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vi

CONTENTS

5 SCOPE PLANNING

111

Project SWOT Analysis 111 Performing a Project SWOT Analysis 112 Using a Project SWOT Analysis 116 Benefits 117

The Scope Statement 118 Developing a Scope Statement 118 Using a Scope Statement 124 Variations 124 Benefits 125

The Work Breakdown Structure 126 Constructing a Project WBS: A Top-Down Approach 128 Establish the WBS Level of Detail 130 Constructing a Project WBS: A Bottom-Up Approach 134 Using the WBS 135 Benefits 136

The Product Breakdown Structure 137 Constructing a Product Breakdown Structure 137 Using the PBS 141 Benefits 141

References 142

6 SCHEDULE DEVELOPMENT The Gantt Chart 146 Developing a Gantt Chart 146 Using the Gantt Chart 149 Benefits 149

The Milestone Chart 150 Developing a Milestone Chart 151 Using the Milestone Chart 153 Benefits 154

145

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vii

The Critical Path Method Diagram 154 Constructing a CPM Diagram 155 Using the CPM Diagram 160 Benefits 161 Variations 161

The Time-Scaled Arrow Diagram 162 Developing a TAD 162 Using a TAD 167 Benefits 168

The Critical Chain Schedule 168 Developing a Critical Chain Schedule 169 Using the Critical Chain Schedule 172 Benefits 173

The Hierarchical Schedule 173 Constructing a Hierarchical Schedule 174 Using a Hierarchical Schedule 176 Benefits 177

Line of Balance 177 Developing a Line-of-Balance Schedule 178 Using the LOB 180 Benefits 181

Choosing Your Scheduling Tools 181 References 183

7 COST PLANNING The Cost-Planning Map 185 Developing a Cost-Planning Map 186 Using the Cost-Planning Map 191 Benefits 191

Analogous Estimate 191 Developing an Analogous Estimate 192 Using an Analogous Estimate 193 Benefits 193

185

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CONTENTS

Parametric Estimate 194 Developing Parametric Estimates 194 Using Parametric Estimates 198 Benefits 198

Bottom-up Estimate 199 Developing Bottom-Up Estimates 200 Using Bottom-Up Estimates 202 Benefits 202

The Cost Baseline 203 Developing a Cost Baseline 203 Using the Cost Baseline 207 Benefits 208

Choosing a Cost-Planning Tool 211 References 211

PART IV: PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS 8 SCOPE MANAGEMENT Project Scope Control System 217 Establishing a Project Scope Control System 217 Using the Project Scope Control System 220 Benefits 223

Project Change Request 223 Developing a Project Change Request 224 Using the Project Change Request 228 Benefits 229

The Project Change Log 229 Developing a Project Change Log 230 Using the Project Change Log 232 Benefits 233

The Scope Control Decision Checklist 233 Developing a Scope Control Decision Checklist 233

213 215

CONTENTS

ix

Using the Scope Control Decision Checklist 234 Benefits 235

References 235

9 SCHEDULE MANAGEMENT The Burn Down Chart 239 Developing the Burn Down Chart 239 Using the Burn Down Chart 240 Benefits 242

The Slip Chart 243 Developing the Slip Chart 244 Using the Slip Chart 246 Benefits 246

The Buffer Chart 247 Developing the Buffer Chart 248 Using the Buffer Chart 249 Benefits 250

The Jogging Line 251 Constructing a Jogging Line 252 Using the Jogging Line 255 Variations 256 Benefits 256

The Milestone Prediction Chart 257 Constructing the Milestone Prediction Chart 258 Using the Milestone Prediction Chart 260 Benefits 260

B-C-F Analysis 261 Performing the B-C-F Analysis 262 Using the B-C-F Analysis 264 Benefits 265

Schedule Crashing 265 Performing Schedule Crashing 265 Using Schedule Crashing 269 Benefits 269

237

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CONTENTS

Choosing Your Schedule Management Tools 269 References 270

10 COST MANAGEMENT

273

Cost Management Plan 275 Developing the Cost Management Plan 275 Using the Cost Management Plan 276

The Budget Consumption Chart 276 Developing the Budget Consumption Chart 277 Using the Budget Consumption Chart 278 Variations 279 Benefits 279

Earned Value Analysis 280 Performing Earned Value Analysis 281 Using Earned Value Analysis 292 Variations 293 Benefits 293

Milestone Analysis 294 Performing a Milestone Analysis 295 Using the Milestone Analysis 297 Benefits 297

Choosing Your Cost Management Tools 297 References 298

11 AGILE PROJECT EXECUTION Contributed by Peerasit Patanakul James Henry Jeffrey A. Leach

Scrum Basics 302 Product Backlog and Sprint Backlog 304 Information on the Backlogs 304 Populating Backlogs 304 Benefits 306

