Religious Fundamentalism in India: Christian Response

Paominlen Kipgen

INTRODUCATION:

The abstract noun, fundamentalism, ultimately derived from the root fundo-are (latin) meaning (1) to lay the foundation of, to found; (2) to make firm, to strengthen. Webster Dictionary define fundamentalism as, “The belief that the basic truths of the Bible are fundamental to Christianity, that the miracles described in the Bible are inerrant, and especially that the virgin birth and Christ’s resurrection and substitutional atonement must not be doubted.”1 Scaria Kuthirakkattel defined it as “The strict maintenance of traditional orthodox religious beliefs or doctrines; especially the creeds as fundamentals of Protestant Christianity.”2 Isaac Padinjakekuttu defined it as, “A proclamation of reclaimed authority over a sacred tradition which is to reinstated as an antidote for a society that has strayed from its structural mooring.”3

M.T. Cherian said, “Fundamentalism is neither a ‘new religious movement’ (in the technical sense of the term) nor ‘traditional’, ‘conservative’ or ‘orthodox’ expression of religious faith and practice. Rather fundamentalism is a category by itself.”4 According to Ravi Tiwari, “Fundamentalism, in its positive aspect, is always an acceptable term, if it refers to ‘going back to the fundamentals of one’s religion and its religiosity. The negative aspect, however, does not bring cheers in the minds and lives of most of its own adherents, certainly not in the life of the minority religious communities. It tends to see the world from its own limited worldview of religio-cultural contest, rejecting all the others, and imposes it upon others as well, whether they agree to it or not.” 5 Fundamentalism is characterized by six elements.6Today Fundamentalism is one of the most detested term. It is often felt to be a hostile and opprobrious term, suggesting narrowness, bigotry, obscurantism and sectarianism.

1 Noah Webster, Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary (Cleveland and New York: The Word Publishing Company), 1951.

2 Scaria Kuthirakkattel, “Fundamentalism: Biblical Prespective” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003), 25.

3 Isaac Padinjakekuttu, “Fundamentalism: Historical Perspectives” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003), 5.

4 M.T. Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights A Christian Response (Bangalore: Centre for Contemporary Christianity, 2007), 28.

5 Ravi Tiwari, “Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism: Reflections on Hindu perspective,” National Council of Churches Review Vol. CXX/10 (November 2000), 983.

6 (1) The religious text(s) becomes central and is interpreted in a literal factual way. (2) The ancient leader of a religion, or mythical leaders or gods, are transformed into historical figures and all the stories which surround them are seen as literally true. Myth becomes history. (3) A geographic area, usually a nation or civilization, is seen as sacred and must be purified and defended. (4) The world is divided into believers and infidels. Opponents of the fundamental religion are demonized and Satanized. The goal shall be saved and the

Though there are various fundamentalisms in each religion and sects, this paper will be dealing mainly about Growth of Hindu Fundamentalism and Christian response.

1. Origin of Fundamentalism:

Fundamentalism originated in western Christianity as a result of some people seeing religion as the ultimate source and anything outside religion was to be scrutinised with the religion norms to scale its validity. It is understood that the term ‘fundamentalism’ originated in the protestant theological controversies at the beginning of the 20th century in United States and it implies the foundational authority of the Bible. Its birth could be traced back to the publication of a series of twelve books entitled The Fundamentals, defending the fundamentals of Faith.7 Lancy Lobo wrote: “Fundamentalism is a term drawn from Protestant Christianity. It is an American coinage that refers to a group of early twentieth-century Protestant activists who organised against Darwinian evolution and who championed the literal reading of the Bible.”8

Though the word fundamentalism was used for an interdenominational movement that flourished in American Protestantism during the first half of the twentieth century, the name fundamentalism was not coined till 1920. The term fundamentalism is made synonymous to patriotism (as it is today in India,) after the experience of World War I.”9 Thence violence becomes the tool of religious fundamentalism, and terrorism the strong weapon of fundamentalist politics. Thus, violence as a tool of the rightist fundamentalist and that of the reactionary fanatic has become a global phenomenon in recent years.10

evil will be damned. (5) These movement strenuously, and often violently, oppose what they call modern secularism with its tolerance, scepticism, irony, and the emphasis of scientific reason. (6) Fundamentalism has a special appeal for newly and/or poorly educated persons. The initial process of education, especially the gaining of literacy, encourages, rather than discourages fundamentalism. Charles A. Ryerson, “Faith and Fundamentalism: Recipe for Violence,” Religion and Society Vol. 47/4 (December 2000), 9-10.

