The Coordinated Attack on Authoritative Institutions

TheCoordinatedAttackonAuthoritativeInstitutions DefendingDemocracyintheDisinformationAge

W.LanceBennettandStevenLivingston

FollowingDonaldTrump’sastonishingelectoralcollegevictoryin 2016, scholars,journalists,andcitizensalikelookedforexplanationsastohow anevidentliar,bothsexistandracist,runningagainstaformersecretary ofstateandUSsenator,won 46 percentofthepopularvote.1 More distressingstill,Trump’svictory fitabroaderpatternoftwenty-first centuryauthoritarianism.TheBritishfar-rightinspiredBrexitreferendum inJune,followedafewmonthslaterbyTrump’svictory,signaledadarker turninglobalpolitics.2 Withtheemergenceofilliberaldemocraciesin Russia,Hungary,Poland,andTurkey,andwiththegrowingstrengthof far-rightpartiesinFrance,Spain,Italy,theNetherlands,Austria,and Germany,liberaldemocraciesaroundEuropewerefaltering.3 Remarkably,theUnitedStatesfounditselfonthesame “roadtounfreedom” historianTimothySnyderspokeofindescribingtheconsolidation ofVladimirPutin’sauthoritariangripontheRussianFederation.4 Indeed, Trump’sunctuouscoddlingofPutinandotherstrongmenonlydeepened manypeople’sanxieties.WhatexplainssuchajoltingshiftinWestern liberaldemocraticpolitics?5

There’sbeennoshortageofexplanations.Whilesomeobserversfocus narrowlyonimmediatecircumstantialfactors,othersemphasizetherole ofglobalizationandtheeconomicchangesthathaverefiguredexisting divisionsofrace,gender,andclassinexplainingtheriseoftheauthoritarianfar-right,includingTrump’svictory.6 Amongthemorepopular explanations,focuscentersontheroleofsocialmediaplatformsand theiralgorithmictendencytodescenddeeperintoextremistcontent. Herethepathtounderstandingisfoundinparsingtechnologicaleffects.

Whilenotdiscardingtheseapproaches,ourthesisshiftsattentionaway frominward-lookingconsiderationsofindividualdemographicsandpsychologicalattributes,aswellastechnologicaldeterminates.Instead,our explanationofresurgentauthoritarianisminthetwenty-firstcenturyis anchoredinhistoryandpolitics.Inthisview,Trump’selectionisitself asymptomofabroaderinstitutionalandepistemologicalcrisis.

SeveralcontributorstothisvolumehavearguedthatTrump’svictory andthebroadercrisisofliberaldemocracyaretheresultsofadecadeslongassaultondemocraticinstitutionsbyadvocatesofautopianeconomicandpoliticalphilosophy.Overthepast fiftyyears,wealthy proponentsofafar-rightutopianvisionofhowsocietyandtheeconomyoughttobeorganizedhaveestablishedapanoplyofuniversity centers,thinktanks,fauxgrassrootsorganizations,andpropaganda platformsdesignedtognawawayatthelegitimacyandcredibilityof authoritativeinstitutions,includingpeer-reviewedscience,independentjournalism,scholarship,courts,andotherinvestigatoryandregulatorybodies.Trump’selectionandthebroadercrisisofdemocracyis aconsequenceofasystematicdevaluingofinstitutionsdevoted – albeit imperfectly – totruth-tellingandaccountability.Afterdecadesof attacksonthecredibilityandlegitimacyofauthoritativeinstitutions, theelectionofahabitualliaraspresidentseemslessstartling.

Onaglobalscale,freemarketcapitalismisoftenreferredtoasneoliberalism.JohnMichaelColónoffersoneofthebetterdefinitions:

Neoliberalismisasetofpoliciesandinstitutionalarrangementsdefinedbythe eliminationofpostwarlaborprotectionsandregulationsoncapital,theprivatizationofpublicgoodsandservices,theexportofjobstocountrieswhoseworkers canbeforcedtoworkundersweatshopconditions,andtheextensionoffor-profit marketrelationsintomostfacetsofhumanlife. 7

Neoliberalism,hesays,is “alsoanideology – astoryaboutwhoweare andwhatkindofworldwelivein,whichonceingrainedbecomesakindof unexaminedcommonsense” (emphasisadded).Neoliberalism’ssupportingideologyisanevangelicalembraceoflimitedgovernment – exceptfor whenenforcingcontracts,structuringadvantageousmarkets,andunderwritingresearchanddevelopment.

Understandingthecreationandpropagationofthese “commonsense understandings” requiresanengagementwiththehistoryofanti-state, anti-science(whenitcallsattentiontoaneedforregulation),and,ultimately,anti-factcampaigns.Thisisacentralsourceofourcurrentdisinformationdisorder.8 Howhasthelogicofunfetteredmarketsbecomethe

commonsenseunderstandingofourcontemporaryera?Andwhathas happenedtofactsandinstitutionsthathavestoodinitsway?

Thestoryofthelibertarianassaultondemocraticinstitutionshas beentoldbyprominenthistoriansandjournalists,includingNancy MacLeaninthisvolumeandin DemocracyinChains;JaneMayerin thepagesofthe NewYorker andin DarkMoney; WendyBrownin In theRuinsofNeoliberalism;and,morerecently,byChristopher Leonardin Kochland.9 Here,weneedonlyofferabriefrepriseof ourargument.Webeginbyreviewingthemaincontoursofour historicalandphilosophicalexplanationforthecurrentdisinformationdisorder.Wethenturntoalongercriticalconsiderationof potentialsolutions.Policyresponsesarehardwiredintoanypremise concerningthenatureandoriginsofaproblem,andeveninwhatis understoodtobeaprobleminthe firstplace.Finally,wepropose reformscenteringondisarmingweaponizedphilanthropy,thesystem of “charitablegiving” thathasunderwrittentheemergenceofauthoritarianpoliticsandthedisinformationcampaignsuponwhichtheyrest. Overall,oursuggestedsolutionsareintendedtoaddressthedistorting effectsofconcentratedwealthanditsunrestricteduseinpolitics.It couldwellbethatthecrisisofliberaldemocracyinthetwenty-first centurysapsthehopeuponwhichallreformistendeavorsrest. Democracyintheneoliberal capitalistWestisataninflectionpoint inhistory.

destroyingtheprevalentgovernmentalparadigm

Howhavewegottentothispoint?InChapter 4,NaomiOreskes,Erik Conway,andCharlieTysondescribehowinthe 1930s,wealthyindustrialists,includingtheDuPonts,championedfree-marketfundamentalism byattackingtheNewDeal.10 Theiranimustowardgovernmentregulationwentsofarastoseekwaystounderminechildlaborlaws.Later,the AustrianSchooleconomistsandtheirfollowersintheUnitedStates cloakedfree-marketcapitalisminthegarmentsofahigh-mindedmoral crusadefor “liberty,” meaningfreedomtoretainanddisposeofproperty withoutgovernmentinterference.11 ButasCharlesandDavidKochwould learninthe 1980s,unvarnishedlibertarianismheldlittleappealtomost voters.12 Evenahalf-centurylater,whendecloakedofitsrhetoricabout “liberty,” libertarianismremainedunpopularwiththeAmericanpublic.13 Evenamongconventionalconservatives,Koch’sideaswereonthefringe ofconventionalthinking. NationalReview founderandconservativeicon

WilliamF.BuckleyJr.oncedescribedKoch’spoliticalandeconomic philosophyas “Anarcho-Totalitarianism.”14

Withtherealizationthattheirgoalswouldnotcomebywayofthe ballotbox,atleastnotat first,theyturnedtomethodsthatleveragedthe greatconcentrationsofwealthintheUnitedStates.Mostnarrativesfocus onCharlesandDavidKoch(untilhisdeathin 2019).Giventheiroutsized roleinorganizinglibertarianmillionairesandbillionaires,thisisindeed areasonableapproach.YetasMayernotes, “TheKochs,ontheirown, probablywouldnotbeabletohavethekindofinfluencetheyhave.What they’vedoneiskindofamagictrick.” Theyhave “purposefullybuiltwhat theycallanunprecedentednetworkofabout 400 otherextraordinarily wealthyconservativeswiththemtocreateakindofabillionaire caucus.”15 Today,thisnetworkofwealthylibertarianindividualsin Americaandabroadlearnfromeachother,coordinatepoliticalstrategies, fundthinktanksandparties,anddevelopmethodstolimittherepresentativecapacitiesofdemocracyandtheregulatoryfunctionsofgovernment. TheKochnetworkorientshundredsofwealthyindividuals,families, familyfoundations,andcorporationstowardanalignedvisionoffreemarketcapitalism.By 2019,theKochSeminarhadbroughttogether arecord 634 donors,including 181 first-timeattendees.