301

CONTENTS

xi

Release Planning 307 The Release-Planning Event 308 Initial Draft Release Plan 309 Final Release Plans 309 HIP Sprint 310 Release Planning versus Sprint Planning 310 Benefits 311

The Daily Scrum Meeting 311 Organizing a Daily Scrum Meeting 312 Benefits 312

Sprint Task Board 313 Using the Sprint Task Board 313 Benefits 314

The Sprint Burn Down Chart 315 Developing a Sprint Burn Down Chart 315 Using a Sprint Burn Down Chart 316 Benefits 317

The Sprint Retrospective Meeting 317 Organizing a Sprint Retrospective Meeting 318 Using a Sprint Retrospective Meeting 318 Benefits 320

Concluding Remarks 320 References 321

PART V: PROJECT REPORTING AND CLOSURE TOOLS

323

12 PERFORMANCE REPORTING

325

Project Reporting Checklist 325 Developing the Project Reporting Checklist 326 Using the Project Reporting Checklist 326 Benefits 326

xii

CONTENTS

The Project Strike Zone 328 Developing the Project Strike Zone 328 Using the Project Strike Zone 330 Benefits 332

The Project Dashboard 332 Designing a Project Dashboard 334 Using the Project Dashboard 335 Benefits 336

The Summary Status Report 337 Developing a Summary Status Report 337 Using the Summary Status Report 342 Benefits 343

The Project Indicator 343 Developing the Project Indicator 345 Using the Project Indicator 346 Variations 346 Benefits 348

Choosing Your Reporting Tools 349 References 349

13 PROJECT CLOSURE Contributed by Tim Rahschulte, PhD

Understanding Project Closure 351 Project Closing Activities 353

Project Closure Plan and Checklist 356 Developing the Plan and Checklist 358 Using the Closure Plan and Checklist 362 Benefits 362

The Project Closure Report 363 Developing the Project Closure Report 363 Using the Project Closure Report 365 Benefits 365

Postmortem Review 366 Conducting the Postmortem Review 366 Using the Postmortem Review 369

351

CONTENTS

xiii

Variations 371 Benefits 372

Concluding Remarks 373 References 373

PART VI: RISK AND STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT TOOLS

14 MANAGING PROJECT RISK Risk Management Plan 378 Developing a Risk Management Plan 378 Using the Risk Management Plan 385 Benefits 386

The Risk Identification Checklist 387 Developing a Risk Identification Checklist 387 Using a Risk Identification Checklist 389 Benefits 389

The Risk Register 390 Creating a Risk Register 390 Using the Risk Register 393 Benefits 394

The Risk Assessment Matrix 394 Developing a Risk Assessment Matrix 395 Using the Risk Assessment Matrix 397 Variations 398 Benefits 398

Monte Carlo Analysis 399 Performing a Monte Carlo Analysis 400 Using the Monte Carlo Analysis 408 Benefits 409

The Decision Tree 409 Analyzing the Decision Tree 410 Using Decision Trees 413 Benefits 414

375 377

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CONTENTS

The Risk Dashboard 414 Developing the Risk Dashboard 414 Using the Risk Dashboard 418 Benefits 418

Choosing Your Risk Management Tools 420 References 420

15 INFLUENCING PROJECT STAKEHOLDERS

423

The Stakeholder Management Plan 423 Developing a Stakeholder Management Plan 424 Using the Stakeholder Management Plan 427 Benefits 427

The Stakeholder Map 428 Developing a Stakeholder Map 428 Using the Stakeholder Map 431 Benefits 431

The Stakeholder Analysis Table 431 Developing a Stakeholder Analysis Table 433 Using the Stakeholder Analysis Table 434 Benefits 435

The Stakeholder Evaluation Matrix 436 Developing a Stakeholder Evaluation Matrix 438 Using the Stakeholder Evaluation Matrix 439 Variations 441 Benefits 443

The Stakeholder Strategy Matrix 444 Developing a Stakeholder Strategy Matrix 444 Using the Stakeholder Strategy Matrix 446 Benefits 447

Choosing Your Stakeholder Management Tools 447 References 449 Final Thoughts on The PM Toolbox 449 Index

451

PREFACE

M

uch has changed since the publication of the first edition of this book, as the field of project management (PM) is continually evolving. Part of that evolution has involved a new approach for selecting project management tools from an ad-hoc “choose as you use” approach to a more systematic approach of creating a PM Toolbox that can be applied to many project situations. From this perspective, we feel fortunate to have been part of the recent project management evolution.

We also feel fortunate to have had the opportunity to work firsthand with many project managers and project office directors as they set about the task of creating their initial PM Toolboxes based on the teachings of this text. Our personal understanding of how project management is evolving and how it affects the needs for PM tools has been greatly enhanced. This new understanding became the basis for the changes introduced in this second edition.

