogonal inside a gridiron tissue. It had 120,000 inhabitants.

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Figs. 12 & 13. (upper) Painting showing the four main avenues (North-South, East-West) converging in the central area where are the main temples and plazas of Tenochtitlan. The gridiron mesh for parcels, plots and streets can be appreciated. (Stage of the city about 1,500 A.D.) 200,000 inhabitants. (down) Image of Teotihuacan before the conquest. Painting by Diego Rivera.

small one but also interesting. It has the city of Mexico with its temples, bridges, lakes, painted by the native Indians”.

Metxli-Yxco Tenochtitlan (“the city in front of the moon near the cactus”, now named as Mexico-Tenochtitlan) in the middle of the Great Texcoco Lake in the Anahuac Valley was the fascination and admiration of the conquerors since they saw it. Without doubt, at that time, it was the biggest floating-grid city in the world. It was form by several open urban spaces never seeing in Europe

before, fact that surprised deeply the eyes of the visitors.

The conqueror Hernan Cortes wrote in its “Cartas de Relacion de la Conquista de Mexico” (Letters related to the conquest of Mexico) to the kings in Spain: “This great city of Temixtitan is founded in a lake, and from the seashore to the body of this floating city are in its nearest point at least two league (4.83 kilometers). It has four entrances, all handmade, wide as two times the spikes of a knight. This city is as big as Seville and Cordoba together”.

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“The main streets are very wide and very straight, half soil (streets) and half water (canals) while along them the canoes can go; and all the streets are opened length by length while the water of the others cross.

Some of this “openings” are very wide with bridges of large carved pieces of wood; some of these bridges are as wide as ten horses together side-by-side can be conducted to cross it”.

“This city has many plazas, where are located continuous markets to exchange, buy and sell. It has another plaza about two times the size of the city of Salamanca, all surrounded by colonnades. About 60,000 people are buying and selling everyday any kind of products… In fact, in those street markets it sells anything you can find on the surface of earth, are many and have good quality, I don’t mention all due to I cannot remember so many things, although many of them I don’t know how to name”.

“There are many ‘mosques’ or houses for their idols in very beautiful buildings… There is one that is the main one, inside a very high walled circuit where can fit a village of 500 inhabitants… (The city has) 40 towers very tall and well done, that most of them has about 50 steps to go up… the biggest is taller than the main church of Seville (actually it has 120 steps, one for each day of the Aztec calendar). They are well carved, the stone and the wood, and cannot be better done in any other place…”

“In this great city they are many houses, very good and very big, due to all the servants of Moctezuma have their houses in this city and live here some part of the year; also many other citizens are very rich, hence they own very good houses. All of them have very good and large rooms, very gentle plants of different flowers in their rooms around the ground floor and upper floor”.

Fig. 14. Main Square in Teotihuacan. The buildings are ordered symmetrically around several open spaces.

“There are in all the markets and public places of the city, everyday, workers and masters of all the specialties, waiting to be hide for a job. The people of this city is the most fashionable and cute in their way to dress and service manners, not like in other provinces or cities, due to Mr. Moteczuma and all his lords and servants always concur in the city, therefore here they performed the most polite and mannered habits”. “… I would like to finish saying that in this city, the service, treat of people and way of life is almost the same as in Spain, plenty of order and well organized as in Europe. Considering that this ‘barbarian’ and ‘knowledge less of God and other illustrated countries’, this is a very admirable thing to see how they have all their things”.

At that time, Tenochtitlan had a population of 200,000 inhabitants. Its urbanization surprised Cortes and his troops due to its vast avenues, street and

Fig. 15. General View of the artificial island of Teotihuacan. City Capital of the Aztec Empire around 1,500 A.D.

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canals organization, illumination, irrigation and water supplies, drainage system, great buildings and natural resources, but specially because its open-plazas plenty of people doing their urban daily lives. All the axis of the urban design starts from its Central Great Plaza (the Aztecs called it “The center of the world and center of the universe”) and runs to the four orientations. But not only in Tenochtitlan, Teotihuacan or Casas Grandes (in Mesoamerica) the grid urban pattern was used to design big cities but also we can find cities as Chanchan, Virocochampa, Pikillaqta, Cuzco or Quito in the South Hemisphere.

followed by other crowns as the Portuguese, British, Hollanders and Francs. This was the most important, intense, huge and eager city development of the modern history only compared with the actual situation of cities in China and India.

Even it is truth that many cities in the Americas were built or re-built under the Spanish command, the “mestizaje” and syncretism made them mix and construct a new language based on the old and the new, a diachronic perspective where several cultures sum their backgrounds. Many of these new settlements used the grid pattern with a mix of indigenous old urban city characteristics and the European new ideas of the Renaissance.

It is a shame that the Europeans didn’t really exchange knowledge with the locals and impose their rules and power by blood destroying the indigenous settlements to build a new era. Anyhow it was a kind of an opportunity to brew and mix cultures, people and knowledge in certain way and it was one of the facts of the colonization that also will reflects its principles in the physical spaces of the city. Even the cities will take the “soul” of the urban elements of the Indians; they should transform them into a “Hispanic ambiance” with its buildings and style.

Figs. 16 & 17. Two views of the Citadel of Chanchan, near Trujillo City in Peru. The upper view shows the orthogonal design of the urban pattern, while the second shows the perfectly linear conditions of its streets.

After the discovering of the “West Indies”, the “New World” or the “American Continent” as we named nowadays these territories, the European crowns started to colonize them using the figure of “the city” as the physical point to start to populate and explode the richness of the natural and human resources found in the new lands. During the next four centuries after the discovering of the New World the Spaniards were the first to started and uninterrupted process to found new cities counted by hundreds in their “Viceroyalties” in the American territory

Fig. 18. Codex of the 16th Century showing a battle between the Spaniards and Indians. The lands are separated by a lake, then, could be a battle in Tenochtitlan. In the beginning they consider themselves separated races as they couldn’t understand each other but by the time they started to mix in an action known as “mestizaje”.

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Fig. 19. Transformation of Tenochtitlan into a European Colonial city. Painting of the urban stage of Mexico City at the end of the 17th Century.

In the first 50 years after the discovering of the New World (1492-1542) the Spanish crown were build in the new lands more than 100 new Hispanic cities -almost all were grid cities excluding the fortifications and mine-cities.

The “metropolis” of the Spanish Empire in the New World, Mexico City, in 1537 had 100,000 inhabitants, and in 1552 about 100,000 houses built (around 500,000 inhabitants) and was the biggest city of the entire Spanish Empire, even more than Madrid, Seville or Barcelona. In the middle of the XVI Century, the Viceroyalty of the New Spain counts with 10 million inhabitants more than Spain, while it had only 7 million people.

One hundred years after Columbus’ discovering (1592) the number of cities in the New World rises to 220, and 330 in 1630 –here we are not considering the new cities founded in the U.S.A., Holland, French or Portuguese territories- starting a new “mecca” of grid cities in the vast and new brand American Continent.

1.3 The non-visible layer: introduction to the “Leyes de Indias” Basically in Europe the cities doesn’t used the urban planning to generate their cities until the XIII Century. They use to grow spontaneously around the castle or church but to have a very control of the new lands the cities must be (military) organized and controlled. Since the new comers started founding new cities some rules were applied in order to make the simplest pattern or to adapt to the existing urban tissue in some cases.

Hernan Cortes, one of the conquerors, in its “Cedulas Reales” (Royal Certificates) in 1513, ordered to his subordinate Pedrarias Davila, what we consider one of the first instructions regarding to the urban design (known as the first urban code) for the new lands, and it says: “… it is very important to know the advantages to plan a city starting from an urban square and order the streets in regular form from this central point in an orthogonal trace”. These words were not more than a simplified description of

Figs. 20, 21 & 22. From left to right. Plaza de Armas in Quito, Ecuador; Calle del Cardenal in the Colonial Zone of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic; Main Plaza with the Catedral of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico.

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Fig. 23. Temix Titan. Drawing attributed to Hernan Cortes about his vision to Tenochtitlan (1524) It is one of the first European maps of a city of the New World.

Fig. 24. Reconstruction of the new trace of Mexico City by Alonso Garcia Bravo (521-1522). The grid was based on the main avenues (calzadas) of Tenochtitlan that defined 4 quadrants in each corner.

A intermittent line defines the “Primer Cuadro” and all the boundaries are surrounded by the waters of Texcoco Lake

what he saw when he was astonished by the great city of Tenochtitlan. Between November the 8th of 1520 and May of 1521 Cortes draw a plan of Mexico City (well known as “the map of Nuremberg” (due to was published in Latin in 1524 in Nuremberg) that is considered “the oldest” (made by an Spaniard) map of Tenochtitlan, where he combine real and fantasy elements of his vision of the Aztec city.

We can see on it the ceremonial center: an enormous squared plaza surrounded by a wall; the central buildings of the Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc twin Temples and the Moctezuma Palace; the avenues that bounds the land from the island; the Tlaltelolco Plaza; the “chinanmpas” (artificial floating agricultural lands); the dam make to control the lake water levels; the water supply canal from Chapultepec hill, etc. It is important to see this map and compare with the first urban tissue proposed to Mexico City to find similarities and adaptations to the European urban proposals. The city’s chronicler Munoz Camargo assures (in 1576) that “Hernan Cortes built Mexico City re-building Tenochtitlan recovering the urban model hereby from the indigenous”.

During the kingdom of Carlos I (or Carlos V) exists a series of regulations that tried to better organize the laws for the new colonies. The cities must function as: -Points to trade and control the commerce (as ports, maritime routes, mines and ware houses) -Agriculture and economic locations (the city was right the place of agriculture production) -Military reasons (fortifications to defend their interests) -Religious interests (to control the faith of the people) But was necessary to organize all the tryouts of regulations and make strong guidelines to control this new lands and was on June the 31st of 1573, just 50 years after the conquest of Tenochtitlan and 80 after the foundation of the first city in the New World when the king Felipe II promulgated a law called “Ordenanzas del Descubrimiento y Poblacion dadas por Felipe II” (Rules of the discovering and population given by Phillip the 2nd, considered the first urban code of the Modern Era) regards to how must be the parameters to design the cities and control the people and discovers in the New World.

These Ordinances were the compilation that gathers the knowledge of the orders for the new cities

(extinct).

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dictated by Fernando el Catolico in 1513, the Ordinances of Carlos I given in 1526, the experience of the urban design of the Pre-Hispanic cities (Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan) and the new laws given by Felipe II (1573). The King Carlos II continued filling out these urban laws and promulgated the “Recopilacion de las Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias” (“Recompilation of the Laws of the Kingdom of the West Indies”) in 1680.

From three centuries, the American viceroyalties of Spain were regulated by a series of laws that were adapted to the complex situation of these colonies and the big distance that separated the European metropolis and those lands. Any documentation sent to solve any matter related with judicial or administrative processes to be guaranteed by the king after the resolution of the “Consejo de Indias” (Indian’s Chamber) and its going back to the origin could take around one year. This was a big issue that made all difficult and delayed.

It is that because the classification made by Antonio de Leon Pinelo in 1629 of all the norms and laws decreed by the king Felipe II were important for the Empire. But was Juan de Solorzano Pereira who did realize a review and a new version of Leon Pinelo’s work, having as a result the “Recopilacion de las Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias” in 1680. This recompilation present nine books divided in four volumes with 6,385 laws grouped in 218 titles. It introduces all the aspects related with the life in the

colonies. From these nine books, the first is devoted to religious topics and the sixth to the Indian population.

The other seven books has all the topics related to the complex political structure and administration of the colonies, about the governmental institutions, the defense of the colonies, the formation of cities, the commerce, the society, the tributes and distribution and the justice administration. The “Libro IV. Titulo VII. De las Poblaciones de las Ciudades, Villas y Pueblos” (Book 4th. Titles 7th and 8th. About the population of cities, villages and towns) talks in detail about the urban planning for cities.

(For reference see the “Hard copy” of this Ordinances for reference in the Appendix-iii)

This rules regarding to the construction of cities in the New World was dictated in June the 31st of 1573.

This law pretends develop a series of parameters and rules for the cities, founded or not by the Spaniards, with all the ideas to the creation of cities of the Renaissance in the entire American continent. This law dictates to “… draw the lines over the lands…”

Even we will analyze in detail all the parameters to the formation of cities in the New Territories we would like to mention some point to have on mind about the construction of cities written in these ordinances.

First of all, and briefly, we find the suggestions about the “place to build the city” and mention: “This new constructions must be done in:

Figs. 25, 26 & 27. First Printed edition of the Recopilacion de las leyes de los Reynos de Indias. Madrid 1681; Original handwriting of Felipe II made in 1573; Graphic representation of the urban code in the 17th Century in Spain.

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Figs. 28, 29, 30 & 31. (upper) Touristy map of the streets of Downtown Seville, Spain; (middle) Touristy map of the streets of Downtown Cusco, Peru; (bottom-left) View of the sinuous streets of Seville; (bottom-right) View of the Barrio de San Blas in Cusco with its straight streets result of the gridiron pattern.

-An open place, and, -In the case to be built over an indigenous city must be done without disturb the natives and with their consent” -nevertheless, in this point we can start a debate about what was the reality at that time.

The second point talks about the construction rules for all the cities in the New World and they are:

-The center of the city will be the “Plaza Mayor” (main square) where all the city will be originated, and -From it, all the streets will be oriented to the four cardinal points.

The Plaza Mayor must be “well scaled” -To defeat the city, -To pursue the commerce and -To hold civic and religious celebrations”.

In the third point it talks about how to distribute the plots around the Plaza Mayor (still called nowadays “Primer Cuadro” –means “First Square”) that was hierarchically the most important location of the entire city.

“These plots must be reserved to -The church, -The “Casas Reales” or royal palaces, -The municipal buildings and -The houses for the Europeans -the plots should be given by lottery to the Spanish colanders that already are in this territory and reserve some others for future immigrants from Europe.

The fourth and last point regarding to the foundation of cities mention the necessity of -“Good proportion and beauty of all the buildings” -Proposals for the internal distribution of the houses of the Spaniards which -Must be also be used for defense if needed in case of population disorders.

Also it is mentioned about a designation of a “common land” with -Amenities for the joy of the inhabitants and -Land of grass to feed the cattle.

As good points of the ordinances, the new urban design breaks the old medieval European cities’ structure to develop an “open scheme”. The vast areas let the Spaniards to use big spaces for the different land uses, wide streets and beautiful cities. Then, the function, society, economy and political life in the new cities were registered in the frame of a good urban design. The construction of these new cities was not a fact of the improvisation of the conquerors or the Europeans, but also, in some way, the result of the syncretism of the indigenous and the Spanish cultures even its social, political even physical big differences between them.

Highlighting some physical urban conditions we can be found in the tissue of Tenochtitlan and Cuzco, where the continuity of the indigenous social-urban

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structure (main avenues, plazas, urban land assignment, etc.) and superposition of European concepts (plot division, rational city measurements, new oriented city functions, etc.) were melted and fusion to obtain a new urban tissue tracing that was abstracted and regulated to be used in all the new foundations in the American continent.

In the beginning, the grid city also works physically as a division of the population by races (as ghettoes). The Spanish population lived “inside” the grid and the Indigenous population was obligated to live “outside” the grid by the third point of the ordinances. The indigenous population or even the indigenous elite was banished to the periphery of the city. The Mexican “calpullis”, the Lima’s “arrabales and the “parroquias” of Cuzco were the examples of indigenous reservoirs (or cities for the Indians) in the out squirts of the colonial cities segregating them by the “principle of separation” or razes.

Going back to the obey of the rules of the ordinances, besides the famous examples of native local cities re-used for the Spaniards, the “ideal” functionality, sobriety and order of the urban pattern of the grid city were followed to create many other cities that obey the most important concepts of the Felipe II “Leyes de Indias”. It is important to notice that the city of La Laguna, in the Canary Islands (besides the West Sahara in Africa) was the first place where the Spanish kingdom experimented in 1496 their first tryout of this “regulated” urban scheme to be exported later to their new lands before export this urban model to the new lands in the American Continent.

Fig. 32. La Laguna city, Canary Islands, Spain (1496).

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Later it was used for some European cities expansions, but especially it was widely used by thousands of new American (U.S.A.) cities. New York or rather Manhattan’s grid plan formulated in the Commissioner’s Plan of 1811 for New York City is the example par excellence in the U.S.A.; Washington D.C.; Austin in Texas (14 block grid of exactly 1 square mile –2.6 square kilometers); San Francisco (with a hilly land but view from above is perfectly reticular) and Los Angeles in California; Chicago in Illinois; Tucson in Arizona and many others, generating an urban phenomena for the biggest territorial transformation in the modern era. (For several satellite views of these cities see the Appendix-iic under the tag “United States of America”)

1.4 The visible layer: elements and steps for the creation of the new cities Along the époques, several steps were performed in order to realize physically the urban trace of a new place. Even before the Felipe II Ordinances were established, to start a new settlement or take possession of a new land, the conquerors use to have a rite for the foundation of a village that includes the taking of land in the name of the Crown, a simple trace of the main street and the assignation of some lands for certain buildings. After the Ordinances, the steps were rather the same but also including the exact measurements and trace of blocks and streets, assignation and characteristic of plots and more detailed urban design rules. All the cities in the New World started as villages (with a few exceptions). To acquire the status of “City” the villages must complete a series of regulations and be named by the King of Spain who had the power to give the “title” of cities.

When the conquerors started a village, they had an already established rite since Columbus times which remains for centuries. The basic steps of this ceremony were as follows: -The ceremony started “taking possession” of the new lands. The founder could be a priest or a minister of the crown that should start to cut the grass or three branches as a symbolic “possession” of the land.

-Then, he (the founder) should dare to everybody to stop his pretensions of taking that land.

-After that, “the pillory” (symbol of justice and jurisdiction) is installed.

-At the same time a cross was sink on the ground where the future church will be built.

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- Then, they started to “draw” on the land, from the Plaza, the plots of the main buildings.

-To give the plots, the Spaniards chosen in a drawing (blueprint) what they like in hierarchical order. The most important people owned the plots closest to the plaza and so on until take the ones of the limit of the city for the ones that was not important persons.

More and more rules to obey were added afterwards as: “Make the drawing on the land, and later the subdivision and assignation of plots. Each of the settlers must built a fence all around their plots to protect to the Indians and arm its camp-house’s awnings or make ranches with woods or branches as a provisional buildings, while build their permanent construction”.

Due to the ordinances, all the houses must be shaped in the same form… “que sean de una forma” it means to be similar in appearance, but also ads “the houses and buildings must be admire by the Indians to make understand them that the Spaniards live there, to instill fear and respect to wish their friendship and don’t mess with them”.

Usually walls did not surround the cities, only the fortresses besides the coast, then the cities were plenty of land to increase their size but it had a limit. They called “a belt for future uses” as hospitals, Indian reservoirs, future schools, etc. that has, in the beginning, the use to protection and defense. And those lands belonged to the city hall. They use to reserve a “belt free of constructions” three or four times bigger than the original urban tissue or “three hundred steps from the limit of the city. And after this “green belt”, were located the land for agricultural purposes, the place for horses and workers, the hacienda, etc. All this details must be written in the foundation papers.

The first “papers” of the foundation of the cities were, more than a registration of lands, a “prize” for the war. The conquerors use to get the best plot of the city for themselves and their families and since the beginning they named the people of the “cabildo” (city hall) and the religious group in charge to evangelize the Indians. They should have at least 30 neighbors for the foundation of a city. Together, counting the owners, their families and servants, must be from 120 to 240 people within a city of around 12 hectares. This new city, with its squared plaza in the center must have around 8 blocks around it (a grid of 3X3). Each block will be divided in 4 plots to obtain

in total 32 parcels, while 2 were reserved for public buildings. A bigger community should be of 100 neighbors or 25 blocks. In the XVII and XVIII centuries were very common to start a city of 7X7 or 9X9. Just the cities that will be designed as capitals, like Lima or Buenos Aires will have bigger proportions.

Figs. 33, 34 & 35. These several views show the nowadays-urban situation of cities. Even they were designed following the ordinances and about the same dates, its urban expansion has been very different. From up to down: Masambique, a village in Veracruz State, Mexico; Chiapa de Corzo, in the frontier State of Chiapas border to Guatemala; and a flat-perspective of the metropolis of Buenos Aires in Argentine.

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Nevertheless, the main characteristic of the Hispanic City, besides the grid pattern, was the Plaza Mayor that works as a “Civic Center” for the city as well as the “heart” of it. Surrounded by magnificent buildings gives the main character to the Hispano-American cities. In this aspect, were very few the Metropoleis in Spain –old land- that has it as an emblematic symbol of the city, although the Plaza Mayor of the Hispano-American cities has more similarities in function to the Italian ones where “the plaza is everything” as in Florence (Piazza di la Signoria), Siena (Piazza di Palladio), Venice (Piazza di San Marcos), Bolonia (Piazza di San Petronio), Verona (Piazza delle Erbe), etc.

Due to these rules about the construction of cities in the New World follows and surpassed the great European ideas of the Renaissance and at the same time were gifted in the new lands of the American continent a virgin and vast territory to be developed, it has the great opportunity to create a new urban life patterns of fashion, engineering advance, creation of capitals of culture and wealth… is that because the Visitor from the Empire, Francisco Hernandez, described Mexico as “… with great palaces and wide public avenues, large markets and open spaces, the Vice-king, the Real Audience, the ministers, the archbishops can do and build anything in the frame of the beaux-arts and science in the institutions on the city…”

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And it is important to say that the spatial organization (represented by streets, palaces, monasteries, plazas, etc.) is also the organization of the power, the elite, the religion and the institutions.

The “open”, “social”, “popular”, “central”, “city”, “people’s” space (in this case in the frame of the urban organization) it is turned into culture. It is quite easy to recognize the Hispanic (colonial) cities by its grid pattern and urban elements due to they develop an own defined personal style, but many other grid cities in the world are different because the compositions of the overall urban elements even they have similar characteristics of urban shape and concept.

Figs. 36, 37, 38, 39 & 40. (left) “Closed” Piazza di San Marcos, Venice, Italy; (right) “Open” Plaza de Armas, Cusco, Peru. (upper) Aerial photographs of the central square of the city. (down) urban ambience of the mentioned public spaces. (below) Plaza de Armas de Santiago de Chile, Republica de Chile. Squared open space surrounded by governmental and business buildings.

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RESEARCH

2 -Research LAS CIUDADES CONSERVAN EN EL SUBSUELO EL REGISTRO MINUCIOSO DE SU HISTORIA Y EN LA TRAMA URBANA LAS HUELLAS DE SU EVOLUCION. -The cities conserve in its sub-soil the meticulous registry of its history, and in its urban tissue the fingerprints of its evolutionArcheological Museum of Seville.

2.1 From the non-visible to the visible: The grid city In some cases and depending on the time of foundation, a city with some simple parallel lines as a part of its urban morphology can be considered a grid city. But in general the definition of a grid city is based in the basic shape of a square –also called gridiron or checkerboard. Due to its urban considerations, the technique used for the trace of the city, a grid city can be perfect or not perfect. With 90 degrees corners (rectangle) and perfect equal blocks (square) or just a progressive regular morphology that creates the effect of a mesh. The terrain conditions also create visual effects on the trace of streets or urban blocks and the buildings play an important roll also in the perspective and visuals of the cities.

As we mentioned, a grid city is a squared city that use to regulate its urban mesh or has a central starting point that can be considered to evaluate it in terms of symmetry or mirroring. We can find several examples and tryouts of grid cities along the history. In this chapter we will mention first about these examples in the whole world by époques before the application of the Felipe II Ordinances and later the new grid cities founded in the American Continent concentrating our research on the ones founded by the Viceroyalty of the New Spain in the today’s territory of Mexico.

2.2.1 Grid cities in the World The cities were established in several époques by different civilizations since the beginning of the mankind; some of the earliest planned cities were built using grids. Even there are disputes about the trace of the first cities, probably the first grid or regular city pattern is the one represented in a wall painting from a shrine at Chatal Huyuk in the Konya Plain (Turkey).

This Neolithic settlement of about 10,000 inhabitants founded around 5,600 B.C. has houses or urban blocks aligned in groups of three or four columns and two or three imperfect rows. Each house forms a square shape with round corners and in the interior central

Figs. 41, 42 & 43. (first) General plan of the first urban community in the world: Chatal Huyuk in Anatolia –nowadays Turkey. (second). Visual interpretation on the same settlement. (third) Aerial view on Mohenjo-daro in India. The central street is the axis along all the structures are constructed.

courtyards and small open spaces in the corners. The streets are lines in the North-South axis and have continuous imperfect lines from the East to the West.

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Regarding to an open street, Khirokitia in Cyprus had a street and the unwalled settlement stretched along its length in a pattern of growth that was potentially open-ended.

The earliest excavations have revealed urban agglomerations following geometrical linear patterns in the Babylonian city of Ur showing the evidence of man’s attempts at visual abstraction and geometrical simplification. Before that, the ziggurat of Uruk shows the symmetry, orthogonal and pure line shaped based of a centralize pattern somehow gridironer.

By 2,600 BC. Mohenjo-daro (India) and in the fertile valley of Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan. North India) were built more organized urban structures with plots divided by a grid of straight streets, laid out in perfect right angles, running north-south and east-west.

Each block was subdivided by small lanes by the “Indus Valley Civilization” and can be seeing up to date. (For other satellite views of this area see the Appendix-iia under

Figs. 44-48. (left) Ruins of a village oriented North-South in rows and columns in Egypt near the great pyramids. (down) Zooming sequence of Harappa Valley. Note the sensation of constellations over the land and the organization of each cell in strict orthogonal, orientation and straight order of it streets and blocks.

the tag “Harappa”)

A worker’s village at Giza, Egypt (2,570-2,500 BC) housed a rotating labor force and was laid out in blocks of long galleries separated by streets in a formal grid. Many pyramid-cult cities used a common orientation: a north-south axis from the royal palace and an east-west axis from the temple meeting at a central plaza where King and God merged and crossed.

Large buildings as Tel-el-Amarna Palace (Egypt) keep the imposition of geometrically ordered streets and buildings following gridiron plans and focused upon central points such as markets and temples.

Hammurabi (XVII Century BC) was a king of the Babylonian Empire who made Babylon one of the greatest metropolises in antiquity. He rebuilt the temples, city walls, public buildings and built canals for irrigation. The streets were wide and straight intersected approximately at right angles and were paved with bricks and bitumen.

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Fig. 49. City of Ch’ang-an (Xi’an) China. Surrounded by a wall and divided in orthogonal North-South oriented streets.

The first written law in the world about the design of a grid city was made in China, where the tradition of grid plans was followed from the XV Century BC onward. Guidelines of master planning were put into written form in the Kaogong Ji (Record of trades, section of the Zhou Li -Rituals of Zhou) that suggests that the capital city is always constructed with the conception of both idealism and realism. On one hand, the described capital represents a kind of ideal symmetrical city, with implicates a cosmic pattern based on the magic diagram of Lo River. On the other hand, it is possibly originated from Ch’ang-an (Xi’an), the imperial walled grid city of Western Han dynasty.

This literary record (that may appear during the reign of Emperor Wang Mang, 770-476 BC) stated: “a capital city should be square on plan. Oriented to the four cardinal directions. Three gates on each side of the perimeter lead into the nine main streets that crisscross the city and define its grid-pattern. And for its layout the city should have the Royal Court situated in the south, the marketplace in the north, the Imperial Ancestral Temple in the east and the Altar of the Gods of Land and Grain in the west”. Ch’ang-an

city was structured as a “divine cosmic plan” and it has about 6.5 kilometers from East-West and about 8 kilometers North-South (some authors mention that it was 75 square kilometers). The city wall was 5.3 meters high made of sand compacted and covered by brick. The grid pattern had 25 avenues and along them canals to drain the water and in some parts trees. All the main streets North-South were 146 meters wide (the Fifth Avenue in Manhattan is only 30 meters wide). It had a population (about the first middle of the VIII Century) of 2 million inhabitants when Li Lung-chi was the Emperor (this pure symmetry and gridiron pattern can be seen in Suzhou –1229 with parallel systems of streets and canals; or in the Forbidden City in Beijing, core of the concentric rectangles that organized the Ming capital as rebuilt from 1421).

In Europe the Greeks probably did the first planned city. Miletus and Priene (in present-day Asia Minor nowadays Turkey) are the archetypes of grid cities and were built after 479 BC. Its gridiron design has been credited to Hipodamos, a Greek intellectual associated with the Pythagoreans. After Miletus and Priene was founded Olinto in 432 BC.

Fig. 50. City of Miletus nowadays.

The grid plan was a common tool of the Roman city planning based originally on its pragmatic use in military campus know as “castra” following the order of battle lines and camping of the soldiers while spend the nights in their campaign. They maintain an open area just besides the center to let the 2 street-cross free. All the campers in strictly linear order surrounded by a squared street for the sentries or the wall that had 4 doors, one of each in the center of each side. It is characterized by a nearly perfectly orthogonal layout of streets, all crossing each other at right angles and

Figs. 51&52. Roman castra scheme and exemplified illustration.

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Figs. 53-56. (upper-left) Verona, Italy. (lower-left) Turin, Italy. (center) Urban planning of Tumugadi-Timgad, Algeria, Africa. (right) Aerial view of Timgad.

by the presence of two main streets that ends/begins in the gates. The Plaza was called Principia (beginning in Latin); the street east-west called Via Praetoria (main street) or Cardo and the street north-south Via Principalis (principal street) or Decumanus; the East door was called Porta Principalis Dextra (right principal gate); the North door Porta Praetoria (main gate); the West door Porta Principalis Sinistra (left principal gate); and the South was named Porta Decumana (back gate). Historically, some old cities remains with this “grid” urban pattern, but are just few examples and most of them abandoned. One of the oldest Roman foundations are Verona (founded in 89 BC with a classic square-block pattern can still be made out in the city today), Turin (28 BC) and the most striking extant Roman grid patterns with square blocks and rectilinear enclosure can be found in the ruins of Tumugadi-Timgad (now Algeria) from the 100 AD. Timgad is one of the purest in form and the best preserved. The grid of Timgad measures about 355 meters on each side. It consists of four parts of 36 blocks each, 144 blocks in all. Central axis from the center of the plaza and 90 degrees streets in the whole urban tissue.

Paris have also Roman urban ruins that used a basic unit of measurement that was exactly 300 roman feet, with occasional subdivisions of 150 feet and the central plaza that was 600 X 300 roman feet. Early

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Roman monuments and the path of certain medieval roads in Paris have all contributed to the establishment of a theoretical, strictly orthogonal town grid. Another Roman foundation, Resenberg, started as a rectangle with a grid of 6X4 with 90 degrees pure angles and fortified by a wall which had one door per orientation as in the military roman pattern. Its 27 blocks have only 4 different types and the wide of the streets were the same except in the East-West one that is wider.

In Asia, Japan and Korea adopted the Chinese grid-planning principles in numerous locations. In Korea, Gyeongju, the capital of Unified Silla and Sanggyong, the capital of Balhae, adapted the Tang Dynasty Chinese model. The ancient capitals of Japan, such as Fujiwara-Kyo (694-710 AD), Nara (Heijo-Kyo, 710-784 AD) and Kyoto (Heian-Kyo, 794-1868 AD) also adapted from Tang’s capital. The grid-planning tradition in Asia continued through the beginning of the XX century.

Fig. 57. Heian-Kyo (Kyoto), Japan.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Figs. 58 & 59 (up) satellite view of the city of Italica (down) photograph of the main street from the center of the nova urbs.

Talking about the cities in the Spanish territory one of the oldest founded nowadays is Italica. The Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus founded “Vicus Italicensis” or Italica in 206 B.C. in order to settle Roman soldiers wounded in the Battle of Ilipa, where the Carthaginian army was defeated during the Second Punic War. The name Italica bound the “colonia” to their Italian origins. This city is located in the North side of modern day Satiponce, 9km North-West of Seville, Spain along the west line of Betis River. It has two parts, the “vetus urbs” (old city founded by Scipio) and the “nova urbs” (new city founded by Trajano). The ruins encounter in this pre-Iberian settlement show us that the “extension” of the city denominated “nova urbs” was designed following an orthogonal trace with rectangular blocks.

Most of its buildings are accommodated perpendicularly to the streets. As a city, in the I Century B.C. had rivalry with its contiguous and later city Hispalis (Seville). The roman emperors Trajano (Italica, 53-117) and Adriano (Roma, 76-138 but educated in Italica) were the responsible to give to Italica its urbanistic configuration.

The Iberian city of Jaca (1076) had an orthogonal trace based on the “apocalyptic cubic city” of the Saint John New Testament of the Catholic Bible (called also the “Celestial Jerusalem”). On the New Testament of Saint John we can read: “It has a tall and large wall with 12 doors; above the doors 12 angels and names written, the names of the 12 tribes of the sons of Israel. In the East 3 doors; 3 to the North; to the Noon 3 doors; to the West 3 doors. The wall of the city had 12 pillars. The city is a square and its length is the same as its wide. He measured the city with the ruler; 12,000 stadia (2225 kilometers). Its length, wide and high are the same. He measured the city wall, 77 meters high; measure of man but also of angel… The Plaza of the City is made of pure gold, as transparent crystal. I didn’t see on it any temple because its Temple is the Lord”. These measurements equate to an area of 4.9 million square kilometers (or 144 million square stadia as in the ancient Greek measurement system), which is larger than the 3,892,685 square kilometers of the 25 states of the European Union in 2005, but smaller than the 7,617,930 square kilometers of Australia. If in the form of a cube, it would have a volume of 11 thousand million cubic meters (11,000,000,000 m3) which is about half the volume of the moon.

Figs. 60 Image of “La Jerusalem Nouvelle Apoc. XXI” by Facundus pur Ferndinand 1er de Castille et Leon et la Reine Sancha. National Library of Madrid, Spain.

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Besides Italica, Hispalis and Jaca already mentioned, other Roman colonial outposts in Hispania are Sanguesa and Briviesca from the XII Century and Villarreal, Valencia (1270), and Alicante and Gandia from the XIV Century are also catalogued as orthogonal grid cities. In France we also find many renaissance grid cities (called “New Villages”, “Medieval bastides” or “French bastides”) as Ferran (1492), Gattinara (1526), Guasatalla (1539), Vitryle Francois (1545), Sabbioneta (around 1560) and La Valette (1566). We can find some others contemporary to the latter Monpazier, Villenueve-sur-Lot and Sainte Foi la Grande. On the XVI Century in Spain and Italy we find Cortemaggiore (1470), Tarragona, Merida, Braga, Nimes, Numantia, Torino and Zara.

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Figs. 62-67. Spanish gridiron old cities (left side up to down) Jaca, Villareal and Alicante. (right side up to down) Briviesca, Valencia and Gandia. (below) City of Cortemaggiore, Italy (1470). With a main central square, orthogonal streets and squared urban blocks.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

The French “bastides” and the Spanish “poblaciones” are a characteristically city type of the Southwest of the actual French territory and some Northeast villages in Spain. They are located mainly in the North and South edges of the Pyrenees Mountains and appear around the XIII and XIV Centuries. Nowadays, in the region of Aquitaine, Midi-Pyrenees (also known as “the territory of the 500 bastides”) and Languedoc-Roussillon (in France), the Kingdom of Andorra and Navarra, Aragon and Catalunya (in Spain) have some towns and cities belonging to this “bastides/poblaciones/barriadas” urban structure

where the most examples can be found in the departments of Ariege, Aude, Aveyron, Dordogne, Haute-Garonne, Landes, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne, Gers, Gironde, Tarn-et-Garonne, Pyrenees-Atlantiques, Hautes-Pyrenees and Gard in French territory. The Spanish Empire owned some territories of the Languedoc-Roussillon, Midi-Pyrenees and Andorra areas, then, their influence in the XVI Century’s urban design were total specially thinking that the re-conquest was made by the family of Fernando (from Castilla) and Isabel (from Aragon) and some of the conquerors of the New World were born on this region, taking the image of their cities to be developed in an extended manner in the Americas, anyhow, many Roman foundations in Hispania were older than this well-know French bastides.

The urban layout of the French bastides has four different main types: circular, enclosed, one-axis, and two-axis. The last layout normally form a gridiron, and has as a characteristic the formation around the market square (a close-plaza that often provides the module into which the bastides are subdivided) surrounded by arcades or “couverts”) where they performed town-festivals, social and political functions and trade of products located very often in the center or very near the center. The house of the governor was situated around this plaza and the streets were formed somehow orthogonal and always fortified to defend the city. This scheme also was taken from the Roman planning of the Castra (or Castrum) with its grid plan and central forum and has its precedents in medieval cities around this region like Beziers, Narbonne, Toulouse, Orange and Alres.

The grid layout is a reasonable pattern of ease tax collection due module-by-module urban scheme.

Even this cities were not fortified in its origins, a fortified wall was added later due to the famous feudal conflict between England and France called the “Hundred Year’s War” (1337-1453) in an effort to colonize the wilderness of southwest France. Many bastides that had not city walls were destroyed during this period and some other quickly built city walls of stone to protect the city. The best-known bastide today is Andorra la Vella (part of Spain in the XVI Century), but the most populate is Villenueve-Sur-Lot -the “New Town on the South edge of (river) Lot”. Almost 700 new towns were built between 1222 and 1372 A.D. Figs. 68-70. (up) Market plaza of Monpazier (down left) Villenueve Sur Lot (down right) Sainte Foy La Grande GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

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Fig. 71-73. City of Teotihuacan (900 B.C.) From left to right: View from the “moon pyramid” to the central axis (Calzada de los muertos) to the “sun pyramid”; Satellite photograph of the ruins. Orthogonal disposition of the squared structures; Image based on the anthropological studies.

The first big cities in the “New World” were La Venta in Tabasco (Mexico) and Chavin de Huantar (Peru). La Venta was founded in 900 BC by the Olmeca. Groups that are not clear if they belong to the future Incas or another tribe founded Chavin the Huantar. (327 BC). From both cities, its ruins remains until nowadays but are not clear if they were grid cities. In the medieval times the natives used grid patterns in the “New World” designing several cities.

Teotihuacan (north of Mexico City, founded in 150 AD.) is the largest ancient grid-plan site where its city’s grid covered eight square miles (20.72 square kilometers). Tenochtitlan the great Aztec predecessor of Mexico City) founded in 1325; in the north cost of Peru the walled citadel of Chanchan (Ciudadela de Chanchan) capital of the Chimu Kingdom (XII to XV Centuries); Virocochampa (in the north lands of Peru); Pikillaqta (few kilometers far from south Cuzco) on the same century and uses an strict orthogonal grid pattern. We should mention that the site of cities as Tenochtitlan (Mexico), Cuzco (Peru) and Quito (Ecuador) were re-utilized by the Spaniards and even they were grid cities since their begins, the conquerors used the same city center superposing their new trace of urban blocks, streets and buildings re-using the stones of old pyramids for their constructions.