Anotherrequirementissecrecy.Attendeesarenotallowedtodisclose theidentitiesofothersinattendanceortelloutsiderswhatwasdiscussed. Thatisalsoaconditionthatmustbeagreedtobythefewnewsorganizationsthatareallowedtoattendportionsoftheseminars.Butthenamesof someofthemoreprominentattendeeshavebeenleakedovertheyears. OnecommonlymentioneddonorisJamesArthur(Art)Pope.Heisthe CEOofVarietyWholesalers,achainofdiscountstoresinsixteenstates. HeisalsothedirectorofthePopeFoundation,a 501(c)(3)charitable foundationthat “hasinvestedmillionsinanetworkoffoundationsand thinktanks,andadvocacygroupsdesignedtofurtherconservativeand freemarketideas.”16 “Pope’sroleinhishomestateofNorthCarolinawas inmanyrespectsastate-sizedversionoftheKochs’ rolenationally.”17 For example,PopefoundedtheCivitasInstitute,a 501(c)(3)tax-exempt nonprofitright-wingorganizationbasedinNorthCarolina.Established in 2005,itsstatedgoalisto “facilitatetheimplementationofconservative policysolutions.” PopealsofoundedtheJohnLockeFoundation.Created in 1990,itdescribesitselfas “anindependent,nonprofitthinktankthat worksfortruth,forfreedom,andforthefutureofNorthCarolina.”18 Itis alsoamemberoftheKoch-fundedStatePolicyNetwork,whichwewill discussmorebelow.

TheWisconsin-basedLyndeandHarryBradleyfoundationwas foundedin 1942.AlongwithDavidandCharlesKoch,andtheirfather FredKoch,HarryBradleywasachartermemberofthefar-rightJohn BirchSociety.19 TheBradleyfoundationunderscorestheimportanceof notbecomingoverly fixatedontheKochbrothers.Accordingtothe MilwaukeeJournalSentinel,from 2001 to 2009,theBradley Foundation “doledoutnearlyasmuchmoneyasthesevenKochand Scaifefoundationscombined.”20 Between 2015 and 2017,theBradley Foundationprovided$1.5 milliontoPope’sCivitasInstituteandtheJohn LockeFoundation.ArtPopealsobecameBradleyFoundationboard chairman.WhilePopejoinedtheKochsandtheDeVosfamilyof MichiganinsupportingtheWashington,DC-basedJamesMadison CenterforFreeSpeech.Thecenterwasfoundedin 1997 bySenate minorityleaderMitchMcConnellandbyattorneyJamesBopp,Jr.,the leadattorneyintheCitizensUnitedcasebeforetheSupremeCourt.

JustastheBradleyfoundationanchorsactivitiesintheupperMidwest, andthePopefoundationcentersonNorthCarolina,theDeVosfamily concentratesonMichigan.RichardDeVosisthecofounderofAmway.He andhisfamily,includinghisdaughter-in-lawBetsyDeVos,theeducation secretaryintheTrumpadministration,havesupportedavarietyoffarrightcauses.Beginningin 2007,forexample,theDeVos’ familyfoundationgave$800,000 totheKochs’ FreedomWorksFoundation, aconservativeandlibertariangroupthatpromotes “lessgovernment, lowertaxesandmoreeconomicfreedom.”21 In 2012,theDeVosfamily provideda$500,000 “unrestrictedgrant” tothelibertarianMercatus Center.

Insomeways,whatiscommonlyreferredtoasthe “Kochnetwork” mightbebetterthoughtofasafractal – ageometric figureofrepeating parts,eachreplicatingthepatternofthewhole.Eachbranchofanice crystal,forexample,replicatestheoverallstructure,justasPope’sefforts inNorthCarolinaandBradley’sinWisconsinreplicatestheKochnetwork’snationalefforts.However,ratherthan “network” or “fractal,” AlexanderHertel-Fernandez,ThedaSkocpol,andJasonSclarreferto “donorconsortia” whendescribingthesegroups.22 Theypropose five featuresthatsetorganizeddonorconsortiaapart.Theyfosterlongertermcommitmentsamong “like-mindedwealthypeoplewhogiveator aboveapredictableminimumlevelyearafteryear”;theyprovideatime horizonbeyondindividualelectioncyclesthatallowthemtoadvance principlesandpolicies,andchannelresourcesto “ideacreation,civic action,leadershipdevelopment,andpolicyformulationunrelatedto

winningparticularelectioncontests”;theyareguidedbyapoliticalideologyonabroadrangeofpolicydebates;andtheyfocusonsupporting fields oforganizations,notjustcandidates.Perhapsmostimportantly,by “weavingtiesamongwealthydonorsandbetweendonorsandother politicalplayers,” donorconsortiabuildandleveragesocialsolidarity amongthewealthyelite.Wealthydonorsgettoknowoneanother, “and intheprocessconstructapurposefulcommunitywheretheycometo sharepoliticalvocabularies,values,andmorallygroundedperspectives onpoliticalchallengestobeaddressed.” Together,socialsolidarityamong thehyper-wealthydirectedtowardsupportfor “fieldsoforganizations” helpsusexplainhowauthoritativeinstitutionsareincrisis.

Attacksonstateinstitutionsandcivicsocietygroupsstandinginthe wayoffree-marketcapitalismhavecomefromawidearrayofthink tanks,universityprograms,astroturforganizations,newsoutlets,and, morerecently,digitalplatformsthatembraceformsofanarchocapitalism,abeliefinthelimitlesscapacityofunregulatedmarketsto establishandallocatevalue.23 FriedrichvonHayek,oneofthegodfathers ofthisutopianvision,was “committedtopersuadingtheintellectuals,and hencethemassesandtheirpoliticalleaders,tochangecourse” from Keynesianism.24 TheMontPelerinSocietyservedthatpurpose.Even earlier,createdto fighttheNewDeal,theAmericanLibertyLeaguewas fundedbythechemicalindustrymagnateIrénéeDupontandother wealthybusinessmanandcorporations.Otherfree-marketfundamentalistslaterdrewinspirationfromtheJohnBirchSocietyandfromthebeliefs ofRobertLeFevre,bothsourcesofinspirationtoFredKochandhissons CharlesandDavid.25 “Government,” LeFevresaid, “isadiseasemasqueradingasitsowncure,” aphraseparrotedbyRonaldReaganthreedecades later.26 LeFevrethoughttheNewDealwasaterriblemistake.Asaformer memberoftheJohnBirchSocietyandastudentofLeFevre,CharlesKoch wouldaverin 1978, “Ourmovementmustdestroytheprevalentstatist paradigm.”27

Thesearetheseedsofourcurrentepistemologicalcrisis;itistheresult ofadecades-longattacksongovernmentinitiatedbecauseofthestate’s capacitytoinvestigate,regulate,andtax,andonscienceandindependent journalismfortheircapacitytoinvestigateanddocumentthedangerous failuresofunfetteredmarketeconomics.

Wedonotwanttoattributethecurrentcrisisofdemocraticinstitutions entirelytothevariousstrandsoftheneoliberalmovementandrelated businessinterests.TheVietnamWar,Watergate,Iran-Contra,theClinton impeachment,theinvasionofIraqonfalsepretenses – plustheenablingof

thatinvasionbyasometimestoodocileAmericannewsmedia – haveall contributedtothedelegitimationofstateinstitutions.28 Poorperformance bygovernmentoffersanappealing,straightforwardexplanationofinstitutionaldelegitimation.29 Thecommercialmedia,withtheiremphasison scandalandcrisisanddiscord,alsoshareaportionoftheblame,though notallscholarswouldagreewiththisassessment.30 Allofthesefactors haveplayedaroleintheemergenceofour “post-fact” era.Yetthisleave uswithnagging,unansweredquestions.