The most significant changes in this edition are in four areas. First, we have focused the content of the book on the fundamental project management practice areas to create more depth in content. Next, we have maintained the traditional view of project management tools but have also provided a contemporary set of tools that reflect the changes in PM practices. Then, to strengthen an area that has created some of the most positive reader feedback, we have enhanced the various tips, tricks, and examples found throughout the book. Finally, we worked to create a stronger message concerning the importance of creating a PM Toolbox that enables stronger alignment between business strategy and project execution, between strategic goals and project deliverables, and between the work of senior leaders and project managers.

This book has established itself as both educational lecture material and an industry practice reference, which we hope to maintain with this second edition. Our heartfelt thanks to the existing and future readers of this book; we hope you find it both enjoyable and useful to read.

Of course, we would like to hear from you directly and get your feedback at www.programmanagement-academy.com. Supplemental materials and templates can be found on our web site as well.

xv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

W

e would like to thank the many people who have helped in making this book a reality.

To our contributing authors, whose subject matter expertise is appreciated: Debra Lavell, Jim Waddell, Tim Rahschulte, Peerasit Patanakul, James Henrey, and Jeffrey Leach.

To the team at John Wiley & Sons, who continue to provide outstanding support and guidance. In particular, we want to thank our executive editor, Margaret Cummins, and our assistant editor, Amanda Shettleton. Your continued partnership and collaboration is greatly valued.

To our many colleagues and coworkers who have contributed to the concepts presented in this work in many ways.

To our families who provide the support and encouragement necessary to complete the writing process.

We are truly blessed to be associated with such a wonderful and supportive community of people!

xvii

PART

I

The PM Toolbox

1

INTRODUCTION TO THE PM TOOLBOX onventional wisdom holds that project management (PM) tools are enabling devices that assist a project manager in reaching an objective or, more specifically, a project deliverable or outcome. While this traditional role of PM tools is more than meaningful, we believe that there is greater opportunity to provide value to an organization and its project managers. In particular, each PM tool can be part of a set of tools that makes up a project manager’s PM Toolbox.

The PM Toolbox, then, serves a higher purpose: (1) to increase efficiency of the project players, (2) to provide the right information to support problem-solving and decision-making processes, and (3) to help establish and maintain alignment among business strategy, project strategy, and project execution outcomes.

Project management tools support the practices, methods, and various processes used to effectively manage a project.1 They are enabling devices for the primary players on a project: the project manager, the specialists who make up the project team, the executive leadership team, and the governance body.

PM tools include procedures, techniques, and job aids by which a project deliverable is produced or project information is created. Similarly, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge and other sources use the phrase “tools and techniques” in place of what we define as PM tools.2 PM tools may be either qualitative or quantative in nature. To illustrate, consider two examples: the team charter and Monte Carlo analysis. They differ in the type of information they process. The team charter provides a systematic procedure to process qualitative information about authorizing a team to implement a project. Monte Carlo analysis is a risk-planning tool that uses an algorithm to quantify risks. The heart of both the qualitative and quantitative groups of tools—and all PM tools belong to one of these groups—is in their systematic procedure.

Note that we don’t talk about software tools here. True, many PM tools that we discuss in this book exist in a software format. However, our focus is not on tool formats.

Rather, we concentrate on the substance of PM tools: the use of tools to manage projects more effectively and efficiently.

The design of a PM Toolbox should mirror the approach an organization takes for establishing standardized project management methodologies and processes. A highly

C

3

4

INTRODUCTION TO THE PM TOOLBOX

standardized set of methods and processes will in turn require an equally high level of standardization of the PM Toolbox. Less standardization introduces more variability in PM Toolbox design and use, and therefore more possibility for inconsistent results.

In practice, as organizations strive to grow and mature, project execution efficiency and repeatability become increasingly important as the leaders of the organization look for consistency in achieving business results. This means that project managers must be armed with the right tools—those that support the business strategy, project strategy, and project management methodologies and processes. It also means that the same tools should be used across the gamut of projects with limited exceptions.

Standardization of a firm’s PM Toolbox does not happen overnight. Rather, it is an evolutionary process. In a practical sense, PM Toolboxes will look quite ad hoc at first. The tendency is to begin building the PM Toolbox with existing tools due to a project manager’s familiarity with them. So the early-stage PM Toolbox has more to do with familiarity of use than with standardization. As a firm begins to mature its project management practices, standardization of methodologies and processes begins to take hold. This is when the PM Toolbox also begins to become more standardized, as well as more aligned with the project strategy and the business strategy of the firm.

Construction of a PM Toolbox should be systematically driven, meaning that PM tools are a vital part of an organization’s overall project execution mechanism. However, project execution must first be aligned to company strategy to be most effective.