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Figs. 74-77 (upper images) Citadel of Chanchan, Peru. View of the sand made walls & aerial isometric view; (lower left) interpretation of the central area of the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, now Mexico City; (below); Spanish plan of Quito, Ecuador,

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Fig. 78-80. (up) Hipodamos plan of Miletus, Turkey, (left) Ideal City of Eximenic, (down) Gridiron scheme of the city of Petra, Mayorca Island, Spain.

Designed following the ordinances of Jaime II.

In Africa, about 1,000 AD there is a group of cities (Yoruba) like Ibadan, Ogbomosho, Iwo, Ife and Lagos with non very well defined grid patterns.

Going back to the “Old World”, the “theoretical city” or “Celestial Jerusalem” of Eximenic (developed by the Valencian monk Franceshch de Eximenic between 1384 and 1385, more based on the philosophical ideas of San Agustin and Santo Tomas de Aquino, than the classic urban grid design of Hipodamos or Vitrubius) is defined by urban blocks very similar to the grid cities nowadays. It was presented before the Italian renaissance treaties in its “Dotze del crestia” where he defines it as an “ideal city”. The Theory of the Ideal City is a square of 1,393 meters by side with open spaces that touch every single block except one per each grid of 4X4.

This block will be 81.7 meters by side and the plaza will have the same size of one block and be measured together with the wide of each street of its sides giving a total of 86.7 square meters. During the Renaissance, several theories of the “ideal” or “utopist” city (Utopia.

From the Latin ou=no and topos=place: Place that doesn’t exists, or no-place) were developed by famous artists of that time. Rodrigo Sanchez de Arevalo (1404-1471), Leon Bautista Alberti (1407-1492), Antonio Averlino II Filarete (1432-1502), Andrea Palladio (with his “Third book of Architecture II of 1570) and Francesco de Giorgio Martini drew several models with complicated graphics very difficult to apply to the tight urban reality of the existing European cities, more geometrical and imaginative schemes than real proposals based on central symmetry.

Puentelarreina y Viana also wrote about a city with rectangular blocks and straight streets, but was the Spanish Jaime II de Mayorca in his document called “Ordenaciones” (Orders) established in 1300 where defines “a new type of town made of a grid of 5 X 5 blocks square shaped inside a perimeter of 450 meters by side, grid patterned, with the main plaza on its center where the market should has it place, surrounded by colonnades; its streets must be straights and wide enough to guaranty the regular shapes of plots and blocks ”. It was the antecessor design rules of the grid cities founded in Spain and in the New World. One of the most interesting examples in Spain due to its geometrical grid pattern is the city of Petra in Mayorca Island, founded in the XIII Century with squared homogeneous pattern in its city center.

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Figs. 84-89. A single later example of the XX Century. Sequence of zooms of a new town called “Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl� part of MCMZ. This densely inhabited district was created

This grid pattern became popular in Northern Europe with the beginning of the Renaissance as we can appreciate in the urban expansion of Stuttgart, Germany from 1465 to 1800. Mannheim in Germany was the first city laid out on the grid plan in 1606.

Later came the New Town in Edinburgh and almost the entire city center of Glasgow and many new towns and cities in Australia, Canada and the U.S.A. such as New Haven and Adelaide. In England as evidenced best this type of planning towns ending with the word –chester as Manchester, but not always.

following

the

Spanish

ordinances

and

a

combination of the plan for Manhattan. Started in 1970 with few settlers nowadays reaches a population of almost 3 million people in half million houses with an extreme population density. Each plot has the same size; the open spaces are strategically located. The corners oriented to the four winds and around the urban plazas there are the public buildings and amenities. Even its well-done design is one of the most dangerous neighbourhoods in the city.

Figs. 81, 82 & 83. From up to down: Mannheim, Germany (regular urban blocks with an interior courtyard); Glasgow, England (compacted urban tissue with few public open spaces); Adelaide, Australia (more alike the Eximenic gridiron, with a main central plaza and four open spaces in the center of each quarter.

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Figs. 90 & 91. (left) Corner of the Palace of the Condes de Santiago de Calimaya in Mexico City. Stones of old Aztec temples were used in the construction of the new colonial buildings. (right) Street in Cuzco. The Inca walls were perfectly aligned and serve as the lower part or base of the new ones built by the Spaniards whom just over-posed their structures into them.

2.2.2 Grid cities in the New World The figure of a city has the main purpose to colonize a place but for the conquerors this figure was the most important beginning point to start the expansion of their Empire. Initially, they started as a place to show occupation and ownership of lands, then as strategic points of expansion, after that were used for production or enrichment and finally as administrative centers. The Spaniards started to found their cities basically where the indigenous human settlements were located, after their seized and subjugated. All the buildings were destroyed with special emphasis on their sanctuaries. The stones belonging to these buildings were re-utilized for the news. In most of the cases the European architects, engineers and construction masters -while mainly the natives and slaves did the hard job- directed all the works. Those settlements where both Hispanic and pre-Hispanic cultures melt we call FUSION CITIES

due to its combination and strong participation to define the urban morphologies. In other cases, for example in ports, mines or where the pre-Hispanic settlements had not strong influence to the Hispanic foundation we call NEW CITIES due to them started from “nothing” and the urban planning is much more pure than the Fusion Cities. Cities as Mexico-Tenochtitlan or Cuzco are the most explicit examples of the FUSION CITIES, while Santo Domingo and Veracruz ports are per-se NEW CITIES. The first villages founded by the Europeans in the New World were in the Caribbean island -called “La Hispaniola”, nowadays shared with the Republic of Haiti- at the end of the XV Century: La Navidad (1492), Isabela (1493) and Santo Domingo -nowadays capital of the Dominican Republic. The village of Santo Domingo was founded by Bartolome Colon (brother of Christopher Columbus) in 1496. But was Fray Nicolas de Ovando in 1502 who organized in a Fig. 92 Photomontage of MexicoTenochtitlan. The color buildings are the Aztec structures overlaid on a grey scale photograph of the colonial city nowadays.

Buildings were just supplanted following the same functions of the pre-Hispanic ones conserving the urban hierarchy, mesh and void spaces as well as streets.

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new emplacement (along the Ozama River in the opposite side of the original foundation) the planning scheme of the city with linear streets and rectangular blocks based on the orthogonal pattern of Santa Fe de Granada o Santa Fe de Andalucia (1492) founded by the Reyes Catolicos (Catholic kings) in Spain, but some other people to allege that the model were the Spanish cities of Mosqueruela (1263), Villareal (1272) or even The Real Port of Cadiz where the Columbus ships depart.

Santa Fe was originally a military camp, which the Catholic King established two leagues from Granada to demonstrate to the besieged city his “unbreakable determination to conquer Granada”. This first camp was destroyed by fire but near it a new city was built.

It was a walled city, with two principal streets, four gates and a “Plaza de Armas” in the center. It was a rectangle of 400 X 312 varas (1 vara = 2.8 feet) and had transverse street urban pattern. Its single square, situated in the center, was 70X60 varas. Here were situated the royal palace, the town hall, the public granary and the church.

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Fig. 93 & 94. (up) City of Santa Fe de Granada, Andalucia, Spain (1492). The urban layout was adopted from the Castra formation of the military base previous settle here. The church faces to the central plaza. (down) Satellite view of the new emplacement of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (1502). The church is situated near the main plaza without facing it. The Spanish Don Fray Nicolas de Ovando designed the layout of both cities.

Fig. 95. General panorama of the public open Plaza of the Alcazar de Diego Colon in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Santo Domingo is well known as the “Ciudad Primada de America” (First City in the Americas) was the first tryout that used the “grid pattern”. In 1526, Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo said that Santo Domingo was “superior in general of any city in Spain.

Especially better than Barcelona, due to it streets were better, wider and incomparably straight. Cord and ruler did its urban trace, and then all the streets were meticulously done. Is this because Santo Domingo is the better planed city that I had ever seeing”.

At the end of the XV Century besides the cities in the Dominican Republic we have Caracas, Venezuela that was founded in 1499. In the beginning of the XVI Century the Spaniards founded the city of San Juan-Bayamon (Puerto Rico in 1508), Miami (U.S.A.)

and San Salvador-Soyapango (El Salvador) around 1510 Cabo Catoche-Holbox in Mexico (1511, in continental lands) and San Miguel de Balboa (Panama) in 1513 and Santiago de Cuba in 1514. La Habana (Cuba) is one of the most important examples of grid cities in the Caribbean Islands founded in 1515.

Guatemala and Campeche (designed by Jaime Franck in 1517) are some of the oldest in continental lands that remain until today.

In 1518 was founded the fortress of San Juan de Ulua in sea-lands and just few meters from Veracruz City. Veracruz and Victoria de Tabasco in Mexico and Nombre de Dios and Panama Viejo were founded in Figs. 96-99. Street scene of (upper left) Santo Domingo, (lower left) Santiago de Cuba; (upper right) Antigua & (lower left) Panama City.

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1519 (Panama was re-founded in 1671 after its destruction by English pirate ships in another site following strictly the rules of Felipe II). In 1520 also were founded Panuco and Segura de la Frontera in Mexico, Santiago and Santa Ines de Cumana in the Dominican Republic. Until 1520, we can say that the grid cities were just experimentation with good results calling it the “first period”.

The “second period” starts at 1521 with the re-design of Mexico City. Following the models Mallorquin (Jaime II de Mayorca) and Eximeniano Mexico City, Puebla and Lima are the most exhausted and complete city models of low density that many other cities copied worldwide (in 1859 Barcelona begun the “Plan Cerda” –by Ildefons Cerda I Sunyer 1815-1876), that was one of the first European urban projects that regulated their “Eixample” (city expansion) outside the city walls by a rational series of square blocks very similar to the case of Lima, Peru –that was inside the city wall).

was the hereby model of the Roman camp called “equitas” (equal) where the concept was to give free and equal rights to all the people. (That was for them only an utopist concept, of course). The Aztecs created an urban orthogonal system even for their “floating lands” called “Chinampas” that means the “basic plot unit” in the Aztec times. Another big difference, even in front of the main temple of Tenochtitlan was located a big plaza, this tall structure was the center of the city. For the new model, the center of the city was an empty space called the “Zocalo”.

Nevertheless, after the devastation of Tenochtitlan done by the Spaniards, Alonso Garcia Bravo (helped

by Bernardino Vazquez de Tapia and two indigenous) re-uses in some way, the symmetry of the old trace keeping the street lines of the old pattern that still physically remained and superimposing the new urban tissue. The Zocalo is placed in the same place of the Sacred Area, the buildings of the Catholic Church in

Figs. 100-103. From left to right Mexico City XVI Century; Downtown Lima, Peru nowadays; Colonial zone of La Puebla, Mexico; Barcelona,

The “new” Mexico City was built by “cordelSpain. y Spain. the same place of the ancient Moctezuma temple, and regla” (“cord and ruler”) by the coordination of the Palace of Cortes (the conqueror) in the place of the Alonso Garcia Bravo (who previously was in charge existing Moctezuma Palace. The streets were straight to designed Veracruz and later Antequera). Following and wide and the four main ones that start from the the theoretical medieval studies of the XII Century Zocalo were the ones that bound to the seashore to that weren’t be used before, the transformation of the mainland. urban model of the renaissance and based on the Due to the urban conditions and buildings of the indigenous scheme, urban spaces and organization of city that complicated a bit the use of a simple squared their pre-Hispanic city. He had to deconstruct all the block pattern as in the Renaissance utopist cities, he elements and juxtapose them to start a new era for this adapted these to the final result: subdivisions of metropolis. rectangular blocks that together forms squared shapes.

One of the big differences about the European city Then, the “new” Mexico City was designed ordinances and the pre-Hispanic urban trace was the unscripted circumscribed in a square of 6X13 (mainly importance of the streets. In Tenochtitlan, the main using the urban limits of the “acequias” or internal avenues were wider than other streets, but in the water-streets of the Aztecs) composed by rectangular European model, all the streets had the same city blocks around a big central urban public square importance. Also the urban plots differed in size, but it (Zocalo) of 240 meters by side –57,600 square meters

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Figs. 104, 105, 106 & 107. Medellin, Colombia; Cusco, Peru; La Nueva Guatemala de la Asuncion, Guatemala; Sao Luis, Brazil.

(what remains nowadays), together with the 300 plots for the Spaniards with a module of 500 “brazas cuadradas” (square “arms”) define a rectangle (almost a square) of 910 X 1100 meters (about 100 hectares); while the naturals (Indians) lived in the lakeside lands in their own pueblos.

In 1525, Trujillo (Honduras), Santa Marta (Colombia) and Tlaxcala (in Mexico). Tlaxcala is the first example of “mestizaje” in equal physical urban conditions. The Zocalo or plaza mayor was located in the courtyard of a pre-Hispanic palace where in two of the sides the original indigenous facades of the palace were respected and in the other two sides were build renaissance style constructions. But not only that, also the “city hall” was formed by indigenous that controlled the city. The space of the “claustro” (aside building of a main church) of the First Cathedral in continental lands (in Tlaxcala) is designed with the “Celestial Jerusalem” cubic pattern, made by 12 pillars that remember the 12 men that follow Jesus in the Bible. Tumbez in Peru was founded in 1526 while in the Mexican territory, Guadalajara was designed with non-perfect square urban blocks in 1530. Puebla (1531) was designed by Alonso Martin Perez who uses rectangular blocks of 180 X 90 meters in a surface of 2,000 sq meters. Its streets were more than 13 meters wide. Puebla and Guadalajara had not the problems to be settled in a previous indigenous city, and then its design was more flexible in order to follow the rules of the ordinances. San Miguel (Peru, 1530), Quito and San Francisco de Quito (Ecuador, 1532), Cuzco (Peru) and Cartagena de Indias (Colombia) in 1533 were some of the first in the south hemisphere.

And was just right after the experience of cities in Mexico as Guadalajara, Puebla and Queretaro (designed by Juan Alania in 1534), when Lima (Peru, 1535) was build with perfect square blocks that consolidates the model of the urban design due to its geometrically simple shape with open to “unlimited” boundaries. After Lima, this grid pattern, with “square” blocks were built over the entire continent.

Guayaquil (Ecuador), Trujillo del Peru (Peru), Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Vitoria (Brazil) in 1535. La Plata and Cali (Colombia) in 1536. Asuncion (Paraguay) and Coquimbo (Chile) in 1537; Santa Fe de Bogota and Tunja in Colombia (1538). Santos-Sao Vicente Guaruja (Brazil) in 1540; in Mexico, San Francisco de Campeche and Valladolid

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(designed by Juan Ponce) and Santiago de Chile in 1541; Los Angeles (U.S.A.) in 1542; La Serena (Chile) in 1544; Potosi (Bolivia) in 1546; Recife-Jaboatao-Olinda (Brazil) and La Paz (Bolivia) in 1548; Huamanga (Mexico) and Salvador (Brazil) in 1549; Concepcion (Chile) in 1550; Barquisimeto (Venezuela) in 1552; Sao Paulo (Brazil) in 1554; Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Valencia (Venezuela) in 1555; Santa Cruz (Bolivia) in 1560; Mendoza (Argentina) and Sao Luis (Brazil) and San Juan de la Frontera (Argentine) in 1562. It is interesting to mention than Mendoza and San Juan de la Frontera are “virtually” identical to the Felipe II Ordinances considered them to be the “models” of this law.

Santiago de Leon de Caracas (Venezuela) in 1567; Maracaibo (Venezuela) and Manila (Philippines) in

1571; Cordoba (Argentina) in 1573; Leon (Mexico) in 1576; Monterrey (Mexico) in 1579; Rosario (Argentina) in 1580; San Luis Potosi (Mexico) in 1585; Cholula (Mexico in 1581); Tegucigalpa (Honduras) and Natal-Parnamirim (Brazil) in 1590; San Diego-Tijuana (in the border of the U.S.A. and Mexico) in 1602; Fortaleza (Brazil) in 1609; Belem (Brazil) in 1616; Bucaramanga-Giron (Colombia) in 1622; Barranquilla-Soledad (Colombia) in 1629; Curitiba and Maceio (Brazil) in 1654. Ciudad Juarez-El Paso (in the border of Mexico and the U.S.A.) in 1659; Manaus (Brazil) in 1660; Medellin (Colombia) in 1675; Maracay-Turmero-El Limon (Venezuela) in 1701; and many others were also founded following the urban guidelines of the grid cities. (For reference see table in the Appendix-iv)

Figs. 108-113. (upper-left) City of La Paz, Bolivia; (upper-right) Santiago de Chile, Chile; (down-left) Trujillo, Peru; (down-right) Medellin, Colombia. (left) San Juan de la Frontera. (right)

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side the city of Mendoza.

Both cities in Argentine.

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2.2.3 Grid cities in the Mexican territory From the conquest (1519-1521) to its independence (1810), the Spanish Crown colonized Mexico and during about 300 years the territory in the New World was known as “Viceroyalty of the New Spain”. New Spain's territory included what is the Bay Islands (until 1643), Cayman Islands (until 1670), Central America (as far as the southern border of Costa Rica until 1821), Cuba, Florida, Hispaniola/Dominican Republic (including Haiti until 1697), Jamaica (until 1655), Mariana Islands, Mexico, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Trinidad (until 1797) nearly all of the southwest United States of America (including all or parts of the modern-day U.S.A. states of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and Florida), and claims as far north as British Columbia and Alaska, but the northern boundary of New Spain was redefined by the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. For at least part of its existence, New Spain also included Venezuela. After Mexico’s Independence (1810-1823) this areas sized down and the United States of Mexico, or United Mexican States extended, in the North, from the high lands of California (parallel 42) and to the South, to the north limits of Central America. The present Mexican States (or part of them) of Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco and Quintana Roo, were part of the

Audience of Guatemala and added to Mexico.

Almost all the colonial cities (capitals, towns and villages) founded in the Viceroyalty of the Figs. 114-116 (left) Map of North New Spain have the America in 1831. In yellow color characteristics of grid the Mexican Territory. (upper) cities ruled by Felipe Tlacotalpan, Veracruz, gridiron II Ordinances, even design. (lower) Random streets those re-founded over pattern in the city of Guanajuato. pre-Hispanic cities.

Of course there are cities with different urban shapes depending on the people, feudal situation or physical natural characteristics of the lands. The grid cities were mainly developed in flat lands, inside valleys or near the sea, due to its logical condition to adapt to this new design. The settlements founded near the carbon, gold, silver, copper and other metal mines have irregular blocks. In those places its hilly conditions were not apt to follow the rules for the grid city pattern. Towns that were just over-posed where indigenous human settlements had their precinct sometimes try to adapt in someway the Ordinances, specially where were important or strategic cities, but in many other cases maintain the original urban trace.

As we already mention, since the conquest the Spanish Crown started to develop hundreds of new settlements over the American territory (911 cities that are known to have been created between 1492 and 1810), but even several cities were founded by the same rule, their urban evolution reaches wide ranks of physical development after centuries. Some small towns (specially near the coast) already disappeared due to the migration of its people to better lands; some others still remain as their original stage while their foundation due to its ultra-low economic development (specially in the country side); in the case of Mexico City, after re-shaped the city over the old Aztec Empire Capital’s ruins –Tenochtitlan- new streets, buildings and life started following and surpassing the

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Figs. 117 & 118. Bird-eye view of Mexico City. Iconography of the XVIII Century

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European urban lifestyle standards. This city was considered at that time better city than Madrid, Barcelona, Paris or even Venice due to its beautifulness and magnificence. But not only Mexico City, but also Guadalajara, Puebla, Matamoros, Valladolid de Mechoacan, Veracruz, Campeche and many others were superior in architecture and urbanism compared to the magnificent cities they left in Europe.

Even this disparity in the evolution of cities their cuore or “Primer Cuadro” (“First Square”, Center of the city) use to still have the same elements in the same places (streets, blocks, plaza, buildings) sometimes with very few changes.

Most of the new cities founded in the New Spain were registered in mainland Spain, and we found that the most accurate Catalog of it is in the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, that belongs to the

Figs. 119 & 121. (upper) Illustration on a general view of Mexico City from

Ministry of Culture in Madrid. In 1985, this Authority published a complete list of cities founded in their former overseas territories in the XVI section of the Archivo General de Indias, under the title “Maps and Plans” (that contains 3,392 registries of colonial cities from 1519 to 1892 of all over the Spanish crow possessions) there is a sub-section I called “Maps and Plans of Mexico” with information of about 170 cities founded or re-founded in the Mexican Territory from 1519 to 1823. Most of these cities were named by its original pre-Hispanic name but not all them had maps.

(For reference see table in the Appendix-vi)

To complete this list we take from another section called “Maps and Plans of Guatemala” the cities located in the Mexican States of Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, Quintana Roo, and in some cases some towns registered in this section are part of Oaxaca or Yucatan State that originally belongs to the Viceroyalty of the New Spain and not to the Audience of Guatemala.

Our final list (totalizing 270 cities) is as follows: Acapulco, Acatic, Acaponeta, Aguatitan, Ahuacatlán, Altamira, Altempec, Amatlán, Ameca Meca, Analco, Angeles (Los), Antequera, Atotonilco, Azanza (Candelaria de), Azcapuzalco, Bacalar, Buitrón, Burgos, Cacalostoc, Cacaluta, Camargo, Campeche, Candelaria, Capolopán, Carolina, Casamaloapan, Catoche, Cayuela, Chac, Chacala, Chalchicomula, Chapultepec, Charcas, Chetumal, Chiapa, Chicoloapa, Chilapan, Chimalhuacán Toyac, Chimistoc,

the tower of the Temple of Santa Teresa La Antigua. (lower) Illustration the lake and canals of Mexico City in the XVI Century.

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Chiuaugua, Chiapa, Choapa, Chunhuhub, Cimapán, Coaguila, Coatepec, Colotlán, Concepción, Comitán, Cosamaloapan, Cuauhtémoc, Cuaximalpa, Culiacán, Cuyutlán, Cuzcatlán, Dolores, Durango, Escandón, Escuintla, Huehuetoca, Garibaldi, Goazacoalcos, Guadalajara, Gualquimi, Guanajuato, Guaximic, Guaximichi, Guayalexo, Güegüetoca, Guemes (San Francisco de), Haxomulco, Holbox, Horcasitas, Hostipaquillo, Huaxicori, Huaxutla, Hüeüetoca, Iscuintla, Istapa, Ixmiquilpam, Ixtlán, Jamalcab, Jilotepeque, Jocotán, Laredo, Maldinga, Mandinga, Masahua, Masambique, Mascala, Matalango, Matamoros, Matanchel, Matehuala, Matzagua, Mazapil, Mendocino, Mesquitic, Mexcaltitán, Monte Rey, Moqui, Mutul, Natchitoches, Nayarit, Nipaltongo, Nueva Veracruz, Nuevo Santander, Oaxaca, Ocotán, Ocotlán, Ostotipaquillo, Papantla, Paz (La), Pénxamo, Petén Itzá, Pichilingue, Ponzitlán, Puebla (La), Quahutlán, Quahutlán Amilpas, Quchitepeque, Queretaro, Real de Minas de Bolaños, Remedios, Revilla, Saltillo, San Agustin de la Florida, San Antonio de Padilla, San Blas, San Cristobal de la Barranca, San Diego (Fuerte de), San Felipe (Fuerte), San Fernando, San Francisco, San Juan de Ulúa (Fuerte de), San Luis Potosí, San Phelipe de Cuquio, Santa Bárbara, Santa María de Aguayo, Santa María de Galue, Santa María de Yera, Sentipac, Soto La Marina, Tabasco, Tacuba, Tala, Taltenango, Tamaulipa, Tampico, Taxisco, Tecoantepeque,

Tehuacán, Temazcaltepeque, Tenancingo, Tenochtitlán, Teopa, Tepeaca, Tepic, Tequila, Tequizistlán, Tescaltitlán, Tetontepeque, Teutenango, Teutihuacán, Texupilco, Thecalitán, Tlacontepec, Tlacontenpec, Tlacotalpan, Tláhuac, Tlalmanalco, Tlaltenango, Tlamacazcatepec, Tlaxcala-Cuzcatlán, Tlanepanta, Tololotlán, Toluca, Tonalá, Tutulla, Tuxtla, Tzapopan, Valladolid, Valladolid de Mechoacán, Veracruz (La), Villa de Reinosa, Villahermosa, Xalapa, Xilotepeque, Xilotlán, Xochitepeque, Xonotla, Xuchitepec, Xuquila, Yrapoato, Yurirapundaro, Yzmiquilpan, Zacatepeques, Zacatula, Zapotitlán, Zapotlanejo, Zapotán, Zazopaztepeque, Zimapán y Zumpango.

Even though the ordinances of Felipe II never ruled the urban growing or population control and, regardless many of them started in the same way; nowadays some of them grew rapidly, as the metropolitan area of Mexico City surpassed the 26 million people being well known all over the world whereas others, for example the village of Zazopaztepeque, nobody knows where exactly is it located. Some cities changed their names or simply disappear. Then, our challenge was to find the cities that still exist and review if are the same that were designed under the grid pattern.

Figs. 122-126 (on this page) Illustration of the City of Matamoros, Tamaulipas in the XVI Century. The river and it access for the ships were fundamental for transportation and communication in the majority of new settlements. (on next page up to down) Veracruz in 1737, Guadalajara in 1680 and Mexico City in 1766.

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METHODOLOGY

3 -Methodology The best result will come when everyone in the group does what is best to himself‌and the group.

Governing Dynamics (shift paradigm). Adam Smith modified by John Nash.

3.1 General proceedings The base of this thesis is to gather the information in their original basis. These original sets of data are the materials that we will use for the theoretical and practical frames for our study. Basically, the methodology we used is to concentrate these materials, process it and obtain contents for further analyses. The object is that the original data can be used for other researchers to pursue more studies processing the original materials in their own mode in order to obtain new definitions even as a variation of the same theme.

The methodology we will use consist of three (A, B & C) main elements that processed by the correct tool will make us to obtain three results to be analyzed.

A) Original data: A1-The Leyes de Indias in their original vulgar-Latin version or Old Spanish.

A2-The Cities and their intrinsic information as our original study objective.

A3-The Visual Materials original old (past) maps, aerial-photos and satellite maps (present), photographs of hundreds of cities.

B) Theoretical frame: B1-Read and decipher by semantics the Leyes de Indias and decode its rules into a visual vehicle.

B2-Investigate the cities, their original old and new names, their urban morphologies and their origin.

B3-Gathering the visual materials from the original sources by directly checking of each of them will lead us to prove the design of cities, their grid formation, confirmation of existence of the city nowadays and its location on the actual territory.

C) Practical frame: C1-By deciphering and decoding the Leyes de Indias we will be able to create a code that will be used for a matrix of the morphological elements of the cities.

C2-By investigating about the cities finally we should locate them and physically visualize their morphological urban features, historical data and statistical information.

C3-The visual materials finally will be used to create a database that will lead us to obtain a complete catalog and perform comparative charts, profile card, comparisons of similarities and differences comprising the searched information.

STUDY ORDERING PROCESS Leyes de Indias

Read & Decipher

Decode for evaluation and creation of matrix

Cities

Investigate

Locate and physical visualization of information

Visual Materials

Gather

Create database, profile card, catalog and charts

Figs. 127-131. (up, left to right) Original facsimile of the Leyes de Indias; City of Chihuahua in 1884; Mexico City Easter-Mid Neighbourhood for our Visual Materials. (down) Decoding of the Leyes de Indias and Coding of morphological features of the City of Ameca Meca, Edo. Mex.

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3.2 Parameters Due to the wide number of colonial cities we could study for this comparative research we decided to narrow its number following this parameters as our selection criteria: 1- To be a village or city founded (or re-founded) by the Spanish Crown 2- To be located in the actual Mexican Territory 3- To be a grid city that has the characteristics and elements written in the Ordinances 4- To have some graphical data (original plan, aerial photo or satellite view) In the next sub-chapters we will define this criteria in detail. Even we are narrowing the number of cities for the comparison and evaluation we tried to get as much information as we could of each city or village

3.2.1 Cities founded by the Spanish Crown We used basically the towns listed in the “Archivo General de Indias” where were specified a wide number of them founded in the “New World”.

Following this list, we have cities from the XVI, when the Spaniards conquered the new territories, the XVII Century when the “Ley de Indias” was promulgated; and even more, some colonial cities founded by the XVIII Century in all the “Viceroyalty of the New Spain”. (For reference see table in the Appendix-iii) We can separate these foundations in 3 main types: - Villages for the settlers - Fortress or military facilities - Catholic Missions or Convents For our study we will focus our selection on the Villages for the settlers.

mentioned as a settlement founded by the Spaniards.

At the end we present a catalog of maps and satellite view, in some cases a photographs of the central areas, the streets seeing from the pedestrian point of view, the colonnades, the central plaza and many other visual photographic information that helps for the evaluation of each coding of cities.

Fig. 132. Explanation map of the selection criteria, where number

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(1) is the Spanish crown territory; number (2) is the nowadays Mexican territory; number (3) the grid cities we could located inner the selected area; and number (4) the cities with both old maps and satellites views for the comparison study. To physically locate all those places the program Google Earth was elected finding each city by its name or coordinates and pointing it.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Fig. 133. Map of the Viceroyalty of the New Spain (until 1810).

3.2.2 Cities located in the actual Mexican Territory The Viceroyalty of the New Spain was divided in 12 Intendancies (from the South-East to the North), 4 Provinces (in the North-East) and 2 Governments (in the North-West) as follows (from South-East to North-West): - Intendancy of Merida - Intendancy of Veracruz - Intendancy of Oaxaca - Intendancy of Puebla - Intendancy of Mexico - Intendancy of Guanajuato - Intendancy of Valladolid - Intendancy of San Luis Potosi - Intendancy of Guadalajara - Intendancy of Zacatecas - Intendancy of Durango - Intendancy of Arizpe - Province of Nuevo Santander - Province of Nuevo Leon

- Province of Coahuila - Province of Texas - Government of Old California - Government of New California The Audience of Guatemala (united to Mexico from its Independence to 1823) had all the territories located in Central America and was separated Governance directly from Spain. The cities in the North Territories as San Francisco or Los Angeles (California), Tucson (Arizona) or San Antonio (Texas) and many others were part of the Mexico after its Independence from Spain in 1810. In the south territories many cities of Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Salvador, Costa Rica, Belize, Panama and all Central America also formed part of Mexico.

In 1823 the “Confederation of Central America� was detached from the Mexican Territory, but later the actual states of Chiapas and Quintana Roo go back to be part of Mexico until today. After the MexicanAmerican War, Mexico lost half of his northern territory ceding it to the new American Confederation (now U.S.A.).

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At the end of the XIX Century, Mexico was consolidated as a Republic renamed as “United States of Mexico” (or just Mexico) with 31 Federal States and a Federal District, as follows (from South-East to North-West): - (QROO) Quintana Roo - (YUC) Yucatan - (CAMP) Campeche - (TAB) Tabasco - (CHIS) Chiapas - (OAX) Oaxaca - (GRO) Guerrero - (VER) Veracruz - (PUE) Puebla - (TLAX) Tlaxcala - (MOR) Morelos - (DF) Distrito Federal - (HGO) Hidalgo - (EDOMX) Estado de Mexico - (QRO) Queretaro - (GTO) Guanajuato - (MICH) Michoacan - (COL) Colima - (JAL) Jalisco - (NAY) Nayarit - (AGS) Aguascalientes - (ZAC) Zacatecas - (SLP) San Luis Potosi - (TAMPS) Tamaulipas - (NL) Nuevo Leon - (COAH) Coahuila - (DGO) Durango - (SIN) Sinaloa - (CHIH) Chihuahua - (SON) Sonora - (BCS) Baja California Sur - (BC) Baja California This geo-political configuration remains nowadays and is the area that will be covered in this study; therefore even important cities have the same characteristics of foundation dates or grid patterns, will not be taken as we are narrowing our searching criteria to the cities inner these States.

3.2.3 Characteristics and elements based on the Ordinances Based on the “Ley de Indias”, where were specified the main parameters to design the grid cities for the “New World”, we should select those which

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Fig. 134. Aerial view of Mexico City centre. As this city was re-designed about 60 years before the “Ley de Indias” was promulgated, its design reflects almost perfectly the characteristic of the Novo Hispanic cities written in this rule.

have a “grid pattern” as the original design of the city center (as many of them started with different type, but later integrated to new areas). This pattern is named in Spanish using different words and definitions but always with the same meaning; “damero” (checkerboard), “malla” (mesh), “emparrillado” or “rejilla” (grid) and “ajedrezado” (chess table). In the beginning, the Central District of the cities used to have this “Damero” pattern, but after it was growing, in some cases the grid were loosing its regularity or simply didn’t follow it. Even though we will make some considerations of those cities that started with the grid pattern (following the ordinances or another rule of the époque) and try to find if it was followed, conserved or simply ignored.

It is possible to find on the Archivo de Indias, a complete list of the cities founded by the Spaniards, but in this list it is not mentioned which of them followed what or which Ordinances; the most important capital cities nowadays were build before the Ordinances were promulgated following other

Fig. 135. Geo-political map of the United States of Mexico.

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rules; and many of them used in some way the local pre-Hispanic pattern. Anyhow, the colonial cities use to have the elements mentioned by Felipe II in the “Leyes de Indias” and as are written in the rules, the main points are: -(1) Plaza centralized / open public space -(2) Straight streets / traced by “cord and ruler” -(3) Regular blocks semi-rectangular, rectangular or square shaped / prisms -Main public buildings around the central plaza (as the Church or (4) Cathedral, (5) Government Palace, (6) Commerce colonnade and (7) Royal Houses.

Based on this we should search visually what information (analogue or digital) shows these characteristics and make our selection considering that we need both: the old maps (in some cases the first) of the city and the nowadays-city views with the aim to evaluate the accuracy of the urban design.

3.2.4 Analogue and Digital data of the cities As stipulated as the aim of this work our main point is not only to make a catalog of grid cities founded by the Spanish rule in the colonial Mexican times, but shows the spatial situation and the dynamic multi-timing changes and/or conservation of the urban morphology of the places that used this law.

Then basically we need the information data of the cities in two stages of time: a) The original urban plans of design for the cities b) The actual stage of them.

For the first we should find the blueprints of the cities mentioned in our list. Old data that is already registered in the “Archivo General de Indias” in Seville, due to the Spanish Crown use to keep a great catalog of the maters of their territories. The “Archivo General de Indias” was founded in 1785 with the objective to protect the documentation referent to their

Fig. 136. The representation of this drawing indicates in yellow color the previous enumeration (1) Plaza / (2) Streets / (3) Blocks / (4) Cathedral / (5) Government / (6) Commerce / (7) Royal Houses overseas. Before that the “Archivo de possessions Simancas” had many information that was attached to the “Archivo de Indias”. But the “Archivo de Simancas” was not the only collection of documents attached, also information from the “Patronato Regi” and the “Casa de Contratacion de Sevilla”.

Figs. 137 & 138. (a) original urban plan of Coatepec, Veracruz; and (b) actual stage of Ocotlan, Jalisco.

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These blueprints are keeping in their original analogue form in “classified” archives and are our first stage of information for our comparison. We should order a “positive film” taken from the original blueprint, scan it by digital processing and correct the lens distortion by computer-based visual programs.

The later is the actual stage of cities. For this we can get the information using the INEGI (National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics) and SINFA (National System of Aerial Photography) archives. The INEGI and SINFA don’t have all the cities we need, or their photos are old or not useful. To complete this we use web-based visual programs to get the latest satellite information of the cities, but the same happened. Anyhow searching in both analogue and digital archives, we can get most of the information we need. In the case of INEGI and SINFA which keeps the data in “negative photographic rolls” analogue form. We should get a copy in a positive analogue form and scan it by digital processing. In the case of NASA and GOOGLE EARTH we should locate the villages and cities and save in digital form the visual data of a city based on views of satellites of several agencies.

To get this information we face other important point:

-

Where are located the cities of the old catalog?

- What are the actual names of those cities?

- Do we have the data (analogue and digital) to compare the original planning design and the actual stage of a city?

This information should be search, screening, classified and selected the most accurate graphic data for our comparisons preferring for our use the color good quality resolution images.

3.3 Searching As it is mentioned in the previous sub-chapter, we searched first on books, lists and web pages the information, first to obtain as most as we could and later, to know where to find it. Later we talked with people and researchers familiar with the history of the cities of the “colonia” to get more precise information about specific topics. Finally we move to 2 physical places (Seville, Spain; and Aguascalientes, Mexico) to search, view, select and gather maps and photographs and navigate through 2 virtual locations (web-based programs) to complete our graphical information.

3.3.1 Archivo General de Indias. Seville, Spain The old maps, especially those in the beginning of the colonization of the Americas (XVI and XVII Centuries), show us the mixing of the European style (more accurate design of the rows, blocks and buildings) and the Indian style (details of the landscape and physical location of lakes, rivers and mountains) while the latest are more well done and detailed specially on the architectonic design of buildings. The maps were developed to know the Spanish possessions in the New Territories but also to draw specifically the design of a new town in order to control it and start the registration and administration of lands given to the conquerors. This new urban development use to show the location by calculations on the astronomy and cartography, including notes, names, orientation and coordinates. Most of them have not measurements or scale. The existence of these maps doesn’t assure if the cities exist in the reality (were built or still exists) because some of them were made before the foundation of the cities but others after this event.

As an example, the maps are catalogued with the following consecutive code (numbering at the end): ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,153

Fig. 139. Example of an original plan from the Archivo General de Indias. Urban planning with notes of Guadalajara city.

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As the consulting data in the web doesn’t include the view of the maps we should see one by one and after that compare the code number with the name of the city or just read the name in scripted in the plan in old-Castilian language.

The AGI Collection has exactly 7,152 images corresponding to the cartography of the American Continent classified in 8 groups: 1- Geographic general 2- Geographic-military 3- Geographic-project 4- Urban project 5- Urban general 6- Architectonic project 7- Details 8- Others The total of Urban Project and Urban General Maps is 354 but some of them are repeated, as we will see in a further list of plans. In the researchers area of the “Archivo General de Indias” in Seville, Spain, in the section called “Planos y Mapas de Mexico” (Plans and Maps of Mexico) we searched more than 773 old drawings and maps from the extinct “Viceroyalty of the New Spain” with different urban patterns where 145 of them are city plans.

We saw that the date of realization of plans was after the foundation of cities (same as the ordinances were written after this events) then we focus our search in finding the most interesting maps to later compare the stage of cities as least with a difference of time of 3 centuries.