Mightgovernmentgridlock,inefficiency,anddiscordinitselfbeatleast thepartialproductofapoliticalphilosophydesignedtohollowoutstate institutionalcapacitiesandthendrawattentionandoutragetotheugly results?31 Thepoliticalapparatusdescribedinthesepageshasundermined thestate’sgovernancecapacityandthenturnedtoanelaboratepropagandamachinetodrawattentiontothefoulresults.Theirgoalhasnot beentoimproveperformanceorreimagineeffectivestateservicesbutto bindthestatetoalimitedrangeofresponsibilities,includingservingas thearbiterofbusinesslegaldisputes,enforcerofcontracts,providerof publicsecurity,lawenforcement,andthenationaldefense.Aboveall, thegoalisnottostrengthenandimprovedemocraticgovernance,butto destroyit. why?

Inthelibertarian’sview,with firsttheRooseveltadministration’sNew DealandthentheJohnsonadministration’sGreatSocietyprograms, democracyandegalitarianismhadgottenoutofhand.Withtheriseof movementsdefendingspecificgroups:labor,civilrights,consumer,environmental,andwomen’smovements,toomuchpowerhadslippedintothe handsofpeoplewhomadeexcessivedemandsofgovernmentand corporations.32 ThetroublewithWesterncapitalistsocieties,intheir analysis,wasthatmoderncapitalismandsupportivestateauthorityhad beenerodedby “unrealisticallyheightenedexpectationsonthepartofthe population,andbytheobstaclestoprofitabilityintheoligopolisticsector oftheeconomy.”33 “For(Milton)Friedman,Hayek,and(James) Buchanan,therootcauseoftheaberrationmaybelocated,atleastin part,inthisstrangebutyetpopularnotionthatgovernmentmustfunction forsocialbetterment,[and]forthealleviationofsocialdistressand conflict.”34 Yetintheviewofthefree-marketfundamentalist,stateintrusiononlyworsensmatters.Besides,foratleastsomeofthemoreenthusiasticsupportersofthelibertarianorthodoxies,therewaslittleneedfor

stateintervention.Eventhe possibility ofmarketfailuresandexternalities werethoughtimpossible.35 Furthermore,notonlyisgovernmentregulationunneeded,itisdangerous.Forfree-marketfundamentalists,astate capableofregulationandtaxationleadsinexorablytoastatecapableof imposingtyranny.Becauseexcessivedemocracygetsinthewayofunrestrainedpropertyrights,democraticinstitutions – taxation,regulation, supportofcivilsocietythroughsubsidiesandlaw – mustbebroughtunder control,oreveneliminated.

Interestingly,manyontheleftwouldagreethatdemocracyandfreemarketcapitalismareincompatible,thoughtheywouldreachthisconclusionfromopposingstartingpoints.

Whenmarketsareleftunder-regulated – andworkers,unorganized – thecorporatesectorbecomesacancerousgrowth,expandinguntilitdominatespoliticsand civilsociety.Anever-greatershareofeconomicgainsconcentratesinever-fewer hands,whilethe barrierstoconvertingprivatewealthintopublicpower grow fewerandfartherbetween.Politiciansbecomeunresponsivetopopularpreferencesandneeds.Voterslosefaithinelections – andthen,astrongmansteps forwardtosaythathe,alone,can fixit.36

Therecertainlyisaremarkableconcentrationofwealthinfewerhands.By 2019,thetwenty-sixrichestpeopleontheplanethadthesamenetworth asthepoorestbottomhalfoftheglobalpopulation,orabout 3.8 billion persons.37 It’seasytoimaginetwenty-sixpersonsbutgettingamentalgrip onnearly 4 billionpeopleeludesmostofus.Ifweweretothinkofeach personasasinglesecondintime,fourbillionpersonswouldaddupto aboutninetyyears.Yetdespitetheirgreatnumbers,inrecentyearsthose inthebottomhalf,andeventhosefurtheruptheeconomicladder,have beenfrozenoutofmeaningfulpoliticalrepresentation.Centristpolitical partiesthatmightorganizeandarticulatethegrievancesofthoseleft behindhavebeenhollowedoutbytheglutofmoneywashingover aprofessionalizedpoliticalclassoftechnocrats.38

Thecrisisofdemocracyandourcurrentdisinformationdisorder springsfromtheseurgenthistoricalcurrents.Identitypoliticsandtechnologicalaffordancesputtoill-useareindeedcentraltothestory,thoughin instrumentalways.Whentakenadvantageofbypoliticalactorsunitedin aself-interestedfearoffacts,identitypoliticsandtechnologicalaffordancesareactuatedtoundermineprogressiveeffortstoregulatemarkets andbreakuptheconcentrationofpoliticalpower.Atthesametime,we notethattheseeffortstomanageordirectlargepopularmovementsand partiesontheradicalrightarefraughtwithdifficulty.Whenunleashed,

suchforcesoftenrunamokandunderminefarmoreliberalvaluesthan justthecapacitiesofelectedgovernmentstorepresentthepeople.So,there isnograndconspiracyafoothere,butrathertheresultsofeffortstocreate popularsupportfor(andpoliticaldistractionfrom)ideasthatcouldnot besoldontheirown.

howhasprivatewealthbeenconvertedintopublic power?

Mayerchroniclesthecreationofthe “Kochtopus,” theorganizational apparatusdevisedbyKochadvisorRichardFinktopromotelibertarian ideas.39 Whatismoststrikingaboutthissystem,besidesitsscaleand scope,isthatithas,foralloftheseyears,beensubsidizedbyAmerican taxpayers.Thetaxsystemandlawsthatundergirdmodernphilanthropy havebeenweaponized,asJaneMayerputsit,bybillionairesintheir effortstoeliminateliberaldemocraticinstitutionsthatgetintheirway.40

Thecreationofprivatefoundationshasallowedconcentratedwealth toorganizeandamplifythevoicesofthewealthyinthepublicarena.In 1930,withtotalassetsoflessthan$1 billionincurrentdollars,therewere approximately 200 privatefoundations.Justoverahalf-centurylater, thereweremorethantwothousandfoundations.By 1985 therewere overthirtythousandprivatefoundations.Andby 2014,therewerenearly onehundredthousandwithtotalcapitalizationcloseto$800 billion.41 TheKochsandotherpartsofthefractalledthewayintheweaponization ofwhatmostseeasmerecharitablegiving.

Beginninginthe 1970s,Finkdevisedamostlytax-payersubsidized systemofinfluencewhichdrewonanindustrialprocessingmetaphor. Fink’ssystemhadthreephases.First,newideasmustbetreatedlikearaw materialprovidedbysympatheticintellectualshousedatuniversity researchcenters.TheMercatusCenteratGeorgeMasonUniversityoffers anexample.FoundedbyFinkhimselfatRutgersUniversityastheCenter fortheStudyofMarketProcesses,whatbecametheMercatusCenter movedtoGeorgeMasonUniversityin 1980 withatax-exemptgiftof $30 millionfromtheKochbrothers.Thesecondphaseinvolveslibertarian thinktanksprocessingtherawideationalmaterialsintopoliciesandlaws. TheCatoInstitute,theInstituteforHumaneStudies,theAlabama-based LudwigvonMisesInstitute,andtheCompetitiveEnterpriseInstitute,all tax-exemptorganizations,offerexamplesofpolicy-processingthink tanks.Thethirdphaseinvolvedasalesforceofastroturforganizations

intendedtosellthelibertarianpoliciestolawmakersandthepublic.42 Thisinvolvedgivinglibertarian,top-downpolicyideasapopulistpatina. ExamplesofpopulistastroturforganizationswouldincludetheCenterto ProtectPatientRights – laterrebrandedAmericanEncore,describedin 2014 bythe WashingtonPost asa “majorcashturnstileforgroupsonthe rightduringthepasttwoelectioncycles.”43 In 2012,itfunneleddonations fromFreedomPartnersandTC4 Trustaspartofthe$400 millionfrom theKochdonornetwork.44 EventheTeaParty,whichbeganas adispersednetworkofangrycitizensfollowingthe financialcrisis,was pushedintofarmorecoherentpoliticalorganizationbytheKoch network.