When this is the case, the PM Toolbox becomes strategically aligned as well, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.

As illustrated by the downward arrow, business strategy drives the project strategy, which in turn drives methods and processes, which influences the PM Toolbox design.

For this downward flow to work, the PM Toolbox supports the project management methodology and processes implemented by an organization. The methodology and process in turn helps to implement the project strategy, which supports and is aligned to the business strategy of a company in its quest for growth (upward arrow).

Business Strategy

en riv lly D ica teg

PM ToolBox

Figure 1.1: Strategically Aligned PM Toolbox

nt

Project Management Methodologies and Processes

me

ign

Al

St ra

ic teg

ra St

Project Strategy

ENABLING BUSINESS AND PROJECT STRATEGY

5

ENABLING BUSINESS AND PROJECT STRATEGY Looking at how projects and the management of those projects support the business strategy of an organization is critical to understanding the strategic importance of the PM Toolbox. Since alignment between the PM Toolbox and business strategy is driven from the top of the pyramid (Figure 1.1), we start from there.

Historically, the strategic management and project management functions and processes of a company have been defined and performed as independent entities, each with its own purpose and set of activities.3 Companies have come to realize, however, that the time, money, and human effort invested in refining and improving each of these independent functions and processes have not brought them closer to turning their ideas into positive business results. Increasingly, this fact is leading business leaders to the realization that strategy and project execution can no longer remain independent if they wish to repeatedly achieve their desired business benefits and business value.

Rather, they must be integrated so that the formation of strategy and the execution of strategy are tightly aligned.

Use of the Porter model is a simple approach to demonstrate at a high level the alignment among business strategy, project strategy, and PM Toolbox design (Figure 1.2).4 The essence of business strategy lies in devising ways to create both short-term and long-term growth and sustainability for an enterprise. To equip themselves with the opportunity, companies rely on their organizational resources.5 Visualize, for example, project management as an organizational resource. Useful for this visualization can be the framework of generic strategies, shown in Figure 1.2.6

DIFFERENTATION Low

High Business Strategy: Differentiation

High

Project Strategy: Fast Cycle Time

Business Strategy:

Low

COST

Schedule Planning Schedule Management Risk Management

Business Strategy:

Business Strategy:

Low-Cost

Best - Cost

Project Strategy:

Project Strategy:

Cost Containment

Cost and Quality

Business Strategy:

Business Strategy:

Cost Planning Cost Management

Cost Planning Cost Management Performance

Figure 1.2: Aligning Business Strategy, Project Strategy, and PM Toolbox

6

INTRODUCTION TO THE PM TOOLBOX

To understand the effect of business strategy, let’s use Porter’s model as an example to evaluate the strategies for three companies producing liquid crystal display (LCD) projectors.

The core of differentiation strategies (high differentiation/high cost quadrant in Figure 1.2) is an ability to offer customers something different from a company’s competitors. This may include fast time to market (which we used as an example in Figure 1.2), high quality, innovative technology, special features, superior service, and so on. When striving for product superiority, LCD projector companies pursuing these strategies provide cutting-edge features that customers are willing to pay a premium price for.

Companies focusing on low-cost strategies aim at establishing a sustainable cost advantage over rivals (low-cost/low-differentiation quadrant). The intent is to use the low-cost advantage as a strategy to underprice rivals and take market share away from them. Another strategic option is to earn a higher profit by selling at the going market price. This is pursued with a good basic product that has few frills and continuous quest for cost reduction without giving up quality and essential features.

Best-cost companies combine upscale features with low cost (low-cost/highdifferentiation quadrant). This should lead to superior value by meeting or exceeding customer expectations on product features and surpassing their expectations on price. At the same time, the aim is to become the low-cost provider of a product that has good-to-excellent features and use that cost advantage to underprice rivals with comparable features. Because such a company has the lowest cost compared with similarly positioned rivals, the strategy is called a best-cost strategy.

In Figure 1.2, the blank quadrant of high cost/low differentiation is not a viable option in the quest for short- or long-term business growth.

Now, let us use the model to see how the business strategy shapes project strategies.

Examples of three companies—Sirius, Park, and Prima—will help us illustrate the point.

Sirius’s business strategy is one of differentiation. The strategy uses innovation and time-to-market speed as competitive advantages. The business strategy is executed through product development projects, whose job it is to roll out new advanced LCD projector chips faster and faster. This is where the project strategy comes into play, focusing on overlap across project phase activities to shorten the project cycle time and the management of risk due to a number of new technologies. The project strategy emphasizes time and risk management.

Park’s business strategy is quite different from that of Sirius. Instead of the differentiation and time-to-market emphasis that Sirius relentlessly pursues, Park has set out to become the low-cost leader in the industry. To develop the ability and become the leader in the industry, Park has had to employ a project strategy to continuously lower project and product cost goals. Part of that effort has been perfecting project cost planning and management methods for managing cost cutting within the projects.