The list of maps of urban settlements (the maps or drawings that don’t belong to cities are not mentioned in this list) is as follows:

007

#

024

Reference code from the Archivo General de Indias Name of the City

001

Coatepec 002 003

1579

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,15 Valladolid

006

1579

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,13 Cimapan

005

1579

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,12 Chicoloapa

004

1579

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,11 Chimalhuacan Toyac

1579

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,16 Huaxutla

Xalapa 008

1580

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,19 Cuzcatlan

009

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,26 Teopa

013

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,26 Tlamacazcatepec

014

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,27 Zazopaztepeque

016

1581

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,31 Tutulla

020

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,30 Mutul

019

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,29 Altempec

018

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,28 Tlacontepec

017

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,27 Teopa

015

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,25 Teopa

012

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,24 Yurirapundaro

011

1580

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,21 Tescaltitlan

010

1581

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,33 Teutenango

021

1590

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,40 San Juan de Ulua

1596

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,54 Laguna de Mexico

027

1658

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,58 Veracruz

030

1658

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,57BIS Campeche

029

1608

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,57 Campeche

028

1595

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,47 Mexico

026

1590

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,43 San Agustin de la Florida

025

1590

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,38 Buitron

023

1582

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,35 San Juan de Ulua

022

Year of drawing

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,10

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,18

1663

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,59 Veracruz

1663

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

53

031

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,60 Campeche

032

54

071

1746

072

1746 1746 1746 1751 1750 1750 1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,182

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,201A

1772

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,282 1772

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,282 1772

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,282 Tequila

079

1772

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,281

Analco 078

1769

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,280

Ahuatitlan 077

1764

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,249

Tala 076

1763

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,224

San Phelipe de Cuquio 075

1763

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,221

San Diego 074

1753

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,220

Veracruz 073

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,196

Veracruz

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,181 Veracruz

055

1745

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,194

Veracruz

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,180 Horcasitas

054

070

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,179 San Antonio de Padilla

053

1744

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,193

Guadalajara

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,178 Mexico

052

069

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,192

Merida

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,161 Nueva Expana

051

1743

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,191

San Francisco de Guemes 068

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,159 Chunhuhub

050

1742

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,190

Escandon 067

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,157 Bacalar

049

1741

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,189

Revilla 066

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,154 Xochitepeque

048

1737

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,188

San Fernando 065

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,153 Guadalajara

047

1732

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,187

Santa Barbara 064

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,149 Xochitepeque

046

1705

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,186

Santa Maria de Ilera 063

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,144 Quahutlan Amilpas

045

1699

1751

Soto La Marina 062

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,139 Ciudad de la Carolina

044

1689

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,185

Camargo 061

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,138 Guadalajara

043

1683

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,132 San Agustin de la Florida

042

060

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,127 Guadalajara

041

1683

1751

Santa Maria de Aguayo

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,98 Campeche

040

059

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,93 Santa Maria de Galue

039

1680

1751

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,184

Burgos

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,85 Veracruz

038

058

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,75 Veracruz

037

1680

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,183

Reinosa

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,74 Veracruz

036

057

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,72BIS Campeche

035

1663

1751

Capital del Nuevo Santander

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,72 Campeche

034

056

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,61 Campeche

033

1663

Altamira

1772

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,283 Tepic

1772

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

080

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,284 Iscuintla

081

1777

120

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,510

1779 1781 1782 1782 17823 1782 1783 1790

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,444

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,517

121

1791

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,591BIS San Blas

127

1791

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,601 Guanajuato

128

1775

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,591 San Blas

126

1688

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,584 Remedios

125

1698

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,578 Antequera

124

1771

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,529 Los Angeles

123

1609

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,522 La Puebla

122

1608

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,521 Campeche

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,426 Cayuela

104

1818

Campeche

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,389 Ixmiquilpan

103

119

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,387(4) Mexico

102

1777

1808

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,510

1818

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,387(3) Mexico

101

118

1805

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,497

Chiapa

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,387(2) Mexico

100

1777

1803

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,492

Acapulco 117

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,387(1) Mexico

099

1777

1800

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,487

Queretaro 116

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,364 Veracruz

098

1776

1800

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,485

San Francisco 115

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,354 Mazapil

097

1776

1799

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,479

Veracruz 114

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,344 Guaximichi

096

1776

1794

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,478

Nueva Veracruz 113

1794

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,457

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,342 Amatan

095

1776

1794

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,456BIS

Candelaria de Azanza 112

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,341 Hostotipaquillo

094

1776

1794

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,456

La Puebla 111

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,339 Haxomulco

093

1776

1794

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,455BIS

San Luis Potosi 110

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,317 Tonala

092

1773

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,315 Amatlan

091

109

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,314 Tlaltenango

090

1773

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,455

San Luis Potosi

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,313 San Cristobal de la Barranca

089

108

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,311 Chacala

088

1772

1793

Valladolid de Mechoacan

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,297 Ostotipaquillo

087

107

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,296 Acaponeta

086

1772

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,446

Valladolid de Mechoacan

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,293 Real de Minas de Bolanos

085

106

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,292 Charcas

084

1772

1793

Mexico

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,285 Tonala

083

105

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,284 Sentipac

082

1772

Mexico

1701

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,602 Reducto 602

1701

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

55

129

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,603 Queretaro

130

Queretaro 131 132

Queretaro

-Chicoloapa (1579)

137 138

140 141

1775

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,657 1816

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,666 1709

-Tescaltitlan (1580) -Teutenango (1582) Guanajuato State -Guanajuato (1701 and 1786) Guerrero State -Acapulco (1712, 1730, 1776 and 1808) Hidalgo State -Cimapan (1579)

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,675

-Dolores (1751)

Guanajuato

-Ixmiquilpan (1782 y 1783)

1786

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,677

-Tala (1772)

Zacatecas

-Zimapan (1775 and 1779)

1783

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,685 La Paz

139

1770

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,656

Ameca Meca 136

1796

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,629

Mexico 135

-Ameca Meca (1709) -Chimalhuacan Toyac (1579)

Zimapan 134

1796

1768, 1777, 1782, 1789, 1791 and 1793) Estado de Mexico State

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,603TER

Acatic 133

1796

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,603BIS

-Mexico City (maps of 1596, 1603, 1608, 1750, 1751,

1797

Jalisco State -Acatic (1770)

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,705

-Aguatitlan (1772)

Territorio Curato de San Pablo

-Analco (1772)

1699

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,723

-Guadalajara (1732, 1741, 1745 and 1753)

San Juan de Ulua

-Guaximichi (1777)

1570

ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,764

-Haxomulco (1777)

Villahermosa

-Hostotipaquillo (1776 and 1777)

1816

(For reference see table in the Appendix-vii)

-San Cristobal de la Barranca (1776)

Due to many maps are about the same cities, we gathered them in a single one but conserving the dates when the drawings were painted in order to know the number of maps of the same city we have.

In order to organize our information for further documentation (as the search of the actual situation of these cities) we searched in old books the names and get the actual ones of almost all those cities and physically locate them using the present Mexican 32 States limits locating them in 25 of those States generating the following list:

-San Phelipe de Ququio (1772)

Baja California Sur State -Puerto de la Paz (map of 1768 and 1797) Campeche State

-Sentipac (1772) -Teopa (1580) -Tequila (1772) -Tonala (1772 and 1776) Michoacan State -Valladolid de Mechoacan (1579 and 1794) -Yurirapundaro (1580) Morelos State -Amatlan (1776) Nayarit State -Acaponeta (1773) -Amatan (1777) -Cayuela (1790)

-San Francisco de Campeche (maps of 1608, 1609, 1658,

-Chacala (1776)

1663, 1680, 1690, 1705, 1751, 1779 and 1786)

-Iscuintla (1772)

Chiapas State -Chiapa de Corzo (1818) Chihuahua State -Ciudad Camargo (1751) D.F. (Federal District Entity)

-San Blas (1785 and 1791) -Tepic (1772) Nuevo Leon State -Candelaria de Azanza (1799) -Monterrey -Revilla (1751)

56

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

-San Antonio de Padilla (1750) Oaxaca State

-Concepcion (1603) -Mazapil (1779)

-Antequera (1688) Puebla State

-Tlaltenango (1776) -Zacatecas (1783)

-Huaxutla (1580) -La Puebla (1698, 1771 and 1794)

Towns inside the Mexican territory -we couldn’t find their precise location of:

-Tutulla (1581)

-Altenpec (1580)

-Xonotla (1581)

-Ciudad de la Carolina (1742)

Queretaro State

-Quahutlan Amilpas (1743)

-Santiago de Queretaro (1796 and 1805) Quintana Roo State

-Real de Minas de Bolanos (1773) -Remedios (1775)

-Bacalar (1746)

-Santa Maria de Galue (1699)

-Cabo Catoche (1511)

-Tlamacazcatepec (1580)

-Chunhuhub (1746)

-Zazopaztepeque (1580)

San Luis Potosi State -San Luis Potosi (1794) Tabasco State -Villahermosa (1816) Tamaulipas State -Altamira (1751)

In any part of the XVI Section, sub-section I “Maps and Plans of Mexico” it is mentioned what cities followed the Felipe II Ordinances or are grid cities, so, we should personally see map by map and matched the names of our list finding 48 maps of towns with this pattern. The list is as follows:

-Burgos (1751)

Campeche (Campeche)

-Capital del Nuevo Santander (1751)

Camargo (Chihuahua)

-Escandon (1751)

Ciudad de Mexico-Tenochtitlan and San Pablo (D.F.)

-Horcasitas (1750)

Amecameca, Chicoloapa and Teutenango (Estado de Mexico)

-Reinosa (1751)

Penxamo (Guanajuato)

-San Fernando (1751 and 1798)

Fuerte de San Diego (Guerrero)

-San Francisco de Guemes (1751)

Huaxutla, Dolores and Zimapan (Hidalgo)

-Santa Barbara (1751)

Guadalajara and San Felipe Cuqio (Jalisco)

-Santa Maria de Aguayo (1751) -Santa Maria de Ilera (1751)

Valladolid (Michoacan) Candelaria de Azanza, Revilla and San Antonio de Padilla

-Soto la Marina (1751)

(Nuevo Leon)

Tlaxcala State

Antequera (Oaxaca)

-Cuzcatlan (1580)

Puebla de los Angeles (Puebla)

Veracruz State

Santiago de Queretaro (Queretaro)

-Buitron (1590)

Bacalar, Fuerte San Felipe and Uxmal (Quintana Roo)

-Coatepec (1579)

San Luis Potosi (San Luis Potosi)

-Nueva Veracruz (1663, 1683, 1689, 1751, 1764, 1765,

Bernal de Horcasitas, Capital del Nuevo Santander, Escandon,

1781, 1795 and 1800)

Matamoros, Nuestra Senora de Burgos, San Antonio de Padilla,

-Papantla (1779)

San Fernando, San Francisco de Guemes, Santa Barbara, Santa

-San Juan de Ulua (1570 and 1590)

Maria de Aguayo, Santa Maria de Llera, Soto La Marina, Villa

-Tlacontenpec (1580) -Veracruz

(1570 and 1763)

Altamira, Villa de Reinosa and Villa de Revilla (Tamaulipas) Buitron, Coatepec, Nueva Veracruz, San Juan de Ulua and

-Xalapa (1580)

Veracruz (Veracruz)

-Xochitepeque (1744 and 1746) Yucatan State

Chunhuhub and Merica (Yucatan) Reducto 602 (inside Mexican Territory)

-Merida (1751)

(For references see the List of graphic materials in Appendix-vi and

-Mutul (1581)

Appendix-ix –where in the column “H”, the letter “I” means the plans

-Valladolid (1579)

from the Archivo de Indias. Also see the Slides of the maps in the

Zacatecas State

Appendix-viiia)

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

57

3.3.2 INEGI and SINFA. Aguascalientes, Mexico and UNAM, Mexico City The National Institutions as INEGI and SINFA take the aerial views or photogrametrics periodically above the Mexican territory. In the case of UNAM, for their Faculty of Urbanism, they manage a series of flights especially of Mexico City and they are managed in the same fashion as the photographs of the Governmental Institutions. We inquire on the digital catalogue at the headquarters of the INEGI the coordinates of these cities and the existence of aerial photographs taken in different recognition flights above these zones in the past 10 years, in order to compare the actual urban situation and the original data that creates these cities. As they had not digitalized their data we should check the coordinates of all our cities and locate them in a big map. For example, the city of Atotonilco has the geographical Cartesians coordinates of 20 33 00 N, 102 30 30 W INEGI and SINFA divide the Mexican territory in 2,000 squares of 10,000 square kilometres each.

Knowing the coordinates of this city, we can localize it in the following square: F13 D68, F13-12 In this location we should check visually in other plan the flights that over flight this zone (very few of them has digital data, mainly we need to check by loupe the lines of the flights and numbers), to obtain another data, the date of the flight, the line or roll number, the point of the number of photographs and the altitude of the flight (with this we can calculate the scale). The presentation of our data is as follows: F13 D68, F13-12 20

33

00

N, 102

30

30

W

Fig. 140. Example of an INEGI aero-photo, with the data on the borders. Candelaria, Campeche. Scale 1:20,000. 14-January-1996.

Finally we have obtained 29 aerial photos for our work: La Paz, Campeche, Candelaria, Acatic, Atotonilco, Guadalajara, Hostotipaquillo, Ocotlan, Real de Arriba, Morelia, Mexcaltitan, Ahuacatlan, Amatlan, Candelaria, Monterrey, Oaxaca, Puebla, Queretaro, Bacalar, Holbox, San Luis Potosi, Altamira, Burgos, Ciudad Victoria, Horcasitas, Mandinga, Mozambique, Veracruz and Mexico City.

All the photos are in Black and White (except Mexico City that is full colour) and the scale vary depending of the altitude of the existing flights. The scales we have for the photos are 1:20,000; 1:37,500; 1:40,000; and 1:75,000. (For reference of the complete data of the cities see List of graphic materials in Appendix-vi and Appendix-ix –where in the column “G”, the letter “B”, referring to “Black and White” enlist the aerial views. Also see the Aerial Views in the Appendix-x)

Abril 1999 Linea 134, Foto 10 Esc. 1:40,000 (Atotonilco)

Some of the flights are “special flights” and the data is as follows: E14-2 19

02

26

N, 100

00

17

W

Vuelo Especial Estado de Mexico, Bloque 2 Sierra La Goleta Marzo 2000 Linea 3, Foto 3, Rollo 1580/01 Esc. 1:37,500, (Real de Arriba)

58

Fig. 141. Example of the data we can found of main Mexican cities and towns in the INEGI data system in order to get the cartographic information to obtain the aerial photographs.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

3.3.3 NASA and GOOGLE. Virtual location World Wind is a scientific computer program designed by NASA that gather million of satellite photographs in their real physical position on earth by virtual methods.

The company Google commercializes this program converting it to a web-base easy-to-use digital program where the satellite views can be actualized or updated by many users around this virtual environment. In terms of computer specifications, World Wind requires to install the program in your computer, upgrading of the system for Java tools and other requirements due to it’s a very strong tool of information. Google Earth can be used even having simple connection to an Internet browser.

Using the list of cities founded from the XVI to the XVIII Centuries, we tried to complete our collection of visual aerial data searching by the Cartesian coordinates or simply by the names of the

Our list grows in 56 satellite views upgrading the Black and White ones and adding new locations for our research as follows: Chiapa, Ixtapa, Tonala, Camargo, Chihuahua, Ciudad Cuauhtemoc, Saltillo, Ameca Meca, Chicoloapa, Gueguetoca, Tenancingo, Teutenango, Teutihuacan, Tlalmanalco, Toluca, Penxamo, Yrapoato, Fuerte de San Diego, Huaxutla, Tala, Atotonilco, Cacaluta, Ocotan, San Phelipe de Cuquio, Sentipac, Tequila, Tuxpan, Tzapopan, Acaponeta, Ahuacatlan, Ixtlan, San Blas, Tepic, Candelaria de Azanza, Cabo Catoche, Chetumal, Tonala, Villahermosa, Laredo, Matamoros, Revilla, San Antonio de Padilla, San Fernando, San Francisco de Guemes, Santa Barbara, Santa Maria de Yera, Soto La Marina, Tampico, Villa de Reinosa, Coatepeque, Tlacontepec, Tlacotalpan, Merida, Durango, Culiacan and Escandon. (For reference of the complete data of the cities see List of graphic materials in Appendix-ix –where in the column “G”, the letter “C”, or “Color” refers to the digital satellite data. Also see the

Figs. 142 & 143. (left) Screenshot of World Wind program by NASA. Used mainly to obtain scientific information, location data and satellite images. (right) Google Earth by GOOGLE, used basically to obtain data of cities, photographs and satellite images as well,

cities in the Mexican Territory utilizing both programs.

We also located the maps we have of INEGI and SINFA in that digital format. One good point of the Google Earth (that is called the web-base program of World Wind) is that almost all the satellite views a virtually located in their physical position making it easy to find them. Due to nowadays the satellite routes didn’t cover the entire globe and depending of the agency source that took the globe-shots some places have no photos, or are in very bad quality. The urban areas, capital cities and historical cities are covered with good definition photographs. The images can be used freely showing the source of the aerospace agency where the main are NASA Landsat7, Europe Technologies, Digital Globe and Terrametrics.

Satellite Views in the Appendix-x)

3.4 Classification & Qualification Many of the cities of the former Viceroyalty of the New Spain are similar in many aspects but at the same time have some differences that make them unique and individuals. Even they use to have the same urban elements the location of them inside the urban tissue varies. The streets and city blocks, even were traced by “cord and ruler” as was specified in the Ordinances, due to the situation of the terrain make them slightly similar but not equal. We can find that older cities are less “perfectible” as the newer ones. To select the cities we will use for our comparison we should specify in detail the type of cities and the urban elements we are looking for our study.

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3.4.1 Type grid of cities in the Mexican territory In the Mexican territory (in the American Continent in general) we can find five types of colonial cities by its urban grid: 1-Irregular grids -those that were done without a specific plan or with accidental topography.

2-Semi-regular grids -the ones that the reticular urban tissue was adapted to the topography conditions.

3-Regular grids -those that follows the urban ordinances of Felipe II. 4-Fortified cities -surrounded by walls and were mainly located near the coastal line.

5-Special case -those that has not central plaza.

The third ones, the regular cities, are considered “the classical model of the Hispano-American settlements” and are the ones we will study in this thesis. Even all of them are cataloged as “grid cities” we can observe that depending on their urban morphology our classification will be as follows: -( ) No classified (cities without accurate visual or graphic information) -(L) Linear or with imperfect mesh (lines but not 90 degrees) -(R) Regular or more/less meshed (rectangular blocks without same size) -(Q) Squared or with perfect mesh (regular blocks of the same size) -(S) Special grids for Fortifications (geometrical border shaped) (For reference see the Appendix-ix –where in the column “F”, the symbol “( )” means “No classified”; the “L” means “Linear”; the “R” means “Regular”; the “Q” means

We realized that when the grid tissue is more “linear” or “imperfect”, the city is older than the “regular” or “squared” ones. In the case of the Squared, the foundation dates are about 150 years after the “linear” ones. That means that over the time the techniques for urban tracing had a positive evolution. Actually, the simple words “cordel y regla” (“cord and ruler”) are the facts that make the cities different in shape from the European cities. “Cord” simply means that the streets, plazas, blocks, must be perfectly straight (even the urban patter doesn’t follow one line, but several straight broken lines). And “Ruler” means to be measured, to have some equal

Figs. 144-151. Exemplification of cities by its grid (left) irregular-Taxco; (central-left) semi-regular-Celaya; (central-right) regular-Tampico; (right) fortified city-Campeche.

Figs. 152-154 (left of the page) types of regular grid patterns.

Proportions or rhythm; to have in some cases a hierarchy of voids and masses; or simply to share a unity in terms of the size of the elements. This can be applied nowadays to the urban engineering, planning cities more than make grow them spontaneously.

The urban structure of “Damero” (orthogonal grid) was done due to three main reasons or suggestions considered by the Spaniards to develop the cities in this way: 1-With this urban pattern let to distribute the plots equally in all the urban tissue.

2-The scheme permits the city to expand the city in a rational order.

3-The wide streets, open spaces and its orientation let to “ventilate” the city permanently and in a natural way. In Europe the “malaria” (mal=bad, aria=air) was the worst disease of the époque and the circulation of the air helped the city to be always clean.

“Squared”; and the “S” mean “Special”)

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

3.4.2 Urban elements of the central area The grid city has representative elements of design that create in some way it advantages and the characteristics to recognize this pattern. Four urban relevant elements show a physical statement to be reviewed upon its configuration: the streets, the open spaces, the urban blocks (plots division) and the location of areas by its representative buildings.

1- The morphological structure of streets.

2- The open spaces (plaza) 3- The location of the areas 4- The urban plot and lot division Therefore to easily understand that we are in a Novo-Hispanic city, we just need to stand up in the center of the Plaza Mayor, look around and find: The church, the municipal palace, the market and the royal houses. The Plaza must be plenty of people; in the most cases it has in the center a “kiosk” and gardens or greenery surrounded by pedestrian straight streets.

This is nowadays the ambiance of the urban elements ordered all together in this type of design. Let’s review some details of each of these elements.

3.4.2.1 The street Mostly all the grid cities were designed in flat lands. The blocks were located in rows and columns, a simple, easy and fast way to develop a new town. But not all the towns followed this shape while were growing due to the physical conditions of the landscape or previous possession of territories for the landlords. Many of the main streets were renovated or had a dynamic evolution and broke the original design of the grid cities. Nevertheless, let’s say that almost all of them continue as they were conceived since five centuries ago. Even this, we can find three main patterns of streets (that define at the same time the shape of the urban blocks): 1-The “linear” pattern where the streets are like a line, but the angles they form are not necessary perpendiculars (as we can find in Santiago the Cuba).

2-The “orthogonal” pattern where the streets makes strictly 90 degrees angle in its corners but not necessarily have the same distance from corner to corner (as in Panama and Guatemala).

3-The “squared” pattern where the distances from corner to corner is the same and all the streets have 90 degrees angles (as in Caracas and Leon de Huanuco).

Figs. 155, 156 & 157. Street patterns. Up to down. Linear pattern in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba; Orthogonal pattern in Guatemala city; Squared pattern in Leon de Huanuco, Peru.

3.4.2.2 The plaza The open spaces that represent the central point of the city in Spanish is called as “La Plaza”, “Plaza Mayor”, “Plaza Central”, “Plaza de Armas” or “Zocalo”. This public area, the Central Plaza, shows nowadays the power of the people and in the Americas is a vivid area where all the society gathers and has their activities. In the very beginning the law talked about a rectangular plaza that “…the length of the plaza must be one and a half times the wide of it due to this shape is the most adequate to pursue ceremonies, horse racing and any other activity to be done…” (probably based on the fifth book of Vitrubius that specified the same proportions to be the best for the spectacles). The ordinances mentioned the proportions of the city as follows: “The plaza most be not less than 200 feet wide by 300 feet large, but not bigger than 800 feet long and 530 feet wide, being

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the a ‘well proportioned city’ the one of 600 feet large and 400 feet long”. The reality was that they not always followed this proportion’s rule and the shape of the plaza depended on the importance or location of the city: 1- Rectangular shaped (as in Monterrey or the Plaza Santo Domingo in Mexico City) 2- Central Square pure shaped confined by streets with central symmetrical axis (as in Mexico City –after renovation, or Caracas, Venezuela) 3-Open-to-the-sea or semi central, especially in port areas (aside Plaza as in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic or Bacalar) 4-Surrounded by a colonnade all around (like in Cuzco).

3.4.2.3 Urban zoning Regarding to the location of the zoning our study object is concentrated in the “downtown” or “City Center”. The model of town for the colonies is simple in shape. All around a central square that has in its edges four representative buildings: 1-Central Plaza (for military activities and people’s concentration) 2-Church (it is the symbol of the religion) 3-Governmental Building (symbol of the administration) 4-Commerce area (trade and exchange) 5-Houses of personalities (important people) 6- Parks or alamedas (green spaces) This scheme shows (even nowadays) the centralization of the European monarchies’ power -Central Plaza (military) -Church (ideological) -Governmental Building (political) -Commerce (economical) -Houses of personalities (social) -Parks (peoples) The architectonic elements in the immediate zones of the plaza are nowadays some of the best-conserved structures of the colonial era. As they reach thru time the status of landmark, a symbol or an historical element of the city. The Novo-Hispanic cities could be easy to be detected due to this important issue.

Figs. 158-165. (left) Schemes of location of plazas. (up to down) Monterrey, Mexico (rectangular); Caracas, Venezuela (squared); Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (open to the sea); Cuzco, Peru; View of the plaza surrounded by colonnades in Cuzco.

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Fig. 166. Plaza de Armas de Aguascalientes, Mexico. From left to right (3) Governmental palace; (5) Royal houses; (2) Cathedral; (4) Municipal Market; (1) Open public square; (6) Alameda –central park.

3.4.2.4 Blocks and plots The urban blocks (in Spanish, block is called “cuadra” that means “square”) had a very simple plot or parcel division inside themselves. The biggest was the main square or Plaza that have contact with many streets. Then, the main buildings use to have the entire block as part of the property, surrounded by four streets. In some other blocks, especially for housing, the block was divided simply in four equal parts, sharing all of them a corner and two streets. In some other cases (very rare), the subdivision was in eight regular parts, where the four corners were most valuable than the central plots that only had the entrance from one single street. Buenos Aires is one of the most well-done examples of the ordering of buildings and plot division due to its geometrically and the respect to this shape in the wide extension of the city making it easy to understand.

Unfortunately, the ordinances never talk about the construction density (FAR-Floor Area Ratio) or the heights of the buildings (like the norm in Paris that regulated the buildings not more than 4 floors), but in the great majority of the colonial cities, the buildings in the downtown are not more than four-five stories high and the view is very similar in case of vertical elements. This breaking on the cityscape is done by the towers of the churches that are in great number inside the “Primer Cuadro” (downtown) of the cities.

3.5 Screening and selection of data Having the list of parameters of -Cities inside the territory that followed the Ordinances -Graphical archives (analogue and digital) -Urban characteristics and elements for comparison We need to filter and catalogue the elements that will lead us to our exercise. The physical elements of the urban planning (as we cannot see them in three-dimension) will find the similarities and differences after over-expose them after scaling and matching. Due to we are comparing images that differs in scale and époques and in some cases are very personal interpretation of the authors, it is very important to know that sometimes the data will let lead us to a very accurate-matching exercises but in other cases a more-simpler ones. To select among the plans, the original ones had priority followed by those with a good definition level. This criterion was also used for the selection of aerial images. The main point for our comparisons-materials will be: -To have digitalized the original blueprint of the grid cities and -To have the digital aerial/satellite view of the same place.

(For reference of the complete gathered information see the Appendix-xi. For the final list see Appendix-xii) Fig. 167. Aerial photography of Antequera (today Oaxaca). The color filtering is to emphasise the urban blocks and the architectonic constructions inside them. These physical structures respect and define the area reserved for the streets.

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Fig. 168. Map of the location of the cities for this study. (1) in RED color the selected places for our comparison (the ones that we could obtain both the old drawings and quality aerial/satellite images) and (2) in YELLOW cities we could obtain either drawings or city images (for references see the Appendix-ix with the catalogue of graphic information of Novo-Hispanic cities.

The main idea is to create a comparison table of urban data based on the characteristic of cities mentioned in the Ordinances, therefore, each urban aspect (from the hidden to the physical) will be evaluate with percentages in equal conditions using the selected methodology. As an important point is that we should be able to generate the same (or almost the same) quality data to have points in common to make our comparisons. Even we could obtain the old drawing of some cities, in some cases the satellite views have not the required quality. Same is happening with quality satellite images without old drawings to be comparing with. From the big list of grid cities and the analogue and digital data we could obtain by the different information tools, we create a catalogue in the appendix where this graphical information is gathered.

From the more than 65 old drawings of grid cities we have, we could match information for about 44 of them but in 19 cases the satellite views have not good resolution to match both images. Four areas (San Pablo and Zocalo –inner Mexico City, Santa Maria de Aguayo (inner Ciudad Victoria) and Veracruz and Buitron –inner Veracruz City) will be also compared.

The fortifications of San Juan de Ulua (Veracruz, Veracruz State) and Fuerte San Felipe (Bacalar, Quintana Roo State) will also be study to show the old stage and the nowadays situation of the architectonic structures. Then we will cover 22 cities in 31 sets of data for our comparatives.

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Arranging in alphabetical order, first by the State in the actual territory and then by the old name (Indian or Spanish name), our final list is as follows: Old name/New name

State

Campeche/San Francisco de Campeche

Campeche

San Pablo/Barrio de San Pablo (inner city)

Distrito Federal

Tenochtitlan/Ciudad de Mexico

Distrito Federal

Zocalo/idem (inner city)

Distrito Federal

Ameca Meca /Amecameca

Estado de Mexico

Chicoloapa/Chicoloapan

Estado de Mexico

Teutenango/Tenango del Valle

Estado de Mexico

Guadalaxara/Guadalajara

Jalisco

Valladolid de Mechoacan/Morelia

Michoacan

Candelaria de Azanza/idem

Nuevo Leon

Antequera/Oaxaca

Oaxaca

La Puebla/Puebla de los Angeles

Puebla

Queretaro/Santiago de Queretaro

Queretaro

Bacalar/Bahia de Bacalar

Quintana Roo

Fuerte San Felipe /Fuerte de Bacalar

Quintana Roo

San Luis Potosi /idem

San Luis Potosi

Villa de Altamira /Altamira

Tamaulipas

Burgos/Nuestra Senora de Loreto

Tamaulipas

Capital del Nuevo Santander/Cd Victoria

Tamaulipas

Orcasitas/Bernal de Horcasitas

Tamaulipas

San Francisco de Guemes/Guemes

Tamaulipas

Santa Maria de Aguayo/Ciudad Victoria Tamaulipas Soto La Marina /idem

Tamaulipas

Villa de Reinosa /Reynosa

Tamaulipas

Buitron/idem (inner city)

Veracruz

Fuerte de San Juan de Ulua /idem

Veracruz

Nueva Veracruz/Veracruz

Veracruz

Veracruz/Puerto de Veracruz

Veracruz

Merida/idem

Yucatan

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

3.6 Set of procedures To observe the spatial situation and dynamic multi-timing changes and/or conservation of the urban morphology of the grid cities selected we will do an analogy of terms using the “words” of the Ordinances, the material as plans and satellite views to give an interpretative report based on a visual relation of data.

3.6.1 Words, Cartesian and Einsteinian Dimensions Even nowadays there are serious studies about the fifth dimension (in a non-material physical stage for scientific and visual applications as the Kaluza-Klein or KK theory) we will use as main titles for our analysis an analogy of it in a different way based on the invisible dimension, Cartesian dimensions an the Einstein theories (also considering non-material physical series of events that affects the stage of material objects juxtaposed in a physical real world).

There are three conventional spatial dimensions: length (or depth), width, and height, often expressed as x, y and z axes appear on a plane Cartesian graph and z is found in functions such as a z-buffer. The second dimension makes the first visible while itself, the first, is invisible. The third dimension is a physical structure as a building. The “visual” dimension that could be expressed by the First or the Second dimensions are touchable when they transforms into a Third dimension. The fourth dimension is often identified with time (space-time-matter theory), and such is used to explain space-time in Einstein’s theories of special relativity and general relativity.

When a reference is used to four-dimensional co-ordinates, it is likely that what is referred to its three spatial dimensions plus a time-line. If four (or more) spatial dimensions are referred to, this should be stated at the outset, to avoid confusion with the more common notion that time is the Einsteinian fourth dimension. We will use four-dimensional “stills” for this thesis, not the fourth spatial dimension of the “tesseract” shapes or “polytopes” (known also as the fifth dimension) but the primitive and simple concept of it. While the words are a non-visible layer to the eyes, they create visual images that can be, first, say by words, then expressed in plans, edify and finally be read along time. In the case of urban changes (continuum in the fourth dimensioning), even is a three dimensions event, the streets, blocks or areas can be considered in two dimensions and the buildings in three. Finally our analogy will be as follows:

(1D) The first dimension is the regulations. An invisible layer composed by the words on the ordinances -Ley the Indias.

(2D) The second dimension: The urban trace showed at the maps/plans -Old original blueprints containing flat spatial data-.

(3D) The third dimension if the physical existing space: The city -Aerial and Satellite Views generated from a physical volumetric spatial settlement.

(4D) The fourth dimension: The time space. Gave by the comparison process of images of different époques by superimposing visual method.

Fig. 169. Analogy that will be used as our methodology regarding to the four dimensioning elements mentioned in this text.

3.5.2 Analogue to Digital Processing Our main data is in analogue format: rules and drawings -five hundred years ago there was not another option. Even nowadays, aerial photography also was get in hard print copies that we must digitalize to manage it easily. The Ordinances were written in Old-Castilian language. There are translations into several languages but we based our study directly reading the original language they were promulgated to make an interpretation of it. Even more, we realize three-dimensional graphics to easily understand the law parameters in a visible way. At the same time, in order to manage the visual information we obtained from the AGI, INEGI and SINFA we digitise pictured and scan the slides and images to process them into a digital formal. Having this information in digital archives the methodology of comparison will let to visualize using the “fourth” dimensioning concept for our conclusions.

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3.6.3 Hyper-contrasted Graphic Urban Spectrum The information from the Archivo General de Indias were obtained in 6X7 cms slides (taken from the original maps of the museum-alike exhibition of the AGI) in a process already mentioned in the sub-chapter 3.2.1 and after this we project them and photograph with a digital camera in order to archive it in digital format. To have this positive color image for evaluation we should rasterize it correcting the lens angle and the distance by the estereoketch effect.

After it we desaturate and decolorize the images to obtain a gray scale file that we contrasted in high-density black and white and make a negative polarization. We clean the image as much as we could to obtain a clear graph of the streets and blocks. In the case of our aerial and satellite images we digitalize by scanning them.

we worked with the aerial and satellite images we should consider this in the case of important relief of our terrains. It is important to notice that almost all our study area maintains a predominant relief (the grid cities were planned in flat lands) and the displacement error is not significant talking about the three-dimensional parameters of the images. We should not consider modifying the warp, distortion or perspective of the images due to the urban scale they have mentioned in the sub-chapter 3.2.2, we would try to maintain the image as original as possible. Due to we are not searching for specific measurements we discharge the use of Geographical Information Systems as the ILWIS or the ARCHINFO and instead of that, we simply took some measurements using the tool of ruler in the Google earth as an standard to our 29 set of comparisons to define the dimensions of some urban elements as the main plaza. It is not very necessary to make the images to be flattening for the comparison with the original blueprints, and thinking that we superimposing both images, the contrast between the “grayscale” or “color” images will be useful to see easily the over-imposed hyper-contrasted spectrum using phosphoric green-glowing conversion.

Figs. 170, 171 & 172. From the original map to the rasterized computer image and the green overlapping effect. Exemplification of the result using the mentioned process from its first (upper image) to its last step (lower image). Right –superimposing of phosphoric green-glowing image (old map) over the grey-scale satellite photograph.

The estereoketch system is a tool of third generation that corrects the inclination of the aerial photographs but not the displacement of the relief.

In our case, due to we are working with flatten images this process was not used; nevertheless when

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3.6.4 Phosphoric green-glowing image conversion In order to locate the cities and to revise the chronological transformations, gray-scale city images (photogrametrics or satellite views) under phosphoric green-glowing image (of the old maps) were used on this work. The superposition of both layers made us to choose the easier visual enhancement without the contamination of colors. Over the gray-scale (obscured) view of the actual city we choose purposefully the phosphor screening colored green because the human eye can differentiate more shades of green than other phosphor colors as well the human eye is most sensitive to this color, therefore this will give us the opportunity to stand out and easily allocate

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

lines, solid blocks or even details of the old maps.

The “phosphoric green-glowing image conversion” process was performed automatically by a self-programmed simple script (automate batch) using the option “action” in the Adobe Photoshop and applied to all the maps. We assigned the names M-map, G-glow, T-target obtaining 2 overlaid images.

To create the layer “G” we used the layer “M” and apply the Neon Glow effect (Filter-Artistic-Neon Glow)” using the following parameters: Swatch Color Black (HSB -Hue: 0 ; Saturation: 100; Brightness: 0) an a Swatch Color Green (HSB -Hue: 120 ; Saturation: 100; Brightness: 100). When apply the Neon Glow effect we use the following parameters for

that tool: Size: 24; Brightness: 50; Color: RGB; Red: 255; Green: 255 and Blue: 255.

Finally layers M&G are set over T and have ”Linear Light” Opacity of 73% while T has “Normal” Opacity of 100%.

The first set M+T=MT is the one with the original colors of images. In most of the cases it is difficult to see the differences of the overlapping layers. The second set of overlaid images is G+T=GT. As G is our Green-Glow image, the lines are easily to visualize over or “target” photograph.

Fig. 173. Explanation of the phosphoric green-glowing image conversion process. The bar in the right side is the automate batch.

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Fig. 174. Graphical representation (sample) of our visual comparison process. (1) original plan; (2) actual satellite view; (3) matching of layers obtaining an urban spectrum; and (4) considerations for the evaluation of affinity with the ordinances.

3.6.5 Superimposition of Visual Materials Understanding that the fourth-dimensioning we will use is a broken time-line (not a continues relationship of time-space but a point from the beginning to the end) our “stills” image captures we will put both together and making to coincide as many points as possible obtaining as a result the over layering of streets and blocks and the location of some buildings or monuments in a visual integration. From

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several ways to do this visual comparisons the digital overlaying is very convenient due to we can realize some correction in a virtual way until obtain the desire result previous to the evaluation of the urban morphology. Overlaying the original image as it is (even pixilated) and the photograph we will deal with three layers: (1) the original old plan, (2) the nowadays-real view and the (3) spectrum of the original old plan –obtained by an effect of “Note

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Paper” with an image balance in red of 22, Null Graininess and Null Relief in the Adobe Photoshop.

(4) the details and notes for the evaluation process of the objects changed or maintained during the timeline considered in the next sub-chapter (3.5.5) that will give us the percentage to consider our final conclusions of each different town or city we selected.

Superimposing them in two composed images or re-integration process, first the (1) and (2) to see the relationship between both timing stages; the (3) and (4) to select the details to be mentioned for the comparison study and evaluation. The next chapter will read in two ways these digitalized procedures: -First. The analytic interpretation of the guidelines (1D-2D) -Second. The visual comparative (3D-4D) 3.6.6 Evaluation of the pureness of the urban design We would like finally to evaluate (or in some kind measure) the relationship between the original drawings and the actual stage of each selected city and to do this we would like to represent this pureness revising the affinity to the original urban design dictated by the Ordinances. Then, with this evaluation, we can know which cities are closer to the parameters.

In our list we will not consider the Fortress of San Juan de Ulua and San Felipe due to they are not cities and are just mentioned as a reference, also we will not consider Zocalo as it is a repetition of Mexico City but we will consider the inner-towns as Buitron and San Pablo. To visualize at a glance the information per city we create a “profile card” or “data information sheet” of each city that contains the following information arranged by alphabetical indications: (a) year of pre-Hispanic Foundation; (b)&(p) year of Novo-Hispanic foundation; (c) previous settlers; (d) type of mesh; (e) name of the city; (f) inhabitants by 2007; (g) Fusion or New city; (h) satellite photograph; (i) hyper contrasted negative image; (j) rule decoding bar; (k) rule decoding points; (l) simple line urban pattern; (m) Plaza measurements; (n) Main blocks measurements; (o) Old map negative.