AmericansforProsperity(AFP)offersanotherexampleofafauxgrassrootsorganization.Itopposeslaborunions,theAffordableCareAct(or Obamacare),the 2008 stimuluspackage,andeffortstoaddressclimate change,oreventoacknowledgeitsexistence.AFPpresidentTimPhillips sayshisorganizationemploys “hundreds” ofstaffersandhas “thousands ofvolunteers,” anditswebsiteboaststhat “thereareover 3,200,000 ofus, andwe’reactiveinyourneighborhood.”45

AFP’sbudgetin 2007 was$7 million;by 2010 itsbudgethadgrownto $40 millionand$115 milliontwoyearslater.46 Itssisterorganizationis theAmericansforProsperityFoundation,a 501(c)(3)organization.47 The entireoperationisunderwrittenwithtax-exemptdonationsbytheKoch brothersandotherbillionaires.

WhatcouldbethoughtofasadigitalextensionofFink’sthirdphase hasemergedmorerecentlyintheformofright-wingtalkradio,FoxNews, andavarietyofwebsitesandsocialmediaplatformaccounts.Itcanalso beconceivedofasafourthelementunimaginedbyFinkinthe 1970s. YochaiBenkler’scontributiontothisvolumeandhisworkwithRob FarrisandHalRobertsdescribestheemergenceoftheright-winginformationecosystembuiltaroundidentityandagitation.48 Ittrafficsin outrageandidentity-confirmingcontentthatisunburdenedbyconcerns offactualaccuracy.49 LiketheKochtopus,right-wingoutletsfuelpopulist outrageaimedatthereputationsofmainstreaminstitutions,including “theliberalfakenews,” andthe “deepstate.” RushLimbaugh’s “four cornersofdeceit” memecapturestheessenceofthefar-rightsattackson authoritativeinstitutions:government,universities,science,andstatemedia,inhiscosmology,areliberalconniversouttodeceivethe Americanpublic.50

Limbaughisfarfromaloneintheefforttounderminemainstreamnews organizationsandotherdemocraticinstitutions.In 2019,anetworkof

BreitbartalumniandTrumpallieswerereportedtobepursuing “what theysaywillbeanaggressiveoperationtodiscreditnewsorganizations deemedhostiletoPresidentTrumpbypublicizingdamaginginformation aboutjournalists.”51

AsBenklernotesinthisvolume,theasymmetricaldigitalinformation ecosystememergesoutofright-wingtalkradio,whichroserapidlyfollowingmediaderegulationsinthe 1980s.Thefairnessdoctrine,introducedin 1949,requiredbroadcasterstopresentcontroversialissuesof publicimportancehonestlyandequitably.TheFederalCommunications Commissioneliminatedthepolicyin 1987.Theeliminationofthefairness doctrinewasfollowedbypassageoftheTelecommunicationsActof 1996; andTitle 3 (“CableServices”)oftheActallowedmediacross-ownership. Thiswasjustifiedbyclaimingitwouldspurcompetitionbyallowing “anyonetoenteranycommunicationsbusiness – toletanycommunicationsbusinesscompeteinanymarketagainstanyother.”52 Instead,itled toagrowingconcentrationofcorporateownershipoflocalmedia.As Benklerpointsout,disinformationonsocialmediaplatformsoften emergesoutofthefar-rightsectoroftheAmericaninformationecosystem.Thatsystemistheresultofmediaderegulation.

ClearChannelandSinclairBroadcastingwereamongtheresults.In 2017,thetax-exemptCharlesKochFoundationandtheCharlesKoch Institutedonatedover$2 milliontoconservativemediaoutlets,including $980,000 totheDailyCallerFoundation,thetax-exemptentitythat underwritesTuckerCarlson’s TheDailyCaller.53 Theyearbefore,the KochsgaveCarlson’sfoundation$958,000 – about 84 percentofits annualrevenue.Meanwhile,theMercerfamilybankrolledBreitbart, usingtax-exempt(oratleasttaxsheltered)funds.54 Accordingtothe ParadisePapers,theleakedelectronicdocumentsrelatingtooffshoretax havens,RebekahMercerandherfatherRobertMercerusedaBermuda taxhaventoavoidtaxesonmillionsofdollarsininvestmentprofits accruedbythefamily’sfoundation.55 Fromtheseoffshoreaccountsthe Mercersbuilta$60 millionfundtosupportTrump’selectionandthe creationofBreitbartandCambridgeAnalytica,theconsultancythat claimedtohaveuseditspsychographicprofilesonmillionsofAmericans tohelpelectTrumptotheWhiteHouse.56

Thelibertarianprojectinvolvesnotsimplythepromotionofitsown ideasbutalsothedestructionofopposingideasandinstitutions.The MediaResourceCenter,a “researchandeducationorganizationoperatingunderSection 501(c)(3)oftheInternalRevenueCode,” wasestablishedin 1987 withsupportfromabevyoflibertarianfoundations,

includingtheBradleyFoundation,ScaifeFoundation,OlinFoundation, andtheCarthageFoundation(oneoftheScaifefoundations),among othersources.57 Between 2012 and 2014,MediaResourceCenter received$9 millionfromtheMercerFamilyFoundation.58 Asitdescribes itself,theCenter’s “solemissionistoexposeandneutralizethepropagandaarmoftheLeft:thenationalnewsmedia.”59 Inotherwords,its missionsince 1987 hasbeentounderminethelegitimacyandcredibilityof thenationalmainstreamnewsmedia.Muchoftheeffortinvolvespopularizingthe “liberalmedia” trope.Bylabelingindependentjournalismas “liberal,” andmorerecently “fakenews,” citizensaregivenjustification fordismissingwhattheyreadinthenewspaperorhearonnetworknews. Atthesametime,theconstantright-wingdrumbeatof “liberalmedia” movedpoliticaldialogfurthertotherightbypressuringthepresstobe “fairandbalanced.” Thathasmeantadrifttotheright.Amongother examplesthatonecouldpointto,themainstreampress,tryingtoillustrate itsfairnessonallissues,invitedcharlatansfromclimatechangedenier groupsto “balance” theviewsofscientists.Thevastscientificconsensus onclimatechangewasdrownedoutbyafabricatedbalance “betweentwo sides.”

Similarly,in 2016,theKoch-affiliatedDonorsTrust,a 501(c)(3) organization,gave$1.7 milliontoProjectVeritas,alsoatax-exempt “publiccharity.”60 Accordingto 2012 tax filings,RobertMerceralso providedfundstoProjectVeritas.Althoughitclaimstoexposedishonestyandcorruption,ProjectVeritas’ worktypicallyinvolvesham-fisted, videotaped “stingoperations” aimedateitheraprogressivecivilsociety grouporamainstreamnewsorganization.Thepointistoembarrass anddiscreditthetargetedgroupororganization.In 2017,forexample, ProjectVeritasattemptedtotrickthe WashingtonPost intorunning afabricatedstoryaboutAlabamaSenatecandidateRoyMoore.61 Awomansteppedforwardtotella Post reporterthatshehadan abortionafterhavingsexwithMoorein 1992.Detectinginconsistencies inherstory, Post reporterschallengedheraccount;later, Post reporters sawherenteringtheofficesofProjectVeritas.Inthiscase,Project Veritaswasmadetolookfoolish,justasithadin 2012 whenit attemptedavideotapestingoperationagainstthevoterregistration groupACORN.Inthatinstance,ajudgeevenorderedJamesO’Keefe, ProjectVeritas’sprovocateur-in-chief,topay$100,000 indamagesto twoACORNemployees.ButratherthandamagingO’Keefeandhis organization,theACORNscandalenamoredhimwiththelibertarian far-right. 272