Nurturing these competencies supports Park’s low-cost advantages.

The strategies of Sirius and Park exploit their schedule- and cost-focused project strategies, respectively. In contrast, Prima relies on a best-cost strategy. The goal is to have the best cost relative to competitors whose LCD projectors are of comparable quality. Accordingly, their project strategies emphasize high quality and low development

PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES AND PROCESSES

7

cost. Project management methodologies and practices aim to accomplish cost and quality goals through excellent cost and performance management.

These examples provide a context from which we can construct a common base of understanding. First, companies select business strategies as a means of operating within the markets that they serve. Although each type of strategy has the same goal—to create and sustain business growth, ways to accomplish the goal differ. One company builds a strategy on the basis of differentiation, another on low cost, and still another on a best-cost approach.

Second, companies align their project strategies with their business strategy.

Consequently, in the case of Sirius, Park, and Prima, each company’s project strategy is focused differently: schedule focus (Sirius), cost focus (Park), and cost/quality focus (Prima).

Any of these approaches is, of course, acceptable. What is critically important, however, is that care should be taken to ensure that the projects and their associated project strategies align to and support the business strategies of the enterprise.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES AND PROCESSES As an organization grows and becomes more mature in its practices, the need for standardization of methodologies and processes invariably arises. This is due to increased need for repeatability and consistency of project outcomes.

But what does standardization really mean? If we seek a standardized sequence of project activities (that culminate in project deliverables and outcomes), then standardized means the degree of absence of variation in implementing such activities.7 Let’s use Figure 1.3 to explain this.

At one extreme, there may be a complete variation in the project management methods and processes. Literally, every time a process is performed, it is performed in a different way. Obviously, 100 percent variation means that standardization is equal to zero. This is often referred to as an ad-hoc approach. At the other extreme, methods and processes may be 100 percent standardized, meaning a process is performed in the same way every time. In this case, variation is zero percent. Between the two extremes lies a continuum of methodologies and processes with different ratios of standardization and variation.

Take, for example, process S on the x-axis of Figure 1.3, one of the many possible PM methods (e.g., the critical chain scheduling methodology). The degree of standardization and the degree of variation add up to 100 percent. If we go down the diagonal line to other methods, the degree of standardization will increase, and the degree of variation will decrease; but their sum will remain constant at 100 percent. Moving up the diagonal line will lead to a higher variation and lower standardization, still with the sum of 100 percent. Using plain language, the lower the variation, the higher the standardization; and the more varied the implementation of project activities, the less standardized they are.

INTRODUCTION TO THE PM TOOLBOX

Degree of Variation

100%

0% Degree of Standardization

Degree of Variation

0%

Degree of Standardization

8

100%

Figure 1.3: Continuum of PM Methods and Processes

This means that organizations have a host of options when developing their methodologies and processes—they can be more standardized or less standardized.

The rationale behind standardization is to create a predictable process that prevents activities from differing completely from project to project, and from project manager to project manager. Put simply, standardization saves project players the trouble of reinventing a new method and process for each individual project.8 As a result, the process is repeatable despite changes in customer expectations or management turnover. The higher the standardization, the higher the repeatability.

When establishing standardized methodologies and processes, organizations have a host of options to choose from. Some companies adopt one of the well-known project management methodologies such as the PMBoK, PRINCE2, or Agile Scrum.

Many establish their own methodologies and processes based on how they normally perform their project work. Still others combine approaches by utilizing elements of the standard methodologies and then augmenting and customizing based on the culture of their organization.

The decision about how much to standardize project management methodologies and processes is a decision about the ratio of standardization and variation (popularly called flexibility). It is driven by business strategy and by the types of projects needed to realize the business strategy. Generally, projects of higher certainty will strive for higher levels of standardization and lower levels of flexibility. According to experts, the majority of projects in organizations belong to this group.9 Projects that face high uncertainty require lower standardization and higher flexibility.

Selecting PM tools one at a time demands a substantial amount of resources and expertise. It is not reasonable to presume that each project manager—especially if he or she is less than experienced, as is the case with many—would have the resources and expertise to quickly, smoothly, and consistently select his or her own set of tools.

Rather, such managers end up struggling to find the right PM tools and how to use them, introducing variability in results. In contrast, having a standardized PM Toolbox capable of supporting the methods and processes results in minimum variation (see Table 1.1).

Often, project managers assume that the PM Toolbox is of a one-size-fits-all nature.

This, of course, is incorrect. The PM Toolbox can come in many sizes, shapes, and flavors.