7 Fundamentals of Faith Such as (1) The verbal and inerrant inspiration of the Bible, (2) the virgin birth of Jesus Christ, (3) the substitutionary atonement of Jesus, (4) the physical or bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ, and (5) the imminent second coming of Jesus Christ. Other doctrines which supplemented these were: (1) the deity of Jesus Christ, (2) the depravity of sinful nature of man, (3) salvation and justification by faith through grace of God, and (4) promise of the physical or bodily resurrection of believing or regenerate Christian. Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights..., 18.

8 Lancy Lobo, “Religious Fundamentalism – A Challenge to Democracy in India.” Social Action Vol. 59 (April – June 2009), 147. (www.isidelhi.org.in/saissue/articles/artapr09.pdf)

9 Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights..., 19.

10 Sri Veerabhadra Channamalla Swamiji, “The Rise of Fundamentalism in India.” Religion and Society Vol. 49/1 (March 2004), 11.

2. Cause for the emergence of Fundamentalism:

Many individuals and families in the United States lost their faith and had an insecurity feeling in them due to the erosion of age-old values system, beliefs and rituals because of the incoming of secularism, modern science and technology. In such a juncture the new fundamentalist organisations were successful in providing people with albeit facile identities and security drawing them back to the fundamentalist fold. 11 Another reason for the emergence of fundamentalism was due to the upcoming of the liberal aspect of theology as well as the influence of scientific inventions, for, the importance of religion was deducting from the mind of the people.12

3. Christian Fundamentalism in India:

Scaria Kuthirakkattel writes: “Fundamentalism is close linked with Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity which centers on the emotional, non-rational, mystical, and supernatural: miracles, signs, wonders, and the gifts of the Spirit (charismata), especially speaking in tongues (glossalia), faith healing, and casting out of demons (exorcism). Supreme importance is attached to the subjective religious experience of being filled with or possessed by the Holy Spirit.”13

Pentecostalism that began in the 1920s in India has been experiencing extraordinary growth since 1980. Apart from mention above, it is fundamentalist in the sense that it is based on the implicit politics of eventual Christian domination. The agenda includes conversion, an aggressive stance towards non-Christians and the use of the media to extend their sphere of influence. Christian fundamentalists, like their Islamic counterparts, belong to a global umma and harbour real and perhaps imagined, even delusional, longings directed towards making all of God’s people Christian. These Christian groups may not use real physical violence, though they are well-versed in using the media and non-media means to propagate symbolic violence that is often backed up by economic enticements to persuade individuals and communities to become Christian.14

11 Cherian, Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights..., 21.

12 Saji Varghese, “A Critique Of Post-Independent Christian Mission Methods In The Context Of Hindu Fundamentalism In Andhra Pradesh,” (Thesis Of Master Of Theology In Missiology, COTRS, 2009), 60.

13 Kuthirakkattel, “Fundamentalism: ..., 26.

14 Lancy Lobo, Religious Fundamentalism..., 149

4. Hindu Fundamentalism

The Hindu fundamentalist is based on three Hs, “Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan, ” and its members had to share a common language, common religion and a common origin. It is a combination of religious, cultural and political fundamentalism, incorporated in one particular pattern of framework to cater to the needs of the dominant group of the country. Religiously, it has come to extent of alienating other religions from the mainstream by oppressing, demonising the other and denying the right of existence through the tactics of stigmatising, demolition and destruction of the worship place and many other unprecedented demonstrations. Politically, it has come to the level of capturing power in the central government; and culturally, it is isolating the minorities as outsiders who do not share the Hindu culture and hence, they are considered as aliens and they have no right to live in India.15

Ravi Tiwari states that, Hindu fundamentalism is rather a new phenomenon. It is sustained through four dogmatic assertions: first and foremost is the religious dogmatism that project the Hinduism as the only custodian of true spirituality; the second is scriptural dogmatism that accepts nothing but the Vedas as the depository of all the truth; third is the territorial dogmatism, asserting India as the land of God-realization; and the fourth is the communal dogmatism that asserts the theory of India for Hindus alone.16

The Hindu fundamentalist function under various names in India and throughout the diaspora. There are, however, three main right-wing Hindu organisations: the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP). The RSS was formed in the mid-1920s, the VHP in 1964, and the BJP emerged in the late 1970s as successor to an earlier party, the Jansangh. The BJP in the past had been in power as part of a coalition government for two consecutive terms of the national parliament, (and single Majority party at present). In the last two decades, the VHP has actively worked to help the BJP gain electoral gains by creating a ‘Hindu’ electorate which would back the BJP under all circumstances.