Inthisvolume,thechaptersbyNancyMacLeanandbyNaomi Oreskes,ErikConwayandCharlieTysonboth findsimilareffortsto underminescienceandothersourcesoffact-basedexpertise.62 The HeartlandInstitute,a 501(c)(3)charity,wasfoundedin 1984 byinvestor DavidPadden,oneofmanylibertarianorganizationshehelpedcreate. WhiletheHeartlandInstitute’sgoalshaveevolvedovertheyears,allhave beenorientedtoshieldingcorporationsfromregulation,reducingtaxes forthewealthy,andunderminingtheweightoffactsinpolicydeliberations.Inthe 1990s,withbackingfromthePhillipMorristobaccocorporation,itfocusedon “smoker’srights” campaigns,whichmeant blockingprohibitionsontheuseoftobaccowhiletryingtocastdoubt onthesciencelinkingtobaccoproductswithdisease.Morerecently,with supportfromExxonMobile,theHeartlandInstitutehasbeenaleading promoterofclimatechangedenialism.63

TheCompetitiveEnterpriseInstitute(CEI)offersanotherexampleof alibertarian-backedefforttounderminescienceandtheweightoffactbaseddiscourse.ExxonMobilhasbeenoneofCEI’sprincipaldonors,as hasDonor’sTrust,inwhathasbeendescribedasthe “darkmoneyATM oftheconservativemovement.”64 Thepositionsithastakenarealigned withotherlibertarianthinktanks,fromdenyingtheill-healtheffectsof tobaccotocastingdoubtontherealityofglobalwarming.CEIhaseven championedthereturnofDDT.OnawebsitecreatedbyCEIandother industrybackerscalledSafeChemicalpolicy.org,CEIclaimed, “Millions ofpeoplearoundtheworldsufferthepainfulandoftendeadlyeffectsof malariabecauseonepersonsoundedafalsealarm.ThatpersonisRachel Carson.”65 SeveralofthegroupslistedascoalitionmembersontheSafe ChemicalPolicywebsitehavetiestotheKochNetworkoraremembersof theStatePolicyNetwork(SPN),anotherKochorganization.TheSPN operatesasthepolicy,communications,andlitigationarmofthe AmericanLegislativeExchangeCouncil(ALEC),yetanotherKochfundedtax-exemptorganization.ALECproducescentralizedpolicyprescriptions;whiletheStatePolicyNetworkstateofficesgivethemthe patinaofalocalinitiative.SPNandALECdrawonthesamefunder base,includingKochNetwork,DonorsTrust,PhilipMorris,andseveral pharmaceuticalandtechnologycorporations.66 TheKochs’ Americans forProsperityprovidestheappearanceof “grassroots” supportforSPN andALEC.67

Itisimportantnottolosetrackofthepointbeingmade:allofthiseffort hasbeendevotedtounderminingthecredibilityoffactsviewedasinconvenienttothepursuitofunregulatedcapitalism.68 LongbeforeRussian

botstrolledtheAmericanpsyche,avastarrayoftax-exemptinterest groups,thinktanks,anddissemblingcorporateshillsattackedscience, journalism,judiciary,andcivilsociety.69 TheRussianshavebeenimportantbutaremostlyancillarytothemainsourceofinstitutionaldelegitimationefforts.TheRussiansaremerelyjumpingon-boardthebusand addingafewnewtricksandfurtherfanningthesocialdivisionswhich feedthemovementsandpartiesrisingontheradicalrightinboththeUSA andEurope.

Mostoftheseoperationsarelegalandtaxexempt.Throughthe manipulationoftaxlaws,philanthropyhasbecomeweaponizedinpursuitofanideologicalagenda.MuchofthemoneycontributedbytheKoch brothersandbytheothersuper-wealthymembersoftheKochnetwork, wenttotaxexempt 501(c)(4) “socialwelfare” groups.70 Inanewwrinkle, by 2012,theKochtopuswasfueledbyanonymousdonationsthrough anonprofitcorporationthatthetaxcodedefinedasa 501(c)(6),or a “businessleague.”71 InnocuouslydubbedtheAssociationfor AmericanInnovation(AAI) – laterrebrandedasFreedomPartners – this allowedtax-deductiblecontributionstobemaskedas “membership dues.” Thisputthemoutofreachforreviewbystatesattorneysgeneral. Thetaxcodefacilitatedthecreationoforganizationsusedtopursuethe agendaoffree-marketfundamentalists.This,inourview,isthefoundationuponwhichourcurrentdisinformationdisorderrests.Tax-exempt organizationsformedbysomeofthewealthiestpersonsandcorporations ontheplanethavework fordecades tounderminedemocraticinstitutions designedtomarshalevidence.Whatcanbedonetocorrectthisandsave democracy?

definingproblemsandimaginingsolutions

Solutionsarehardwiredintothepremisesofproblemsandtheircauses.As politicalscientistMurrayEdelmantellsus, “Toevokeaproblem’sorigin istoassignblameandpraise.” Howweunderstandthecauseofour currentdisinformationdisorderinvestsauthorityinsomeandnot others.72 Putmoredirectly,howoneunderstandsthecausesof aproblemaffectswhatseemslogicalandcorrectineffortsto fixit.

Ourpurposeinthissectionofthechapteristoengagewithsome(but notall)ofthemorecommonexplanationsfortheturntowardauthoritarianismandconsiderthesolutionsthatemergefromtheirpremises.Getting theexplanationforthecurrentcrisisofdemocracywrongorevenincomplete,leadstomisdirectedandincompletesolutions.Forexample,ifwe

thinkthecrisisofliberaldemocracyandepistemologyis solely theconsequenceofbotsrunningamok,theweightofpolicyresponseswillbe directedtotheregulationofplatformsortoinvestmentsinbotdetection software.73 Democracyinthisviewwillbesavedbyplatformengineers pursuingtechnical fixes.Ironically,suchasolutionmightactuallycause moreharmthangood.Tocrushdemocraticresistance,authoritariansare quiteeagertodemandtheprohibitionof “disinformation” and “fake news,” whichistosay,informationtheywouldprefernotbeheard.74 Regulatingplatformstosavedemocracymighthavetheunintendedeffect ofbolsteringauthoritarianism.

Ourexplanationisanchoredbyconsiderationsofpoliticalpower,the influencesofwealth,andideology.Inthatrespect,ourargumentshares featureswithsomeoftheclassicliteratureontheeffectsofpoliticalpower onideasandissueagendas.75 Ourpointhereisnottorejectcommon, alternativeaccountsbutratherto fitthemintoourownexplanation. Indeed,suchaccountsarethemselvesmademorecogentbyourhistorical andpoliticalthesis.Forexample,theroleofracialanimosityoffers importantinsightsintotheappealofotherwiseunpopularlibertarian policies,asMacLeandescribesbothin DemocracyinChains andher contributionhere.Racialdivisionsexistandplayacriticalroleinour currentcrisis,justasothercrisesofidentitypoliticsplayaroleinliberal democracy’sdeterioratedconditioninEurope.76 Itisimportant,therefore,tounderstandhowracialdivisionsweremobilizedintheserviceof anti-state,anti-liberalcivilsocietycampaigns.77

Medialiteracyprogramsandfact-checkingofferotherwell-intentioned butlimitedsolutions.Scholarsinterestedinpublicopinionandinformationbiasespointto “low-informationvoters”– voterswhoselackof awarenessofbasicfactsaboutgovernmentandissuesismatchedby alow “needforcognition.”78 Theydon’tknowandtheydon’twantto know.Asoneanalystnotes, “Theyaretheidealconstituencyfor acandidatelikeTrump.”79 Ratherthanfacts,emotionandselective exposureguidetheirimpulses.80

Let’stakeamomenttoconsiderthepropositionthatmedialiteracy initiativesofferhopeformitigatingtheeffectsofdisinformation.The pointofthispartofourclosingargumentistounderscoretheconnection betweenproblemdefinitionsandpresumedsolutions.Let’sexplorethe linkinmedialiteracyinitiativesasasolutiontodisinformation.