Figs. 175 & 176. Profile card examples of morphological features of each selected settlement containing a resume of several city data and indications of alphabet letters for explanatory purposes.

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The different boxes of this “profile card” contain alphabetical indications that deserve to be explained in detail. The boxes (a), (b), (c), (e), (j), (o) and (p) are data formed by historical information of the cities that will not have variation. In the case of the statistical and visual information that can vary day-by-day we have the alphabet sections (f), (h), (i) and (l). Some areas of the “profile card” that requires some sort of evaluation to fill it up are those that requires decoding and visual comparison of maps as the sections (d), (g), (j), (k), (l), (m) and (n). The box (d) regards to the grid pattern of cities that we will revise as was indicated in the sub-chapter 3.4.2.1 giving us three different options: -Imperfect (or linear) grid pattern -Regular grid pattern -Perfect (rectangular or squared) grid pattern.

Fig. 177. Ixtapa Chiapas. Imperfect mesh.

In the case of the evaluated data (g), the assignation of FUSION or NEW city given by the understanding that the old settlements were or not used for the Spanish trace (please refer to the sub-chapter 2.2.2) is. We already know that the first Royal Ordinances were sent from Seville from Carlos I as early as 1513, about 20 years after Columbus discovering, but was not until Felipe II, in 1537 when were well know for all the people. Then, they were compiled 60 or more years after the first foundation in the New World, and our theory is that the consolidated rules were the result of the collective experience of this practice and the ideal city theories. The data of the box assigned by the letter (k) is the points obtained of the sum of the coding of (j) section. The maximum points are 16 of 16. The (l) was made using the hyper contrasted satellite view having the reference of the central plaza in color YELLOW, the four streets of the corners and central street from the center of the plaza in color RED and the general streets in color white in the case of the black background and black in the case of white background.

The correspondent background automatically generates the blocks. These visual lectures of the urban tissue help us to the assignation of the data in the (d) box. The (m) and (n), data of the measurements of the main plaza and the more common urban blocks are also generated by the drawing in the box (l).

(l)

(h) Fig. 178. Ocotlan, Jalisco. Regular mesh.

(i)

Fig. 179. Monterrey, N.L. Perfect meshes.

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Figs. 180-182. From our “profile card”, down to up (i) Satellite view of Villa de Orcasitas; (h) Hyper contrasted image of the first; (l) separation of target layers (reverse effect): main & secondary streets, blocks and central plaza.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Fig. 183 Matrix from where all our “Green Bars� are taken. The reference of the Leyes de Indias is indicated in the upper part of the table where the topic and the number of each rule are written. In the left side the year of foundation, name of the city and its sub-chapter number are expressed. In the right side is indicated the urban grid pattern style. At the bottom we have the average results of the compliment of each of the morphological features. In the main central area are indicated with a FULL GREEN SQUARE the rules that were completely followed, the PARTIALLY GREEN SQUARE means that the law was not fulfilled and the EMPTY SQUARE means the absence of the feature.

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Probably, the most important section of this “data information sheet” or “profile card” is the box (j) where the coding will lead us to get the data in the box (k) and fulfil the aim of the evaluation of the pureness of the urban design of cities that obey the elements dictated in the Leyes the Indias. This section (j) is our “green-bar” containing the complete coding of 16 points that we are evaluating for each city. These morphological urban elements decoded from the Leyes de Indias were revised by the stage of the cities nowadays. As a manner of a checklist we will fill out each of the features followed per city. The topics we will consider will be strictly following the ones that mention physical and measurable issues of design order on the texts of the Leyes de Indias Book IV title VII by its main 16th urban design rules.

As we mentioned previously, in some way, even the ordinances were followed or not, the cities also were done on-the-road, and the experiences gotten in their broad creation of foundations in the New World were put as rules in the text compiled by Carlos II sometimes with influence of Indian cities. Therefore, this old cities contributed more or less not only to the latest Mexican or Latinamerican settlements, but also to the grid cities around all over the world.

Name of the city

1

Y

1

Y

½

Y/N

3rd Law –Characteristics of the land 4th Law /6th Law –The ports / Lands near a port 5th -Towns near river or a water body 8th Law-Temples th 8 Law-Public buildings th 9 Law –The plaza (location) 9th Law – The plaza (proportions) 9th Law – The plaza (size) 9th Law – The plaza (streets around) th 9 Law – The plaza (streets from the centre) 9th Law –The plaza (orientation) 9th Law – The plaza (colonnade) 10th Law –Streets shape (wide/narrow) th 13 Law –Agriculture lands (green belt/greenery) th 17 Law –The similarity of housing style (similarity)

1

Y

½

Y/N

1

Y

1

Y

½

Y/N

1

Y

0

N

0

N

The way we will show this list will be simply with Y&N signs and its middle expression with value ½ -Y/N. Or with reference colours for the matrix. Full of color green=Y (1); Checker=Y/N (0.5); Empty=N (0).

½

Y/N

1

Y

0

N

0

N

½

Y/N

st

1 Law -Selection of the place with expansion possibilities

With this coding of cities we can find the deep differences and similarities with the “ideal city” on the Leyes de Indias. When the settlements obtain 16/16 points means that are obeying in 100% the physical rules expressed in the 16 selected points, while, per simple relation, if the total is 8/16, then the guided of the ordinances were followed only in a 50%. This is not to “qualify” any city but to “evaluate” it obtaining comparisons to match with its foundation’s info.

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Fig. 184. “Green Bar” with the full code of the Leyes de Indias physical rules for designing of towns in the Spanish Empire Colonies.

percentage (59.36%)

total units (9.5/16)

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ANALYSIS

4 – Cataloguing, Analysis & Results LA CIUDAD PERCIBIDA, LA CUAL ESTÁ EN LA MEMORIA DE LOS CRONISTAS, RESULTA EFECTIVAMENTE DISTINTA A LA CIUDAD REAL DE LOS CARTÓGRAFOS. ES COMO LA DIFERENCIA ENTRE UNA METÁFORA QUE ES POESÍA Y UNA ECUACIÓN QUE ES MATEMÁTICA. -The perceived city, which is in the mind of the chroniclers, actually is rather different that the real city of the cartographers. It has a difference like a metaphor that is poetry and an equation that is mathematics.

Eugenio Pérez Montás.

4.1 From the “one dimension” towards to the “two dimensions” (1D - 2D) In this chapter, the non-visible layer (as we call the Ordinances) will be interpretated to acquaintance the quintessential concepts for the urban pattern and elements in the city; moreover we will do a graphic interpretation of it. We call to this process “from the textualization to the visualization” that is just to pass from the text to the physical data to read images instead to read words. We do an interpretation of the “verbal images” into “visual images” and both are completely different, as the “verbal images” have not limits, although they seem to be due to the apparent definiteness of words. The “visual images”, on the other hand, while it appears at first glance to be even less limited than the word, actually is more severely limited by the lines, colors, shapes and physical forms.

Metaphorically, if the visual image, although more difficult to discriminate, is less ambiguous than the verbal image, the visual image is closer to the reality.

We refer Simonides words “painting is mute poetry, poetry a speaking picture”, therefore our challenge is to dare to imagine those words into a visual element as a picture, or, as is this case, in a computer modeling that we could manipulate in three-dimensions. The word of the Ordinances lies halfway between scientific knowledge and mythical or magical thought; sometimes on ambiguous and undefined specifications.

Even we follow the side of the scientific knowledge, “the words” in the Ordinances moves inside the “imaginary world” that can be thought into different images depending on the reader’s creative capacity.

Some details are not expressed nor perfectly specified in this law. We follow the numbers, the rules, but still there are some “emptiness” that can be fit by each creator on the basic rules for plazas, blocks, streets and guidelines. This is why our computer modeling is very close to the reality but each city is as different as their settlers define how to be.

4.1.1 Translation, Semantics, Analytic & Graphic interpretation of the “Leyes de Indias” We will decipher and separate the aspects regarding to the urban planning ordinances written in the Leyes de Indias. We should understand that the Ordinances are a statement about an object; it is not the object itself. As “Syntax” is a mode of ordering language (and concepts) in a sequential manner we will model it (using a computer rendering program) by its references and inherently semantics.

We are using the syntax of the original texts of the “Libro IV. Titulo VII. De las Poblaciones de las Ciudades, Villas y Pueblos” (Book 4th. Titles 7th and 8th. About the population of cities, villages and towns) and synthesize and interpret in English the urban and architectonical program proposing “visual images” from the “verbal images”.

(For reference see the Appendix-iii to follow each sub-chapter of the book of the “Leyes de Indias” in Old-Castilian Language)

The original text in Old-Castilian language is translated integrally into Spanish to highlight the elements inside the text (by numbers) that give us the text for its physical interpretation. Under this numbers, the summary will be expressed in English and later show up by drawings. After the title of each law, we mention the reference of other Ordinances or Laws.

LIBRO IV. TITULO VII. TITULO SIETE. DE LA POBLACIÓN DE LAS CIUDADES, VILLAS Y PUEBLOS. (Book 4th. Titles 7th. About the population of cities, villages and towns) LEY PRIMERA. QUE LAS NUEVAS POBLACIONES SE FUNDEN CON LAS CALIDADES DE ESTA LEY. -El Emperador D. Carlos Ord. 11 de 1523. D. Felipe Segundo Ord. 39 y 40 de Poblaciones. D. Carlos Segundo y la R. G.“Habiéndose hecho el descubrimiento por Mar o Tierra, conforme a las leyes y órdenes que de él tratan y elegida la Provincia y Comarca, que le hubiere de poblar, y el sitio de los lugares donde se han de hacer las nuevas poblaciones, y tomando asiento sobre ello, los que fueren a su cumplimiento, guarden la forma siguiente. En la costa del Mar sea el sitio levantado, sano y fuerte, teniendo (1) consideración al abrigo, fondo y defensa del Puerto, (2) y si fuere posible no tenga el Mar al Mediodía, ni Poniente: y en estas, y

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las demás poblaciones la Tierra adentro, (3) elijan el sitio de los que estuvieren vacantes, y por disposición nuestra se pueda ocupar, sin prejuicio de los Indios, y naturales, o con su libre consentimiento: (4) y cuando hagan la planta del Lugar repártanlo por sus plazas, calles y solares a cordel y regla, comenzando desde la plaza mayor, y sacando desde ellas las calles a las puertas y caminos principales, (5) y dejando tanto compás abierto, que aunque la población vaya en gran crecimiento, se pueda siempre proseguir y dilatar en la misma forma. (6) Procuren tener el agua cerca, y que se pueda conducir al Pueblo y heredades, derivándola, si fuere posible, para mejor aprovecharse de ella, (7) y los materiales necesarios para edificios, tierras de labor, cultura y pasto, con que excusarán el mucho trabajo y costas, que se siguen de la distancia. (8) No elijan sitios para poblar en lugares muy altos, por la molestia de los vientos, y dificultad del servicio y acarreo, (9) ni en lugares muy bajos, porque suelen ser enfermos, (10) fundense en los medianamente elevados, que gozen descubiertos los vientos del Norte y Mediodía: (11) y si hubieren de tener tierras, o cuestas, sean por la parte del Levante y Poniente: y si no se pudieren excusar de los lugares altos, (12) funden en parte donde no estén sujetos a nieblas, haciendo observación de lo que más convenga a la salud, y accidentes que se pueden ofrecer: (13) y en caso de edificar a la ribera de algún Río, dispongan la población de forma, que saliendo el Sol, dé primero en el Pueblo que en el agua.”

1st Law -Selection of the place of a new city: 1-If bay locate the city at the end of it (to care and to defense) 2-If possible do not have sea on the South or West (best location in the South or West of a coast) 3-Choose free new areas, or in case, under the agreement of the locals (Indians) 4-Draw the plots by “cord and ruler” (to make it straight and measured) starting from the main square 5-The city must be opened for future expansions (endless urban tissue) 6-Procure to have water bodies (rivers, lakes, sea) nearby, and if possible domesticate them 7-Procure to have the necessary materials nearby to build the city, to cultivate the land, grass, etc.

8-Do not choose highlands due to they are windy and difficult to carry things 9-Do not choose lowlands due to they are “sick” lands 10-Found the cities in medium-high lands with good

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winds from North and South 11-If there is a (sandy) land or a hill, procure it to be in the East or West 12-Found the city in a place without fog 13-In the case to be along a river, the town must be located in form that the sun touches first the city than the water

LEY II. QUE HABIENDO ELEGIDO SITIO EL GOBERNADOR DECLARE SI HA DE SER CIUDAD, VILLA O LUGAR, Y ASI FORME LA REPUBLICA. -D. Felipe Segundo Ord. 43.“ (14) Elegida La Tierra, Provincio y Lugar en que se ha de hacer nueva población, y averiguada la comodidad y aprovechamientos, que pueda haber, el Gobernador en cuyo distrito estuviere o confinare, declare el Pueblo que se ha de poblar, si ha de ser Ciudad, Villa o Lugar, y conforme a lo que declarare se forme el Consejo, República y Oficiales de ella, de forma que si hubiere de ser Ciudad Metropolitana, tenga un Juez con título de Adelantado, o Alcalde mayor, o Corregidor, o Alcalde ordinario, que ejerza la jurisdicción insolidum, y juntamente con el Regimiento tenga la administración de la República: dos o tres Oficiales de la hacienda Real: Doce Regidores: dos Fieles ejecutores: Dos Jurados de cada Parroquia: un Procurador General: un Mayordomo: un Escribano de Consejo: dos Escribanos públicos: uno de Minas y Registros: un Pregonero mayor: un Corredor de lonja: dos Porteros; y si Diocesana o sufraganea, ocho Regidores y los demás Oficiales perpetuos; para las Villas y Lugares, Alcalde Ordinario: Cuatro Regidores: un Alguacil: un Escribano de Consejo, y público: y un Mayordomo.”

2nd Law -Foundation of the place: 14- After select the emplacement declare if it is a City, Village or Place and then named the people in charge of the governance of it. As many “personalities” to be care of the city, more urban plots and more important buildings must be built around the main square.

LEY III. QUE EL TERRENO Y CERCANIA SEA ABUNDANTE Y SANO. -Ord. III.“ (15) Ordenamos, Que el terreno y cercanía que se ha de poblar se elija en todo lo posible el más fértil, (16) abundante de pastos, leña, madera, materiales,

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aguas dulces, gente natural, acarreos, entrada y salida, (17) y que no tengan cerca lagunas ni pantanos en que se críen animales venenosos, ni haya corrupción de aires ni aguas.”

3rd Law. -Characteristics of the land: 15-The land and surroundings to be populated must be elected in a fertile place 16-A place plenty of grass, wood, building materials, drinking water, Indians (to be used for the labors) 17-Not near marshes while poison animals live or has bad air or bad waters

LEY IV. QUE NO SE PUEBLEN PUERTOS, QUE NO SEAN BUENOS NI NECESARIOS PARA EL COMERCIO Y DEFENSA. -Ord. 45.“ (18) No se elijan sitios para pueblos abiertos en lugares marítimos, por el peligro que en ellos haya Corsarios, y no ser tan sanos, y porque no se dá la gente a labrar y cultivar la tierra, ni se forma en ellos tan bien las costumbres, (19) si no fuere donde hay algunos buenos y principales Puertos, y de estos solamente se pueblen los que fueren necesarios para la entrada, comercio y defensa de la tierra.”

4th Law -The Ports: 18-Do not choose places for a land in open-maritime places (due to are an easy target of pirates and the people don’t like those places for the agriculture) 19-Only the ports must be populated if they are important for the commerce, landing or defense LEY V. QUE SE PROCURE FUNDAR CERCA DE LOS RIOS, Y ALLI LOS OFICIOS, QUE CAUSAN INMUNDICIAS. -Ord. 121 y 123.-

“ (20) Porque sera de mucha conveniencia, que se funden los Pueblos cerca de Rios navegables para que tengan mejor trajin y comercio, como los marítimos. Ordenamos, que asi se funden, si el sitio lo permitiere, (21) y que los solares para Carnicerías, Pescaderías, Tenerías y otras Oficinas que causan inmundicias y mal olor se procuren poner hacia el Río o Mar, para que con más limpieza y sanidad se conserven las poblaciones.”

5ft Law -Towns near a river or water body: 20-It is convenient to found towns near navigable rivers for commerce, communication and

transportation 21-The places to keep meet, fish, animals and other smelly offices must be located near the river or sea LEY VI. QUE EL TERRITORIO NO SE TOME EN PUERTO DE MAR, NI EN PARTE, QUE PERJUDIQUE. -D. Felipe Segundo Ord. 92.“Territorio y término para nueva población (22) no se pueda conceder ni tomar por asiento en puertos de Mar, ni en parte que en algún tiempo pueda redundar en perjuicio de nuestra Corona Real, ni de la República, porque nuestra voluntad es que queden reservados para Nosotros.”

6th Law -Lands near a port:

22-Do not found a new town near the seaport due to it can be against the interest of the Kingdom.

LEY VII. QUE EL TERRITORIO SE DIVIDA ENTRE EL QUE HICIERE LA CAPITULACIÓN Y LOS POBLADORES, COMO SE ORDENA. -Ord. 90.“El Término y territorio que se diere a poblador por capitulación, se reparta en la forma siguiente. (23) Sáquense primero lo que fuere menester para los solares del pueblo y (24) ejido competente, y dehesa en que pueda pastar abundantemente el ganado, que han de tener los vecinos y más otro tanto para los propios del lugar: (25) el resto de el territorio y término se haga cuatro partes: (26) la una de ellas, que escogiere, sea para el que está obligado a hacer el Pueblo: y (27) las otras tres se repartan en suertes iguales para los pobladores.”

7th Law-Assignation of lands: 23-First assign the land for the town services 24-Second the ones for agriculture, grass for the animals of the newcomers, last the land for the Indians 25-Then divide the territory in 4 parts 26-The founder (or governor) of the city will choose what of these parts to own 27-The other 3 parts must be assigned to the settlers by lottery LEY VIII. QUE SE FABRIQUEN EL TEMPLO PRINCIPAL EN EL SITIO Y DISPOSICIÓN QUE SE ORDENA, Y OTRAS IGLESIAS Y MONASTERIOS. -Ord. 118, 119, 120, 122, 125 y 126.-

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“ (28) En Lugares Mediterráneos no se fabrique el Templo en la plaza, sino algo distante de ella, donde esté separado de otro cualquier edificio, que no pertenezca a su comodidad y ornamento, (29) y porque de todas partes sea visto, y mejor venerado, (30) esté algo levantado del suelo, de forma que se haya de entrar por gradas, (31) y entre la plaza mayor y Templo se edifiquen las Casas Reales, Cabildo, o Consejo, Aduana y Atarazanas, en tal distancia que autoricen al Templo y no le embaracen, y en caso de necesidad se puedan socorrer y (32) si la población fuere en costa, dispóngale de forma que en saliendo del Mar sea visto, (33) y su fábrica como defensa del Puerto, señalando solares cerca de él, y no a su continuación en que se fabriquen Casas Reales, y tiendas en la plaza para propios, imponiéndolo algún moderado tributo en las mercaderías: y así mismo sitios en otras plazas menores para Iglesias Parroquiales y Monasterios, donde sean convenientes.”

8th Law -Temples and other public buildings: 28-In inlands the temple should be a bit far from the main square but separated from another building 29-The temple should be seeing from any place of the city 30-Must be elevated from the ground, so, the entrance must be reached by stairs 31-Between the main square and the temple must being edified the Royal Houses, the City Hall, the Customs and the Marina, with an important distance between them and the temple 32-If the town is near the coast the temple must be seeing from the sea 33-The temple must work as well as defense of the Port

LEY IX. QUE EL SITIO, TAMAÑO, Y DISPOSICIÓN DE LA PLAZA SEA COMO SE ORDENA. -Ord. 112, 113, 114 y 115.“ (34) La Plaza mayor donde se ha de comenzar la población, (35) siendo en costa de Mar, se debe hacer al desembarcadero del el puerto, (36) y si fuere lugar Mediterráneo, en medio de la población: (37) su forma en cuadro prolongada, que por lo menos tenga de largo una vez y media de su ancho, porque será más a propósito para las fiestas de a caballo, y otras: (38) su grandeza proportionada al número de vecinos, y teniendo consideración a que las poblaciones pueden ir en aumento, (39) no sea menos que de doscientos pies en ancho y trescientos de largo, ni mayor de ochocientos pies de largo y quinientos treinta y dos de ancho, (40) y quedara de mediana, y buena proporción, si fuere de seiscientos pies de largo y cuatrocientos de ancho: (41) de la plaza salgan cuatro calles principales, una por medio de cada costado: y demás de estas, (42) dos por cada esquina: (43) las cuatro esquinas miren a los cuatro vientos principales, porque saliendo asi las calles de la plaza no estarán expuestas a los cuatro vientos, que sera de mucho inconveniente: toda en contorno (44) y las cuatro calles principales, que de ella han de salir (45), tengan portales para comodidad de los tratantes, que suelen concurrir: y (46) las ocho calles, que saldrán por las cuatro esquinas salgan libres, sin encontrarse en los portales, de forma que hagan la acera derecha con la plaza y la calle.”

9th Law -The main square (The plaza): 34-The town must starts from the main square 35-If near the sea must be besides the port 36-If the city is inlands in the middle of the town

Fig. 185, 186 & 187 (35) plaza of a city near the sea (34) inland plaza location (38) proportional size with the population (43) corners of the main square oriented to the “cuatro vientos” (NE-SE-SW-NW) to protect the streets from the wind

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37-It shape must be a “prolonged� square with the proportions 1 to 1.5 - (a: b) P 1.5 38-The size must depends on the population considering the growth of it 39-The minimum size should be 200 by 300 feet and maximum 800 by 532 feet - (a G b) P(200 G 300) R O ( 532 G 800) 40-The best proportion will be if it is 600 by 400 feet - (a G b) L (400 G 600) Where: a=large

Fig. 188. Central rectangular public space dictated on the Ordinances Figs. 189 & 190. View of the elements around the Urban Plaza (left) scheme and measurements of the Central Plaza.

Fig. 145. Measurements of the Plaza

b=wide Equivalencies: 200 pies = 55.7 meters 300 pies = 83.5 meters 400 pies = 111.3 meters 532 pies = 148.1 meters 600 pies = 167 meters 800 pies = 222.7 meters 41-From the middle of each side of the main square must starts a perpendicular street 42-From each corner of the main square must start two more streets 43-The corners of the main square must be oriented to the four winds (NE-SE-SW-NW) 44-A colonnade must surround the main square 45-The four streets that starts from each side of the main square must have also colonnades 46-The eight streets from the corners must not to be Fig. 191. View of the colonnade around the Main Plaza

touched by the colonnades and the right sidewalk must continues the edge of the main square

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Fig. 192. Parameters for the design of streets and colonnades

LEY X. FORMA DE LAS CALLES. -D. Felipe Segundo Ord. 116 y 117.“ (47) En lugares fríos sean las calles anchas, y (48) en los calientes angostas, y (49) donde hubiere caballos convendrá que para defenderse en las ocasione s, sean anchas, y se dilaten en la forma susodicha, procuranto que no lleguen a dar en algún inconveniente, que sea cause de afear lo reedificado, y prejudique a su defensa y comodidad.”

10th Law -Street shape: 47-In cold places the streets must be wide 48-In hot places the streets must be narrow 49-Where horses the streets must be wide enough LEY XI. QUE LOS SOLARESFig. SE194 REPARTAN POR Wideness of streets SUERTE. -Ord. 127“ (50) Repártanse los solares por suertes a los pobladores, continuando desde los que corresponden a la plaza mayor, (51) y los demás queden para Nosotros hacer merced de ellos a los que de nuevo fuere a poblar o lo que fuere nuestra voluntad. Y ordenamos que siempre se lleve hecha la planta del Lugar que se ha de fundar.”

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11th Law -The assignation of plots: 50-The plots must be assigned by lottery starting from the main square 51-The rest must be owned by the Crown and can be used as the Crown wants

LEY XII. QUE NO SE EDIFIQUEN CASAS TRESCIENTOS PASOS ALREDEDOR DE LAS MURALLAS. -D. Felipe Tercero en Madrid a 6 de Marzo de 1608. D. Carlos Segundo y la R. G.“Ordenamos, que (52) cerca de las murallas o estacadas de las nuevas poblaciones, en distancia de trescientos pasos no se edifiquen casas, que asi conviene a nuestro servicio, seguridad y defensa de las poblaciones, como está proveído en Castillos y Fortalezas.”

12th Law -Belt around the town: 52-Around the city walls or fences of the new towns must be a 300 steps ring without buildings for the defense of the city as is given for castles and fortress.

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LEY XIII. QUE SE SEÑALE EJIDO COMPETENTE PARA EL PUEBLO. -D. Felipe Segundo Ord. 129 de Poblaciones.“ (53) Los ejidos sean en tan competente distancia que si creciere la población, siempre quede (54) bastante espacio para que la gente se pueda recrear, y salir los ganados sin hacer daño.”

13th Law -Agriculture lands: 53-The lands for agriculture must be located in a reasonable and enough distance calculated if the city grows can be used to expand its territories.

54-Must be enough space for the enjoyment of people and for the cattle of cows.

LEY XIV. QUE SE SEÑALEN DEHESAS Y TIERRAS PARA PROPIOS. -El Emperador D. Carlos año 1523. D. Felipe Segundo

Ord. 130 de Poblaciones.“Habiéndo señalado competente cantidad de tierra para ejido de la población y su crecimiento, en conformidad de lo proveído, señalen los que tuvieren facultad para hacer el descubrimiento y nueva población, dehesas, que confinen con los ejidos en que pastar bueyes de labor, caballos y ganados de la carnicería, y para el número ordinario de los otros ganados, que los pobladores por ordenanza han de tener, y alguna buena cantidad más que sea propios del Consejo y lo restare en tierras de labor, de que hagan suertes, y sean tantas como solares que puede haber en la población, y si hubiere tierras de regadío, asimismo se hagan suertes, y repartan en la misma proporción a los primeros pobladores, y las demás queden baldías, para que Nosotros hgamos merced a los que de nuevo fueren a poblar: y de estas Tierras

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maderas y ramadas, donde se puedan recoger y todos con la mayor diligencia y presteza hagan palizadas y trincheras en cerco de la plaza, porque no reciban daño de los Indios.”

16th Law -Start the fences and buildings after the planning: 57-After the planning and assignation of the plots arm your own camper 58-Make your ranch and fences with wood as fast as you can

hagan los Virreyes separar las que parecieren convenientes para propios de los Pueblos, que no los tuvieren, de que se ayude a la paga de salarios de los Corregidores, dejando ejidos, dehesas y pastos bastantes como está proveído y así lo ejecuten.”

14th Law –Assignation of lands: -About open lands and assignation of them.

LEY XV. QUE HABIENDO SEMBRADO, LOS POBLADORES COMIENCEN A EDIFICAR. -D. Felipe Segundo Ord. 132.“Luego que sea hecha la cementera, y (55) acomodado el ganado en tanta cantidad y buena prevención que con la gracia de Dios Nuestro Señor puedan esperar abundancia de baitimentos, comiencen con mucho cuidado y diligencia a fundar y (56) edificar sus casas de buenos cimientos y paredes, y vayan apercevidos de tapiales, tablas y todas las otras herramientas, e instrumentos que convienen para edificar con brevedad y a poca costa.”

15th Law -Start the buildings after have enough food: 55-After put the cattle and to have enough food for time start to build 56-The houses must have good foundations and walls LEY XVI. QUE HECHA LA PLANTA, CADA UNO ARME TOLDO EN SU SOLAR, Y SE HAGAN PALIZADAS EN LA PLAZA. -Ord. 128.“ (57) Hecha la planta y repartimiénto de solares, cada uno de los pobladores procure armar su toldo y los Capitanes les persuadan a que los lleven con las demás prevenciones: o (58) hagan ranchos con

LEY XVII. QUE LAS CASAS SE DISPONGAN CONFORME A ESTA LEY. -Ord. 133 y 134.“Los pobladores dispongan que (59) los solares, edificios y casas sean de una forma, por el ornato de la población y (60) que puedan gozar de los vientos del Norte y Mediodía, (61) uniéndolos para que sirvan de defensa y fuerza contra los que la quisieren estorbar o infestar, y (62) procuren que en todas las casas puedan tener sus caballos y bestias de servicio, con patios y corrales, y la mayor anchura, que fuere posible con que gozarán de salud y limpieza.”

17th Law -The housing style must be regulated: 59-The plots, buildings and houses must be similar and in a single style to make the city more beauty 60-Must have the winds from the North and South 61 & 62-Must be built side-by-side in order to be used as self-defense 63-Procure that all the houses have horses and animals with wide courtyards and corrals.

Figs. 196 & 197 Details of the situation of buildings, open spaces and interior patios giving a result of a great uniformity for the city.

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Fig. 198. Visual-image created from the Verbal-image of the Leyes de Indias

LEY XVIII. QUE DECLARA QUÉ PERSONAS IRÁN POR POBLADORES DE NUEVA COLONIA Y COMO SE HAN DE DESCRIBIR. -Ord. 45.“Ordenamos, que cuando se sacare Colonia de alguna Ciudad, tenga obligación la Justicia y Regimiento de hacer describir ante el Escribano del Consejo (63) las personas, que quisieren ir a hacer nueva población, admitiéndo a todos los casados, hijos y descendientes de pobladores de donde hubiere

de salir, que no tengan solares ni tierras de pasto y labor, y excluyendo a los que las tuvieren, (64) porque no se despueble lo que ya está poblado.”

18th Law -The population of new colonies: 63-The people that would like to found a new colony must be new couples, sons or descendants of the inhabitants and prove that don’t posses any land or grass 64-Do not depopulate (reduce the population of) a city already populated.

Fig. 199. Photomontage of the plot division and colonnade of the urban plaza

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4.2 From the “three dimensions” towards the “four dimensions” (3D – 4D).

To start the process we are obligated to catalogue the cities. As the Hispano-American cities, in their beginnings even they used to follow the Ordinances and other previous rules, the physical result of them can be appreciated in different ways. The elements of the city and their location are one important issue.

Other is the constant in the urban pattern. Another is the streets and blocks. Regarding to the later and managing the “plan” views by the graphic materials from INEGI, UNAM, NASA and GOOGLE, we will visually appreciate the situation of the city and catalogue them. With this catalogue we can see easily the situation or each urban environment by their morphological conditions and digitise the images in order to study those cities.

The process for our comparisons will be pursued in 4 main steps by the use of the old blueprints and the nowadays city satellite views: 1-Placing of two images in the same workspace 2-Escalation/Warping/Distortion-free processing until get the main lines super-imposed 3-Composition of 2 images or re-integration process -the first to show both time stages (similarities and differences) -the later to specify details about the urban pattern to be commented 4-General comment regarding to the urban comparison by views

4.2.1.1 Grid Cities without accurate visual or graphic information From our list of cities founded by the Spanish Crown under their colonization times, due to we don’t have their accurate graphic information but only their names and location into the nowadays Mexican States, the “no classified” cities can be consulted for reference in the Appendix-ix under the field without tag ( ) in the column “F”.

4.2.1.2 Grid Cities with imperfect mesh Having Santiago de Cuba as a Latinamerican main example of this pattern, the “regular cities with imperfect mesh”, in most of the cases, belongs to very old foundations, mainly those from the beginning of the XVI Century. In some of them, the city started following one straight street and the constructions were made along this line. Later, the cities were traced based from the central square and from it there are linear streets, but conforming they continue they changed due to the terrain conditions or just because they adapt to old city structures. In other cases, even they were new planned cities, the techniques of urban engineering was not made by “cord and ruler” and just followed a “visual” guidelines in-site. This urban imperfect mesh has not strictly 90 degrees angles between blocks. The raw data of the “Linear cities or cities with imperfect mesh” can be consulted in the Appendix-ix under the tag ( L ) in the column “F”.

Acaponeta (today Acaponeta, Nayarit) Ahuacatlan (today Ahuacatlan, Nayarit)

4.2.1 City data visual cataloging and settings to managing the image data To classify the data of the cities and visually show the urban tissues we will use the definition of cities (mentioned and exemplified with Latinamerican grid cities in the sub-chapter 3.3.1) “the classical model of the Hispano-American settlements” what’s mention about the Regular Cities founded under Felipe II Ordinances (or antecessors). With the aim to have a complete list of Novo-Hispanic cities that deals with the gridiron pattern, we will classify in next chapters under these tags: 1( ) No classified 2(L) Linear or with imperfect mesh 3(R) Regular or more/less meshed 4(Q) Squared or with perfect mesh 5(S) Special grids for Fortifications

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Amatan (today Amatlan de Canas, Nayarit) Ameca Meca (today Amecameca, Estado de Mexico) Atotonilco (today Atotonilco el Alto, Jalisco) Burgos (today Nuestra Senora de Loreto, Tamaulipas) Cacalostoc (today Real de Arriba, Estado de Mexico) Camargo (today Ciudad Camargo, Chihuahua) Chihuahua (nowadays capital city of Chihuahua State) Coatepeque (today Coatepec or Natividad de Nuestra Senora, Veracruz) Gueguetoca (today Huehuetoca, Estado de Mexico) Huaxutla (today Huejutla, Hidalgo) Ixtapa (today Ixtapa, Chiapas) Ixtlan (today Ixtlan del Rio, Nayarit) Maldinga (today Mandinga y Cardon, Veracruz) Ocotan (today Ocotan, Jalisco) Ostotipaquillo (today Hostotipaquillo, Jalisco) Revilla (today Guerrero Viejo, Tamaulipas)

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Saltillo (nowadays capital city of Coahuila State)

Altamira (today Villa de Altamira, Tamaulipas)

San Antonio de Padilla (today Padilla, Tamaulipas)

Bacalar (today Bahia de Bacalar, Quintana Roo)

San Phelipe de Cuquio (today San Felipe de Cuquio, Jalisco)

Cabo Catoche (today Holbox, Quintana Roo)

Tala (nowadays Tula, capital of Hidalgo State)

Campeche (nowadays San Francisco de Campeche, capital city

Tlacontepec (today Tlacontepec, Veracruz)

of Campeche State)

Tlaxcala-Cuzcatlan (San Juan Evangelista de Cuzcatlan is

Candelaria (today Candelaria, Campeche)

nowadays Tlaxcala, capital city of Tlaxcala State)

Candelaria de Azanza (today Candelaria de Azanza, Nuevo

Tonala (today Tonala, Tabasco)

Leon)

Tzapopan (today Zapopan, Jalisco)

Chetumal (nowadays capital city of Quintana Roo State)

Villahermosa (nowadays capital city of Tabasco State)

Chiapa (today Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas)

Yrapotao (nowadays Irapuato, Guanajuato)

Chicoloapa (today Chicoloapa, Estado de Mexico) Culiacan (nowadays capital city of Sinaloa State) Durango (nowadays capital city of Durango State) Escandon (Xicotencatl, Tamaulipas) Matamoros (nowadays capital city of Tamaulipas State) Nueva Veracruz (nowadays Veracruz, capital city of Veracruz State) Ocotlan (today Ocotlan, Jalisco) Penxamo (today Penjamo, Guanajuato) Queretaro (nowadays Santiago de Queretaro, capital city of Queretaro State) San Blas (today Puerto de San Blas, Nayarit) Sentipac (today Sentispac, Jalisco) Tenancingo (today Tenancingo de Degollado, Estado de Mexico)

Fig. 200 City of Irapuato, Guanajuato. Example of an Imperfect

Tepic (nowadays capital city of Nayarit State)

urban mesh. With some rectilinear streets.

Tequila (today Tequila, Jalisco)

4.2.1.3 Grid Cities with regular mesh This pattern is the most widely applied to the Latinamerican cities. In the American continent the main examples are Panama and Guatemala. With straight streets and regular blocks. Even though the blocks have not the same size in X, and Y, their angles are 90 degrees, creating a constant mesh image. The cities with these characteristics were founded in the Mexican Territory from the second middle of the XVI Century. Nowadays, many of them just respect the urban trace of the “primer Cuadro” (Central Area) and their growing is not as regular as they should be.

Some of them, in the beginning were inside the city walls that disappear letting the city to expand its borders. Rhythm and Scale are the values of this pattern and many of these cities were planned and realized following the design. Some of them were inside the city walls and the list of “cities with regular mesh” can be consulted in the Appendix-ix under the field with the tag ( R ) in the column “F”.

Acatic (today Puerto de Acatic, Jalisco)

Teutenango (today Tenango del Valle, Estado de Mexico) Tlacotalpan (today Tlacotalpan, Veracruz) Tlalmanalco (today Tlalmanalco, Estado de Mexico) Toluca (nowadays capital city of Estado de Mexico State) Tonala (today Tonala, Chiapas) Tuxpan (today Tuxpan, Jalisco)

Fig. 201 Puerto de San Blas, Nayarit. Example of a regular urban mesh. Linear streets but not always orthogonal or straight.

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4.2.1.4 Grid Cities with perfect mesh The South American cities of Caracas and Leon de Huanuco are the urban areas that have a perfect squared mesh. We can find many other cases over the Latinamerican territory. In the case of Mexico, these cities are the newer among the cities founded by the Spaniards. Flat lands are where most of them are located due to its easy adaptation to the terrain. Due to the urban engineering techniques evolved, this cities are real pure shaped meshes and in some of the cases, even the orientation of the corners are different, we can find this pattern defining a whole city. This is the most beautiful pattern due to its simplicity, pureness, equality and classicism. In Mexico the cities under this pattern has not tall buildings, so, it is very good proportioned. Oaxaca (former Antequera) is one example of a city that almost all its buildings preserve the same height. Some cities have an “almost” perfect mesh and they are included in this category. What happen is that even they tried to follow this pattern, some natural conditions cut it, but even that, they continued with the urban tissue more than the city center perimeter. For comparison with the other categories, the list of “cities with perfect mesh” can be consulted in the Appendix-ix under the tag ( Q ) in the column “F”.

Santa Maria de Aguayo (today part of Ciudad Victoria, capital city of Tamaulipas State) Santa Maria de Yera (today Santa Maria de Llera, Tamaulipas) Soto La Marina (today Soto La Marina, Tamaulipas) Tampico (today Tampico, Tamaulipas) Tenochtitlan (nowadays Mexico City capital city of the Mexican United States) Valladolid de Mechoacan (nowadays Morelia, capital city of Michoacan State) Veracruz (today Puerto de Veracruz, part of Veracruz, capital city of Veracruz State) Villa de Reinosa (today Reynosa, Tamaulipas)

Antequera (nowadays Oaxaca, capital city of Oaxaca State)

Fig. 202 Town of Ciudad Cuauhtemoc, Chihuahua. Example of a

Buitron (nowadays part of Veracruz, capital city of Veracruz

perfect urban mesh. Regular squared blocks and 90 degrees streets.