The RSS, the BJP and the VHP have separate constitutions, organisational structures and work patterns. It cannot be denied, however, that in terms of membership, ideology and agendas of action, there is an overlap between the three, and that the RSS has played a

15 Tiwari, Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism..., 998.

16 Tiwari, Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism..., 995-996.

parenting role. In the politics of the RSS and its Parivar (family) there is a division of work between the ‘cultural’ RSS, the ‘political’ BJP and the ‘religious’ VHP.17

4.1 Hinduism: The word Hindu originated in Persia and referred to the inhabitants on the other side of the River Sindu. It was only after some European scholars of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, who were accustomed to group the people as Christians, Jews, Muslims and heathen, viewed the non-Christian, non-Jewish and non-Muslim population of India as the Hindus. Slowly, religious, political and constitutional attempts have been made to extend the meaning of this term to identify all the people of India.18

In reality, there is no religion called Hinduism, wrote Sri Veerabhadra Channamalla Swamiji. It find its form and shape in the Western sense of a religion with a rigid system. It would be right to call it a Vedic or a Brahminic religion, since the conceptual idea of Hinduism does not have either its own scripture or a systematic theology as it basis. For example, while the Saivas have the Agamas, Bhudist have Tripitikas; Shaktas have Tantras; and Lingayats the Vachanas. Thus Hindus do not have a religious holy book as Sikhs (as they have the Granth Sahid), Christian or Muslims. However, Hindus as a mass of religious people with strands of belies and tenets have Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Smruthis, Brahmasutras, Bhagavad Gita, Puranas and also Ramayana and Mahabharata as their holy scripture.”19

It was the Hindu fundamentalists who propagated that Hinduism is the religion of a majority of Indians and that their culture is Hindu and their land is Hindusthan. But Hinduism cannot be the religion of Indians. It’s just one among the other religions. Nowhere in India in the present or past Hinduism has been a religion of all Indians. It has been just the religion of Brahmins. If it were to be everybody’s religion, Saiva, Buddhist, Jain, Sikh, Lingayath religions would not have been born in this land. In fact these religions came about as a reaction to Brahminism and against the evils of Hinduism.20

4.2 Cause of the emergence of Hindu Fundamentalism: Hindus for a long while were living in a context of fear of subjection and defeat in all areas. Mogul empire became a super power in Northern part of India along with some part of Deccan Platue in the south from the

17 Chayanika Shah, Hindu fundamentalism in India: Ideology, strategies, and the experience of Gujarat, www.wluml.org/sites/wluml.org/files/import/english/pubs/pdf/wsf/07.pdf, 62 (10 August 2015).

18 Daniel Jeyaraz, “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva – Personal Reflection” Dharma Deepika Vol 8/2 (July – December 2004), 39.

19 Swamiji, The Rise of Fundamentalism in India..., 14.

20 Swamiji, The Rise of Fundamentalism in India..., 14.

dawn of the 13th century. By the beginning of 16th century, Indian became under the sovereignty of the Mogul empire and it stayed until the coming of the British colonials in Indian. The advent of the British colonial marked emerging of another foreign rule. Since the Hindus were facing subjugation for long time, they were in the lowest ebb. Moreover, they were facing a threat from the conversion activities. Second reason for the emergence of Hindu fundamentalism was the separate electorates, introduced with the expansion of democratic institutions in 1909, assuring representation by members of all religions. Third, the attitude of government towards different communities.21 And the missionary movement officially allowed by the charter of 1813, the introduction of English education and the missionaries (who had been influenced by evangelicalism) negative attitude towards Hinduism serves as another reason.22

4.3 Rashtriya Swayam-Sevak Sangha: The founder of RSS Dr. Keshav B. Hedgewar (1889-1940) was born when fascism ruled Italy, and Hitler was about to capture power in Germany. He was a great admirer of Mussolini and Hitler. The organization, from the dress, to the greeting mode to the basic philosophy of hate was modelled on fascists of Italy and Nazis of Germany.23

RSS was founded with the expressed mission to organize the Hindus on nationalist lines and to radicalize them to hasten the end of British rule in India. Although its objective was national regeneration, the broad means, methods, membership and strategy it employed to attain its objectives was, and is, to be the solidarity of the Hindu community. It also seeks to instill among its members a militant awareness of their common heritage and destiny. The ideology of Hindutva as practiced by the RSS is often associated with the communalism, violence against and hatred for Muslim and Christian communities. Under the stewardship of M.S. Golwalkar (1906-73), RSS identified the Indian nation with the Hindus whom it regarded as indigenous sons of the Indian soil. He regarded Hinduism as the heart of the Indian nation and the philosophical principles of the Vedas as the soul of it.