Thereislittledoubtthatpoorlyinformedcitizenslackingcritical analyticalskillsconstituteaseriouschallengetodemocracy.81 Butlet’s imaginethatsuchanintellectuallychallengedvotershowsadmirable

gumptionandtakesituponhimorherselftobecomemoreenlightened. Ratherthanconsumeendlessstreamsofmanufacturedoutragefrom Hannity,Limbaugh,orhisorherfavoriteTwitterpersonality,heorshe decidestoseekamorebalancedanderuditenewssource.Howwouldthat go?

AsVictorPicardandPatriciaAufderheidepointoutintheirrespective contributionstothisvolume,intheabsenceofrobustlyfundedpublic broadcastingstations,vastswathesofthecountryareleftdevoidofnews outletsofferingthesortofnewsourgoodcitizenseeks.Thesearenews deserts,placeswherelocalnewspapersandlocallyownedradioand televisionstationshaveeitherclosedorhavebeenboughtby conglomerates.82 Whatmightthemostmotivatedcitizen findinsuch places?

Asmeasuredbyboththetotalnumberofstations(193 asofthis writing)andcoveragearea(40 percentofAmericanhouseholds), SinclairBroadcastingisthelargestcommercialtelevisionstationconglomerateintheUnitedStates.Itisalsoadeeplyconservativeandunabashedly pro-Trumpcorporation.ItalsoownsthelargestnumberofFoxNews affiliates.ItsWashington,DCaffiliatepushedtheSethRichconspiracy theorythathewasmurderedbyassociatesofHillaryClinton.83 Eventhe mainstreamconservative NationalReview callsSinclair’spracticeof demandingthatallofitsstationsaroundthecountrypresentexactlythe sameslantededitorials,asiftheyweretheirown,as “anassaultonour democracy.”84 Itseemslikelythatouraspiringinformedcitizenwouldbe metwithfrustrationandideologicaluniformity.85

Whataboutradioasanalternativesourceofnewsandinformationfor ourintellectuallycuriousnewsconsumer?iHeartMedia,formerlyClear ChannelMediaandEntertainment,owns 855 radiostationsintheUnited States,morethananyotherconglomerate.AttheheartofiHeartMedia arethe flagshipright-wingprograms,including TheGlennBeckProgram, TheRushLimbaughShow,and TheSeanHannityShow.Itsstations reachaboutathirdoftheUSpopulationandtakein$3.5 billionin revenue.Thus,intheabsenceofthesortofrobustpublicbroadcasting serviceenvisionedbyPicard,televisionandradiocontentinmanynews desertswouldonlydeepensomecitizens’ habitsofleadingwithoutrage ratherthancontemplatingthefacts.

Attheleadingedgeofnewsdesertificationisthecollapseofthenewspaperindustry,largelyasaresultofthesyphoningoffofadrevenueby internetplatforms.AsGoogle,Amazon,andFacebookcapturemoreof thetotalmarketshare,advertisingrevenueforthenewspaperindustryin

2018 shrunk 13 percentfrom 2017. 86 Meanwhile,hedgefundvultures circletheremainsofdyingbig-citynewspapers.AldenGlobalCapital,for example,hasmajoritycontrolofamanagementcompanycalledDigital FirstMedia.Itscoopsupadyingnewspaper,demandsdrasticstaffcuts, andthenclosesitaltogethertoconvertitsphysicalassetsintoarealestate deal.Aldenownsnearly 100 dailyandweeklypapers,includingthe MercuryNews,the DenverPost,the St.PaulPioneerPress,andevery majornewspaperintheLosAngelesandSanFranciscoBaymetropolitan areasexceptthe LosAngelesTimes andthe SanFranciscoChronicle.87

AccordingtoYochaiBenklerinChapter 2,two-thirdsoftheinformationecosystemisimmersedinamedialogicofthebalancedpresentation ofsoundlysourcedfacts,whiletheotherthirdisinvolvedinapropaganda feedbackloopofidentity-confirminginformation,oftenofdubiousfacticity.Fact-checkinginitiativessuchasthePoynterInstitute’sPolitiFact helppolicethefrontiersofthesecontrastingsystems.Inasense,by markingtheboundaryspacesbetweenthesetwomedialogics,factcheckinginitiativeshelpisolateand,ifdonewell,undermineeffortsto furtherdelegitimizeauthoritativeinstitutions.

Still,itwouldseemthateventhemostmotivatednewsconsumerwould berequiredtonavigatealandscapeofmanufacturedoutrageandcorporatenewsuniformity.Thereareofcourserobust,eventhrivingnational newsoutletssuchasthe flagshipnewsprogramsfoundonNPRandPBS, oronlinesubscriptionsofprestigenationaldailiessuchasthe NewYork Times.The Times hasbeenaddingaboutaquarter-millionnewdigital subscribersperquarteroverthelastfewyears.Yetthesuccessofnational newsorganizationscarrieswithitthecostofundermininglocalawareness ofissuesandattachmentstolocalcommunities.Localgroupsbring asenseofpoliticalefficaciousnessandsolidaritythatismoredifficultto realizewithasubscriptiontoalargedailynationalnewspaper.

Theproblemwithmedialiteracyinitiatives,nomatterhowwellintentioned,isthattheyassumethedisinformationcrisisistheresultof individualdeficienciesratherthanabrokencorporatemediasystemand aright-wingpropagandanetwork.Thatsaid,literacycampaignshave aroletoplayinhelpingbusyanddistractedcitizensfromfallingpreyto deliberateeffortstodeceive.WhenTrumpclaimshewouldhavewonthe popularvoteinthe 2016 ifitnotforvoterfraud,andimplicatingGoogle inthatprocess,heissowingtheseedsforserioussocialdiscord.88 His erroneousclaimsaffectsomecitizen’sconfidenceintheelectionssystem andencouragethepossibilitythat,shouldTrumplosein 2020,hissupporters(andperhapsmorelikely,Trumphimself)willnotacceptthe

results.89 Fact-checkinginitiativesandmedia-literacyinitiativeshelpcombatthatpossibleoutcome.

Otherobserversemphasizetheroleofsexismandtoxicmasculinityin understandingtheriseoftraditionalauthoritarianpatriarchy.90 Accordingtothisargument,angrymalesweremobilizedbyhostilesexism tovoteforTrumpprecisely because ofwhathehastosayaboutwomen andhowhebehavesaroundthem.91 ItisalsoevidentthatpartofTrump’s appealandtheappealofretro-authoritarianismisnostalgiaforwhite patriarchy.92 What’sgoingonhere?

Manyofthesemencomefromwhiteworking-classbackgrounds. Accordingtosomescholars,working-classangerisrootedineconomic dislocationsandasensethatthesystemisrigged,justasTrumpdescribedit duringthecampaign.Despitereportsofaneconomicrecoveryafterthe 2008 recession,manyworking-classAmericanswereleftbehind,withone studyrevealingthatasmanyasathirdwouldbeunabletomeetan unexpected$400 expense.93 Inthisview,economicinsecurityandanger leftoverfromthe 2008 GreatRecessionledtoTrump’ssurprisingvictory andtheembraceofauthoritarianpolitics.Othersdisagreewiththiseconomicanalysis,arguinginsteadthatracialfearandresentmentmotivated Trumpsupporters.94 Thereisstrongevidencesuggestingthatthisargument isalsocorrect.ExitpolldatashowedthatwhitevoterspreferredTrump overClintonby 21 percentagepointsin 2016. 95 WhiteEvangelicalsin particularsawanopportunity(somebelievedadivinelyinspiredone)to realizetheirgoalofloadingtheSupremeCourtwithjusticesmoreinclined tooverturnRoev.Wade.96 Anditiscertainlyevidentthatblatantlyracist rhetoricwouldbeTrump’scorecampaignstrategyin 2020. 97

Inthiseraofdomesticterrorismcommittedalmostuniversallybywhite men,thereislittlequestionthatraceandclassarekeytounderstanding thesortofhatefueledbyTuckerCarlsononFoxNews,bywebsiteslike TheDailyStormer,andbytherhetoricofferedbyPresidentDonald Trump.RaceandclasshavebeenintermingledformuchofAmerican history,asMacLeannotes.