State) Cacaluta (today Cacaluta, Jalisto) Capital del Nuevo Santander (nowadays Ciudad Victoria, capital city of Tamaulipas State) Ciudad Cuauhtemoc (today Ciudad Cuauhtemoc, Chihuahua) Guadalaxara (nowadays Guadalajara, capital city of Jalisco State) Orcasitas (today Bernal de Horcasitas, Tamaulipas) La Paz (nowadays Puerto de la Paz, capital city of Baja California Sur State) La Puebla (nowadays Puebla de los Angeles, capital city of Puebla State) Laredo (today Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas) Masambique (today Mozambique, Veracruz) Monterrey (nowadays capital city of Nuevo Leon State) San Fernando (today San Fernando, Tamaulipas) San Francisco de Guemes (today Guemes, Tamaulipas) San Luis Potosi (nowadays capital city of San Luis Potosi State) Santa Barbara (today Santa Barbara, Tamaulipas)

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4.2.1.5 Special grids for Fortifications During the colony times, some “Reductos”, “Presidios” or “Fortificaciones” were founded following the basic concepts of the Roman Castra.

Due to the ideas of the Renaissance, the outer shape was designed in geometrical forms. The inner courtyard is empty as the “city Plaza” and the surrounding rooms acts as the urban blocks, some of them as the regular mesh of the city. Even some cities growth inside fortifications, in Mexico we don’t preserve the city walls only in a very few case some parts of the structure. We also mention here Special Mexican cases as Teotihuacan, Uxmal and Mexcaltitan, which were pre-Hispanic grid cities with some special characteristics.

Teotihuacan. It is a very ancient city from the central lands of Mexico. Created along an avenue called “Calzada de los muertos”. Starting in the “Ciudadela” lead the “Piramide de la Luna” passing

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by the “Piramide del Sol”. This city was divided in small urban “barrios” some of them with perfect squared structures, blocks and streets; some of them regular blocks, but all of them in orthogonal order.

Uxmal was a big Mayan city following the grid urban orders. The structure called “Cuadrangulo de las Monjas” has a central patio (or Plaza) surrounded by a colonnaded corridor and followed by rooms. Due to its great proportions this structure can be compared to a city (like the urban Babylon or The Mecca).

The last case, Mexcaltitan is a city with an urban pattern very close to the Ordinances; even it is an ancient village. The Mexican chronicles say that the founders of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) came from this village. It has a central open square with four main straight streets by side even its overall shape is inner a circle. It has some axis streets that surpass the circle and enters to the sea. The architectonic elements are the same as the Ordinances: the plaza, the church, the colonnade, the municipal palace, etc.

The list of these special cases are mentioned in the Appendix-ix under the field with the tag ( S ) in the column “F”.

Ciudadela de Merida (inside the capital city of Yucatan State) Fuerte de San Diego (inside Acapulco, Guerrero) Fuerte de San Juan de Ulua (inside Veracruz, Veracruz) Fuerte de San Felipe (inside Bacalar, Quintana Roo) Mexcaltitan (in the island Mexcaltitan de Uribe, Nayarit) Reducto 602 (plans of a fortress without location) Teutihuacan (Teotihuacan, Estado de Mexico) Uxmal (Cuadrangulo de las monjas, Quintana Roo)

Fig. 203 Island of Mexcaltitan de Uribe, Nayarit. Example of a special urban mix mesh. The central plaza has a squared

4.2.2 Analysis of the visual comparatives of each selected urban patterns As the aim of this thesis is to make a visual re-integration matching both maps in order to compare them visually, basically in the following sub-chapters we will arrange them together and do some comment/analysis about the hypothetical grid city to the real city using our digitized images and photographs of the sites. The list will be displayed in alphabetical order covering 22 cities with 31 cases of map matching each as follows: 4.2.2.1 Ameca Meca vs. Amecameca 4.2.2.2 Antequera vs. Oaxaca 4.2.2.3 Bacalar a- Bacalar vs. Bahia de Bacalar b- Fuerte San Felipe vs. Fuerte de Bacalar 4.2.2.4 Burgos vs. Nuestra Senora de Loreto 4.2.2.5 Campeche vs. San Francisco de Campeche a- Campeche1 vs. San Francisco de Campeche b- Campeche2 vs. San Francisco de Campeche 4.2.2.6 Candelaria de Azanza vs. idem 4.2.2.7 Ciudad Victoria a- Capital del Nuevo Santander vs. Ciudad Victoria b- Santa Maria de Aguayo vs. Ciudad Victoria 4.2.2.8 Chicoloapa vs. Chicoloapan 4.2.2.9 Guadalaxara vs. Guadalajara 4.2.2.10 La Puebla vs. Puebla de los Angeles 4.2.2.11 Merida vs. idem 4.2.2.12 Orcasitas vs. Bernal de Horcasitas 4.2.2.13 Queretaro vs. Santiago de Queretaro 4.2.2.14 San Francisco de Guemes vs. Guemes 4.2.2.15 San Luis Potosi vs. idem 4.2.2.16 Soto La Marina vs. Soto La Marina 4.2.2.17 Tenochtitlan vs. Ciudad de Mexico a- Zocalo b- Downtown c- Colonia Centro d- San Pablo vs. Barrio de San Pablo 4.2.2.18 Teutenango vs. Tenango del Valle 4.2.2.19 Valladolid de Mechoacan vs. Morelia 4.2.2.20 Ciudad y Puerto de Veracruz a- Veracruz vs. Puerto de Veracruz b- Fuerte de San Juan de Ulua vs. idem c- Buitron vs. idem d- Nueva Veracruz vs. Veracruz 4.2.2.21 Villa de Altamira vs. Altamira 4.2.2.22 Villa de Reinosa vs. Reynosa

configuration while also has a circular circuit and radial design.

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4.2.2.1 Ameca Meca vs. Amecameca History: Amaquemecan was founded by the “chichimecas” in 1268 ruled by the tribe of the totolimpanecas. Its name mean comes from the Nahuatl language and means “the place on the papers”.

The Spaniards arrived in 1519 and started to settle there under the orders of Hernan Cortes. At that time Ameca Meca had 20,000 inhabitants. The main activity of this pueblo is the agriculture even nowadays. In 1525 the Spaniards fired the city and a new era started with the foundation of the convent of San Francisco, starting the European city. The city is situated 2420 mts over the sea level.

Map: There are few maps of this pueblo; we are using the one of 1709 that shows the main road from the Gulf of Mexico (passing thru the volcanoes) to Mexico City. This map shows the location not only of Ameca Meca but also some other villages around and big houses (or haciendas) as well of catholic convents.

One remarkable think is the representation of the green lands, the volcanoes and the main road that reach the city.

Aerial photograph: We can see that the city preserves the grid pattern all over. There are two main streets just by the side of the main plaza bounding from the North and joining in the south. Even the city has nowadays few less than 50,000 inhabitants the building footprint remains small.

Hyper-contrasted images: We can appreciate that in the old drawing, the houses are arranged around the church, which tower is the tallest structure in the city.

Nowadays the main plaza is not exactly in the center of the city it was in the beginning but due to a geographical situation the city grew to the East.

The urban blocks are rectangular shaped and the building density is very low. Almost all the structures are one floor with very high ceilings and are very few examples of two level structures. The life of the town is around the main plaza where the old convent plays the most important roll in the life of the settlers. Big open spaces are used as parking lots in the downtown due to the main economy of the city comes from the tourism as from this city groups of sport men stay to climb the snowy volcanoes.

Figs. 204-208 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1709, which means 298 years ago; and 182 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Ameca Meca changed its traditional buildings made of adobe to brick buildings.

The city face had changed. The main temple, convent, and some haciendas remain original.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: Y/N -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: Y/N -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: Y/N 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: NO 12- Colonnade around the plaza: Y/N -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): NO -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: NO -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: Y/N This city sums in total the complementation of: 9.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (9.5/16)=5.94 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: LINEAR.

Figs. 210-214 (in this page, up to down) Photograph of the downtown. The volcano can be seen in the background. (next page upper/lower) Photograph taken from the main plaza showing the church, and the volcano; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.1 Antequera vs. Oaxaca History: Oaxaca is situated in a fertile valley at 1550 meters over sea level. Zapata and Mite cultures were located since thousand years ago as we can see in the great pyramids of Monte Alban, just near-by the city.

This village started as the own land for the conquer Hernan Cortes who ask to the Queen of Spain for a grant of land converting it to his marquisate. Then, the colonial city started at 1532. The town started from a squared Zocalo and around it the church and the royal houses.

Map: We are using a map from 1688 that shows the main buildings around the Central Square. Even it is very simple, shows in detail the houses of the ĂŠpoque.

The map seems to be oriented to the four cardinal points but in the reality it has a little inclination. The building style showed by the drawer is very similar to the European villages with tiles and bricks, but the constructions are made of stone and flat roofs.

Especially the cathedrals, churches and convents are the landmarks due to his height.

Aerial photograph: From above, we can see the footprint of the city very dense, but we can say that almost all the constructions have open squares or patios in the center of its structures and the high is not over two floors. The buildings made of rock preserve its original facades and wood doors. As we can appreciate in the satellite view, there are two plazas.

The squared one is the main one and in front of the cathedral there is a rectangular one, just half of the size compared to the main where old trees remains on both plazas. That means half-module of the city block.

The city block is a perfect squared grid in great area of the city.

Hyper-contrasted images: There is a close relationship between both stages of time. The old one shows us a perfect squared plaza with open streets and a defined grid structure due to the proportions and 90 degrees corners. The satellite view refers to us the gridiron that rules the city center. The wide of the streets is equal and cannot be distinguished a main road or wider avenue giving the same importance to all the streets.

Figs. 215-219 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1688, which means 319 years ago; and 156 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Oaxaca is one of the cities that remains in a “surrealist� past Grand part of it its preserved for four centuries. Its streets stone-paved, colonial constructions and the same high of buildings are some characteristics we can see all around.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: NO th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES

tag of: SQUARED.

This city sums in total the complementation of: 13 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (13/16)=8.12 Figs. 221-226 (in this page, up to down) Valley of Oaxaca;

In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

Cathedral; typical view of the streets; Courtyard inside the Templo de Santo Domingo (next page upper/lower) Main street of the city with the main plaza on one side; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.3 Bacalar a-Bacalar vs. Bahia de Bacalar History: Bacalar was its beginning in the pre-Columbian times. Its name comes from the Mayan “Bakhalal” that means “surrounded by reeds”. The Mayan civilization used to control it at that époque.

This was the first city in the region of the actual Quintana Roo State taken by the Spanish conquerors in 1543. In 1545 Melchor Pacheco established the Spanish town here with the name of Salamanca de Bacalar and had the head of the south area of the Yucatan Peninsula under the orders of the Captain General in Yucatan in the city of Merida.

Map: This is a very clear map showing the place of the main blocks in red color and the seashore line. Its orientation is basically East-West having a lagoon in the East side. It has a plaza open to the sea. The fortress that was finished in 1729 to protect the city against the English pirates is represented in this plan facing to the lagoon. The church has a lateral and a frontal plaza. In the South there are some squared blocks and the others just follow rectangular shapes

and straight streets.

Aerial photograph: Compared to the old map, the urban tissue is more regular having rectangular and almost squared blocks. The vegetation covers a great area of the city and it is also immersed in the blocks.

The population is less than 10,000 inhabitants and the city covers a wide area, which indicates that the density ratio is very low and the building footprint almost disappears between the vegetation. The constructions are almost one-floor structures. There are not old constructions and the only well preserved structure is the Fortress and some ruins. Comparing the map and the photo there is a variation of some structures as the fortress and the blocks in front of the seashore that means that the urban planning suffered some changes. The open spaces also vary but the street pattern is very clear in both maps.

Hyper-contrasted images: As we mentioned the straight lines of the city pattern match both, the old map and the actual situation of the city. The seashore in someway varies. From the lagoon the urban blocks are less regular as the ones that goes inland, where takes a more squared shape.

Figs. 227-231 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1746, which means 261 years ago; and 201 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: The city has been growing very slowly, from 5,000 people in 1848 to almost twice nowadays, The urban pattern plenty of greenery was traced and is still continue be filled with housing but in a very slowly ratio.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: Y/N 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: NO 12- Colonnade around the plaza: NO -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): Y/N -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: Y/N This city sums in total the complementation of: 11.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (11.5/16)=7.19 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

tag of: RECTANGULAR.

Figs. 233-238 (in this page, up to down) Bacalar from the top; Satellite view; Greenery in Bacalar; View to the lagoon (next page upper/lower) Typical street of the city with wide streets; superimposing of past and present layers.

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b-Fuerte San Felipe vs. Fuerte de Bacalar The Fuerte San Felipe is one of the few old structures remaining in this site in the lagoon of Bacalar. It was finished in 1729 and compared with other structure with the same name designed in 1758. Even the overall structure is the same, the second has a central patio surrounded by structures in symmetrical order and probably was inspiriting based on the first one.

Figs. 239-243. (upper) Photograph of the Fuerte San Felipe in Bacalar (up) Plan for the Fuerte San Felipe in Tris Island. (right side up to down) overlaying of both fortress that followed basically the same design; hyper contrasted and photograph of the fort.

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4.2.2.4 Burgos vs. Nuestra Senora de Loreto History: Under the name of Villa de Nuestra Senora de Loreto de Burgos the city nowadays simple know as “Burgos� was founded on February the 20th of 1749 by the Captain Jose Antonio Leal de Leon y Guerra, following the orders of his colonel Don Jose de Escandon y Helguera. It was founded with the purpose of teach the religious matters to the Indians in the region and is that because the Church of Nuestra Senora de Loreto has the most important urban plot inside the central area of the city. But the main reason was to protect the population from two very different actions. First the French Empire mention that they could colonize the north lands of the Nueva Espana, and also to protect the Spaniards settled in that area from the attacking of the local people. Nowadays this city has not faced any big changes on its urban physiognomy and the population remains very small having nowadays about 1,000 inhabitants.

Map: We are using a map drew in 1751, part of a series of similar maps of villages in the Northern lands due to they were founded following the same situation before mentioned. These maps shows an square formed by a central section as a cross of five units,

while in the corners, this unit turns into another square divided in four parts as in a cross and inside each part five parcels. The orientation of them was simple. The ones around the urban plaza faces to the plaza, the ones that contact the lateral streets of the plaza are facing these streets, and the others are North-South oriented.

Aerial photograph: In the aerial photograph we can see a main street that connects Burgos with the highway that leads Matamoros and Ciudad Victoria (the capital of the State) and can be seeing from air.

The other streets are quite similar in terms of wideness and straightness.

Hyper-contrasted images: In the case of these plans, they were made using drawing instruments (the very old plans were more paint-alike drawings). They have measurements and the north indicated in the center.

The scheme is very simple using the convenient parcel with little contact to the street to allocate more houses and a large space in the back. The urban area photography shows us that, even the expansion of the city is almost nothing there is a restriction due to the close hill in the South side, and a river in the opposite side. Agriculture lands surround all and there is a perpendicular road that leads to another route.

Figs. 244-248 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1751, which means 256 years ago; and just 2 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Burgos is a town where the time still remains as in the colonial times. Even there are some new buildings the downtown; it preserves the municipal palace and the church as witnesses of the slowly growing rate of the village.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: Y/N 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: NO -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: Y/N 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: Y/N 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: NO -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): NO -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: Y/N th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: Y/N

tag of: LINEAR.

This city sums in total the complementation of: 9 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (9/16)=5.62 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

Figs. 250-255 (in this page, up to down) The Primary school on the town; Church of our Lady of Loreto; Kiosko in the middle of the main plaza; Municipal palace. (next page upper/lower) Photo of the central plaza; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.1 Campeche vs San Francisco de Campeche History: The city was initiated on October the 4th of 1540 by Francisco de Montejo el Mozo that called the city as its Mayan name “Campech” but after the Spaniards came they add “Lazaro” as it was discover on Sunday “devoted to Saint Lazaro, and “of Salamanca” due to the name of the motherland of the conqueror Montejo. The city also has the given name of the conqueror “Francisco” as that was a tradition in his family. The city was an important point of commerce between the cities of Sevilla and Cadiz.

Also, as a port-city, it suffered the attack of the English pirates and the city needed to be fortified by a wall that (some of its parts) still remains in very good conditions.

Map: The map we selected to be used is one dated in 1779. This map shows the city-wall and the main plaza besides the sea. There are three different types of blocks: the squared ones in the first two rows near the horizontal part of the wall, a rectangular shaped ones in the center and parallelograms to fit the wall figure specially in the short side. The plots are red colour and half of them are plenty of vegetation.

Aerial photograph: The particularity of this city is that the wall, even nowadays only some parts are preserved, are represented by a big avenue all around the area of the walled city. The expansion of it in some barrios follows the squared pattern, but linked by irregular shapes. We can visualize a manmade land in front of the wall that faces to the sea that changed the original situation of contact to the sea. The central plaza remains in the same area as projected and the vegetation is not exuberant as we assume it was when the city was initiated.

Hyper-contrasted images: From the old drawing we see perfectly defined the streets traced by cord and ruler. The corners are perfectly defined in 90 degrees and all are parallels. This pattern is preserved up to date giving to this city almost the same building designed area for structures. Even its building footprint can be understood at a high ratio for density, when we see the final result with one or two stories houses and interior courtyards obtaining a low density ratio. As it is situated in a tropical land the vegetation use to grow spontaneously, but in the streets of the colonial emplacement the trees are not situated in the streets but in the interior of the blocks.

Figs. 256-260 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1779, which means 228 years ago; and 239 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: The evolution of Campeche as a capital city is reflected on its urban expansion but the colonial center inside the city walls remains intact.

The low-rise structures (one or two stories at most) contrast with the towers of the cathedral To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: NO 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): Y/N -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 13.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (13.5/16)=8.44 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

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tag of: SQUARED.

Figs. 262-269 (in this page, up to down) Main square with the colonnade in the right side; two stories colonnade; one floor houses in the city center; wall of the city in the left side and typical constructions at the right (next pages) Cathedral and main plaza; 2 overlaying of neon-glow effect; Photograph on a typical street in the downtown.

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4.2.2.6 Candelaria de Azanza vs. idem History: There is very few information of this settlement. It started with the name “Villa de Nuestra Senora de la Candelaria de Azanza” in 1798 and was located about 30 miles south of Laredo. It is very close the river that divides the border between the Mexico and U.S.A (nowadays) and was abandoned in 1800 after the Rio Salado flooded its banks. It was never re-settled. Many settlers perished in a flow, and the rest dispersed to another areas. Around that zone, there are some ruins of the city that works nowadays as a “rancherias” (cowboy houses).

Map: The map we found in the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, show us two main parts. In the left hand side the plan with distribution of blocks and explanation of each area in detail in the bottom. In the right hand side there is the architectonic plan of the design of church and it offices, the Casa Cural and the church’s façade. It was painted in October 27th of 1799. The design is very pure having a central plaza with two streets on each corner and square blocks divided in two parts (generating two rectangles).

Aerial photograph: With the reference of the Rio Salado and the distance from the city of Laredo we found the ruins of this old town -actually there are the single ruins around that zone just nearby the Rio Salado. In any case, a road passes in its East side and seems that the city just started to be traced and used for a few number of settlers. Anyhow, there are some “rancherias” around and the ruins of the church and Curato.

Hyper-contrasted images: The image of the design shows us a village inside a square formed by a grid of 9X9 blocks. The central block is empty to be used as a public plaza. The plots divided in two parts faced to the central square in the four sides and in the corners follow the horizontal ones. The are for the church and priest occupied one entire block in front of the plaza in the most prominent space. Looking at the photograph black and white negative it is difficult to define the urban blocks but is clear that the main streets that surrounded the plaza are defined clearly.

Figs. 270-274 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1799, which means 208 years ago; and only 1 year after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Even we have not parameters to know about the physical situation of the elements of this city we are based on the plans to make the checklist of the urban features designed for this new village.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: Y/N 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: Y/N -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: Y/N

7- Size: Y/N 8- Streets from its corners: Y/N 9- Proportions: Y/N 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: NO -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: Y/N 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): Y/N -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: Y/N -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: NO This city sums in total the complementation of: 8 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (8/16)=5 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: SQUARED. Fig. 276-superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.7 Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas a-Capital del Nuevo Santander vs. Ciudad Victoria Nowadays, the capital city of Tamaulipas, Ciudad Victoria, is a conglomeration of villages where the one called “Capital del Nuevo Santander� is a reticular immerse in the main city together with Santa Maria de Aguayo (we will review in detail in the next page). Its original plan has a grid of 4X3 blocks where the center is empty to be the main square, half of the north block just right the plaza is designated to the Coronel that founded the village. The East block in front of the plaza is devoted o the church and convent.

Figs. 277-282 (previous page) photo-composition (up) The cathedral of Santa Maria de Aguayo dedicated to the Purisima Concepcion (Holy Mary). Its single tower and clock are classical elements of the catholic architecture of that ĂŠpoque. (right side from up to down) Photogrametrics of Ciudad Victoria. We can appreciate its almost pure squared well-oriented urban pattern; Plans (positive-original and negative-only-lines) of the Capital del Nuevo Santander. This village is inside the urban grid of Ciudad Victoria. Its perfect square block pattern is repeated all over the city; the last photograph is of the Plazoleta (plaza) of the city. Modern buildings surround it and the modern tall buildings define the cityscape. Even though in the right-bottom of the photograph there is the cathedral. Many of the colonial structures of this city were replaced by new architectures.

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b- Santa Maria de Aguayo vs. Ciudad Victoria History: Ciudad Victoria was founded as the “Villa de Santa Maria de Aguayo” by Jose de Escandon on October the 6th of 1750. Its altitude is 320 meters above the sea level with a population of about 300,000 inhabitants nowadays and even it is the capital of Tamaulipas State, it has the fifth place regarding to population. Its foundation is done about 250 years after the first Spanish-cities, then, its buildings are significantly different than the ones that we can found in old cities. We can found few structures of that époque made of adobe still standing.

Map: Along a collection of maps dated in 1751 for several villages in Tamaulipas, this is particularity different due to doesn’t follows purely the squared pattern but has “half square” of the block in each side of the main plaza and in the other four quadrants the urban block is a perfect square. In the plan is indicated the area for the Church and convent and also the measurements of the plaza. All the plots have the same measurements except one facing to the plaza that has two units and the one of the church that has five units.

Aerial photograph: In the satellite image we could define perfectly one of this rectangular blocks facing the plaza, but in the perpendicular side the block is defined by a double of units of the original design but there is a slim line that can be appreciated that probably in the past was the real plot division and later it was modified to allocate public buildings as the State Government offices or other representatives of the City and State.

Hyper-contrasted images: With this process is very easy to understand the structure of the urban blocks and streets. Even the pattern is simple: a square; its plot division is interesting. Basically we have four main types of plots a narrow one widely used, the two-unit plot (probably for the city mayor), a big one for the church (equal a 10 units) and the central plaza (equivalent of 5 units). Five “plot units” forms a square (size of the plaza), and four “squares” forms the urban block that comprises 20 units. The hyper contrasted image of the satellite view show us in white color the streets and avenues and considering the plot division can be appreciated that the actual buildings are more/less allocated inside this pattern.

Figs. 283-286 (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative.

This map was drawn in 1751, which means 256 years ago; and only 1 year after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Ciudad Victoria is a city that has changed its face during the time. Few historical buildings are preserved giving space to the urban developers of towers densifying the city. These architectonical changes of the city are framed inside its pure squared urban tissue.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: Y/N 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: YES 12- Colonnade around the plaza: Y/N -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: Y/N -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES

this city is catalogued under the tag of: SQUARED.

Figs. 288-292 (in this page, up to down) three images of historical houses in Ciudad Victoria. The first one, the oldest inside these

This city sums in total the complementation of: 13.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (13.5/16)=8.44 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared)

three, has thick adobe walls and stucco painted in blue color and can be appreciated clearly that the next one was modified giving space to a new structure. Other historical buildings follows the pure “porfiriato� style of the XIX Century (next page upper) Photograph of the main square of the city plenty of vegetation.

This is one of the beautiful variants for the central plazas (next page bottom) superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.8 Chicoloapa vs. Chicoloapan History: The history of Chicoloapa (know nowadays as Chicoloapan) started 15,000 years ago. They were one of the first settlers in the Anahuac Valley (where Mexico City is located) and due they had problems with Tenochtitlan, when the Spaniards came they join them against the Aztecs. There is not a certain date of the foundation of the city by the Spaniards but it started about 1528 when the temple of San Vicente de Chicoloapan, that in the beginning was called “San Pedro”. It has nowadays a population of about 170,000 inhabitants Map: This map is dated on 1579 and has very clear the representation of the gridiron. The designed is divided basically in two types of urban blocks: the square shaped and the rectangles. Regarding to the squares there are small one in the corners but also the open plaza and others are divided by a pedestrian rode that makes some rectangles to convert into squares.

The church representation is very clear as well as the main plaza. Lakes are also very clear on the plan.

Aerial photograph: Nowadays the straight streets remain in the urban tissue. Three diagonal streets

marked on the original plan (represented with steps) were not located in the actual stage of the city. That can be understandable due to the grid pattern expand its periphery and exchange this diagonal streets for an ordered pattern. Regarding to the urban density, due to it is located in a seismic zone, the height of the houses are one or at most two stories, even the municipal palace is not very high. There are not old constructions (except the church) and most of them are made of concrete block or brick covered by stucco to remember the colonial times’ architectures.

Hyper-contrasted images: The image of the map is very clear in terms of streets that shaped the blocks.

The grid has central wider blocks and not so wide in both sides but that doesn’t fit perfectly in the urban pattern nowadays due to the small ones (as to be half of the big ones) are joined as we can appreciate in the satellite photograph. Then, looking at the second hyper-contrasted image we can see that there is a wider urban block than the represented in the old drawing. Nevertheless this rectangular shaped city remains up to date.

Figs. 293-2297 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1579, which means 428 years ago; and 51 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Incredibly Chicoloapa remains in the past, specially the environment around the church that is one of the oldest in the zone of Texcoco. Even the governmental building is not old tries to keep the traditional architecture of the past.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: Y/N 2- Soil with agriculture character: Y/N 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: Y/N -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: Y/N 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: Y/N -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): Y/N -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 12.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (12.5/16)=7.81 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

tag of: RECTANGULAR.

Figs. 299-303 (in this page, up to down) Main church in its typical Mexican Barroque style; “Fiesta del Santo Patrono� Catholic Festivities; Political meeting. (next page upper/lower) Festivity in Chicoloapa, all the people shares in the streets; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.1 Guadalaxara vs. Guadalajara History: Guadalajara as a city was emplacement several times during ten years to finally set on the actual territory in 1542. It started with its founder Cristobal de Onate and 63 more Spaniards. Nowadays its urban population is about the 80% if its metropolitan zone that is more than 6.7 million inhabitants. The name came from the Arab and means “River of rocks” and took the name of another city located in Spain due to its first founder; Nuno Beltran de Guzman named it in honour of his natal city.

Guadalajara city, in Mexico, is nowadays one of the most famous a beautiful cities in the world.

Map: We could find several maps about Guadalajara and almost all with the same details and urban trace.

We selected this map drew in 1753 due to the area it covers is wider than the others of 1745 and 1732, in order to have more inflexion points for our overlaying.

Aerial photograph: Guadalajara is a huge multi-centred city designed with three patterns: the

squared one in the city center, the irregular pattern in its joints and a “star” pattern that also connects its multi-city centres. We can observe many open spaces or urban plazas that gives more importance to the buildings but also area for recreation of the inhabitants.

The streets are wide and many of them are for pedestrian use only. The high of buildings in general is not tall but the footprint is very dense.

Hyper-contrasted images: The urban trace is very clear and rhythmical. The main pattern is the block with same length in both axis and there is not difference on the street wideness making an astonish unity in terms of the tissue. If we see the aerial hyper-contrasted image we can see that the only difference between the streets are the greenery in the ones that leads to the main plaza. A diagonal appear in the left hand side that is not reveal in the original trace but could be referred to the river that can be observed in the original map. The building footprint is very dense as we can see the blocks filled by the structures that has internal patios but not in all the cases.

Figs. 304-308 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1753, which means 254 years ago; and 211 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Even the center of Guadalajara is very big it remains in perfect conditions in terms of maintain the image as it had since the colonial times. The urban block, streets, plazas and even the constructions remains the same.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: Y/N 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: Y/N 11- Orientation: YES 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 15 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (15/16)=9.38

tag of: SQUARED.

Figs. 310-321 (in this page, up to down) Typical street of the downtown and lateral view of the cathedral (next page) two views

In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

on the Hospicio Cabanas; Colonnade in the central plaza; Degollado Teather; three views of the Cathedral of Guadalajara and its public square;

The plaza del Santuario from above (last

page) General view of the city; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.1 La Puebla vs. Puebla de los Angeles History: Puebla was founded on April the 16th of 1531 as a middle point between Mexico City and the port of Veracruz. It is one of the big Mexican cities that are not founded over an indigenous settlement even the land was named by them as Cuetlaxcoapan (where the snakes changes their skin) without constructions. As it is totally new settlement it was done by design.

Nowadays Puebla has about one million and a half inhabitants and is the fourth most important city in Mexico, after Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey. The urban landscape of the city deals with colonial buildings but also very new architectures.

Map: They are many maps of Puebla as well but the one we are using it was draw in 1794 and has clearly the urban pattern as it is nowadays. It is interesting that this map has all the blocks managed as a modular system of rectangular proportions with several open spaces in front of the main churches. A river is indicated as well as its bridges.

Aerial photograph: From above Puebla is a clear rectangular mesh. This mesh is defined by the trace of the river and a main street in the opposite side. Its reticular blocks define its structure and the density is very high. The cathedral located near the main square is bigger than the cathedral in Mexico City and its situation inside the plaza is the same as the cathedral in Santo Domingo with the Columbus plaza on one side and a small atrium in the front, but with bigger dimensions.

Hyper-contrasted images: The images show us very clear the situation of parallel-perpendicular streets all over its trace maintaining its wide proportions. The footprint of the buildings that remains nowadays also follows the density. In Puebla can be found small plazas but especially pedestrian streets that do the work as a plaza and where the people use to gather in terms to commerce or simply spend their time. The buildings maintain two floor stories in most of the cases all over the city, or one floor with high ceiling or double high ceilings.

Figs. 322-326 (previous page)

composition

(upper) Old

map

and

hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1794, which means 213 years ago; and 263

years

after

the

foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Puebla preserves its colonial architectures inside its urban pattern, where the streets remains intact and even more, the rectangular pattern it is expanded for the new neighbourhoods in the city.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 14.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (14.5/16)=9.06 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: RECTANGULAR-SQUARED.

Figs. 328-340 (in this page) two aspect s of the streets and the Cathedral (next page) Government Palace with its arcade and different views of the streets of Puebla showing its rectilinear path and its low-rise colonial constructions painted plenty in color in most of the cases (last page) Panoramic view taken in the middle of the XIX Century; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.11 Merida vs. Ciudadela de Merida History: The city of Merida was founded in January the 6th of 1542 by Francisco de Montejo de Leon and 100 Spanish families. It is 30 meters above sea level in a fertile valley. Due to its location in an old Mayan zone, it had to be protected against the rebellions of the Indias in the region and with this aim, the idea was to make a walled city but only part of it as the entrances remains. The urban trace of the city center is a grid that extends in almost the entire city, but certain areas are very irregular shaped in terms of urban morphology. In general the city maintains the height of buildings and proportions of the streets. Its “colonial” flavour can be seeing nowadays and the grid pattern reflected in the perspective of its streets.

The population nowadays is over 700,000 inhabitants.

Map: In the Archivo General de Indias we couldn’t find a map of the city and what we found in the Archivo General de la Nacion was this map of a plan for a wall covering some structures inside the city that only some as the Church of San Francisco remains.

This map is from 1751 of the location of a “citadel”

location no so far from the downtown area.

Aerial photograph: From above the satellite view show us the pure grid pattern of the city center. It is not as regular as in Puebla or Guadalajara but maintains the straightness of the streets, the orthogonal situation and the compact building footprint inside the urban blocks. The structure showed in the map was not developed, so, didn’t affect the situation of the overall grid.

Hyper-contrasted images: The hyper-contrasted image of the citadel (an irregular hexagon) was part of a complex of buildings that we can find inside the city.

The church, the open space and other structures are reflected in the urban trace. Regarding to the overall blocks of the city, they are compacted in the city centre, but not so while they approach the city skirts where the vegetation of open spaces match the structures. The city is plenty of colonial architecture and, in this Caribbean environment, the trees inside the interior patios of the houses or in-between the houses makes shadows to the insiders but it is difficult to see trees along the streets but in the public urban spaces.

Figs. 341-345 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1751, which means 256 years ago; and 209 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: The drawing chosen to be comparing in this city was the only old map that only matches a small part of the city where there was a demolished wall with certain buildings inside. Our key point to match it was the church of San Francisco that remains still and some lines in the urban tissue.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: Y/N -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 14 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (14/16)=8.75 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

tag of: RECTANGULAR-SQUARED.

Figs. 347-356 (in this page, up to down) Three aspects of the arcade surrounding the main square of the city where the last is the governmental palace (next page) Views of the city. The main plaza with the cathedral, streetscape; Aerial view of the Plaza de la Independencia; traffic jam in the center of the city; Central street with an arch (last page) Typical street with its never-ending proportions; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.12 Orcasitas vs. Bernal de Horcasitas History: The majority of the towns in Tamaulipas were founded and colonized by Don Jose de Escandon in between 1748 and 1755, then their historical origin is very similar and the dates of chronicles and social evolution departs from the same date. The lands around the “Cerro de Bernal de Orcasitas” are plenty of small villages that follows the same pattern given

by Don Jose de Escandon. Some of them started as “Haciendas coloniales” and others as settlements for pilgrims. In the case of the area of Bernal de Horcasitas we took one of the urban formations that match with the layout near the Rio Frio (“cold river”).

Map: On the plan of Orcasitas (or San Juan Bautista) is written the distances from Villa de Altamira and the city of Tampico. Also the relationship with the Villa de Escandon and Santa Barbara. But the most important element was the definition of the river that passes just in the south of the city. This map was drawn on July the 12th of 1750, and then we can assume that the city design was taken from it.

Aerial photograph: The village is located in a zone devoted to the agriculture. It is easy to reach the central square by eye and depart from that with the trace of the village. Since the village was planned it doesn’t grow fast as an urban settlement but good enough to maintain certain planning. Together those small villages in the area of the “Cerro de Bernal de Orcasitas” have about 12,000 inhabitants.

Hyper-contrasted images: From the plans we observe four types of urban blocks. The first one is the “empty” block for the central plaza, near it, the one for the church and convent. Near those, the block is divided in 4 plots and each of them in 4 lots, giving a block divided in 16 equal parts. And the last one is the block divided in 4 plots without internal sub-divisions.

The orientation is North-South/East-West. In the case of the hyper-contrasted image of the satellite view we can see that the density is mainly “painted” by the vegetation due to the constructions are very few.

Figs. 357-361 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1750, which means 257 years ago; and just 1 year after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Orcasitas has a series of small towns all around that uses the same urban pattern: straight streets with symmetrical plots and squared blocks. The cities in this area evolution very slowly due that most of the people move to the big cities instead to continue in the agricultural lands.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: NO -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES

7- Size: Y/N 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: Y/N 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: YES 12- Colonnade around the plaza: NO -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: Y/N 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: Y/N -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: NO This city sums in total the complementation of: 13 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (10/16)=6.25 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: SQUARED. Fig. 363 superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.13 Queretaro vs. Santiago de Queretaro History: Queretaro has nowadays 465 years since it was founded. On July the 25th of 1531 the Spanish conqueror Hernan Perez Bocanegra y Cordoba whom did an alliance with the Indian Conin, chiefe of Jilotepec that result on the foundation of a new city.

That day was devoted in Europe to “Santiago el Mayor” and therefore the city has its name. Nowadays its population is about 600,000 inhabitants and its city center is world heritage.

Map: This old map shows very clear the situation of the city in terms of the urban tissue but also the environment as hills, rivers and other geographical elements. The drawing was made in 1796 when the city had a mature configuration. It can be seeing that in the left part of it the blocks are very regular and in the opposite side they have an interesting combination of irregular and regular blocks and streets.

Aerial photograph: Queretaro is the capital city of Queretaro State, just 3 hours far from Mexico City

and on the way to Guadalajara. The city is very compacted and the city footprint it is reflected on the satellite view. Three wide streets cross from North to South, one in the left side and the other two, parallel to the main square of the city. In the horizontal direction there is one sinuous street following the path of the river showed in the map, and another in the South side, straight, that passes just besides a big urban park.

Hyper-contrasted images: In the old map image, it is easy to see the blocks with the representation of the facades facing each street with windows, doors, and elevations and in the case of the churches its sides as an architectonic plans. The name of the streets and the numbers as a reference for the blocks. The satellite view shows a denser situation. Buildings fill all the blocks and where it has an internal patio there’s a “white” mark where in the photo is green coloured space. Even the greenery is not exuberant there are many threes mixed in the blocks.

Figs. 364-368 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1796, which means 211 years ago; and 265 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: The urban tissue of the city remains as it was since hundred of years ago. Most of the old constructions can be visible until nowadays and there are not new constructions in the city centering what talks about the respect to the history and tradition of a city.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: Y/N 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: Y/N 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): Y/N -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 14 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (14/16)=8.75 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

tag of: RECTANGULAR.

Figs. 370-373 (in this page, up to down) Views of the streets in the downtown (next page upper/lower) View of a “callejon� in the downtown; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.14 San Francisco de Guemes vs. Guemes History: The Villa of San Francisco de Guemes was founded on January the 1st of 1749 by Don Jose de Escandon that with a group of soldiers left Queretaro in 1748 with the purpose of an expedition to found many villages in a new territory called “Provincia del Nuevo Santander” (today about Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon States). He introduced new reforms to administrate the cities and one of those was the development “in a military way” for cities. Following a very simple squared pattern, the equal distribution of the lots, the squared plaza as an amenity for the village and the church as a powerful element to control the faith of the Indians of the new territories to colonize.

Map: This map repeats the same style as all for the villages in the New Santander. Very clear lines, showing the natural geographical elements (specially the rivers), the orientation by indicating the north, specifications of distances to other villages and always showing the central plaza and its measurements

together with the land devoted to the church.

Aerial photograph: As a village surrounded by agricultural lands, we can observe very clear the urban trace and how it is filled by houses but specially by greenery, some domesticated. There are few diagonals to connect some roads reflecting a more structure trace in this side while in the opposite side the trace just ends. The density is very low in terms of building footprint and there are not visible specific urban structures that count inside this layout.