Although RSS claims that it is a non-political social and cultural organization, and has overtly kept itself away from party politics of the Indian democratic system; many doubt about the claim. In the past, as it is now, it has its own satellites, assuming the role of political

21 Varghese, A Critique Of Post-Independent Christian Mission..., 67-68.

22 Isaac Padinjakekuttu, “Fundamentalism: Historical Perspectives” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003), 17.17-18.

23 Lancy Lobo, “Religious Fundamentalism – A Challenge to Democracy in India,” Social Action Vol. 59 (April – June 2009), 148. (www.isidelhi.org.in/saissue/articles/artapr09.pdf,).

fronts. Bhariya Jan Sangha, a rightist Hindu party, founded by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee (1901-52) had links with the RSS; Nehru called it ‘an illegitimate child of RSS’. Today it is Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP). Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) is another associate of RSS, which is known for its virulence towards the minority communities. Others are Bajarang Dal (BD) an the Shiva Sena.24

4.4 Hindutva:

Hindutva has emerged as the main agenda of the Bharatiya Janata Party. It is evident in their 1996 Election Manifesto which reads, “Hindutva or cultural nationalism, shall be the rainbow which will bridge our present to an glorious past and pave the way for an equally glorious future; it will guide the transition from swarajya [self rule] to Surajya [good governance].25

4.4.1 Meaning: Kunjachan Koshy wrote, “According to the Supreme Court, Hindutva is a way of life or a state of mind and cannot be equated with or understood as religious Hindu fundamentalism. Hindutva is secularism in our Constitution. Tolerance, compassion and rationality together constitute the core of Hindutva. Hindutva is also understood as a synonym of Indianisation, namely, the development of a uniform culture by peaceful adaptation and change. ‘Unity out of diversity’ and not ‘Unity in diversity’ is its goal.”26

Shahid Abbasi writes: “‘Hindutva’ literally means ‘Hinduism’, to be used to denote the essence of true Hinduism as understood and documented by sages like Shri Aurobindo on the basis of life long study of the Bhagvad Gita, the Vedas, and other scriptures. By using ‘Hindutva’ to describe the bigoted, militant, anarchic, and basically anti-national behaviour of the likes of Bal Thackeray, we are unwittingly, disgracing what is in truth a venerable term.”27

Ken Gnanakan writes: “The term “Hindutva” is derived from the two terms Hindu and Tattva, which literally mean “Hindu Principles”…Two of these principles that symbolize the thoughts are - This world is one family (Vasudaiva Kutumbakam) and that the Universal Reality is the same, but different people can call it by different names (Ekam Sat Viprah

24 Tiwari, Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism..., 993-994.

25 Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism, www.academia.edu/2915759/Religious_Fundamentalism_Hindutva_and_Christian_Exclusivism, 3

26 Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism..., 3.

27 Shahid A Abbasi, “Hinutva? Jehad?,” The New Times of India, 14 November 2002, p.10, quoted in Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism, 3.

Bahuda Vadanti). The proponents of this vision see a unification of everyone in India under a Ram Rajya, the kingdom of Ram.”28

A counterfeit Hindutva is promoted by the Hindu fundamentalist groups such as Rashtriya Swayamsevak Samaj (RSS), Viswa Hindu Parishad (VHP) Bajrang Dal, and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), their political arm.29 To them Hindutva means, Hinduness or conscious of being a Hindu or Hindu as the dominant identity. It aims at a Hindu nation state (Hindu rashtra). It attempts to create a national identity by a process of inclusion and exclusion. It includes people with little cultural differences and excludes those who have greater differences. Through inclusion it does away with internal differences and achieves a kind of homogeneity.30