Indeed,sincetheabolitionistshad firstenlistedtheCommerceClauseofthe Constitutiontotrytostoptheprofitableinterstatetrafficinhumanbeings,and laterwhentheNewDealhadleveragedittoregulatetheeconomy,classandrace hadbeeninterwovenwithpropertyrightsandpublicpowerinwaysthatcannotbe understoodwellwithasingle-factoranalysis.98

Racismofferedthefuelneededbylibertarianstochampionotherwise unpopularpolicies.Weagreethatrace,gender,andclassplayacentral

roleintheriseoftheauthoritarianright.Ourargumentisthatitisthe emotivepowerofidentitypositionsthatcreatedthefuelneededtosell libertarianpolicypositionstoapublicotherwiseleftunenthusiasticby libertarianeconomicarguments.AshistorianMichaelKimmagehas noted,themigrationofwhitesouthernersfromtheDemocraticPartyto theGOPfollowingtheVotingRightsActandtheCivilRightsActandthe accompanying “state’srights” movementwasfueledbyracialhatred.99 By 1980,Reaganwasmixinghislibertarianbashingofthefederalgovernmentwithnot-so-subtleracialdogwhistles.InAugustofthatyear, duringhiscampaignforthepresidency,Reaganmadeanappearanceat theNeshobaCountyFairgroundsinMississippi.Thefairgroundsare aboutsevenmilesfromPhiladelphia,Mississippiwhere,in 1964,civil rightsworkersAndrewGoodman,JamesChaney,andMichaelSchwerner werebrutallymurderedbyagroupofwhitesupremaciststhatincluded thelocalpolice.Attherally,Reagansaid,

Ibelieveinstates’ rights.Ibelieveinpeopledoingasmuchastheycanfor themselvesatthecommunitylevelandattheprivatelevel,andIbelievewe’ve distortedthebalanceofourgovernmenttodaybygivingpowersthatwerenever intendedintheConstitutiontothatfederalestablishment.100

Reagan’sreferenceto “state’srights” wasanobviousappealtosouthern whitevotersandacontinuationofNixon’sSouthernStrategy,thoughsome haveclaimeditmerelyreflectedhislibertarianbeliefs.101 Forus,itwasboth. Tothedegreethatpatriarchalnostalgiacanbetappedtofuelanimustoward the “liberaldeepstate,” libertarianpoliciesarebenefit.Yetpeggingsolutions on “smashingwhitepatriarchy” alone,leavesuntouchedtheeconomic structuresattheheartofsocialandeconomicinjusticeandtheriseof disinformationdesignedtoweakensocialcohesion.Wedonotrejectrace, class,orgender-basedanalysesbutratherseethemascoreelementsofthe libertarianefforttodivideanddemobilizeeffortstotaxandregulatecapital.

Whatabouttechnology?Journalists,scholars,congressionalinvestigators,intelligenceagencies,andthespecialprosecutorprobeofRussian interferencepointtoRussia’suseofAmericansocialmediatoundermine theintegrityofthe 2016 elections.102 YalehistorianTimothySnyder providesoneofthemorecogentversionsofthisargument.103 Asalarming astheevidenceofRussianinterferencewasfollowingthe 2016 elections,it wasn’tuntillater,especiallyaftertheDemocratsregainedcontrolofthe Housein 2018,thatthedeeperextentoftheinterferencewasrealized.In 2019,theSenateIntelligenceCommitteeissuedareportthatsaidelection systemsinall fiftystatesweretargetedbyRussianhackersin 2016. 104

Statesandfederalofficialswerelargelyunawareoftheattacksatthetime. Butdirectattacksonballotingmachinescameinadditiontothesubtler attacksonthefabricofAmericansociety.Russiandisinformationtendsto attacksocialcohesionandinducepanic,especiallyaroundimmigrants andrace.105 ButtheRussianswerelatetotheparty.Racialtensionsand xenophobiahadfueledemotionalattacksonthenewsmediaandliberal democraticinstitutionsfordecades.

EvenwithoutRussiaintheequation,socialmediaplatformsexacerbatesocialtensionsbyalgorithmicallyamplifyingextremistcontentas awaytomaximizeadvertisingrevenue.106 Twitter,Facebook,YouTube, and 4chanwidenpoliticaldivisions – notastheresultofa flawtobe fixed withatweak,butasafundamentaldesignfeature.107 Thesearerealand seriousproblemsthatarelikelytogrowworseastechnologiesevolve.108 Race,economics,andtechnologyallplayaroleinerodingthereignof factsinpublicdiscourse.Yet,whatmustbekeptinmindisthatinplaces wherestateinstitutes,thepress,andscienceenjoyrobustlegitimacy,these samesocialmediaplatformsapparentlydonothavethesameeffectas theydointheUnitedStates.IntheBalticcountries,forexample,Russian disinformationcampaignsonsocialmediaplatformsaremetwithahigh degreeofcohesivepublicdefiance.109 Disinformationandrobustinstitutionsareanalogoustogermsandanimmunesystem.Robustimmune systemswardoffinfections.Weakenedonesdonot.Americanliberal democraticinstitutionshavebeenweakenedbydecadesofattackscoming fromtheKochtopusandalignedorganizations.Spacedoesnotpermitan in-depthlookathowsimilarproblemshaveariseninotherdemocracies, beyondnotingaswedidintheopeningchapter,thatthereisaglobal networkofhundredsofneoliberalthinktanksoperatinginsomeninety nations.Thesedisinformationandpropagandaorganizationsrecruitpoliticians,draftlegislation,networkwiththepress,andshareideaswitheach other.Thisisastoryaboutnetworksthatarewell financed,andthatlearn andsharehowtolimittherepresentativeandregulatorycapacitiesof democracy. endingtaxsupportedattacksondemocracy

Therearenoimmediateeasy fixestoourcurrentcrisisofdemocracy.How thenarewetobegintheenormoustaskofdiggingourwayoutofthis mess?Howarewetoreclaimdemocraticcontroloverourpoliticsand economy?Somepossiblesolutionsareonlypalliativebutarestillimportant.Theyincludethesortofmedia-literacyprogramsdiscussedabove,as

wellasfact-checkingefforts.Othersuggestedmeasurespointtotheneed formoresystemicmeasuresintendedtoaddressthegrossimbalancesin powerandassetsavailabletoadvocacygroups.

Toqualifyfor 501(c)(3)statusasanonprofitpubliccharityeligibleto receivetax-deductibledonations,anorganizationmustclaimtoserve areligious,charitable,scientific,publicsafety,literary,oreducational purposes.Currentlawisextraordinarilyaccommodatinginapproving applicationsforstatusasapubliccharity.Despitethesubstantialtax breakstosubsidizethecreationofafoundation,therearefeworno formalaccountabilitymechanismsortransparencyobligations.Yetthey controlmassiveamountsoftotalassetsandspendenormousamountsof money.Keepinginmindthatnotallcharitiesofferpublicreporting, publiccharitiesintheUnitedStatesin 2015 reportedexpensesamounting toalmost$2 trillionUSdollars.