Hyper-contrasted images: Clearly the plan shows the division of the blocks in four plots and inside them 5 lots, that means 20 lots per block. As in other villages of the same type, there is a lot facing to the main plaza sharing the corner to the church that is wider (2 units) that could be reserved to the administrator of the land even it is not specified on the plans.

In the hyper-contrasted image of the satellite view we appreciate the trace of “damero” or chessboard but we don’t appreciate very easily where is the center of the village as the tissue is very similar. The greenery gives the main highlights.

Figs. 374-378 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1751, which means 256 years ago; and 2 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: San Francisco de Guemes is what we call a “rancheria” that are a settlement in the countryside and a very low-density ratio. This group of houses shares the same urban trace framed in a squared layout. Due to the main activity is the agriculture it has very low growing ratio as a city. It’s few urban facilities making the young generations going to the big cities for education or working opportunities. This phenomenon maintains this kind of villages without important urban changes.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES

5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: NO -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 10 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (10/16)=6.25 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: SQUARED. Fig. 380 Superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.1 San Luis Potosi vs. San Luis Potosi History: The guachichiles and tlaxcaltecas used to populate the lands of today’s San Luis Potosi when the Spanish were informed by the Indians that in the hill called “San Pedro del Potosi” in 1592 it can be find gold and silver. Due to this important notice the Spanish kingdom decided to subtract the minerals and create a settlement for the workers, but near this hill there were not water. The indigenous town of San Luis was plenty of water but the Spaniards had orders to do not mix or settle near indigenous settlements.

Then, they found a place that was called Tlaxcalilla.

The captain Miguel Caldera decided to deal with the Indians and exchange their places. Then, the Spanish people started to live in the territory of the actual city and for that purpose they formally founded on November the 3rd of the same year “San Luis Potosi”.

Juan de Onate was designated the mayor of the new city and did the trace and divided the land for housing, haciendas, main church and royal houses.

Map: The map of 1794 shows us an urban trace of about 20X11 blocks with different shapes. In the central area we find perfect squares that define the downtown. Not only streets and blocks but also urban parks and geographical features are represented on it.

Aerial photograph: The city center of San Luis Potosi is a gridiron that defines perfectly the function of each block. What I say is that, for a church or convent, the entire block is dedicated to allocate it. The municipal palace also uses an entire block. It has many open plazas (as in Guadalajara) and pedestrian streets wide enough to perform commerce or urban traditional activities. Morphologically the city center is surrounded by two rivers (now avenues) and its central park or “Alameda” that occupies a respectable area besides the colonial defined area.

Hyper-contrasted images: These images show us, the first, the very defined squared blocks for buildings and blocks for voids (or plazas). Even they are nowadays, compared with the satellite hyper contrasted image cannot be seeing easily due to the vegetation covers almost all the plazas. There are some blocks in the old drawing that not coincide perfectly with the urban tissue but some structures can be defined inside the new blocks. We consider that in some époque the city blocks pattern were adjusted to be more equilibrated and rhythmical. The city is low-rise but very compacted in terms of building footprint. The buildings also coincide with the construction material of buildings giving a harmony and equilibrium to the architectonic style of the colonial center.

Figs. 381-385 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1794, which means 213 years ago; and 202 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: The city center of San Luis Potosi is a travel to the past. The downtown not only preserves its original physiognomy but also the traditions in every activity developed there. Its low-rise stone buildings, streets and plazas are witnesses of 465 years of uninterrupted history.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: Y/N 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: NO -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 13 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (13/16)=8.12 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

tag of: SQUARED.

Figs. 387-395 (in this page, up to down) Street in the downtown; Central Plaza, typical corner

(next page clockwise) stone paved

street and Cathedral; Los portales (the colonnade); San Agustin Temple and San Francisco Church (last) Plaza Fundadores; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.16 Soto la Marina vx Soto La Marina History: The first settlement was near a small river called Villa de Soto La Marina Vieja (the Old Soto La Marina Village) starting with 255 inhabitants, many of them soldiers under the command of Don Jose de Escandon. The village was founded on September the 3rd of 1750 and was one of the 22 villages founded by Escandon.

Map: Similar of the other villages in Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon, Soto the plan of Soto La Marina has some particularities. First of all, even its blocks are regular in size (squared) the overall layer of the city is not a square. This is due that it is not just a village but also a port. The quarter that faces to this small river makes incomplete this square making a “flag-alike” layout. The blocks are also little bit more complicated in terms of measurements. If in the other plans they used 20 varas as a unit for the plot, in this one we have 20, 22, 25 and 28 varas for the façade side and 75, 100 and 60 as length for the plots. In this plan besides the plots for the settlers and the one for the church one small square of 60X60 varas is selected for the “house of the colonel” (we mere suggest that that

plot will be assigned to the founder of the city, Don Jose de Escandon, by himself).

Aerial photograph: Inside the area of Soto La Marina, there are few villages and many of them very small but having the same structure. As the cities grows and its urban layout grows together, we assume that the mesh expanded in the same fashion as in its original design and that can be corroborated in the satellite photographs.

Hyper-contrasted images: The measurements even with some differences tend to sum multiples of 100.

The block is 200X200 varas due to in one side it is divided in 8 units of 25 each and in the other side it has 5 modules of 25 and the length of the first that is 75 sums exactly 200. Anyhow, this pattern coincides in terms of scale but not exactly in terms of the reality.

When we did the exercise to super-impose the layers, the plots coincide in some way, but joining two blocks or the considering the street as a part of the measurement. We think that even the plan was done; finally the urban trace used a less sophisticated pattern in terms of measurements and fixes it to a certain unit of 200X100. In the satellite image we can see the perfect squared pattern surrounding the central plaza.

Figs. 396-400 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1751, which means 206 years ago; and 1 year after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Soto La Marina is more famous by its beautiful beach and the people that use to be there mainly are visitors. Anyhow the fishermen and the people that work on tourism live in this village plenty of natural environments.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES

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8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: NO -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: Y/N This city sums in total the complementation of: 13 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (13/16)=8.12 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: SQUARED. Fig. 402-superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.17 Tenochtitlan vs. Mexico City a-Colonia Centro History: Mexico City was founded over the city of Tenochtitlan. While Tenochtitlan was founded in 1325, Mexico was re-traced in 1521. by Alonso Garcia Bravo fixing in someway the Mallorquin model (from Jaime II de Mayorca), the Eximeniano (from Eximenic) and the Aztec trace at the same time. The result was a city developed around a central open plaza as an empty space for the people (as they had in the Aztec scheme), a reticular grid (mix of the original trace of the city and the mentioned theoretical models, the proportions of the blocks (rectangular blocks) and the streets that have different length and wide. As Garcia Bravo re-used the Aztec avenues, we can see that they pass by the north side of the central plaza and its west side. The others are just parallels following those two.

Map: The map we are using is of the city already consolidated (in the sub-index c we will compare the Zocalo with an older drawing), it was drawn in 1793.

The map has indicated very precise the lots, the public buildings and the area around the downtown. The

Figs. 404-407 (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1793, which means 214 years ago; and 272 years after its foundation.

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colours let us to understand the type of pavement or land. It covers a wide area of the city, actually all the urban area developed until that époque.

Aerial photograph: This aerial photograph shows very contrasted the blocks and even the buildings. It is easy to recognize the changes over the city as the proportion of urban blocks, for example, in the West side of the city, where the blocks were adapted to a more squared grid. In the East side the effect is different. First of all the squared blocks at the East of the Governmental Palace (today National Palace) are extended in three directions (South, East and North) making the grid more equilibrated. In the center of the plaza we can observe a structure called “El Parian” that was big structure designated as a public market.

This structure finally was destroyed and made the Zocalo (the central plaza) wider. Before it was “flag-shaped” open space but nowadays is a perfect square. We can observe a perpendicular street that parts from the South side of the plaza in its center and the blocks in the south were rectangular East-West oriented. Nowadays in the satellite image we can see squared blocks. This street was continued to the south splitting the rectangle in two squares. To do that many buildings were demolished and the whole area restructured. This central area of the city, even has not big changes regarding to architectonical structures, even that due to the buildings are very heavy for the soft soil (due to it was built over a lake) in some cases to avoid any dangerous situation they were demolished or restructured. Anyway in this city we can find all the architectonic styles since the XVI Century, even modern skyscrapers.

Hyper-contrasted images: With this exercise we can see the pureness of the design of the city in the XVIII Century, and, with the hyper contrasted aerial photograph the streets are very easy to see and the density of building constructions in this area. Inside these compacted cubes an empty space of big proportions emerges from the nothing giving a whole new atmosphere if we first experience the streets around it bound to this square that has 57,600 square meters. Surrounded in two sides by a colonnade, to the East by the National Palace and to the North by the Metropolitan Cathedral. Almost all the structures has from 5 to 8 floors and are the domes of the convents and the towers of the cathedral the highest elements that gives the silhouette to this central district.

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From the 1D to the 4D: This city has been experienced more than 1,000 years of history from different cultures and that is expressed by its urban center that is a multi-layered mirror that reflects time-space-culture and all the terms we can imagine.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: NO 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: Y/N 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: Y/N 11- Orientation: YES 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: NO th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 13 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (13/16)=8.12

tag of: RECTANGULAR-SQUARED.

Figs. 409-412 (upper) The colonnade of the Governmental Palace (for the Federal District) in the South side of the Main Plaza. (up) in the front there is a performance of an Aztec ceremony, in the middle a demonstration of the communist party and as a

In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

background the Metropolitan Cathedral. (next page upper/lower) Superimposing of past and present layers; and view of the North-side street from the East to the West. The Latinamerican Tower can be seeing in the background.

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b-Downtown “Zooming-into” the city Center, we would like to show three époques of the view of Mexico City’s downtown. At the end of the XVIII Century we can still appreciate the old National Palace in the right side of the painting and in the left side the “Mercado del Parian” that was the public market located in the south of the Zocalo. The painting at the end of the XIX Century show us that the National Palace grew one floor and the facades were transformed from a simply style that the city had into a baroque-detailed architecture. The “Mercado del Parian” also suffers some changes. Finally in the view of the XXI Century, the “Mercado del Parian” was gone transforming the Zocalo in what we have nowadays. The other example is about the street that faces the cathedral. In the XVIII Century threes covered all the Zocalo and gardens and the Cathedral seemed to be located visually “separated” from the plaza. After the threes were taken out to expand the streets for cars in the XX Century, the building join the spatial view of the plaza creating a “container” effect of the space.

Figs. 413-417 (left side) Three époques of the Zocalo, first at the end of the XVIII Century, at the end of the XIX Century (the Cathedral has a single tower –it is a curious drawing mistake) and at the end of the XX Century.

(right side) The Metropolitan

Cathedral in the XVIII Century and in the XXI Century.

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Figs. 419-425 (left&right) two views of the Zocalo, the first one is looking at the West side, where we can see the commerce buildings

c-Zocalo

and hotels. The other view is to the East side, where the National Palace is located. Before this Palace we had in the same place the

The heart of the city is the Zocalo where many activities are performed everyday. It is the place for the people, but surrounded by three more powers: In the north there is the Catholic Cathedral (that in colonial times was as powerful as the kingdom); in is East side is located the National Palace; in the South there are two huge buildings of the Mexico City (Federal District) Government; in the West side the Assembly of the Distrito Federal and the commercial arcades.

Palace of Axayacatl (Aztec Emperor), and in colonial times, Cortes, the Spanish conqueror used the site for his own palace.

That shows us that the physical location in terms of governance had not variation since the beginning (down) Hyper-contrasted view of the Zocalo area. In the center is the main plaza that has two streets that start from the center of the square to South and West From the distance the blocks seems to have the same squared proportion (next page) overlaying of an old map of the Zocalo of 1596 and a satellite view. (next-next page) street in the city center and a view of the Zocalo; overlaying of plans using neon-glow effect.

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d-San Pablo vs. Barrio de San Pablo The old barrio of San Pablo was an area of the city controlled by the Catholic Church. In this area in the 70’s when the subway was constructed, old Aztec pyramids were founded. The area nowadays is just in front of the Metro Pino Suarez and plenty of churches, convents and curates. This was the barrio for the specialists from colonial times to the end of last century. Nowadays the urban developers are trying to change the face of this zone. As we can appreciate in the old map done at the end of the XVII Century, the name of the streets are different than nowadays, and the urban pattern is designed with reticular and squared blocks (at that time, this area was a separated town nowadays part of Mexico City’s central area).

Some strange shapes of blocks can still be founded today. Thanks to these blocks that seems to be part of old convents, were easy to superimpose the map and match with a satellite photograph even nowadays the structures were “reticulated” to participate in the same fashion to the shape of the cityscape. It is interesting to see in the west of San Pablo’s Church a single block (or structure) that when we locate in the actual urban tissue there are nothing but an avenue. In the middle of the last century many urban amendments took place in the city, dividing the city in “axis” that cross from north to south and east to west certain parallel distance and that block was removed.

Figs. 427-433 (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative.

This map was drawn in 1699, which means 308 years ago. (Next pages) Image overlay and two moments in Barrio de San Pablo nowadays.

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4.2.2.18 Teutenango vs. Tenango del Valle History: The original settlers of Teutenango were the matlatzincas whom founded the city in the VIII Century. Their city was dedicated to Quetzalcoatl.

Martin Dorantes was whom conquest this city, and the first step was to change the emplacement from the Tetepetl Hill to the valley. Nowadays the old city can be visited and its ruins are conserved in very good conditions. The catholic order of the Franciscans was who built a temple for the evangelisation of the Indians creating the most important building of the city. Teotenango is 2,600 meters above the sea level.

Map: The map was made on March the 12th of 1582, just right after the conquest of the city. We can merely assume that it is a foundation plan, due to the buildings were not there at the moment to drawn it.

The geographical elements as the rivers and specially the hill (where the pyramids are located) show the exact location of the plaza, royal houses and the “picota� in the center of the town. Anyhow the

Figs. 434-438

elements inside the drawing has not the same scale and are indicated just to show them depending on their importance.

Aerial photograph: The satellite view shows us that the city is developed horizontally from the main plaza.

Teutenango, or Tenango del Valle, has nowadays a grid of 6X3 main squared blocks and the borders undefined. The city center has vegetation but there is not greenery in almost all the city.

Hyper-contrasted images: The old map shows a tiled path all around the church and royal houses. The city center is an empty space and there is a small river crossing entering to the city. There are also some other settlements around interconnected by a small road. The satellite view in its hyper-contrasted version show us an square structure but when we go deeper into the image not all the blocks have the same dimensions but almost all of them crossed by streets in diagonal or the old paths that joins other towns.

(previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and

hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1582, which means 425years ago; and the same year of the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: As all the small towns in the Estado de Mexico State, the pressure of the capital city and its expansion, Toluca, transforms the small towns into cities or at least dormitory towns. There are few structures of the past (as pre-Hispanic ruins), colonial buildings and new constructions.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: Y/N 2- Soil with agriculture character: Y/N 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): Y/N -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: NO th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: Y/N This city sums in total the complementation of: 11.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (11.5/16)=7.20 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

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tag of: RECTANGULAR.

Figs. 440-444 (in this page, up to down) Ruins of Teutenango; Typical street of the town; San Francisco’s church; view of the city (next page upper/lower) View from above from Teutenango; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.19 Valladolid de Mechoacan vs. Morelia History: Morelia came from the name of the national hero of the Mexican Independence Jose Maria Morelos. The old name was replaced in 1828 to remember the place where Morelos was born. Until that time, since May the 18th of 1541 when it was founded by Juan de Alvarado, Juan de Villasenor y Luis de Leon Romano, it was known as Mechuacan, first, and then as Valladolid. This place started to be populated by the Indians since the VII Century.

Nowadays it has more than 700,000 inhabitants.

Map: We are using a map of a consolidated city that continue increasing its size. This map has right in its center an open space surrounded by squared blocks, that when they go further from its center takes the shape of the terrain. The city also has small plazas in some corners. Nowadays those spaces are closed giving a better configuration to the urban blocks.

Aerial photograph: this photograph shows clearly a border in the North given by a river that crosses to the south by the East. This urban mark is also readable

nowadays as the river changed into avenues. The city grew and continues expanding respecting the block division in some areas of the capital outside of the original grid that we can appreciate in the map.

Hyper-contrasted images: The first image show us that the streets are not very orthogonal, but are continuous streets from South to North and West to East. In the second view, the satellite one, it is easy to recognize that the urban pattern is straighter. The points in white color are the greenery that gives us an idea of the small open patios that are inside the very compacted blocks. We can appreciate the figure of the Cathedral in the center of the map and also in the satellite view. In both sides (East and West) it has big open spaces and the magnificent building is governing both areas. The cathedral itself is a structure that shows by its spatial configuration and frame the power that the Catholic Church had in that ĂŠpoque and especially in relation to this city. Its towers are the tallest structures in the city and are regulated that any other construction can surpass the high of the top of the cathedral towers to maintain this urban emblem.

Figs. 445-449 (previous page) composition (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1688, which means 319 years ago; and 156 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: Downtown Morelia had not changed since the colonial times. The city is counted in the World Heritage cities. Its buildings made of pink-rock, typical of the region gives and harmonic view not only at architectonical scale but also urban.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: Y/N 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: Y/N 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: Y/N 11- Orientation: YES 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: Y/N th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES

tag of: SQUARED.

This city sums in total the complementation of: 14 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (14/16)=8.75 Figs. 451-464 (in this page, up to down) Aerial view of the main

In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

square; The Cathedral; Central street; Faรงade of the Cathedral (next page) Eight views of the city: The buildings; the warehouses; the aqueduct; the colonial street; the main street; the central plaza; the street besides the cathedral; the cathedral (last page) The towers of the cathedral; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.20 Ciudad y Puerto de Veracruz a-Veracruz vs. Puerto de Veracruz In this sub chapter we will mention the old Veracruz (Puerto de Veracruz), the Fortress of San Juan de Ulua, Ventas de Buitron and explain in more detail the city of Veracruz as is nowadays.

Basically, the first settlement was in 1519 and the city emplacement was moved several times. In this first example we used a map of 1590 where the geographical information is quite precise but the scheme of the city doesn’t fits on the real scale.

Anyhow, this urban planning is very simple. Between the plaza and the sea the blocks are a pure square, and from the plaza to inlands this same unit is divided in 2 rectangular blocks. Probably the first settlement was like this and changed during the time.

Figs. 465-470. (previous page) composition (up) overlaying the old map and the aero-photo trying to make coincide the coastal line. (right side up to down) Hyper contrasted image where we can visualize the formal scheme of the urban planning; black&white hyper contrasted photograph of the city; overlaying with neon-glow effect; old drawing of the first village in Veracruz city with its central plaza, surrounded by a colonnade and wooden structures.

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b-Fuerte de San Juan de Ulua vs. Idem San Juan de Ulua Fortress is connected to the history of the city of Veracruz. It was the most important military point of protection for their caravels that transport all the treasures from the Americas to Europe. The building has an interior open space surrounded by a colonnade, very similar in shape as the elements of cities mentioned in the ordinances.

Figs. 471-475. (upper) Map of 1590 showing the island where San Juan de Ulua is located. (up) General drawing of the structures in San Juan de Ulua. (left side from up to down) Map of 1763 that shows the final construction; Photograph of the fort nowadays showing the arcade (colonnade) and the central courtyard; satellite view nowadays linked to the mainland

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c-Las Ventas de Buitron vs. Buitron The city of Veracruz around 1600 was easy target of pirate attacks. It was extended to an area called “Ventas de Buitron” where they followed the scheme of a perfect gridiron that remains until nowadays. The orientation of the corners of the city blocks are almost directed North-South and the building scheme was following the external area of the square and having a great open patio in its interior. Nowadays, that scheme is hyper-compacted but respecting the outside facades and the streets.

Figs. 476-480. (left from up to down) Overlaying of the original plan of Buitron and the aerial photograph. Original map of the block with a hyper contrasted effect in positive; Satellite view of the area in a hyper contrasted effect in negative where can be appreciated the grid of the city with its perfect squared blocks and the straight lines. (upper image) Overlaying of the neon-glow effect of the plan inserted in the urban tissue. (down) Perspective of the city where can be appreciate the Fortress of San Juan de Ulua and the city of Veracruz in 1615 that was named as “Ciudad de Tablas” (the city of wood) due to the materials used for the construction of the buildings at that époque.

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d-Nueva Veracruz vs. Veracruz History: Veracruz is one of the first cities founded by the Spaniards in continental lands. They arrived from Cuba the morning of April 21st of 1519 to the island where now is located San Juan de Ulua Fortress. But was until July the 10th of that year when the Spanish soldiers founded the “Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz” (Rich Villa of the Holy Cross). The Indian name of this city was “Chalchihuecan”. This port is historically the most important in the Atlantic Ocean due to the exchange between Europe and the American Continent until the XIX Century. The center of the city was moved three times (from the seashore to Ventas de Buitron and later to the place called “Nueva Veracruz”), in this example we see the last emplacement.

Map: There are many maps and images of Veracruz due to its great importance as a city-port. From the wide range of maps we choose for this comparison the one made in 1763 (Appendix viii-59). The city has an

some corners. The grid of the city followed the original pattern continuing its gridiron expansion in the same fashion. New city areas were developed as the expansion to the sea for the ports, the warehouses and railroad for commerce purposes. The architecture inside the city doesn’t vary so much and are few new buildings inside the old downtown.

Hyper-contrasted images: The straight lines of the gridiron are easy to understand by these images.

Almost all of them are perpendicular but doesn’t maintain the proportions of the urban block that fits the shape of the wall copying the seashore line. In the today’s image the density of construction s can be seeing as a very compacted tissue. A reminiscence of the shape of the wall can be notice by a rotated street in the down-left side of the urban tissue.

urban grid of 6X11 blocks. The main plaza faces the Figs. 481-484 (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative. seaside but inside the grid it has several open spaces.

This map was drawn in 1763, which means 244 years ago; and 244 years after the foundation of the city.

Aerial photograph: Even the city wall was one of the

most classical elements of these city-ports; nowadays in Veracruz there is almost no remains of it but just

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From the 1D to the 4D: Veracruz is one of the most outstanding examples of a Novo-Hispanic city-port that has almost all the morphological features guided in the Ordinances.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: YES -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: YES 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): Y/N -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: YES This city sums in total the complementation of: 14 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (14/16)=8.75 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: RECTANGULAR.

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Figs. 486-491 (in this page, up to down) Photograph of the city taken at the end of the XIX Century where can be appreciated the landmarks of the city; main plaza surrounded by a colonnade and used mainly as a open warehouse in the beginning of the XX Century; Governmental building; typical commercial passage in the streets of the city. (next page upper/lower) Municipal Palace of Veracruz City located in its colonial district; superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.21 Villa de Altamira vs. Altamira History: The city of Altamira was founded on May the 2nd of 1749 by Don Jose de Escandon y Helguera. The city is devoted to Nuestra Senora de las Caldas. The first mayor of the city was the captain Juan Perez. It was founded as a village and in 1828, 71 years after it was founded was designated as a city and it is important as some families moved in 1837 to populate the city of Tampico (one of the most important cities in Tamaulipas State). Nowadays the metropolitan area of Altamira has around 130,000 inhabitants. It has in total around 32,000 houses made of concrete. The oldest single structure that is preserved is the temple of Santiago Apostol built in the middle of the XVIII Century.

Map: The design of the city was done having a cross-shaped tissue having the plaza as its center and squared quadrants in the corners. As in other design of villages, the plot division is 20 per block but in this very case there is not plot for the church, while the main difference is that the plot for the mayor is bigger compared to other villages.

Figs. 493-497

Aerial photograph: As is shown in the picture below, the city center has a “kiosko� that is a very traditional construction in some plazas and besides it the church.

Due to the low density of constructions and the vegetation it is difficult to define the city center.

Hyper-contrasted images: The grid pattern in the city is very well framed by the streets and blocks in both hyper contrasted images. In the satellite view we can see the expansion of the city blocks following the scheme presented in the planning of the city.

(upper-right) Downtown’s Kiosko and Church (up) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive (lower) Aerial view of the

city&hyper-contrasted image in negative. This map was drawn in 1751, which means 256 years ago; and 2 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: This port and industrial zone had been growing turning the overall city into modern.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: NO -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES

8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: Y/N 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES -About the houses (rule 59th) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: Y/N This city sums in total the complementation of: 11.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (11.5/16)=7.20 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the tag of: SQUARED. Fig. 499 Superimposing of past and present layers.

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4.2.2.22 Villa de Reinosa vs. Reynosa History: Reynosa was inside the group of villages founded by Don Jose de Escandon y Helguera. The 14 of March of 1749 with a group of 279 settlers commanded by the Capitan Carlos Cantu, Reynosa was founded with its typical central plaza and a convent. 53 years later, in 1802, due to the problems of overflowing of the river that divides nowadays Mexico and the U.S.A. the city changed its emplacement 8kms to the East but still besides the Rio Bravo River. The population in 1990 was about 280,000 inhabitants while nowadays it is more than 530,000, what means than in 25 years it doubled its number of inhabitants an at the same time the city services. But one important point to mention is that, as a “border-city”, it is also a magnet to attract people that deal with both countries.

Map: The map follows the typical scheme of the northern cities. Blocks of 20 plots, central plaza, area designated for the temple with convent and the indication of the rivers. Also it contains some distances between the other villages founded by Don Jose de Escandon y Helguera.

Aerial photograph: This image has in its center the original point of the foundation of the city. The central axis is smaller (half unit) of the blocks, but actually, even the quadrant in the corners “give” one plot to create a street. Then, the square is perfect counting the street as a part of it.

Hyper-contrasted images: Both images show the straight lines and well designed blocks. The satellite one shows us the building density that is not so high thinking that is a populated city. Instead to “expand in vertical” the city increases its size horizontally. The plaza is plenty of greenery and has a “kiosko” in the middle, and it is also reflected in the white color that can be seeing in the center of the image. The church is in its designated area, but half of its block seems to be used nowadays for industries. In the Northeast corner of the Plaza is interesting to see a diagonal street rotated exactly 45 degrees from the gridiron that if it continues with another in the East will form a 90 degrees angle. That line (if it is continued over the plaza) is repeated in one of the blocks in the opposite and can be reflected in the definition of the plots.

These lines are not in the original plan but inside it.

Figs. 501-504 (upper) Old map and hyper-contrasted image in positive. (lower) Aerial view of the city and hyper-contrasted image in negative.

This map was drawn in 1751, which means 256 years ago; and 2 years after the foundation of the city.

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From the 1D to the 4D: As a dynamic city connected to the U.S.A. Reynosa is a modern city with an increasing economy that is reflected on the city growing. In its streets Reynosa has a mix style of buildings and architectures.

To create an objective table of the past and present urban features of the city (for reference see the comparative table in the Appendix-xii) we check the 16 mayor considerations of the ordinances. If the rule is followed (YES); not followed (NO); partially followed (Y/N). While considering the number of rules followed, YES=1; NO=0; Y/N=0.5; to have in total 16 units.

-Regarding to the Land (rules 5th, 15th, 6th) 1- Location with expansion possibilities: YES 2- Soil with agriculture character: YES 3- Natural water supply: YES -Regarding to the Public Buildings (rules 28th & 31st) 4- Location of the church: YES 5- Location of the Government: NO -Regarding to the Plaza (rules 35-36th, 38th, 42nd, 37th, 41st, 43rd, 44th) 6- Central/Seaside location: YES 7- Size: YES 8- Streets from its corners: YES 9- Proportions: Y/N 10- Street from the middle of the plaza: NO 11- Orientation: Y/N 12- Colonnade around the plaza: YES -Regarding to the Streets (rules 47-48th&4th) 13- Wide/Narrow depending on the climate: YES 14- Straight streets: (by cord and ruler): YES -Defence and free space around the city (rule 52nd) 15- Green belt around the city: YES th -About the houses (rule 59 ) 16- Similar and regular in shape and height: Y/N This city sums in total the complementation of: 12.5 of the selected rules of the Ordinances.

This means (fraction & decimal) (12.5/16)=7.81 In reference to the urban mesh from the three categories of grid we have (Linear/Rectangular/Squared) we could say that this city can be catalogued under the

tag of: SQUARED.

Figs. 506-510 (in this page, up to down) Pedestrian street in the downtown; typical street; Small church near the movie theater (next page upper/lower) Central Plaza with it “kiosko� in the middle; superimposing of past and present layers.

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CONCLUSIONS

5 –Conclusions NOSTALGIA ES EL CONOCIMIENTO DE NUESTRO PASADO PERSONAL, Y DESDE QUE EL PROPIO PASADO DEL ARTISTA ES EL EMPUJE DE SU POTENCIAL CREATIVO, LA ARQUITECTURA DEBE ESCUCHAR Y ATENDER SUS REVELACIONES NOSTALGICAS. -Nostalgia is the poetic awareness of our personal past, and since the artist’s own past is the mainspring of his creative potential, the architecture must listen and heed his nostalgic revelationsLuis Barragan.

THE LEYES DE INDIAS The case of the massive creation of urban cities could be the very dream of any architect, urban designer or geo-political administration. To give the space to settle a family, a community or an entire country is a matter of satisfaction; and to regulate this space to give it order and security is a matter of organization.

Just before the Renaissance, artists, architects or mathematicians planned many schemes of “ideal” cities. Of course this was not the only moment in human history to have done so. Great civilizations such as the Chinese, the Egyptians or the Greeks created some patterns in the past to regulate the cities.

The Spanish Kingdom received its heritage of the knowledge of the Roman Empire when its territory was called Hispania. The Romans had the military scheme of the castra that is the closest model to the functionality of the grid Latinamerican city. In Spain there are not such good examples of grid cities built before the XV Century (exceptionally examples are Mallorca and Santa Fe de Granada), therefore the Spanish cities at that time had very different patterns compared to the ones they founded in the American Continent a century later. In Europe the cities grew spontaneously around landmarks such as castles or cathedral. The great opportunity to plan the cities from the beginning in a “never-ending” territory came after their discovery of the New World.

The Ordinances dictated by Felipe II are considered the first urban code of the modern era. But wasn’t until Carlos II compiled all the rules and codes generated since the discovery of the new lands when the codes really had the power to rule the creation of cities. The rules were given at different moments when necessities required observing that regulations be followed to solve or prevent a problem.

When the Spaniards began laying out the new settlements, they also started to understand and practice ways of improving their ideas by testing their bad or good points. As these “virgin” lands were not only already inhabited but in some cases had big cities as in Europe, the Spaniards also could learn from the use of the city elements in order to control or better manage the population adding more experiences and configuring the elements that gives character to the cities. All these experiences in some way were detected and expressed to feedback and improve the Ordinances.

Fig. 511 & 512 Graphic interpretations of the Leyes de Indias thru semantics. From the 1573 manuscript to 2007 computer 3D renderings. (down) chronological sequence of cities and laws.

We can say that the most complete set of regulations known nowadays as the “Leyes de Indias” -given by Carlos II in 1680- is comprised of the ideas of others given by Carlos I (1523), Felipe II (1573), Felipe III (1608) and Carlos II himself. The case of Mexico City, Cuzco and some other cities (which were re-built over the ruins of some Indian urban structures) the shapes of the Felipe II’s ordinances has not been exactly observed. They were not exactly based on these rules, but adapted in some way to the city, and at the same time, introduced the positive elements of urban pre-Hispanic design into the rules.

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Fig. 513 Patterns and urban models from the “old” and the “new” worlds that influenced the rules for the Leyes de Indias. (upper part) Hipodamos Grid, Roman Castra, Eximenic Model and Tenochtitlan Urban Trace; (lower part) Santa Fe de Granada – founded in 1492, Tenochtitlan – in 1325 and Santo Domingo – in 1502.

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Regarding urban regulations, Felipe II in his “Ordinances for the Philippines” gave the biggest contribution of city planning design for this “Leyes de Indias”. In these laws, to be more precise, he defined the open plaza (probably based on a mix of experiences from the castra, the ideal cities of the Renaissance, the French “ bastides”, the Spanish “poblaciones” and the pre-Hispanic Indian Cultures).

Rules regarding the reticular trace, the location of the city, the amplitude of streets (probably taken from the Arabic experiences or the Roman incursions to Northern Africa), the close-to-the-city-farms, how to trace the city by “ cord&ruler”, etc. were also defined.

Fig. 517 The colonnade in Tlacotalpan, a city where the clock never started to count the time.

Figs. 514-516 (up to down) Dynamic 3D model based on the Ordinances about the design on an overall city; Town of Maldinga, Veracruz; 3D interactive model following the Ordinances.

After the foundation of cities, the destiny of them was definitely difficult to imagine. Many cities in the New World have similar conditions while others have different “tonalities” or “ flavors” but worked over the same initial scheme… and that was a very important point of equilibrium of the Ordinances, which gave the basis but were also flexible in order to let each place finds its own identity. Actually all the cities that were designed based on these rules have their own elements, their own materials, styles and spaces, making them unique and in most cases, similar with slight differences from each other and a unique personality. Spanish foundation traces were based on Indian towns, in brand new flat or uneven terrains; therefore, the urban pattern was not always the same perfect, regular or imperfect grid. From the several Mexican cities we studied, we could not find a precise or defined pattern related to any parameter in order to find a premise of grids, which means that every city had a unique adaptation of the rules.

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Fig. 518. Graphic showing in the “y ” axis the year of foundation of cities and in the “x” axis the Imperfect/Regular/Perfect mesh. In the right side the matrix that generates this chart and its totals. (

THE URBAN TISSUES The different dates of foundation of cities made us to understand the urban environment and the situation that the cities need to face: to control the pre-Hispanic settlements, Take advantage of the natural resources, protection of its borders or population of new lands.

Having on mind the different époques when the maps/old drawings were painted, they give us by its representation the situation that the cities experimented in certain moment on the time. We tried to catch the evolution of the urban pattern visualizing the elements of the city. Nowadays some cities are exactly as they were since they were created, giving us a feeling of “ traveling-thru-time” to the past.

Almost all the colonial cities were maintained intact by the end of the XIX Century and the better way to comprehend our contemporary culture is to traveling to the past to understand its roots.

The foundation of cities had a “ boom” in the first fifty years of the colonization adopting the spaces in the same areas as the pre-Hispanic settlements trying

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to consolidate the Empire. After that, we appreciate an apparently decrease or grid cities from 1600 to 1750.

This was because the cities of this period were mainly new settlements near mineral/metallic mines in uneven terrains, therefore, in those terrains were difficult to apply the grid pattern. Was until the middle of the XVIII Century when the colonization of the northern lands pursues to found new planned cities.

From 183 cities, 93 of them have not grid pattern and from the other 90, 28 are linear cities, 30 regular and 24 have perfect grid conformation.

Fig. 519 Analysis overlaying old maps and satellite images to better understand the urban trace of a city and its permanency or changes.

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Fig. 520 Photo-composition scaling five grid cities located in very different areas of Mexico with different climates, socio-economical situation and political orders, but sharing the same “Leyes de Indias” grid scheme and morphological urban features.

Teutenango,

Merida, Yucatan

Estado de Mexico

135 X 135mts

100 X 100mts

Cuauhtemoc, Chihuahua 115 X 115mts

Guadalajara, Jalisco 90 X 90mts

Orcasitas, Tamaulipas 130 X 130mts

THE SEVEN URBAN TRANSFORMATIONS An interesting thing could be to say that, even five hundred years ago, although the city centers were regulated by the same Ordinances, the inhabitants, governors, and all the payers in the field read the flexibility of the law in their own way, and each design and concept was very different, making the cities grow at their own pace. As in everything, the grid city scheme imposed by the Spaniards in the Americas suffers on its own “evolution” or “ revolution” since its conceptualization.

Referring to these words in the physical field, and analyzing what could be observed, we find that the first step of this evolution is the semi-regular city

founded around a Plaza done in the cities of the Caribbean Islands, mainly in Dominican Republic, Cuba and Puerto Rico (from 1502).

The second step is the first grid cities in the continental lands such as Veracruz and Panama Viejo, starting the blocks, streets and plaza with a square-shaped pattern (1519).

The third step is the application of the “cordel y regla” (cord and ruler) rule. The rule creates a uniform orthogonal mesh with a great open space (Zocalo) as exemplified by Mexico City (1521).

The fourth step is the “ squared” model as in the case of Lima (1535) or Buenos Aires where the city has endless boundaries and low-density urban plots.

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The fifth step is the transformation of some Port-cities that were provided with urban elements (walls, castles, fortresses, churches or monasteries) to protect themselves from the enemies in the XVI Century (closing the urban open scheme but in general not affecting the urban morphology).

The sixth step is based on the urban plot changes about the XVII and XVIII Centuries brought about by the urban population growth and the economy, dividing the blocks into smaller parts to increase the density or to be accessible to more people (this didn’t changed the regular block or street pattern).

The seventh step is the incorporation of new types of elements such as urban infrastructures, transportation systems, etc. in the beginning of the XIX Century.

It is important to remark that in the beginning the “ Spanish-cities in American territory” were not inhabited by the Indians (who were in most of cases, the original owners of the lands) but by the Spanish colonizers. Nevertheless, the European traditions were mixed in a process called “mestization” not only in its people but also in the architecture and urban design.

The result was a way of living together under a new system that mixed those ideas that transformed it in to a real opportunity and challenge to create a “New World”.

In these order of ideas, the continuity of the “ Hispanic city” was respected in its integrity even by the social and political situations that were experienced until 1870. Many of the colonies suffer battles and wars leading to their independence from the Spanish Crown.

Finally the cities suffered transformations that were reflected in its urban structures when they met certain historical events.

Important cities had to adapt their urban elements to the -at that time- “ globalization” that started to change the face of the metropolises worldwide (also the face of their downtowns) due to the “ illustration” movement. These factors of change were the result of economical trading and the world’s industrialization that started at the end of the XIX and beginnings of the XX Century (shown widely by the exhibitions in Paris, London and Chicago). The cities needed to follow new rules and models to be competitive. The train, the port and the industry physically transformed capitals and cities by the sea or near the production zones. The population and its migration was also another factor to extend the services of the cities and

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expand their limits or literally to have and endless boundary. But our analysis shows that even though the physical elements (ornamentation and aesthetical changes of construction) of the central areas present an evolution and adaptation, the urban pattern remains amazingly the same. In some cases the grid tissue doesn’t vary very much and the parameters continue to shape the streets and blocks (especially in small towns where the “ industrialization” never reaches them). In the beginning of the XX Century, Mexico suffers a series of civil crisis: The Mexican Revolution (1910-1921) due to the social inequality between the rich society and the workers; and the “ Guerra Cristera” (Cristero War, 1926-1929) a crisis between religious and political interests. These social convulsions were followed by the World Wars until 1945. After those times of destruction and paralysis of the economy, it started to grow again changing our cities once more. The price of land rose (especially in the central area) and the blocks were divided into 16 or 32 narrow plots; in some cases, the same building was subdivided and populated multiplying the building’s ownership, not only horizontally but vertically as well. In the big cities this physical process was stronger and changed the condition of the central area through: -The speculations of the cost of land -Building density’s rise-up -The building footprint densification -New building uses such as banks, hotels, offices, collective housing, parking lots -Sports and education facilities such as stadiums, museums or universities -Transportation services such as metro, bus routes, trams -Preparation of original designs for buildings taking cars into account -Expansion of the central urban tissue (avenues, malls, city-highways) and the overall city Nowadays the inner city growth of Latinamerican cities, even respects the facades and the overall condition of its colonial style, transforms the interiors with infill or modifications in the private and collective property. This is a reality that the Novo-Hispanic cities cannot skip over: in a lesser or greater scale, they have to adapt, as a human body does to its environment, and must assimilate and co-exists every second as well as every century.