4.4.2 Why Hindutva came into being: Hindutva are nostalgic about their supposedly golden civilization which is now lost. They defy their ancestral land as pure, holy, sacred land, and consider those Indians who do not belong to their Hindutva ideology as aliens and even as enemies.31 The contributing factors for its formation can be stated as: 1). The wounded psyche: The feeling of insecurity that was created among the upper caste and upper class Hindu under Muslim and British rule threaten them not only politically and economically but also culturally and religiously... 2). Loosening Power on Unification and Domination: It is also true that the Hindu society is divided into various castes, jatis and sects. So the Hindutva forces came into being in this background to unite the Hindus in the face of Semitic religions in India... 3). Globalization: Most recently, globalization has also been a threat to the Hindutvavadis. Globalization intrudes on people’s culture, identity and rights, and the Hindutva forces see this as a threat to the power of Brahminical culture and religion; therefore, they began advocating a counter act and they also see Christians as symbolic extensions of Globalization.32

4.4.3 Ideology: Daniel Jeyaraz writes, “The ideology of Hindutva (‘Hindu principles’) is of recent origin. It represents an organized attempt to view the totality of Indian life - land, people, history, civilization, culture, language, religion, philosophy, and customs – from the

28 Ken Gnanakan, Proclaiming Christ in a Pluralistic Context., op. cit., p.124, quoted in Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism, 4.

29 Kunjachan Koshy, Religious Fundamentalism..., 2.

30 Lancy Lobo, “Religious Fundamentalism..., 147

31 Daniel Jeyaraz, “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva..., 39.

32 Malwin Stone Passah, “The Power of Politics of Hindutva and the Religious Minorities: An Ethical Response” Master’s Journal of Theology Vol 4/2 (December 2014), 81.

particular viewpoints of the sanskritic religions.”33 According to Hindutva, to be an Indian, is defined by one’s religion. To be Indian is to be Hindu. The Hindutva forces are increasingly seeking to homogenize the culture of India in terms of an upper caste, Sanskritic, Brahmanic Hinduism. Anything outside this cultural orbit is denied legitimate existence in Indian society. Proponents of Hindutva believe that “Hinduism is superior to any other faith, that Hindus are the original and only creators of Indian culture and are, exclusively, the Indian Nation”. Anti-Muslim and anti-Christian sentiments are consistently used to project a political ideology of Hindu dominance.34

4.4.4 Activities: The activities of Hindutva organisations are varied. First one group of activities targets the minorities, especially the Muslims and Christians. They have set up competing institutions in the area of health and education, especially in backward tribal areas. Relief and reconstruction during natural disasters is the second area which was mainly with the Christian missionaries. Third, another group of activities are related to the media: printing tons of literature against these minorities and also the use of the electronic media to demonise the minorities. Fouth, Political mobilization of the masses is another area of activities. A fifth area of activities is celebration of Hindu festivals and religious events on a massive scale, thus trying to Hinduising tribals and Sanskritise the lower castes.35 Another group involve themselves in Hindu religious (re)conversion, in the name of Ghar Wapsi .36

4.4.5 Rama-oriented Hindutva: The reason for giving pre-eminence to Rama by the Hindutva fundamentalists is because of the threat to leadership – by recognising Krishna or Shiva one would have to share leadership with the Sudras or the leadership would go to Sudras. In this power struggle for leadership Rama is propagated as embodying the Kshatriya who alone can control the minorities. While Krishna symbolized the Sudra, Shiva represents the tribal people. Thus Krishna’s peace initiative (symbolized by his flute) and Shiva’s damaruga symbolise harmony. In contrast, Rama is symbolic of bow and arrow – a culture of violence and aggression over against the peaceful overtures of the flute and the drum.37

33 Daniel Jeyaraz, “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva..., 39.

34 S.M. Michael, SVD, Fr. Thomas D’sa, ed., The Church in India in the Emerging Third Millennium; (Bangalore: N.B.C.L.C, 2005), 229

35 Lancy Lobo, Religious Fundamentalism..., 148.

36 Etymotogically the word “Ghar” is of Sanskrit origin “Home” and “Wapsi” is of Persian Origin “Coming” which put together means “Home Coming.” Imsenjungba, Paper Presentation on: Christian Response to Ghar Wapsi, COTR, Vishakhapatna, (17 August 2015).

37 Swamiji, The Rise of Fundamentalism in India..., 14-15.

CONCLUSION

Christianity in India faces a threat that has come from the religious fundamental and fanatic organisations that have carried out their programs on the pretext of superiority and cultural nationalism. Dalits and the marginalised seemed to be more affected by these programmes. Christian church and Christians in India have arrived at a cross road from where they have to make a decision in favour of, or against, their continued witness of faith to their community and nation. The situation is becoming more complex as sporadic acts of violence on the personnel and properties of Christians still continues, along with vicious propaganda of Hindutva force.