Logically, this is an issue related to the project management methodology and types of projects the methodology serves. Since the PM Toolbox is aligned with the PM methodology used, it is understandable that the level of standardization of the methodology

CONSTRUCTING AND ADAPTING A PM TOOLBOX

9

Table 1.1: One-Tool-at-a-Time versus the PM Toolbox Approach Impact on SPM Process Requirement One-Tool-at-a-Time PM Toolbox Speed

Lower

Higher

Repeatability

Less repeatable

More repeatable

Concurrency

Less likely

More likely

impacts the standardization level of the PM Toolbox. For example, a methodology that is highly standardized will probably be supported by a highly standardized PM Toolbox.

Regardless of whether an organization’s project management methods and processes are standardized, flexible, or semiflexible, a PM Toolbox needs to be designed so that it aligns with both the PM methods and processes employed as well as the strategy of the project and the business strategies driving the need for the project. To accomplish this, a process for selecting and adapting the PM Toolbox is needed.

CONSTRUCTING AND ADAPTING A PM TOOLBOX PM tools serve two roles. First, in their conventional role, the tools are enabling devices for reaching a project deliverable. Second, in their new role, they serve as basic building blocks to construct the PM toolbox.

There are three major steps, each including several substeps, in constructing and adapting a PM Toolbox for specific projects or a project organization (Figure 1.4): 1. Secure strategic alignment 2. Customize the PM Toolbox 3. Improve continuously As detailed in the previous sections, aligning the PM Toolbox with the organization’s business strategy tells us in broad terms what categories of project management tools to select. This alignment drives the next step—customization of the PM Toolbox—by

Secure Strategic Alignment

Customize PM Toolbox

Continuously Improve Toolbox

•

•

•

• •

Understand business strategy Visualize Toolbox alignment Align Toolbox with strategy

• •

Customize by project size, or Customize by project family, or Customize by project type

Figure 1.4: Steps for Constructing and Adapting a PM Toolbox

• •

Form an improvement team Identify mechanisms to collect ideas Follow improvement process

10

INTRODUCTION TO THE PM TOOLBOX

selecting specific tools to use on the projects. The deployment of the PM Toolbox in real-world projects will reveal its glitches and generate new learning, which leads to the third step—continuous improvement of the toolbox. Details about each step follow.

Secure Strategic Alignment One of the primary purposes of the PM Toolbox is to enable the implementation of projects that affect the organization’s strategic business goals. To make this purpose happen, the PM Toolbox needs to be in alignment with both the business and project strategies, as we discussed earlier in this chapter. To be successful in designing the Toolbox, therefore, project managers must have an understanding of the business strategy, at least knowing if their company follows a fundamental strategy of being a market leader, a market follower, a cost leader, or a customer service leader. However, many of them do not have this level of understanding. Why? Among many reasons for this is the fact that in many organizations, strategy formulation and implementation is viewed as the executive’s domain. They are tasked with charting the business strategy for the enterprise. Project managers often are not in a position to access this knowledge or show little interest in gaining it. Project managers need to be tenacious by probing and digging to comprehend the strategic reasons for executing the projects they are in charge of, even if the strategy is not communicated to them.

This lack of strategic knowledge can create substantial obstacles for project managers and will limit the strategic alignment of their PM Toolbox. To remove the obstacles, project managers need to have conversations with top managers and convince them that business strategy is key to planning and implementing projects and that project managers need this knowledge in order to secure expected returns on their projects.

Our mandate is simple: Gain an understanding of your organization’s business strategy, or designing the toolbox will be like shooting an arrow into the fog—we don’t know where the target is or whether we hit it.

Visualizing Alignment Part of understanding how a toolbox should align to business strategy is the ability to clearly visualize the relationship. Earlier in the chapter, we laid the foundation for the alignment by using examples of three companies—Sirius, Park, and Prima—to illustrate how the PM Toolbox can be focused to support business strategies.

To visualize this alignment, in Figure 1.5 we show what we conveniently call investment curves—a more precise term is the net present value curves—for three comparable projects performed in alignment with their base business strategies.

Each curve shows four important points: (1) project start, (2) time to deployment, (3) time to breakeven, and (4) salvage point. Project start is the time when the project is initiated and begins to consume resource hours and budget; therefore, the cash flow begins to turn negative. Investment and negative cash flow continue to increase until the project is completed. At that time, the project outcome (a product, service, or other capability) can be deployed, which constitutes time to deployment. Instead of time to deployment, some project managers prefer the term project cycle time or, simply, project completion. Note that negative cash flow usually reaches its peak at the

CONSTRUCTING AND ADAPTING A PM TOOLBOX

Cash Flow ($) Positive

11

Schedule-driven Project & Toolbox Cost/Performance -driven Project & Toolbox Cost-driven Project & Toolbox Time-to-breakeven

Project Start

Time Salvage Point

Key: Sirius Prima Park

Cash Flow ($) Negative

Time-to-deployment

Figure 1.5: Visualizing a Strategy-Driven Toolbox

time-to-deployment point. After that, the use of the project output begins to generate returns (revenue, cost savings, efficiency gains), and the curve begins to turn upward.