Fortunately their city centres remain almost untouched.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

THE URBAN FEATURES If the design of cities should follow the principles of the “ ideal” city of the Renaissance: ordered, functional, secure, etc. we should think about whether the geometrical orthogonal and rhythmical repetition of urban tissues is the element of perfection; nowadays the grid seems to not be a very intelligent conclusion. In the époques of the Empire, this urban pattern gave the opportunity for the conquerors to rapidly settle a population, put it in order, and control lit with the idea to make a successful colonization.

We can be sure that the model to legislate the cities was flexible (in some way incomplete) –for example there are no written regulations about density, the proportion of settlers, specifications about the height of buildings, details of other void urban areas etc.- and this was the best point of the Ordinances because it allowed decisions in each place to meet the personality of the place.

The Ordinances merely were the starting point of the lines, which ran not necessarily parallel but in the same direction. When I started to research the historical Latinamerican towns with similar characteristics, even though they had some features that could be recognized and counted in a list, their locality gives a particular physiognomy derivate from the ways of the settlers that defined, built, modified, edified, transformed and wrote their own history; what I mean is: there is not one city equal to another.

A matrix of the urban features followed by city gives us as a result a place with a strong identity that defines a grouped “colonial city” model. In an overall view, the cities followed in most of the cases the location of the Plaza and the Church, the regular shape of blocks and streets around the Plaza. The features less followed were the streets in the middle of each edge and the 360 degrees colonnade around the central Plaza and the orientation of the overall city.

Fig. 521 Matrix of the overall cities and urban features

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In the case of the Mexican cities, although physically they are close to one another (as the ones we studied founded in 1749 and 1759), we can say that each of them is a “parallel world” inside the same universe. Magnificent cities such as Guadalajara, Mexico City or Puebla could be similar to San Luis Potosi or Queretaro, and different from Veracruz or Campeche. Campeche could be similar to Veracruz but not to Candelaria de Azanza. And Candelaria de Azanza, Burgos y Soto La Marina, although even they were “almost the same” in their first years, are totally different nowadays. The most “Leyes de Indias-alike” cities are Guadalajara, Puebla, Veracruz, Queretaro and Michoacan that followed in a high percentage the fulfilled of the ordinances. These cities are some of the oldest in the Mexican Territory (FUSION CITIES) what make us to think that their urban experience was used to feed the text of the Leyes de Indias. The Village of Burgos, Ameca Meca, Orcasitas de Bernal, San Francisco de Guemes and Villa the Altamira are the cities that had less integration of these features on its urban design, paradoxically all -except Ameca Meca- are brand new northern villages developed in flat virgin lands (NEW CITIES).

Fig. 522 Chart showing the average results of the Urban Features complimented by the selected Novo-Hispanic cities and their condition of Perfect, Regular and Imperfect grid mesh. The green bars represent the FUSION CITIES whether the light-blue bars represent the NEW CITIES.

We call Alfa cities, those that follow in high percentage (more than 12 points or above the 75%) the urban regulations of the Leyes de Indias. Those cities are: Guadalajara obtained 15/16 (97.65%); La Puebla 14.5/16 (90.63%); Nueva Veracruz, Queretaro, Valladolid de Mechoacan and Merida 14/16 (87.5%); Campeche and Santa Maria de Aguayo 13.5/16 (84.38%); Tenochtitlan, Antequera, San Luis Potosi and Soto La Marina 13/16 (81.25%); and Chicoloapa and Villa de Reynosa with 12.5/16 (78.13%).

The Beta cities are those that have from 10 to 12 points (less than 75% but above 60%) of fulfilments of the urban ordinances as Buitron, Bacalar, Teutenango and Villa de Altamira with 11.5/16 points (71.88%); and San Francisco de Guemes and Orcasitas de Bernal with 10/16 (62.5%).

Finally, the Gamma cities are those that obtained less than 10 points (or less than 60%): Ameca Meca with 9.5/16 (59.38%), Burgos 9/16 (56.25%), Candelaria de Azanza and San Pablo (not in the chart) with 8/16 points (50%). The light blue bars on this chart represent the settlements catalogued as NEW CITIES, where the GREEN bars are the FUSION CITIES. The type of shading in the graph also represents the P/R/I mesh type. Perfect mesh (P) is dark in the bottom and light in the top; Regular mesh (R) is represented by a bar that is lighter in is central area; when it is darker in the central area it means (I) Imperfect mesh.

(

a

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b

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Anyhow, even we have 14 Alfa cities (%), 6 Beta cities (%) and 2 Gamma cities (%), all of them have the main urban features (Central plaza, church, grid pattern, colonnade, etc.) and more than 50% of the total features of Leyes the Indias. This means that have similar elements that gives their character.

After evaluate each one of the city morphological features we understood that the rules that talk about the location of the plaza as the center point of the city and the location of the religious building besides this plaza were followed by all the cities (100% of the cases). The position of two streets in each of the four corners of the central plaza and the parallel (or same wide) in-between distances of streets were followed in almost all the samples (98% of the cases). The rule less followed was to have a central street from each side of the edge of the plazas. This rule was followed partially only in 5 cases (the 11% of the cases). Issues as the colonnade around the central plaza and the orientation of the streets of the urban grid were followed only in the 57 and 59% of the total cases.

But in some ways, all of them seem similar because of their urban features, their perfect squared blocks or simply their straight streets. The urban grid can have different measurements, different scales, different proportions, but from the air it is an exquisite pattern that make us to search deep inside its linear space of voids and solids… and in Latinamerica, but

Fig. 523 Graphic showing the average of compliment of the Urban Features followed in all cities. From left to right the data is: middle streets (11%), colonnades (57%), orientation (59%), green belt (68%), similarity & governance (73%), straight (77%), soil (82%), proportions (84%), expansion (86%), water (89%), size (91%), corner streets & wide (98%), religious & location (100%)

specifically in Nova-Hispania are its better examples.

As the “ Spanish-grid” was traced onto the New Territories, this phenomenon was massively transformed as a “ stamp” to define many cities in the U.S.A. It could be interesting to think about why the geometrical models of the Renaissance that worked so well in the Americas or the simplicity of the Roman “castra” used in European cities are not the models for the new lands that are created, for example, in the semi-aquatic oasis in Dubai… or if it could be possible “ why yes?” Just let us imagine Venice in a gridiron pattern… or Manhattan as a palm-shaped island…

When we see the colonial cities of Latinamerica, with their own styles, we know that they had the same background due to their urban elements. The urban trace, which can be mathematically measured, always will impress us due to its perfection. Its changes thru time could be identified revealing us the reasons why.

The answer to the origin of an urban physiognomy could be found in the urban core of the metropolises or villages, in its central plazas, in the people that

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receive its space as a heritage, who appropriate the street as they move from one point to another, or lie on the plaza to meet with other inhabitants, or go to the church to devote their faith… or just stay in the house, in a planned urban plot… where he was born in and will remain until the end of his days… or this space can be appreciated as a reticular object placed on a piece of the planet to be the dome that covers the interesting experiences for millions of people that was simply initiated by a rule that was followed, studied and applied. And we cannot define the colonial city as its portals that give protection to the rain, or the empty space of the main plaza to gather with the other settlers; we cannot say that the city is the magnificence of its public buildings… but probably is a mix of all of these urban features that was put together five centuries ago to give a particular way of life into one of the greatest creations of the humankind: the city.

FURTHER RESEARCH ON THIS THEME Besides other studies on the same topic mentioned in the introduction of this thesis, we would like to mention the opportunities to complete or search beyond the work realized for this thesis.

Even while searching the original plans we could find in the Archivo de Indias, Seville; and the National Archives in Mexico City, we are sure that other old maps can be founded in particular collections or American Universities as well in the U.S. Congress to complete the cities of Nova-Hispania that nowadays are part of United States of America’s territory.

Several comparisons could not be done because Aerial or Satellite images were of low quality or were not found to be part of our “ selected cities”. In other cases, even though we had good satellite images; we didn’t have the old map of the city. Therefore, there is another opportunity to expand the number of cities for this study following the same methodology creating a wider catalogue.

I hope this research can be continued in other countries in the same detailed as this study, not only in the Novo-Hispanic cities, but also the whole Spanish Empire possessions in its “ colonialism” period.

Finally, as a personal interest, the origins of the “European” and “Asian” grid patterns has been well studied, therefore I propose to search the origins of the ancient cultures and urban villages in the African, American and Australian continents, -if they exist.

MAGTAM

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Figs. 524-527 Villages with grid-alike conformation. (up to down) settlement north to Asantiayaw in Central-West Africa; Coballococha in the Amazonian Region, South America; Casas Grandes, Chihuahua in North Mexico; Urbanization in the desert near Uluru, Australia.

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APPENDIX

6 -Appendix Appendix-i The most populated metropolitan areas in the world

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Appendix-ii (a) Views of some grid cities around the globe thru history up to the XVI Century

Reconstruction of ruins of Chatal Huyuk, Anatolia (Turkey)

Ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, India

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Reconstruction of Surkotada, Kulich & Ruins of Stupa, India

Ziggurat at Ur, Mesopotamia (Iraq)

New urban grid pattern in Baghdad, Iraq

Straight streets of Baghdad, Iraq

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Constellation of grid cities in the Valley of Harappa, Punjab, Pakistan (North India)

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Constellation of grid cities in the Valley of Harappa, Punjab, Pakistan (North of India)

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Roman

structured

plan

and

different

views

of

Tumugadi-Timgad, Algeria, Africa.

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Square of Jemaa El Fna, Marrakech, Morocco, Africa

Different ambiances created by the street pattern, unity of height of buildings & distance between buildings in Marrakech

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Mileto, Italy. Founded by fugitives from Miletus (Greek)

Roman foundation of Turin (Torino, Piemonte), Italy

Verona, Veneto, Italy

Cortemaggiore, Piacenza (Emilia Romagna), Italy

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Satellite view of Xi’an and its grid pattern inside its wall (Shaanxi province, China)

The Divine Plan, based in the concept that the universe is rectangular shaped. This is the grid model for Ch’ang-an (Xi’an) in the T’ang dynasty. The city was 75 square kilometres. The visitors enter from the South and in the North General view of central axis of Xi’an

there is the Imperial city reserved for the government and its palace.

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Old quarters and its streets (up) new avenues (down)

The orthogonal pattern of Beijing’s Forbidden City

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Tiananmen Square as seen from the Tian’an Gate, Beijing

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Isometric flat view of Beijing, Capital of China

Satellite view, streets and canals views of Suzhou, China

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Satellite view of Kyoto

Satellite view of Kyoto (Heian-Kyo) and streetscapes

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Street in Gion and Yasaka Street, Kyoto, Japan

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Illustration of Chichen-Itza city (Mayan Culture), Mexico

Cuadrangulo de las monjas Open structures in Uxmal, Mexico

Scheme of the central area of the Cuadrangulo de las Monjas

General view of the city of Uxmal (Mayan Culture), Mexico

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Views of the city of goods, Teotihuacan, Estado de Mexico Urban structure, central axis, orthogonal pattern

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Environment and ruins of Machu-Picchu (Inca culture), Peru

Satellite and street view of Chan Chan (Moche culture), Peru

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Isla de Mexcaltitan. (upper) Aerial-photograph; (up) Aztlan, from codex Butorini; (down) street view; (right) Mextitlan, Mexico and (down left) Nahalal, Israel.

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Appendix-ii (b) Views of grid cities in Spain until the XVI Century and special mentioned cases

Seville, Spain & Archivo General de Indias (squared building)

Briviesca, Spain

Jaca, Spain

Tortuous streets of Seville, Spain

Briviesca, view of the Valley, Spain

Santa Fe de Granada, Spain

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City of La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Atlantic, Ocean

Petra City in Mallorca Islands, Mediterranean Sea, Spain

Old draw and streetscape of Petra, Mallorca

Villareal, Spain

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Valencia, Spain

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Alicante, Spain

Gandia, Spain

Satellite view of Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain

Barcelona general view from above

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Appendix-ii (c) Views of the mentioned grid cities in the U.S.A, Australia and the European Community

Upper and Middle Manhattan, New York City, N.Y.

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Upper and Middle Manhattan, New York City, N.Y.

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Washington D.C.

Mexico.

Austin Texas downtown

Chicago Illinois skyscraper zone

North: Laredo, Texas. South: New Laredo, Tamaulipas,

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Tucson Arizona. Zoom out (urban)-zoom in (neighborhood)

Tucson Arizona. Zoom out (urban)-zoom in (neighborhood)

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249

Los Angeles, California. Suburbs.

Los Angeles, California, Downtown & Wildshire Blvd.

250

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San Francisco California suburbs

San Francisco California downtown

San Francisco Hills and continuous grid pattern secuence

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

251

New Heaven, Connecticut, U.S.A.

Edimburgh, United Kingdom

Mannheim, Germany

Adelaide, Australia

Glasgow, United Kingdom

252

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Appendix-iii Copy of the “Original Document” of the “RECOPILACION DE LEYES DE LOS REYNOS DE LAS INDIAS.” (“Re-compilation of laws for the Kingdom of the West Indies.”) By Don Carlos II (based on the Ordinances of 1513, Carlos I-1523, Felipe II Ordinances of 1573 and Felipe III-1608).

Given in 1680, printed in Madrid in 1681.

“Libro IV. Titulo V De las poblaciones (Book 4th title 5th. Regarding to the settlements) -and“Libro IV Titulo VII “De las Poblaciones de las Ciudades, Villas y Pueblos” (Book 4th. Title 7t.h. About the population of cities, villages and towns) Regarding to the foundation of cities in the new colonies in the New World written in Old-Castilian (or “Castilian”) language.

Photos of the original document handwritten by Felipe II, 1573.

Next pages, the “Recopilacion” made by Carlos II in 1560,

Translated into Spanish and highlights of the urban design in English in under the sub-title 4.1.1

edited in 1561 (the last image is an old drawing regarding of the design of cities, but not part of this edition)

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253

254

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255

256

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Appendix-iv List of Colonial Cities over one million inhabitants founded by Spain and Portugal Crowns in the American Continent and its foundation dates

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

257

Appendix-v Views of grid cities in Latinamerica Other Latinamerican cities and villages mentioned not displayed in the main text.

Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. (left) views of the urban morphology.

(right,

up

to

down)

National

Pantheon,

Archbishops, street in the downtown, New urban layer of the suburbs in the west side of Osama River.

258

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Satellite view of Havana, Cuba. Colonial & New town patterns

Satellite views of San Juan de Puerto Rico, P.R.

Santiago de Cuba. Street and satellite views

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

259

San Salvador City, S.S. View from above and Central Square

Nueva Guatemala, Guatemala (plan, satellite views, photo) Caracas Venezuela. Squared urban tissue

260

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Casco Viejo of Panama City. (left up and down) old maps of the city considering the gridiron; (right) Satellite view of the city center; (right-bottom) typical street in Casco Viejo; (center) Aerial view where can be observed the straight streets surrounding the central public open square

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

261

City of Cartagena, Colombia

City of Medellin, Colombia

Plan and aerial view of Bogota, Colombia

Plan and satellite view of Quito, Ecuador

V

Satellite isometric and plaza of Guayaquil, Ecuador 262

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Ciudad de Cuzco, Peru. (up to down, left to right) Foundation map; Plaza de Armas; Barrio de San Blas; three satellite views of several plazas in the city and the shape of urban pattern; Cathedral of the Compania de Jesus in the downtown

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

263

Urban tissue of Lima, Peru. Cathedral and Main Plaza

Trujillo, Peru. Satellite view and Central Plaza

Leon de Huanuco, Peru. Satellite view and vintage image of the central plaza as in beginnings

264

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Original plan and aerial view of Sucre, Bolivia

City of La Paz, Bolivia

Satellite view of Santiago de Chile, Chile

Sao Luis City, Brazil. Satellite image and streetscape views

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

265

Satellite view of Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain

Satellite view of Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain

Montevideo, Uruguay. Old and new neighbourhoods

Buenos Aires, Argentine. Original map and aerial views

266

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Appendix-vi List of settlements founded in the New Spain -inside Mexican Territory- in the XVI-XVIII Centuries

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267

Appendix-vii AGI codification full list of cities alphabetical ordered showing the date of drawing

268

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the Mexican territory

Appendix-viii

These are the antique maps selected and collected for this work

(a) Catalog of the original maps and drawings of grid cities in

mainly of grid cities and special cases. The caption data of each

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

269

slide in this appendix contains: 1)

Consecutive number and reference

2)

Name

3)

Date of drawing

4)

Title

5)

Author

6)

Size

7)

Drawing Technique and material

Notes: a) The reference code for the Archivo General de Indias will be formed using the last number of the full code, i.e.: ES.41091.AGI/16418.17//MP-MEXICO,10 Therefore  AGI-010 (For the full code of each image refer to the complete list in the sub-chapter 3.2.1)

2.AGI-012

Chicoloapa

(1579)

b) The date will be display as (YY.MM.DD)

Plan of the town of Chicoloapa, under jurisdiction

c) The unit “league” is currently used in the titles, its

of the Corregimiento de Coatepec, located to the

equivalence is: 1 league= 4.828032 kilometers

East of Mexico City

d) Size displayed in cms.

Author: Corregidor Cristobal de Salazar

e) Some data is not available.

Handmade colours over amate paper

(a) Archivo General de Indias. Sevilla, Spain.

1.AGI-010

Coatepec

(1579.11.16)

Plan of the town of Coatepec or Natividad de

270

3.AGI-16

Huaxutla

(1580.02.03)

Nuestra Senora, located seven leagues East of

Plan of the town of Huaxutla, located 40 leagues

Mexico City

North of Mexico City

Author: Corregidor Cristobal de Salazar

Author: Corregidor D. Cristobal Perez Puebla

Size (585 x 435)

Size (900 x 770)

Handmade colours over parchment paper

Handmade by pen

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

4.AGI-33

Teutenango (1582.03.12)

6.AGI-038

Buitron

(1590.02.28)

Plan of the town of Teutenango, located in

Plan of the city planning in the Ventas de Buitron,

Matalango Valley in the Nueva Espana

in front of San Juan de Ulua and the path to Mexico

Author: Corregidor Francisco de Avila

City

Size (680 x 730)

Author: Capitan Pedro Ochoa de Leguizamo

Handmade colours over Maguey estraza paper

Size (430 x 270) Handmade colours and pen

5.AGI-35

San Juan de Ulua

(1590)

7.AGI-047

Mexico

(1596)

General plan of the San Juan de Ulua Fortress. In

Plan of the main square of Mexico City and

the South the Villa Rica de la Veracruz

buildings and streets around it

Author: Batista Antonelli

Size (420 x 560)

Handmade colours over parchment paper

Handmade by ink

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

271

8.AGI-051

Campeche

(about 1600)

Plan of San Francisco de Campeche with natural

10.AGI-127

Guadalajara

(1732)

environments detail of the city of Campeche

Plan of Guadalaxara city, capital of the Nueva

Handmade colours and ink over parchment paper

Galicia Size (550 x 440) Handmade by pen over parchment paper

9.AGI-061

272

Campeche

(1663.07.02)

11.AGI-138

Guadalajara

(1741.09.16)

Plan of the Villa of San Francisco de Campeche

Plan of Guadalajara city in the Kingdom of Nueva

with the changes for better defences proposed by

Espana; showing the Real Water supply works that

the Governor of Yucatan Don Francisco de

give beauties and benefits the Royalty Mercy of the

Esquivels

King and Lord Don Philippe V

Size (430 x 310)

Size (770 x 1050)

Handmade by ink over draft paper

Handmade colours over white silk

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

12.AGI-153

Guadalajara

(1745)

14.AGI-161

Septentrional America (1746)

Iconographic plan of Guadalaxara city in Nueva

Iconographic

Galicia ordered by the Licenciado Martin de

conditions of Septentrional America

Blancas, Oidor of the city in the year 1745

Author: Contador R. Azogues D. Joseph Antonio de

Size (590 x 840)

Villasenor y Sanches

Handmade colours

Handmade by ink

15.AGI-178 13.AGI-157

Bacalar

map

Mexico

of

the

hydro-geographic

(1751.08.09)

(1746.06.12)

Plan of Mexico City showing the division of the

Plan of the town of Bacalar and Bacalar Fortress

city in quarrels for security duties by the Sala del

Size (285 x 240)

Crimen de Mexico.

Handmade colour pencil over draft paper

Author: Corregidor Francisco de Avila Size (580 x 425) Handmade colours

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

273

16.AGI-179

San Antonio de Padilla (1750.07.12)

18.AGI-182

Altamira

(1751.07.12)

Plan of the Villa de San Antonio de Padilla 8

Plan of the Villa de Altamira wher Horcasitas is 10

leagues southeast from Santander and 7 leagues

leagues

Nor-North-East from Guemes. Piece 15

South-South-East;

Size (410 x 300)

North-North-East. Piece 17

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

Size (410 x 300)

Vues-North-East; Mision

Tampico de

7

Santander

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

17.AGI-180

274

Horcasitas

(1750.07.12)

19.AGI-183

Capital Nuevo Santander (1751.07.12)

Plan of Horcasitas city (San Juan Bautista) 12

Plan of the Ville capital of the Nuevo Santander; 12

leagues West from Altamira, 16 from Barra de

leagues North-East from Soto La Marina, 15

Tampico. The tidal-rips are 3 leagues river-up,

South-South-East

navigate by canoes for commerce. 6 leagues

South-South-East of Burgos and 8 North-East from

Ves-North-East from Villa de Escandon and 15

Padilla. Two water canals irrigated its lands; the

leagues Veste of Santa Barbara. Piece 16

river runs 2 leagues far from its South running

Size (410 x 300)

West-East. Piece 18

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

Size (410 x 300)

from

San

Francisco,

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

15

20.AGI-184

Reinosa

(1751.07.12)

22.AGI-186

Santa Maria de Aguayo (1751.07.12)

Plan of Villa de Reinosa 12 leagues East from

Plan of Villa de Santa Maria de Aguayo in the Voca

Camargo; 30 Northwest from San Fernando and 25

of San Marcos de Sierra Gorda. Jaumave is 10

about Northeast from Burgos. Piece 19

leagues South; Villa de Yera is 12 leagues

Size (410 x 300)

Southeast; Guemes is 8 North-North-East and San

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

Antonio de los Llanos 18 North. Real de los Infantes East, Sierra Gorda in the middle about 8 leagues. All surrounded by mineral mountains Size (410 x 300) Handmade by pen over parchment paper

21.AGI-185

Burgos

(1751.07.12)

23.AGI-187

Camargo

(1751.07.12)

Plan of Villa de Burgos, 20 leagues about East of

Plan of Villa de Camargo 12 leagues West of

Linares, 25 South of Camargo, same leagues

Reynosa, from 18 to 20 East of Revilla; 25 North of

South-South-East from Reinosa; 14 West from San

Burgos; about 30 North-West of San Fernando. Rio

Fernando and 15 Nor-East from Santander. It leads

Grande del Norte pass more than 2 leagues from it

on the North side of the basement of Sierra

Size (410 x 300)

Tamaulipas of the new Reino de Leon. Piece 20

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

Size (410 x 320)

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

275

24.AGI-188

Soto La Marina

(1751.07.12)

26.AGI-190

Santa Barbara

(1751.07.12)

Plan of the Village and Port of Soto Lamarina 5

Plan of Villa de Santa Barvara in the West side of

leagues West of the Barra del Nuevo Santander; 3

the basement of Sierra Gorda in a large and fertile

from Las Salinas; 12 South-East of Villa Santander;

valley in-between 2 little rivers with permanent

from 25 to 30 North-East from Horcasitas and little

water. It is in-between of Huasteca, Horcasitas and

far North from Altamira in 24 Degrees 45 Minutes

Llera. Piece 25

altitude. Piece 23

Size (410 x 300)

Size (410 x 300)

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

25.AGI-189

Santa Maria de Llera

(1751.07.12)

27.AGI-191

San Fernando

(1751.07.12)

Plan of Villa de Santa Maria de Yera. Piece 24

Plan of Villa de San Fernando; Las Salinas de la

Size (410 x 300)

Barra are 4 leagues to the South-East, the sea 5

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

leagues

East;

Villa

North-North-West;

de

Camargo

Reinosa 35

30

North-West;

Burgos 14 to the West; and Santander 15 to the South-West. Piece 27 Size (410 x 300)

276

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

28.AGI-192

Revilla

(1751.07.12)

30.AGI-194

San Francisco de Guemes (1751.07.12)

Plan of the Villa de Revilla; 8 leagues far from the

Plan of Villa de San Francisco de Guemes 7 leagues

Northern Rio Grande. Piece 29

South-South-East from Padilla; 8 North-North-East

Size (410 x 300)

from Aguayo; and 14 Southwest from San Antonio

Handmade by pen over parchment paper

de los Llanos. Piece 32 Size (410 x 300) Handmade by pen over parchment paper

29.AGI-193

Escandon

(1751.07.12)

31.AGI-201A

Guadalajara

Plan of Villa de Escandon in the West riverside of

Plan of Guadalaxara city

Rio Guayalexo that is 4 leagues far and join Rio

Size (810 x 600)

Frio. Piece 30

Handmade colours

(1753.08.31)

Size (410 x 300) Handmade by pen over parchment paper

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

277

32.AGI-280

34.AGI-446

Zocalo of Mexico City (1793)

Map of the town of San Phelipe de Cuquio and its

View of the main Plaza of Mexico City. Renewed

district

and upgraded by disposition of his Excellence Sir

Author: City Mayor Don Joachim de Mestas

Virrey Conde de Revillagigedo in the year of 1793

Size (300 x 600)

Size (670 x 450)

Handmade colours

Handmade by ink over parchment paper

33.AGI-444

278

San Phelipe de Cuquio (1772)

Mexico City

(1793)

35.AGI-455

Valladolid de Mechoacan (1794.10.30)

Iconographic Plan of Mexico, showing its main

Plan or Map of the Noble City of Valladolid (de

Barrios, made to settle them and establish a good

Mechoacan) ordered by the Virrey de la Nueva

order in its cleaning organization

Espana Marques de Branciforte

Author: Maestro Mayor D. Ignacio Castera

Author: Corregidor Francisco de Avila

Size (600 x 460)

Size (550 x 380)

Handmade colours

Handmade carved colour

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

36.AGI-456

San Luis Potosi

(1794.12.15)

38.AGI-478

Candelaria de Azanza (1799.10.27)

Plan of the Noble and Loyal City of San Luis Potosi.

Plan of Pueblo de Nuestra Senora de Candelaria de

Made by the military Captain D. Manuel Pascual de

Azanza; Plan of the church, its offices and Casa

Burgoa, following orders of the Virrey de Nueva

Cural; and Church’s facade

Espana Marques de Branciforte

Size (615 x 410)

Author: Captain D. Manuel Pascual de Burgoa

Handmade colours over parchment paper

Size (405 x 300) Handmade carved colours

37.AGI-457

La Puebla

(1794)

39.AGI-479

Nueva Veracruz

(1800.03.03)

Plan of the city of Puebla de los Angeles. Showing

Plan of New Veracruz city and its expansion project

the natural enviroment

Size (710 x 455)

Authors: Joseph de Nava and Francisco de la Rosa

Handmade colours over parchment paper

Handmade carved colours

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

279

40.AGI-578

Antequera

(1688.02.25)

42.AGI-603

Queretaro

(1796)

Plan of the Plaza of Santa Catalina Martir in

Plan of Santiago de Queretaro following the

Antequera of Oaxaca

ordinances of the division of the city by Jose

Author: Juan de Aragon

Ignacio Ruiz Calado

Handmade colours

Handmade by ink

41.AGI-602

Reducto 602

(1701)

43.AGI-666

Ameca Meca

(1709.11.29)

Plan of a fortress. Internal structures and external

Map of the pueblo of Ameca Meca and its

protection gadgets.

surroundings. The volcanoes Bolcan and Sierra Nevada are displayed in the East Author: Escribania de Camara Handmade colours

280

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

44.AGI-705

Curato de San Pablo

(1699)

46.

Mexico City

(1884)

Territory of the Curato de San Pablo in Mexico City

Plano General de la Ciudad de Mexico

Handmade ink colours

Handmade black ink over white draft paper

(b) Archivo General de la Nacion and other collectiosns.

Mexico City, Mexico.

Notes: a) The slides will be organized as follows: -Maps and Plans of settlements -Fortress, Fortified houses and Presidios -Iconographic images b) Available remarks will be mentioned per image.

45.

Mexico City

(1737.07.15)

47.

Acapulco

Mexico City blocks and buildings

Puerto de Acapulco showing San Diego Castle

Author: Don Pedro de Arrieta

(fortress) in the centre of the city. The interior of it

Handmade colours

is around a central plaza with orthogonal buildings.

Handmade colours

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

281

48.

50.

Campeche

Codex showing the planning of “chinampas�

Port of Campeche showing the city walls on its

(floating fields) with water channels and pathways

perimeter and urban trace

in north-south way. Landlord divisions

Handmade colours over parchment paper

49.

San Francisco de Campeche

(1779.05.20)

Map with areas in the city showing the character of buildings. Sections in the bottom Author: Agustin Cramer

Tenochtitlan

Handmade colours over amate paper

51.

Mexico City

(1772)

Ciudad de Mexico, Conde de Tepa.

Author: Don Joseph Antonio Alute Handmade black ink

Handmade colours

282

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

52.

Mexico City

(1793)

Overview of Mexico City

54.

Tenochtitlan

Author: Teniente Coronel de Dragones Don Diego

Duran codex. Showing the big gap of the weapon

Garcia Conde

technology between the Aztecs and the Spaniards.

Handmade carved print

Author: Duran Handmade colours

53.

Mexico City

(1794)

General situation of streets and order of Mexico

55.

Mexico City

(1825)

City ordered by the Conde de Revilla Gigedo.

Interpretation by Dr. Ignacio Alcocer of the first

Author: Don Ignacio Castano

trace of Mexico City made by Alonso Garcia Bravo

Handmade colours

in 1521-1522 Author: Ing. J. R. Benitez Handmade ink

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

283

56.

Mexican Valley (1537) Karta Ofuer Staden Mexico, or Nuremberg Codex.

58.

Idealism on Mexico City Mexico Regia Et Celebris Hispanic Novae Civitas.

Handmade full colours carved print

Author: Alonso de la Santa Cruz Handmade colours

57.

Texcoco Lake Zone

59.

Veracruz and San Juan de Ulua

(1763.04.20)

Texcoco Lake and the floating colonial grid city.

Plan of the Plaza of Veracruz and the island with

Handmade ink over draft paper

San Juan de Ulua Castle.

Handmade colours over parchment paper

284

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

60.

62.

Colonial City

Campeche

(1755.02.11)

Mexico City blocks and buildings

Plaza

Author: Don Pedro de Arrieta

explanations

Handmade colours

Author: Rafael Fiobet

and

elevations

of

Campeche

with

Handmade colour pencil

61.

Temix Titan

(1524)

Tenochtitlan Nova Maris Oceani Hyspania Narratio.

Nuremburg Newberry Library.

Author: Hernan Cortes

63.

Penxamo

(1819)

Explanation plan of the new town of Penxamo and its fortification Handmade colours over parchment paper

Handmade colours

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

285

66.

64.

Mexico City

(1541)

Fortified house plan with symmetrical plan and

Tenochtitlan and its 4 barrios. Mendoza Codex.

central plaza, orthogonal location of structures

Author: Tlatelolco drafter

inside the fortified wall

Handmade colours over parchment paper

Handmade ink

67.

65.

Casa Fuerte

Vera Cruz

(1736.12.07)

Plan of the city of Vera Cruz and Castillo de San

Casa Fuerte de San Fernando

Plan, section and view of the Fortified house of San Fernando de Cordoba Handmade colour pencil

Juan de Ulua. Suggested projects to the better defence of the ships.

Author: Ing. Don Felix Prosperi. Madrid.

Handmade watercolour and ink

286

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

68.

Casa Fortaleza

70.

plan.

surrounded by perpendicular constructions

Central

plaza

surrounded

by

housing

structures using the 50% of their plots.

Handmade ink based drawing

Details of a Fortress

(1840)

Plan of a walled colony following the roman castra

Plan of a geometrical wall around a central plaza

69.

Walled “colony�

Printer matter

71.

Castle of San Diego

(1777)

Details of doors, bridges, guard corner of the wall

Project for a Castle to defence the entrance of

of a fortress probably for San Juan de Ulua Castle

Acapulco Port.

Freehand ink

Handmade colours on parchment paper

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

287

72.

Merida

(1792.10.01)

74.

Presidio Ntra. Sra. De Loreto, Tejas

(1722)

Plan and sections for a fortress in Merida

Geometrical structure with central plaza

Author: Rafael Llobet

Ink over craft paper

Handmade colours

73.

San Felipe Fortress

(1758.11.01)

75.

Presidio de Ntra. Sra. del Pilar Adais, Tejas (1722)

Plan of the project in the Presidio de Nuestra

Semi-symmetrical structure with central plaza

Senora del Carmen in Tris Island.

Ink over craft paper

Author: Gaupax de Couz Sevilla Handmade colours

288

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

76.

Presidio de Nuestra Sra. De Dolores, Tejas (1722)

78.

San Carlos Monterrey California

Squared figure with symmetrical exhibition of

Plan of the Royal Presidio de San Carlos in

structures. Central squared plaza with 4 streets in

Monterrey City and explanatory notes.

the corners. Triangular and rectangular lots.

Handmade colours

Ink over craft paper

77.

Presidio Sn. Antonio Abejar, Tejas Symmetrical

structure

with

(1722) central

79. plaza

Reducto de San Jose

(1799.12.18)

Plan and sections of the Reducto de San Jose in the

surrounded by squared blocks in rows with streets

Hill near the Plaza de Campeche.

in the corner and one central axis to the South.

Author: Juan Josef de Leon

Ink over craft paper

Handmade colours

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

289

80.

Reducto de San Miguel

(1802.10.05)

82.

Catedral de Mexico

Plans, sections and elevation of the Reducto de San

View of the Cathedral in Mexico City and the

Miguel in the top of the hill of Buenavista,

Metropolitan Sagrario. The Zocalo plaza has threes.

Campeche.

Probably is an image of the XVIII Century

Author: Rafael Llobet

Printer matter

Handmade colours

81.

San Juan de Ulua

83.

Mexico City

(1694-1700)

San Juan de Ulua Castle. Central Plaza surrounded

Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Mexico, showing the

by buildings in perpendicular orientation.

houses and the aqueduct. Still can be seeing part of

Author: Don Sigismundo Font

the lake, therefore could be a painting of the end of

Handmade colours

the XVII Century Oil painting

290

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

84.

Mexico City

(1766)

86.

Mexico City Valley

Imperial City of Mexico in America

Form and view of the gridiron of Mexico City

Author: Don Christoval de Zuniga y Ontiveros

Handmade colours

Handmade Ink drawing in a notebook

85.

Roldan Pier of Roldan in the Real Canal showing its busy activity commerce Lithography

87.

San Juan de Ulua Port and Marina of San Juan de Ulua Author: Batista Antonelly Handmade watercolour

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

291

88.

Guadalajara

(1835)

90.

Mexico City

Cathedral of Guadalajara, Colonnade (porticos) and

View of the top of the convent of Santa Teresa and

Main plaza with the daily basis activity.

the interior patios of the buildings. Towers from the

Author: Bojorquez

churches are the most important elements of the

Handmade black pen

cityscape. Probably around middle the XVIII Century.

Lithography color

89.

Guadalajara

(1680)

91.

Matamoros

Aerial view of Guadalajara showing its gridiron,

View from the outskirts of Matamoros city showing

Bull fighting stadium (plaza de toros) and

the maritime access and the cityscape.

surrounding context.

Pencil and colour painting

Lithography black&white

292

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

94.

92.

Acapulco

(1632)

Mexico City

Aerial view of Acapulco bay showing the churches

Texcoco Lake and the Spanish City probably in the

of the foundation of the city. San Diego Fortress

XVI Century. The column with the eagle is the

was not being build yet.

Aztec symbol of the foundation of the city. The

Author: Nicolas Cardona

buildings are totally European style.

Handmade colours

Carved Lithography in colours

93.

Zocalo

95.

Tenochtitlan

View to the Cathedral in the front and the National

Interpretation of the city of Tenochtitlan about the

Palace in the left hand side. Because the cars and

beginning of the XVI Century. The four avenues

horses of the scene this lithography must be from

come from the central side of the main square and

the beginning of 1900.

the canals runs as a gridiron over the sea.

Black&White Lithography

Oil Painting

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

293

96.

Veracruz

(1737.07.15)

98.

Anahuac Valley

(1875.04)

Aerial view of Veracruz. Still can be seeing the city

Aerial view of the Valley and lake around Mexico

wall and the open central plaza surrounded by the

City. The grid pattern can be appreciated at the

church and Governor’s Palace. The port to the sea

bottom of the painting.

and the island wher San Juan de Ulua Fortress is

Author: Vicente de Mauer

located.

Oil painting

Author: Casimiro Castro Lithography in black&white

97.

Ventas de Buitron

99.

Mexico City

Project of Ventas de Buitron showing several open

This view was painted from a zeppelin showing the

squares and a gridiron design for the city. The

urban trace, open squares, parks, blocks and main

island is the Marina project for San Juan de Ulua.

buildings in Mexico City’s Valley. Texcoco Lake

Lithography in colours

was almost lost; therefore the date of this painting should be in the beginning of the XVIII Century.

Handmade

coloured

pen

(presented

black&white)

294

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

in

Appendix-ix Classification list of the gridiron particulars of the Novo-Hispanic cities

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

295

296

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

297

Appendix-x Catalogue of aerial-photogrametrics and satellite views of Novo-Hispanic grid cities in Mexican territory up-to-date with information of INEGI, SINFA, UNAM, Google Earth &World Wind by NASA.