Untilthelastcentury,suchaconcentrationofwealthinprivatefoundationswouldnothavebeenwellreceived.JohnStuartMillarguedthat aprivatefoundationwasa “mechanismtoproducethekindsofpublic goodsthatthey(plutocrats)cannotmanagetoconvinceamajorityto authorizethroughelectedrepresentatives.”110 Bydefinition,privatefoundationsarethelegallysanctionedpresenceofamplifiedplutocraticvoices indemocraticdebate.In 1917,whenJohnD.Rockefellersoughtacharter fromtheUSCongresstocreateageneralpurposefoundation(heeventuallyobtainedonefromtheNewYorkStateLegislature),ReverendJohn HaynesHolmestestifiedthattheveryideaofaprivatefoundationwas “repugnanttothewholeideaofademocraticsociety.” LouisBrandeis saidthattheRockefellerFoundationwas “inconsistentwithourdemocraticaspirations” andconfessedtohaving “graveapprehensions” about thepowerthatwaslodgedinthehandsofafewwealthymen.111 Generalpurposefoundationsusurpedtheprerogativesoflegislativebodieswith responsibilitiestosetspendingprioritiesunderthescrutinyofthepublic eye.In 1925,sorepugnantwastheconceptofaprivatefoundation,that theregentsoftheUniversityofWisconsinbannedtheuniversityfrom acceptingphilanthropicdonationsfromthem.112

AndtheentireenterpriseissubsidizedbytheAmericantaxpayer.The creationoffoundationsis “generouslytax-subsidizedintheUnitedStates andinmanyothercountries.”113 UndercurrentUSlaw,assetstransferred toafoundationbyadonorareuntaxedintwoways.First,thedonation itselfis,forthemostpart,tax-freeasitreducesthetaxburdenthedonor wouldotherwiseshoulder.Inthisway,itreducesthedonor’staxcommitmentwhilereducingstatetaxrevenueneededfortheprovisioningof

publicgoodslikeroads,cleanair,andcleanwater.Furthermore,returns ontheinvestmentofthefoundation’sendowmentarealsomostlytaxfree.114

Andowingtothepracticeofitemizeddeductions,thebenefitsof charitabledonationsisitselfskewedinfavorofthewealthy.Donorsin thehighesttaxbracket(39.6 percentin 2017)receivethelargestdeduction,whilethoseinthelowesttaxbracket(10 percentin 2017)receivethe lowest.Identicaldonationsaretreateddifferentlybythestateaccordingto thedonor’sincome.Thereisaplutocraticbiasinthetaxcoderegulations ondonationsto 501(c)(3)s.AsRobertReichputsit, “The 1 percent receiveataxpolicymegaphoneandthepoornoorlittlepolicy amplification.”

Remedyingthiswouldinvolveallowingnon-itemizerstodeducttheir charitablecontributionsfromtheirincomejustasthegenerallywealthierdo.Betterstill,changesinpoliciescouldallowalldonorsanidentical,nonrefundableandcappedtaxcredit,ratherthanatax deduction.115 Ultimately,disarmingweaponizedphilanthropywill requireachangeinthetaxcode,onethatlimitstheforcedpublic subsidizationofbillionaire-endowedfoundationsdedicatedtotheprotectionofwealth.

Aswith “the-Russians-did-it-thesis,” ourapproachcannotexplain everything.Thecrisisoflegitimacyofdemocraticinstitutionscanalso beattributedtoahostofotherblundersandexcessesthathaveeroded institutionalcredibilityandlegitimacy.Butthefutureisnotbright.The billionairetechsectorhasturnedto financialmechanismsthatcouldmake theKochtopuslooktame.Privatephilanthropicfoundationsaregiving waytolimitedliabilitycompanies(LLCs).In 2015,MarkZuckerbergand hiswifePriscillaChanannouncedtheywereformingafor-profitLLC.In thisway,theChanZuckerbergInitiative “avoidsthealreadymodest regulatoryrequirementsconcerningannualreportingofgrantmaking andprohibitionsonpoliticalgivingthatattachtoprivate foundations.”116 Otherexamplesoffor-profitLLCsincludeLaurene PowellJobs’ EmersonCollectiveandPierreandPamOmidyar’s OmidyarNetwork.AsReichnotes, “For-profitphilanthropyintheform ofanLLCthreatenstounleashthepowerofwealthyelitesinanespecially nontransparentandunaccountablemanner.Itpermits,inJaneMayer’s memorablephrase,theweaponizationofphilanthropythroughthedisseminationofdarkmoney.”117

Itmightsimplybetoolate.Butifthereisaglimmerofhopeleft,itmight befoundintheresurgenceofawordthathasn’tbeenheardmuchinrecent

decades:antitrust.Asofthiswriting,presidentialcandidateSenator ElizabethWarren(D-Massachusetts)isrunningonanambitiousplanto breakupbigtechcompanieslikeGoogle,Facebook,andAmazonand blockthemfromsellingtheirownproductsontheirplatforms.118 Even WallStreetbankersarebecomingalarmedbythegrowingprecarityof neoliberalcapitalism.119 In TheCurseofBigness:AntitrustintheNew GildedAge,ColumbiaUniversity’sTimWuexplainshow 1970s-era antitrustlaws firstpromotedbylibertarianjuriststendtolimittheir evaluationtothequestionofwhethergreatercorporateconcentration affectsprices.120 Becausesocialmediaplatformsarefree,antitrustregulation,suchasitis,hasallowedforgreaterconcentration.Wuarguesthat politicalleadershavethelegalauthorityandresponsibilitytobreakup monopoliesthatstiflethepaceofinnovationandreducecompetition. Mostespecially,heargues,theymustdosofortheharmthatgreat concentrationsofwealthcandotodemocracy.Whatevertheprecise solution,wemust findwaystoreinvigoratedemocraticinstitutions. Withoutstrengtheningpublictrustinauthoritativeinformation,factchecking,media-literacytraining,anddisinformationdetectioninitiatives cannot,ontheirown,repairtheinformationdisorder.

notes

1.BellaDePaulo, “IStudyLiars.I’veNeverSeenOneLikeDonaldTrump,” ChicagoTribune,December 7, 2017, www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/com mentary/ct-donald-trump-liar-20171208-story.html;PeterBeinart, “The NewAuthoritariansAreWagingWaronWomen,” TheAtlantic, February 15, 2019, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/01/authori tarian-sexism-trump-duterte/576382/;DavidA.Graham,ParkerRichards, AdrienneGreen,andCullenMurphy, “AnOralHistoryofTrump’s Bigotry,” TheAtlantic,May 13, 2019, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/arch ive/2019/06/trump-racism-comments/588067/;CNNPolitics, “2016 presidentialelectionresults,” CNN, www.cnn.com/election/2016/results/ president.

2.RichardHall, “HowtheBrexitCampaignUsedRefugeestoScareVoters,” GlobalPost,June 24, 2016, www.pri.org/stories/2016–06-24/how-brexitcampaign-used-refugees-scare-voters.

3.ArchPuddington, BreakingDownDemocracy:Goals,Strategies,andMethods ofModernAuthoritarians (Washington,DC:FreedomHouse, 2017), https://freedomhouse.org/report/modern-authoritarianism-illiberal-democra cies;DavidHerszenhorn, “FrenchFarRightBeatsMacroninEUElection,” Politico.May 26, 2019, www.politico.eu/article/french-far-right-beats-macronin-eu-election/;SamJones, “HowtheFarRightGainedaFootholdinSpain,” TheGuardian,April 28, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/28/ho

w-the-far-right-finally-gained-a-foothold-in-spain;RachelDonadio, “It’s theRightWing ’ sItalyNow, ” TheAtlantic,June 6, 2018, www .theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/06/its-the-right-wings-italy-now/5 62256/;ThijsKleinpaste “TheNewFaceoftheDutchFar-Right,” Foreign Policy,March 28, 2019, https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/28/the-new-face-ofthe-dutch-far-right-fvd-thierry-baudet-netherlands-pvv-geert-wilders/;FranzStefanGady, “CorruptionandCollusionCan’tStopAustria’sFar-Right,” ForeignPolicy ,May 23 , 2019 , https://foreignpolicy.com/ 2019/05/23/corruption-and-collusion-cant-stop-austrias-far-right /;JohnFeffer, “GermanyandtheRiseofa ‘FascistInternational,’” Institutefor PolicyStudies,October 5, 2017, https://ips-dc.org/germany-and-the-rise-of-afascist-international/.

4.TimothySnyder, TheRoadtoUnfreedom:Russia,Europe,America (London:PenguinRandomHouse, 2018).

5.DomenicoMontanaro, “6 StrongmenTrumpHasPraised-AndThe ConflictsItPresents,” NPR,May 2, 2017, www.npr.org/2017/05/02/52 6520042/6-strongmen-trumps-praised-and-the-conflicts-it-presents.

6.NateSilver, “TheComeyLetterProbablyCostClintonTheElection,” FiveThirtyEight,May 3, 2017, https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/thecomey-letter-probably-cost-clinton-the-election/.

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