Hopefully, the upward trend will continue until at least the time-to-breakeven point is reached. This is the point where all investments in the project are equal to returns generated by the use of the project output. Beyond that point, the cash flow turns positive and typically continues to do so until the project output is salvaged.

We use the curves to explain the nature of the PM Toolbox’s alignment with the business strategy for each of the three companies discussed earlier. Consider, for example, Sirius. A primary element of Sirius’s differention strategy is project cycle time speed. Figure 1.5 illustrates that point: Time-to-deployment and time-to-breakeven points are reached much sooner than for the other two companies. For this to be possible, Sirius needs a timeline-driven toolbox in which the central role and priority belong to tools that can help enable fast cycle times. These may include tools such as the Gantt chart, time-scaled arrow diagram, critical path diagrams, milestone charts, and so on (Chapter 6). This does not mean that other components of the typical PM Toolbox such as cost, risk, and stakeholder tools are ignored. Quite to the contrary—they are important and have their role in the toolbox as well, but they are subjugated to timeline-driven tools.

The case is different for the toolbox for Park, a company that concentrates on cost leadership. Logically, then, most projects within Park are cost driven, searching to minimize project cost whenever possible. This logic is apparent in Figure 1.5. The Park curve shows less negative cash flow than those of Sirius and Prima. It is the intended goal and realized outcome of project actions. To accomplish the project strategy, Park is willing to take the longest time to reach time to deployment and time to breakeven. Crucial in this

12

INTRODUCTION TO THE PM TOOLBOX

effort is a cost-driven toolbox that emphasizes cost, cost, and cost. Correspondingly, cost estimates and cost baselines are carefully prepared, as is the assessment of return on investment, even for small cost-cutting projects (Chapter 5).

The intent to align the PM Toolbox with the business strategy is aggressively pursued in Prima as well. The driving force is the best-cost strategy that is also translated to the project level. As can be seen from Figure 1.5, time to deployment and time to breakeven are shorter than Park’s, but longer than Sirius’s. This means that cost focus is lower than Park’s but higher than Sirius’s. Such cost philosophy is closely intertwined with the need for the project to emphasize performance goals more than the other two companies.

Given this situation, how does one shape a cost-performance-driven PM Toolbox?

A combination of well-balanced performance and cost tools has the priority. Formal and informal voice of the customer tools and feature requirement tools are crucial for hitting customers’ expectations, as are cost estimates and cost baselines. To Prima and its customers, delivering on schedule is important, as keeping customers satisfied is not possible without delivering when promised. Nevertheless, schedule goals are subjugated to performance and cost. Other tools, such as a risk management plan, are modified to support the combination of cost and performance focus. For example, the risk management plan may be focused on lowering cost rather than schedule (Chapter 14).

As can be gleaned from our discussion, the nature of alignment of the toolbox is reflected in the balance of two issues. First, many of the tools show up in all three toolboxes. The second issue concerns the situational approach: adapting tools to account for the characteristics of the three toolboxes (see Table 1.2)

Customize the PM Toolbox There are multiple options for customizing a strategically aligned PM Toolbox. Three options are perhaps the most viable: 1. Customization by project size 2. Customization by project family 3. Customization by project type The options are three different ways to select and adapt the toolbox. Each option has the purpose of showing which specific project management tools to select and adapt for the PM Toolbox. For this to be possible, each option is based on the particular methodology used, which has a large influence on the choice of tools.

An in-depth knowledge of individual tools is a prerequisite to each of the options because you need to understand how each tool can support a project deliverable. We will describe the customization options in turn and offer guidelines for selecting one of them for implementation.

Customization by Project Size Some organizations use project size as the key variable when customizing a PM Toolbox.

Their logic is that larger projects are more complex than smaller ones, or that size drives differences in project management methodology complexity. The reasoning here is that as the project size increases, so does the number of activities and resulting project deliverables associated with a project, as well as the number of interactions among

CONSTRUCTING AND ADAPTING A PM TOOLBOX

13

Table 1.2: Characteristics of Strategically Aligned Toolboxes Company’s Core Business Strategy Differentiation Low-Cost

Characteristics of the PM Toolbox

Best-Cost

Nature of PM Toolbox Schedule PerformanceDriven Cost Driven Cost Driven

Central role and priority belong to schedule tools

✓

Management attention is on schedule performance

✓

PM spends majority of time managing to schedule

✓

Schedule tools are primary basis for decisions

✓

Other tools adapted to support schedule tools

✓

Central role and priority belong to cost tools

✓

Management attention is on cost performance

✓

Project manager spends majority of time managing cost

✓

Cost tools are primary basis for decisions

✓

Other tools adapted to support cost tools

✓

Central role and priority belongs to cost-performance tools

✓

Management attention on performance and cost

✓

PM spends majority of time managing performance requirements and cost

✓

Performance and tools are primary basis for decisions

✓

Other tools adapted to support performance tools

✓

them. Worst of all, this number of interactions grows by compounding, rather than linearly.10 Such increased complexity, then, has its penalty—larger projects require more work to coordinate the increased number of interactions.