Location of the cities (with yellow marker) that will be displayed in this section. The white lines are the State divisions. (a) Satellite views of Novo-Hispanic settlements catalogued as “LINEAR� grid cities

Villa de Camargo, Tamaulipas

298

Pueblo de Huajutla, Hidalgo

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Ixtapa, Chiapas

Saltillo, capital of Coahuila State

Chihuahua, capital of Chihuahua State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

299

Ameca Meca, Estado de Mexico Gueguetoca, Estado de Mexico

Poblado de Cacalostoc, Estado de Mexico 300

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Tula, capital of Hidalgo State

Yrapuato, Guanajuato

Poblado de Atotonilco, Jalisco

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

301

Ocotan, Jalisco

Poblado de Ostotipaquillo, Jalisco

San Phelipe de Cuquio, Jalisco

Pueblo de Tzapopan, Jalisco

302

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Acaponeta, Nayarit

Ixtlan del Rio, Nayarit

Poblado de Amatan, Nayarit

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

303

Ahuacatlan arriba, Nayarit

Ahuatlan abajo, Nayarit

Poblado y Puerto de Tonala, Tabasco

Villa de Revilla, Tamaulipas

304

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Villahermosa, capital of Tabasco State

Burgos, Tamaulipas

San Antonio de Padilla, Tamaulipas

Poblado de Coatepec, Veracruz

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

305

Tlaxcala, capital de Tlaxcala State

Tlacontepec, Veracruz

Poblado de Maldinga, Veracruz

306

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Poblacion de Casamaloapan, Veracruz

(b) Satellite views of Novo-Hispanic settlements catalogued as “REGULAR” grid cities

Acatic, Jalisco

Puerto de Campeche, capital de Campeche State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

307

Poblacion de Candelaria, Campeche

Tenancingo, Estado de Mexico

308

Toluca, capital of Estado de Mexico State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Tonala (downtown), Chiapas

Tonala (midtown), Chiapas

Tlalmanalco, Estado de Mexico

Penxamo, Guanajuato

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309

Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas

Pueblo de Chicoloapa, Estado de Mexico

Puerto de Chetumal, capital of Quintana Roo State

310

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Ciudad de Durango, capital of Durango State

Nayarit, capital of Nayarit State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

311

Bahia de Bacalar, Quintana Roo

312

Culiacan, capital of Sinaloa State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Teutenango, Estado de Mexico

Sentispac, Jalisco

Village of Escandon, Tamaulipas

Ciudad de Matamoros, Tamaulipas

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

313

Tequila, Jalisco

Ocotlan, Jalisco

Barrio de San Pablo (inside Mexico City), Distrito Federal

314

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Puerto de San Blas, Nayarit

Holbox, Cabo Catoche, Quintana Roo

Candelaria de Azanza, Nuevo Leon

Tlacotalpan, Veracruz

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

315

Santiago de Queretaro, capital of Queretaro State

316

Tuxpan, Jalisco

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Villa de Altamira, Tamaulipas

(c) Satellite views of Novo-Hispanic settlements catalogued as “SQUARED� grid cities

Ejido Santa Maria de Lera, Tamaulipas

Buitron (inside Veracruz city), capital of Veracruz State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

317

Santa Maria de Aguayo (inside Ciudad Victoria), Tamaulipas

Tenochtitlan-Mexico City, Federal District, capital of Mexico

318

Plaza de Santo Domingo (inside Mexico City), Federal District

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Guadalaxara, capital of Jalisco State

Valladolid, capital of Michoacan State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

319

Puerto de la Paz, capital of Baja California Sur State

Ciudad Cuauhtemoc, Chihuahua

Bernal de Orcasitas, Tamaulipas

320

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Poblado de Cacaluta, Jalisco

Monterrey, capital of Nuevo Leon State

Ejido de Santa Barbara norte, Tamaulipas

Ejido de Santa Barbara sur, Tamaulipas

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

321

Nuevo Laredo (border with the U.S.A.) Tamaulipas

322

Nuevo Laredo (city center), Tamaulipas

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

San Luis Potosi, capital of San Luis Potosi State

Nuevo Santander (Ciudad Victoria), capital of Tamaulipas State GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

323

Antequera, capital of Oaxaca State

324

La Puebla, capital of Puebla State

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Ejido de San Francisco de Guemes (north to south) Tamaulipas

Ciudad de San Fernando, Tamaulipas

Villa de Reynosa, Tamaulipas

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

325

Soto La Marina (downtown), Tamaulipas

326

Soto La Marina (south), Tamaulipas

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Tampico (midtown), Tamaulipas

Tampico (downtown), Tamaulipas

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

327

Masambique, Veracruz

Nueva Veracruz (inside Veracruz city), capital of Veracruz State

Ejido near Masambique, Veracruz Puerto Progreso, Yucatan

328

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

New Town planning near Cancun, Quintana Roo The first fortress in the Americas. Fort of San Juan de Ulua, Veracruz, in front of the city over the sea. Its central patio can be understood as the scheme of plaza, and its surrounding structures (colonnade) can be compared with the constructions around the main squares in the cities. Features as symmetry, orthogonality, human scale and protection are very similar to the ones described in the Ordinances to design the cities.

Ejido near Peten Itza, Quintana Roo

(d) Special cases and visual environments

Patio de Armas inside San Carlos fortress

View of the arcade in San Juan de Ulua, Veracruz

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329

(left up-down) Squared shape, Reducto San Jose, Reducto de San Miguel, one side curved shaped & symmetry shaped Bateria de San Luis, all in Campeche State

(right up-down) Fuerte Bacalar, Quintana Roo with a “star” shape as well as the Fuerte de San Carlos with a huge internal plaza surrounded by a building per its four sides in Perote, Veracruz

330

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(left up-down) Fort of San Diego, Acapulco, Guerrero. Sea-star shaped building with outside geometrical figure walls; Reminiscences of the wall of a fortified city, Campeche, Campeche (right up-down) General view of the wall of Campeche City; Interior courtyard of the “rebellon� (corner structures of the fort of San Juan de Ulua, Veracruz) and exterior view of the wall

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

331

Visual environments of Novo-Hispanic grid cities

(up and down) False axonometric aerial view of Mexico City

332

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

The Anahuac Valley (upper image) and Mexico City (lower image) seeing from the Russian Space Station-MIR, 2000 (photographs courtesy of the Russian Federal Space Agency)

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

333

Panoramic photograph of the Zocalo (downtown Mexico City)

Photogrametrics of Mexico City’s downtown

334

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

335

Several photographs of Mexico City/Mexico City’s downtown

336

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

337

Several photographs of Mexico City/Mexico City’s downtown

338

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

339

Environments around the Novo-Hispanic Mexico City

340

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl (inside Mexico City) Estado de Mexico

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

341

Urban tissue (up); group of cells (down); aerial views (left) Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl (inside Mexico City) Estado de Mexico

342

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Several views of the Valley of Mexico. (left) Tenochtitlan in 1500; (right) Mexico City 2000; (down) overlaying of both images

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

343

Tenochtitlan, Interpretation of the Aztec capital (upper); Computer rendering of the twin-pyramid (left); Codex explaining the main temple and the wall around the ceremonial center of the city.

344

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

345

Different reconstruction views of the urban landscape, buildings, architecture, open spaces, morphological features, scale and proportions of the Ancient city of Tenochtitlan (unfortunately destroyed but with some ruins and historical documentation to create theoretical models of how it was)

346

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

(left, up to down) four general city views of the urban-face replacement of Tenochtitlan. (in black&white) before, during and after the conquest (in color) a representation of the final battle (right) a hand-drawing map and a computer-generated model of the city. We can appreciate in both the morphological features of the city, its orientation, the main streets, its open public spaces, houses&governmental bldgs.

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

347

Appendix-xi Selected cities list. Analogue information for the comparisons.

348

and

graphical

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Appendix-xii a Matrix of the urban features followed from the Ordinances of/per the selected Novo-Hispanic grid cities

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

349

Matrix ordering the cities by their foundational dates.

Classification of cities and general average of the urban elements.

New City New City Fusion city Fusion city Fusion city New City Fusion city Fusion city New City Fusion city New City New City New City Fusion city New City New City New City New City New City New City New City New City

Notes: The numerical data (1/2/0) is multiplied by 0.5 to obtain the total values. Our definitions for cities are NEW CITY & FUSION CITY. The city Candelaria de Azanza is considered as TEMPORAL CITY as it was abandoned few years after its foundation and is not included in this chart.

350

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Appendix-xiii Overlap of temporal city grid layers & Profile Inventory

VENTAS DE BUITRON / NUEVA VERACRUZ / ZOCALO / MEXICO-TENOCHTITLAN / SAN PABLO / AMECA MECA / CHICOLOAPA / LA PUEBLA / QUERETARO / ANTEQUERA / CAMPECHE / VALLADOLID / GUADALAXARA / MERIDA / BACALAR / TEUTENANGO / SAN LUIS POTOSI / SAN FRANCISCO DE GUEMES / ORCASITAS / VILLA DE BURGOS / VILLA DE REYNOSA / VILLA DE ALTAMIRA / SOTO LA MARINA / SANTA MARIA DE AGUAYO / CANDELARIA DE AZANZA (ordered and showing the year of foundation in the satellite view / and showing on the maps the year they were drew)

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351

MAGTAM

352

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

Profile Cards & Inventory of cities

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

457

458

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

459

460

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GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

461

462

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

464

inner city

inner city

NEW CITY

Perfect mesh

1519

NEW CITY

Regular mesh 8,720,916 inhabitants

Aztecas Perfect mesh FUSION CITY

Pre-Hispanic city 1268 Novo-Hispanic city 1525

AMECA MECA 48,363 inhabitants

Chichi-Totolimpanecas

Imperfect mesh

FUSION CITY

1,485,941 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city same area Novo-Hispanic city 1531.04.16

LA PUEBLA

NEW CITY

Cuetlaxcoapan Perfect mesh

VALLADOLID

684,145 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city 600 Novo-Hispanic city 1541.05.18

173,645 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city same area Novo-Hispanic city 1540.10.04

CAMPECHE

13.5/16 points

Regular mesh FUSION CITY

160X120/160X95/100X95

14.5/16 points

734,139 inhabitants

1531

9.5/16 points

QUERETARO

Pre-Hispanic city same place Novo-Hispanic city 1531.07.25

Block 180X90mts

13/16 points

1525 FUSION CITY

Conin/Jilotepec

Main Plaza 95X95mts

140X100/115X110/110X110

170,035 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city 13,000 B.C. Novo-Hispanic city 1528

CHICOLOAPA

Chicoloapanes Regular mesh

Main Plaza 180X90mts

1521 FUSION CITY

Imperfect mesh

Azteca

Main Plaza 165X150mts

130X115/130X100/100X100 Pre-Hispanic city 1325 Novo-Hispanic city 1521

SAN PABLO inner city

Main Plaza 250X230mts

MEXICO-TENOCHTITLAN

Pre-Hispanic city 1325 Novo-Hispanic city 1521

INVENTORY OF NOVO-HISPANIC CITIES (compilation along the time-line) Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1519.07.10

VERACRUZ

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1519

VENTAS DE BUITRON

115X100/100X100/90X75

11.5/16 points

1531

1532

FUSION CITY

Perfect mesh

Zapoteca/Mixteca

14/16 points

258,089 inhabitants

12.5/16 points

VALLADOLID

BACALAR

TEUTENANGO

ALTAMIRA

NEW CITY

Mayan Perfect mesh

1540

Mechuacan Regular Mesh

FUSION CITY

1541

Cuzco/Cartagena de Indias 1533 1535 Lima/Guayaquil, Trujillo, Buenos Aires, Vitoria 1532 Quito/San Francisco 1537 Asuncion/Coquimbo La Plata/Cali 1536

Block 105X105mts

Main Plaza 105X105mts

13/16 points

ANTEQUERA

Pre-Hispanic city 1486 Novo-Hispanic city 1532

170X160/170X100/130X130

8/16 points

1528

11.5/16 points

Block 150X150/150X75mts

Main Plaza 125X125mts

1521

Main Plaza 115X75mts

Block 150X150/150X75mts

Main Plaza 60X50mts

1519 NEW CITY

Regular mesh

Detail of the Matrix of the urban features (for reference see the Appendix-xii)

Note: Left to Right should be readed Up to Down

VENTAS DE BUITRON

1526 Ordinances of Granada

San Miguel 1530

Main Plaza 60X50mts

444,438 inhabitants

1519 Trujillo/Santa Marta/Tlaxcala 1525

ORCASITAS

1520 Panuco/Segura de la Front./Sta. Ines/Santiago

(FROM 10 TO 12 pts.)

Carlos I / Carlos V Ordinances 1523

BETA CITIES

SAN FCO. DE GUEMES

1526 Tumbez

Main Plaza 150X150mts

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1519

Block 150X75/130X70mts

NUEVA VERACRUZ

14/16 points

Main Plaza 100X100mts

200X200/200X150/200X100

BURGOS

1512 Laws of Burgos 1513 The Requirement

(LESS THAN 10 pts.)

CANDELARIA DE AZANZA

AMECA MECA

Miami/San Salvador 1510 Santiago de Cuba 1514 1515 Habana San Juan de Puerto Rico 1508 1511 Cabo Catoche/Holbox 1519 Panama Vieja Santo Domingo 1502 Balboa 1513

GAMMA CITIES

SAN PABLO

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1542 1,600,940 inhabitants

NEW CITY

Perfect mesh

Pre-Hispanic city 700 Novo-Hispanic city 1582

TEUTENANGO 68,669

FUSION CITY

Matlatzincas Imperfect mesh 14,424 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1749.01.01

SAN FCO. DE GUEMES NEW CITY

Perfect mesh 1,032 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1749.02.02

VILLA DE BURGOS

NEW CITY

Regular mesh

22,826 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1750.09.03

SOTO LA MARINA

NEW CITY

Perfect mesh

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1798

CANDELARIA DE AZANZA

8/16 points

GUADALAXARA

13/16 points

NEW CITY

1750

MERIDA

LA PUEBLA

Block 240X90/145X65mts

9/16 points

1750

10/16 points

162,628 inhabitants

1749

NUEVA VERACRUZ

NEW CITY

Block 95X95mts

SANTA MA. DE AGUAYO

1749 NEW CITY

Perfect mesh

11.5/16 points

Block 90X85/85X85mts

STA. MA. DE AGUAYO

293,044

15/16 points

Block 85X80/85X60mts

526,888 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1749.03.14

VILLA DE REYNOSA

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1750.10.06

Main Plaza 120X90mts

1749 NEW CITY

CAMPECHE

QUERETARO

Perfect mesh

Main Plaza 105X105mts

110X90/100X90/95X90 Pre-Hispanic city Block 25X34m 1749

ORCASITAS

Perfect mesh

Main Plaza 80X75mts

1582 NEW CITY

12,000

Main Plaza 130X100mts

140X100/100X95/100X90

730,950 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city same area Novo-Hispanic city 1592.11.03

SAN LUIS POTOSI

Guaichiles/Tlaxcaltecas Perfect mesh

Main Plaza 105X85mts

1542 NEW CITY

Mayan Perfect mesh

Main Plaza 105X95mts

90X85/85X80/75X75

781,146 inhabitants

Pre-Hispanic city same area Novo-Hispanic city 1542.01.06

MERIDA

MEXICO-TENOCHTITLAN

150X100/135X90/90X90

13.5/16 points

SAN LUIS POTOSI

1749

12.5/16 points

ATEQUERA

Felipe III Ordinances 1608 Alfaro Laws 1612 1680 Compilation of the Leyes de Indias by Carlos II Ordinances for discovering, new towns and pacification of the West Indies by Felipe II 1573

SOTO LA MARINA

Perfect mesh

10/16 points

VILLA DE ALTAMIRA

Pre-Hispanic city Novo-Hispanic city 1749.05.02

Block 95X95

13/16 points

1749

ORCASITAS, TAMAULIPAS

TEUTENANGO, EDO DE MEX

14.5/16 points

Block 130X130mts

Main Plaza 90X90mts

1592

Main Plaza 105X105mts

MERIDA, YUCATAN

160X70/80X70/70X70

Main Plaza 130X130mts

1542 NEW CITY

Mayan Regular mesh

Main Plaza 90X90mts

9,833 inhabitants

Main Plaza 130X125

BACALAR

Pre-Hispanic city same area Novo-Hispanic city 1545

160X130/135X135/125X120

GUADALAJARA, GUADALAJARA

11.5/16 points

CUAUHTEMOC, CHIHUAHUA

11.5/16 points

1545

Main Plaza 125X85mts

1542 New Laws

REYNOSA

(for complete list of foundation dates in Latinamerica see chapter 2.2.2 -XV & XVI Centuries)

Main Plaza 100X100mts

Block 100X100mts

(MORE THAN 12 pts.)

…..Mendoza/Sao Luis 1560 1562 San Juan de la Frontera 1540 Santos-Sao Vicente Guaruja Santiago de Chile 1541 1542 Los Angeles………

1573 Cordoba………

ALFA CITIES

CHICOLOAPA

0

GUADALAXARA

-

Imperfect mesh

TEMPORAL CITY

1798

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

465

REFERENCES

7 –Abbreviations & Definitions

-

Ley de Indias – Compilation of rules from how to administrate the colonies to the urban design by

-

American Continent – It is divided in three

Felipe II in Spain in order to control the New

geographical big areas: North America (Canada, the U.S.A. and Mexico); Central American and the Caribbean

(Guatemala,

Belize,

Honduras,

Territories in the New World.

-

term we refer to the towns melted in the same urban

Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, the

mesh. In the case of Mexico City it covers a total of

Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic,

59 Municipalities. 16 inside the Federal District, 1 in

Dominica, Puerto Rico, San Vincent, Granada,

Hidalgo State and 42 in the contiguous Estado de

Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago and the Bermudas); and South America (Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana,

Mexico State.

-

Surinam, Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia,

-

Mexican territory.

ARCHINFO – Computer program to generate digital

-

time varies its limits, we consider for this study the

Archivo General de Indias – General Archive of the

area consolidated after the Mexican-American War at

Indies, Seville, Spain. An institute-museum that

the end of the XIX Century that reflects the almost

preserves maps, books, letters and all kind of data of

2,000,000 square kilometers as we know nowadays.

-

States – It is formed nowadays by 31 independent

Archive. Mexico City. Governmental Institution that

States and one Federal District (where Mexico City is

keeps several information from the Pre-Hispanic eras

partially located).

-

photographs, paintings, etc. Of the Pre-Hispanic (U.S.A.), Latinamerica and specially Mexico.

and

Space

New Territories – We use this term to refer all the lands owned by the Kingdom of Spain and Portugal from the XV to the XVII Centuries where ruled

Spanish crown as Spain itself and all Latinamerica

jointly under the Spanish sovereign, 1580-1640.

-

New World or New Indies – We use this term to refer all the American Continent. Term coined by Christopher Columbus after his discovering in 1492.

ILWIS – Acronym of Integrated Land and Watershed

-

Nova-Hispania term in Latin language (used from

Management Information System)

1492 to about 1600) or Nueva España (in Spanish

INEGI - Instituto Nacional de Geografia, Estadistica

language used from 1600 to 1821)– The Spanish

e Informatica (National Institute of Geography,

territories were divided in Viceroyalties. The

Statistics and Informatics) in Aguascalientes, Mexico.

“Virreinato de la Nueva España” (Viceroyalty of the

The National Authority of all kinds of geographical

New Spain) or in its Latin version “Nova-Hispania”

information of the Mexican United States.

is used to refer the particulars related to this territory

Google Earth & World Wind – Computer program

that nowadays covers almost all the Mexican

first developed by NASA and then wide spread on

Territory and almost half of the actual United States

the Internet by google to see the entire earth by

of America, also controlled the islands in the

satellite photographs.

-

Aeronautics

countries. Mainly those whom belonged to the Old

term.

-

National

Iberoamerica- includes all the Spanish-speaking

sometimes the Philippines are considered inside this

-

–

of the United States of America.

-

(excluded Brazil, Guyana, Surinam and Guiana),

-

NASA

Administration. Agency belongs to the Government

Empire, the Spanish Empire, the North-American

-

Mexico or Mexican Republic or The United Mexican

Archivo General de la Nacion – National General

to the present. Including maps, letters, laws,

-

Mexican Territory – Even Mexico’s Territory time to

geographical data.

the extinct Spanish Empire of the XV-XVII Century.

-

Mesoamerica – Territory located between the Southern States to the middle ones of the actual

Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentine and Chile).

-

MCMZ – Mexico City Metropolitan Zone. With this

El

Iberoamerica

–

Term

Caribbean sea and Central America. coined

to

refer

the

-

Novo-Hispanic cities – The term “Novo-Hispanic” is

Spanish-speaking countries, including Spain and

used in Latin language due that His Imperial Majesty

Latinamerica mainly.

Carlos I ruled the Spanish Empire (the “Holy Roman

Latinamerica or America Latina – Includes all the

Emperor”, also named Carlos V or King of Germany)

countries in the American Continent, except Canada

adopted Latin as official language that was widely

and the U.S.A.

used until the year 1600 A.D. GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

469

-

Pre-Hispanic or Pre-Columbian – Refers to the previous cultures, peoples, concepts, cities or époques that precedes Columbus discovering or

8 –Bibliography & References 1)

Spaniards arrival to the New World.

-

SINFA – Sistema Nacional de Fotografias Aereas

2)

(National System of Aerial Photography). This is a

-

collection of aerial and satellite photographs from the

3)

Mexican Government.

4)

The Americas or Pan America– Refers to all the countries inside the American Continent. It is defined by the United Nations in two big socio-political

5)

areas: North America (Canada and the U.S.A.) and Latinamerica (all the other countries from Mexico to the south pole). This term ignore or differs with the geographical division of the continent.

-

UNAM – “Universidad Nacional Autonoma de

6)

Mexico” (National Authonomous University of Mexico) -

U.S.A. – The United States of America. Also know as “America” –even it is not America-, “United States”

7)

–even there many other countries formed by the Union of States- or “North America” –even it is not North America-. In this work we avoid those terms to refer to this country using only its acronym: U.S.A.

-

U.S.M. – Acronym of the United States of Mexico.

8)

Also known as “Mexico” or “Republica Mexicana” (Republic of Mexico). Defined by 31 Federal States

9)

and 1 Federal District at the end of the XIX Century.

10)

11)

12)

13)

14)

15)

16)

Fig. 528 Spanish galleon arriving to Santo Domingo.

Carved wood lithography from the XVI Century.

470

17)

Alva Curtis Wilgus (1967) Historical Atlas of Latin America: political, geographic, economic, cultural. Copper Square Publishers. New York.

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Photograph, graphic & image credits For the section “Chapter figures” it is shown the consecutive number of figures.

For the “Appendix figures” the page and the sub sequential “zigzag” position on the page from up-left, up-right, middle-left, middle-right, down-left and down-right respectively is shown.

-AGI (Archivo General de Indias –West Indies Archive) Ministry of Culture of Spain, Seville, Spain. Images published under the permission of the General Direction of the AGI. Chapter figures 25, 26, 27, 77, 102, 127, 139, 170, 205, 216, 228, 245, 257, 280, 283, 294, 305, 323, 358, 365, 375, 382, 397, 404, 413, 427, 435, 446, 470, 471, 473, 481, 494, 501, 528 & 529 Appendix figures p253-1, p253-2, p253-3, p254-1, p254-2, p254-3, p254-4, p255-1, p255-2, p255-3, p255-4, p256-1, p256-2, p256-3, p256-4, p260-1, p260-6, p261-1, p261-4, p262-3, p262-5, p264-1, p265-1, p266-5, p270-1, p270-2, p270-3, p271-1, p271-2, p271-3, p271-4, p272-1, p272-2, p272-3, p272-4, p273-1, p273-2, p273-3, p273-4, p274-1, p274-2, p274-3, p274-4, p275-1, p275-2, p275-3, p275-4, p276-1, p276-2, p276-3, p276-4, p277-1, p277-2, p277-3, p277-4, p278-1, p278-2, p278-3, p278-4, p279-1, p279-2, p279-3, p279-4, p280-1, p280-2, p280-3, p280-4, p281-1, p281-2, p347-5, p347-6, p353, p357, p361, p365, p369, p373, p377, p381, p385, p389, p393, p397, p401, p405, p409, p413, p417, p421, p425, p429, p433, p437, p441, p445, p449, p453 & 528

-AGN (Archivo General de la Nacion –National General Archive) Mexico City. Permitted to publish for not commercial purposes.

Chapter figures 100, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 137, 243, 271, 339, 342, 414, 416, 463, 472, 474, 480, 486 & 487 Appendix figures p239-1, p239-4, p242-2, p282-3, p282-4, p283-1, p284-3, p284-4, p285-1, p286-3, p286-4, p287-1, p288-3, p288-4, p289-1, p290-3, p290-4, p291-1, p292-3, p292-4, p293-1, p294-3, p294-4, p329-2, p330-4, p330-5, p331-1, p336-2, p340-6, p344-3, , p347-3

p258-1, p283-2, p285-2, p287-2, p289-2, p291-2, p293-2, p329-5, p331-2, p346-2,

p281-3, p281-4, p282-1, p282-2, p283-3, p283-4, p284-1, p284-2, p285-3, p285-4, p286-1, p286-2, p287-3, p287-4, p288-1, p288-2, p289-3, p289-4, p290-1, p290-2, p291-3, p291-4, p292-1, p292-2, p293-3, p293-4, p294-1, p294-2, p329-6, p330-1, p330-2, p330-3, p331-3, p331-4, p331-5, p335-1, p346-4, p346-5, p346-7, p346-8 &

-FLI (Flickr) Various authors. Online photo management and sharing application at www. flicrk.com –no copyright expressly specified for the use of these images or images tagged as “no original authorship”.

Chapter figures 6, 7, 37, 39, 40, 50, 68, 115, 116, 128, 203, 210, 233, 225, 235, 236, 237, 239, 262, 264, 278, 282, 288, 289, 290, 291, 300, 301, 302, 310, 311, 312, 317, 319, 320, 331, 332, 350, 351, 352, 388, 410, 412, 420, 423, 424, 451, 506, 507, 508, 509 & 517 Appendix figures p228-5, p228-6, p229-2, p229-3, p229-4, p232-3, p240-5, p242-3, p242-4, p242-5, p265-7, p265-8, p335-2, p335-2, p335-7, p336-6, p338-4, p338-5, p338-6, p338-7, p342-2, p342-4, p344-1, p344-2, p345-1, p346-1, p346-3, p347-1, p347-4, & p347-7

p229-7, p244-6, p335-8, p339-1, p345-3,

p229-8, p260-4, p336-1, p340-2, p345-4,

Fig. 529 Map of Septentrional America (1746)

472

GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

p232-2, p265-6, p336-4, p341-2, p345-6,

-CM (Claudia Mercedes) Dominican Architect & photographer.

Photos published under her permission.

Chapter figures 17, 20, 31, 74, 91 & 165 Appendix figures p241-4, p241-6, p241-8, p262-8, p263-4, p263-6, p263-7, p264-2, p264-4, p264-6 & p335-5

-GE (Google Earth) Used of images from the application permitted “as long as you preserve the copyrights and attributions… not for commercial purposes” http://earth.google.com Chapter figures 32, 33, 34, 35, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53,54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 129, 138, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 180, 200, 201, 202, 207, 218, 234, 259, 273, 285, 296, 307, 344, 360, 367, 377, 384, 399, 428, 437, 448, 475, 503, 524, 525, 526 & 527 Appendix figures p229-5, p229-6, p230-1, p230-2, p230-3, p230-4, p230-5, p230-6, p230-7, p230-8, p231-1, p231-2, p231-3, p231-4, p231-5, p231-6, p231-7, p231-8, p234-1, p234-2, p234-3, p234-4, p234-5, p234-6, p234-7, p234-8, p235-1, p235-2, p235-3, p236-1, p236-3, p236-5, p237-1, p237-2, p237-3, p238-1, p238-2, p240-1, p240-2, p240-4, p240-7, p241-1, p241-3, p241-5, p241-7, p242-6, p243-1, p243-2, p243-4, p243-5, p243-6, p243-7, p244-1, p244-2, p244-3, p244-4, p244-7, p244-8, p245-1, p245-2, p245-3, p245-4, p246-1, p246-3, p246-4, p246-6, p248-1, p248-2, p248-3, p248-4, p248-5, p248-6, p248-7, p248-8, p249-1, p249-2, p249-3, p249-4, p249-5, p249-6, p249-7, p249-8, p250-1, p250-2, p250-3, p250-4, p250-5, p250-6, p250-7, p251-1, p251-2, p251-3, p251-4, p251-5, p251-6, p251-7, p251-8, p252-1, p252-2, p252-3, p252-4, p252-5, p252-6, p252-7, p252-8, p258-3, p258-5, p258-7, p258-8, p259-1, p259-3, p259-4, p259-5, p259-6, p259-7, p259-8, p260-2, p260-3, p260-5, p260-8, p261-2, p262-1, p262-2, p262-4, p262-6, p262-7, p263-2, p263-3, p263-5, p264-3, p264-5, p264-7, p265-2, p265-3v4, p265-5, p266-1, p266-2, p266-3, p266-4, p266-6, p266-7, p266-8, p298-1, p298-2, p299-1, p299-2, p299-3, p299-4, p299-5, p299-6, p299-7, p299-8, p300-1, p300-2, p300-3, p300-4, p300-56, p301-1, p301-2, p301-3, p301-5, p301-7, p302-1, p302-2, p302-3, p302-4, p302-5, p302-6, p302-7, p302-8, p303-1, p303-2, p303-3, p303-4, p303-5, p303-6, p304-1, p304-2, p304-3, p304-4, p304-5, p304-6, p304-7, p304-8, p305-1, p305-3, p305-5, p305-6, p305-7, p306-1, p306-2, p306-3, p306-4, p306-5, p306-6, p307-1, p307-2, p307-3, p307-5, p307-7, p308-2, p308-3, p308-5, p308-6, p308-7, p309-1, p309-2, p309-3, p309-4, p309-5, p309-6, p309-7, p309-8, p310-1, p310-2, p310-3, p310-4, p310-5, p310-6, p310-7, p310-8, p311-1, p311-2, p311-3, p311-4, p311-5, p311-6, p311-7, p311-8, p312-2, p312-3, p312-5, p312-7, p313-1, p313-2, p313-3, p313-4, p313-5, p313-6, p313-7, p313-8, p314-1, p314-3, p314-5, p314-6, p314-7, p315-1, p315-2, p315-3, p315-4, p315-5, p315-6, p315-7, p315-8, p316-1, p316-2, p316-3, p316-4, p316-5, p316-6, p316-7, p316-8, p317-6, p318-1, p318-3, p318-5, p318-7, p318-8, p319-1, p319-2, p319-3, p319-4, p319-5, p319-6, p319-7, p319-8, p320-1, p320-2, p320-3, p320-4, p320-5, p320-6, p320-7, p320-8, p321-1, p321-3, p321-5, p321-7, p321-8, p322-1, p322-2, p322-3, p322-4, p322-5, p322-6, p322-7, p322-8, p323-1, p323-2, p323-3, p323-4, p323-5, p323-6, p323-7, p323-8, p324-1, p324-3, p324-5, p324-7, p325-1, p325-2, p325-3, p325-4, p325-5, p325-6, p325-7, p325-8, p326-1, p326-2, p326-3, p326-4, p326-5, p326-6, p326-7, p326-8, p327-1, p327-2, p327-3, p327-4, p327-5, p327-6, p327-7, p327-8, p328-1, p328-3, p328-5, p328-6, p328-7, p329-1, p329-3, p329-4, p332-1, p332-2, p363, p371, p375, 379, p387, p391, p395, p399, p403, p407, p411, p419, p423, p427, p431, p439, p447, p451 & p455

-GOT (Gobierno de Tamaulipas –Tamaulipas State Government) Photos from the web page of Tamaulipas Government. Information use for academic purposes allowed.

Chapter figures 250, 251, 252, 253, 254 & 493,

-GTM (Gomez Tagle Martin) Photos taken by the author. In parenthesis are specified the places when taken inside a public facility.

Chapter figures 3, 4, 5, 11, 21, 22, 28, 30, 36, 38, 59, 71, 90, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 211, 212, 213, 221, 223, 225, 264, 265, 266, 269, 299, 313, 314, 316, 318, 328, 329, 330, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 347, 348, 353, 354, 355, 370, 371, 372, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 419, 432, 433, 440, 441, 442, 443, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 461, 462, 488, 489 & 490 Appendix figures p233-1, p233-2, p233-3, p233-4, p233-5, p233-6, p233-7, p233-9, p233-10, p235-5, p236-2, p236-4, p236-6, p236-7, p237-5, p238-3, p238-4, p238-5, p239-2, p239-3, p239-5, p240-6, p243-3, p245-5, p246-2, p246-5, p247-1, p247-2, p247-4, p250-5, p258-2, p258-4, p258-6, p259-2, p260-7, p261-5, p334-2, p335-4, p335-6, p336-3, p336-5, p337-1, p337-3, p337-4, p337-5, p337-6, p337-7, p337-8, p338-1, p338-3, p339-2, p339-3, p339-4, p339-5, p340-4 & p340-5

166, 315, 349, 409, 460,

p233-8, p237-4, p240-3, p247-3, p261-3, p337-2, p338-2,

Original figures in Chapter and Appendixes (Museo de las Casas Reales, Santo Domingo) 8, 530 (Museo de la Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico City) 15, 19, 24, (Templo Mayor Museum, Mexico City) 14, , p345-2, p345-5 (Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City) 12, 73, 76, (National Palace, Mexico City) 13, 136 (Original Digital composing over AGI/AGN images) 171, 206, 217, 229, 240, 246, 258, 272, 281, 284, 295, 306, 324, 343, 359, 366, 376, 383, 398, 405, 429, 436, 447, 467, 477, 482, 495, 502, (Original Digital composing over GE/ISU images) 132, 148, 149, 150, 151, 155, 156, 157, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 177, 178, 179, 181, 208, 219, 231, 242, 248, 260, 274, 286, 297, 308, 326, 345, 361, 368, 378, 385, 400, 421, 430, 438, 449, 468, 478, 484, 497, 504, p298, (Original Digital overlay of AGI/AGN and GE/ISU) 172, 204, 209, 214, 215, 220, 226, 227, 232, 238, 241, 244, 249, 255, 256, 261, 267, 268, 270, 275, 276, 277, 287, 292, 293, 298, 303, 304, 309, 321, 322, 327, 340, 341, 346, 356, 357, 362, 263, 364, 369, 373, 374, 379, 380, 381, 386, 395, 396, 401, 402, 403, 408, 411, 418, 422, 425, 426, 431, 434, 439, 444, 445, 450, 464, 465, 466, 469, 476, 479, 485, 491, 492, 498, 499, 500, 505, 510, 519, (Original Digital renderings) 152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160, 182, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 514, 515, (Computer Generated Charts and Tables) 130, 131, 175, 176, 183, 184, 512, 513, 518, 520, 521, 522, 523, p227, p257, p267, p268, p269, p295, p296, p297, p348, p349, p350 (Original Digital multi-composing) 92, 169, 173, 174, 511, p343-3, p351, p457-1, p457-2, p457-3, p457-4, p458-1, p458-2, p458-3, p458-4, p459-1, p459-2, p459-3, p459-4, p460-1, p460-2, p460-3, p460-4, p461-1, p461-2, p461-3, p461-4, p462-1, p462-2, p462-3, p462-4 & internal cover (cross drawing) (Final Presentation Handouts) p477-all, p478-all, p479-all, p480-all, p481-all, p482-all, p483-all, p484-all, p485-all, p486-all

-HH (Hara Hiroshi) inner covers. Sketch notes drafted during a conversation the second week of June 2007 in Atelier-Phi. Published under his permission.

Inner covers 1 & 531 GOMEZ TAGLE Morales, Jose Martin

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Acknowledgments

First of all I want to dedicate this work to my parents Dr. Don Enrique Gomez Tagle Gonzalez and Marbel Morales Leon whom I admire since the first moment of my life.

To all the members of my family, Erika, Rafael, Rocio, Paty, Margarita, Bety and David; and… para mis sobrinos adorados que sé que lograrán siempre sus metas académicas; ¡ adelante ! ¡ los quiero mucho !

Fig. 530 Scene in one of the principal streets of Santo Domingo, 1871.

-ISU (INEGI, SINFA & UNAM) Aerial-photogrametrics published under the institutions’ permission.

Chapter figures 133, 134, 140, 141, 230, 247, 279, 325, 406, 407, 483, 496 & 516 Appendix figures p242-1, p300-7, p300-8, p301-4, p301-6, p303-7, p303-8, p305-4, p306-7, p306-8, p307-4, p307-6, p308-1, p308-4, p312-4, p312-6, p314-2, p314-4, p317-1, p317-2, p317-3, p317-5, p318-2, p318-4, p318-6, p321-2, p321-4, p321-6, p324-4, p324-6, p324-8, p328-2, p328-4, p334-1, p341-1, p342-3, p342-1, p335, p359, p367, p383, p415, p435 & p443,

p305-2, p312-1, p317-4, p324-2, p342-1,

-MIR (Russian Space Administration, Mir Station, World Wind & NASA –National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Published allowed by mentioning the copyrights.

Chapter figures 43, 56 & 142

To my Professor Dr. Akira Fujii whom accepted me in his laboratory and always supports me, not only for this work but also for all the opportunities he gave me during my time in Tokyo and overseas.

My sincere gratitude to my Committee for their guidance and commitment throughout this practicum: Prof. Takeshi Ito, Prof. Terunobu Fujimori, Assoc.

Prof. Kazuhiko Nishide and Assoc. Prof. Shin Muramatsu.

To Professor Dr. Hiroshi Hara who first introduce me the idea to pursue my graduate studies in Japan.

To Ogoma San who always advice, support and help me during my daily life at The University of Tokyo.

Chapter figures 222, 224, 415, 417, 452 & 453,

To Hashimoto San, Imai San and Nabeshima San for their advice in my thesis presentation and to all my friends associated to the Laboratory. To my “senpai” Sha, Erez, Alvaro, Kevin, Tomoko and Jin but especially to my “kohai” Junko, Glen, Esteban, Ko and George with whom the “shokudo-time” were the best moments during the development of my writing.

-TY (Taketomi Yasumi) Japanese Architect. Published under his permission.

To the Japanese Ministry of Science and Education for funding this research.

Appendix figures p232-4, p232-5, p333-1, p331-2, & p343-2

-PL (Peter Langer – Associated Media Group). Use for non-commercial purposes.

Chapter figures 95 -WIKI (Wikipedia) Images tagged as “copyright free license” and “common property and no contains no original authorship” from the website http://wikipedia.org

To my young Russian friends, Lena, Ira, Marina and Tanya, who became an important part of my life during my Doctorate.

Chapter figures 2, 9, 10, 16, 18, 23, 29, 41, 42, 51, 52, 55, 60, 78, 79, 114 & 135

To Jorge and Priscilla whom always inspire and encourage me even from heaven.

Appendix figures p228-1, p228-2, p228-3, p228-4, p-229-1, p232-1, p235-4, p235-6, p241-2, p244-5, p263-1, p264-8, p340-1, p340-3, p346-6 & p347-2

Martín.

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Morphological features of Novo-Hispanic grid cities

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