So, While all branches of Sangh Parivar through their social and cultural engagements and disseminate and impart the fundamentalist values in the civil society and create a rift between the communities, it is important for the church to engage itself in the formulation of a viable model of theology. A theology for the civil society from the civil society would be a viable model.

Also, Christian church should respond to such emerging ideologies and movements through united efforts and common action plan, there should be a set of well-designed scholarly texts to educated the people and bring out large scale awareness even up to the local and grass-root level.

38

Lack of unity and denominational communalism in the Indian Churches are still painful facts that need to be seriously considered. The Churches in India (eg. Evangelicals, Roman Catholic, Church of South India, Church of North India and other denomination) has to have a spirit of Unity-in-Diversity in order to face this religious fundamentalism of other faith.

We the Christian also have to learn to stand in solidarity with the people of other faiths on the issues that concern them and lend our support them. The spirit of solidarity needs to be preserved, maintained and strengthened in order to preserve the unity and secular character of our nation. The ecumenicity of religions in India is the need of the time in order to preserve in from the clutches of bigot and fundamentalist forces.

39

38 O.L. Snaitang, “Challenges from William Carey to the Mission of the Church of India,” Mission in the Past and Present: Challenges and Perspectives, (Bangalore: BTESSC/SATHRI), 50.

39 Tiwari, Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism..., 998-999.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS:

Cherian, M.T. Hindutva Agenda and Minority Rights A Christian Response. Bangalore: Centre for Contemporary Christianity, 2007.

Snaitang, O.L. “Challenges from William Carey to the Mission of the Church of India”, Mission in the Past and Present: Challenges and Perspectives, Edited by Samson Prabhakar. Bangalore: BTESSC/SATHRI, 2006.

SVD, S.M. Michael, Fr. Thomas D’sa ed. The Church in India in the Emerging Third Millennium; Bangalore: N.B.C.L.C, 2005.

Varghese Saji. A Critique Of Post-Independent Christian Mission Methods In The Context Of Hindu Fundamentalism In Andhra Pradesh. Thesis Of Master Of Theology In Missiology COTRS, 2009.

Webster Noah. Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary. Cleveland and New York: The Word Publishing Company, 1951.

JOURNALS:

Jeyaraz, Daniel. “Christian Missions in the context of Hindutva – Personal Reflection.” Dharma Deepika Vol 8/2 (July – December 2004), 39-50.

Kuthirakkattel, Scaria. “Fundamentalism: Biblical Prespective ” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003), 24-47.

Padinjakekuttu, Isaac. “Fundamentalism: Historical Perspectives” jnanadeepa Vol 6/2 (July 2003), 5-21.

Ryerson, Charles A. “Faith and Fundamentalism: Recipe for Violence.” Religion and Society Vol 47/4 (December 2000), 5-10.

Stone Passah, Malvin. “The Power of Politics of Hindutva and the Religious Minorities: An Ethical Response” Master’s Journal of Theology Vol 4/2 (December 2014), 76-93.

Swamiji, Sri Veerabhadra Channamalla. “The Rise of Fundamentalism in India.” Religion and Society 49/1 (March 2004), 10-15.

Tiwari, Ravi. “Religious Fundamentalism and Nationalism: Reflections on Hindu perspective,” National Council of Churches Review CXX/10 (November 2000).

INTERNET SOURCES:

Lobo, Lancy. “Religious Fundamentalism – A Challenge to Democracy in India.” Social Action 59 (April – June 2009). www.isidelhi.org.in/saissue/articles/artapr09.pdf. (10 Aug 2015).

Koshy, Kunjachan. Religious Fundamentalism, Hindutva and Christian Exclusivism. www.academia.edu/2915759/Religious_Fundamentalism_Hindutva_and_Christian_Ex clusivism. (10 Aug 2015)

Shah, Chayanika. Hindu fundamentalism in India: Ideology, strategies, and the experience of Gujarat. www.wluml.org/sites/wluml.org/files/import/english/pubs/pdf/wsf/07.pdf. (10 Aug 2015).

UNPUBLISH METERIAL:

Imsenjungba, Paper Presentation on: Christian Response to Ghar Wapsi, COTR, Vishakhapatna, (17 August 2015).