Since different project sizes require different processes and tools, we first need a way to classify projects by size and then customize their toolboxes. For size classification we draw on the experience of some companies. In Table 1.3, we present three examples.

All companies use three classes of project size: small, medium, and large. The units used to measure project size are dollars or person-hour budgets. On the basis of the size, the companies determined the managerial complexity of its project classes and processes.

The complexity further dictated the PM Toolbox makeup, a simplified example of which is illustrated in Table 1.4. For the sake of simplicity, only the toolbox is shown, leaving out the project deliverables.

14

INTRODUCTION TO THE PM TOOLBOX

Table 1.3: Examples of Project Classification per Size in Three Companies Project Size Project and Company Type

Small

Medium

Large

Product development projects in a $1 billion/ year high-technology manufacturer

$1–2m

$2–10m

> $10m

Infrastructure technology projects in a $300 million/year food processing company

< $50k

$50–150k

> $150k

Software development projects in a $40 million/ year customer relationship management software company

300–400 1,000–3,000 >3,000 person-hours person-hours person-hours

Table 1.4: Examples of PM Toolbox Customization by Project Size Project Phases Project Size Initiation

Planning

Execution

Closure

Small

Scope statement

Progress report

Final report

Project charter

WBS Responsibility matrix Milestone chart Medium

Large

Project charter

Scope statement

Progress report

Final report

Skill inventory

WBS or PWBS

Change process

Change log

Responsibility matrix

Change log

Postmortem report

Cost estimate

Gantt chart

Gantt chart

Cost burn down

Risk plan

Risk register

Scope statement

Project charter

Progress report

Final report

Stakeholder matrix WBS and PWBS

Project indicators

Postmortem report

Stakeholder strategy

Responsibility matrix

Change process and log

Closure checklist

Cost estimate

Time-scaled arrow diagram

Time-scaled arrow Slip chart diagram P-I matrix

EVM Risk register

EVM = earned value management; P-I = probability-impact; PWBS = program work breakdown structure; WBS = work breakdown structure.

CONSTRUCTING AND ADAPTING A PM TOOLBOX

15

As Table 1.4 indicates, some of the tools in the toolboxes for projects of different size are the same, while others are different. For example, all use the summary status report (Chapter 12) because all projects need to report on their performance. Since managerial complexity of the three project classes and their processes call for different tools, some of the tools differ. A P-I matrix (Chapter 14), for example, is needed only in large projects.

To be successful, the process team designing the toolbox should carefully balance the standard tools with those that account for the specific size of the project.

Experience of these companies offers several guidelines for customizing the PM Toolbox by project size: ■ Identify a small number of project classes and their methodologies.

■ Define each class by the size parameter.

■ Match the project size with the proper toolbox, each tool supporting a specific

project deliverable.

Note that while customization by project size offers advantages of simplicity, it also carries a risk of being generic, disregarding other situational variables. To some, these other variables may be of vital importance, as will be pointed out in the next section on customization by project family.

Customization by Project Family When the PM Toolbox is strategically aligned, you can opt to customize it by family types within an industry. Many companies choose such options in a belief that project families in their industry are sufficiently unique to merit an industry-specific project family methodology and toolbox.11 As a group of organizations that compete directly with each other, an industry is characterized by the nature of its environment and business risk. For example, companies in the high-technology industry face an environment of dynamic technology change. Because of this, their portfolio abounds with fast time-to-market projects driven by the desire of their customers to continuously buy the latest and greatest technological products and services. Combined, the business environment and risk profile create similar challenges in families of projects. For example, a family of new product development projects in high-tech industries face similar challenges. So do facilities management projects, manufacturing projects, marketing projects, and information technology projects within the same industry.

Often, project families are defined by the novelty of the capabilities the projects produce. Generally, the more novel the capability, the more complex the projects.12 This is because increasing novelty (newness or uniqueness) in projects leads to more uncertainty, elevating the need for more flexibility in the processes and the supporting toolbox. For example, as novelty grows: ■ ■ ■ ■

The more evolving the scope statement and WBS become.

The project time line becomes more fluid.

The cost estimates follow the fluidity of the schedules and scope.

More risks need to be identified and managed.

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have