Martin Luther's Ethics of Creation: A Morality of Nature

Noel F. R. Guzman

Martin Luther’s Ethics of Creation

Noel F. R. Guzman

Martin Luther’s Ethics of Creation

A Morality of Nature

VDM Verlag Dr. Müller

Imprint (only for USA, GB)

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Dedicated in gratitude to the Aboriginal peoples of the world and Grupong Sagip Inc., an ecological movement

Preface

Creation has been a helpful company in writing this book. I am deeply grateful to the beautiful town of Pembroke, Massachusetts, U.S.A. particularly to the village of Bryantville, where the peaceful lakes, the evergreen pines of the J. J. Shepherd Memorial Forest, the cranberry bogs, and the awesomely diverse birds flying around stimulated me to write with profound passion. (Special thanks to a gorgeous Blue Jay!) A special gratitude extends to Dr. Carter Lindberg, Dr. Christopher Brown, Dr. John Hart and Dr. James A. Nash, who in their wisdom and interaction affirmed my interest in developing the argument of this book. A debt of gratitude also goes to the three loveliest women in my life: my lovely wife Rolin, my beautiful daughter Blessy, and my thoughtful mother Dolores, whose love and joyful company have inspired the writing of this book.

These pages are a product of an exceptional passion on aboriginal or indigenous peoples, who espouse the ethics of kinship of all creatures. Their remarkable affinity with the rest of creation is an exact opposite of the Western mind’s profit-oriented and separatist attitude toward nature. I owe hefty debts of gratitude to the amazing wisdom of aboriginal peoples particularly my friends in Canada, South America, the United States, and the Philippines whom I have thoughtful acquaintances.

While browsing the writings on creation of the sixteenth century reformers, I came across the unexplored ethics of creation of Martin Luther, a prominent public figure of Western civilization. I was fascinated to discover that, although Western, Luther’s moral values on nature, or in modern terms ecological ethics, is more akin to the Eastern tradition. The fact remains, however, that some of Luther’s thoughts are part of the predicament of the lingering

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ecological crisis. But despite of his human-centered or instrumentalist thoughts toward nature, Luther also stooped down to the level of the indigenous mind. Many of his doctrines of creation could usher a guiding wisdom to deal with the crisis. His ethics of creation identifies with the indigenous beliefs on nature. One may be surprised to learn of a pivotal figure of Christianity and the Western civilization who turned out to be a critic of his own world, of his own kind, government and religion, that had been vandalizing the sanctity of politics, economics, church, marriage, family, and nature.

What is intriguing about Luther is his thought that demonstrates the intimate relationship of God and nature, a thought that is notably compatible with the belief of aboriginal peoples and an antithesis to Western thinkers. Luther goes beyond his anthropocentric and utilitarian views by positing a theocentric view of creation. His ethics of creation is emphatically revolutionary to the globalization of his time and today, a milieu of profit-oriented and manipulative approach to the two most exploited beings in the planet: the poor and the environment.

These pages are also a reflection of commitment toward ecology and sustainability These two words are inseparable in regard to the redemption of the integrity of creation.

What is the distinction between ecology and environment? I prefer to be called ecologist rather than environmentalist. The aborigines would give us a profound wisdom about the kinship of all creatures. For them everyone in creation is interrelated, interconnected and interdependent. No one could exist without the other. No one should be regarded as the “center of attention.” The inclination to be manipulative or exploitive toward others sets off when dominant species, like humans, believe they are special or above others. Humans are not to be regarded as the highest form of creatures and neither the crown of creation. Ecology signifies inclusiveness. It is the whole community of biotic and abiotic beings. All creatures are a family and no particular species should be thinking only of their own interests. Environment, on the other hand, represents anything that surrounds humans. It is a world separate from us. In other words, we humans are at the center and we deal with the rest of creation as outside our turf. In environment, the essence of community or family is missing. Whereas in ecology, everybody is a community and humanity’s special throne is dislodged.

The future of planet Earth, our only home, is in peril because our approach to nature denies sustainability. We never care of the future generation. The carrying capacity of the planet could no longer cope with humankind’s promiscuous consumerism of the planet’s natural

Preface viii

Preface

resources. The future generations, both human and non-human beings, could no longer sustain to utilize the remaining resources. The truth is we have been behaving like grown-ups in Noah’s time. We never listen to the prophets of our time (ecologists, scientists, and nature itself) who are obviously giving us the alarm. We disregard their warnings about impending catastrophes, like hotter temperatures, vanishing glaciers, stronger storms, bigger floods, and more fatal epidemics. We never care to understand it at all. What we care is only economic development because we want to improve human life. But we are not getting improvement after all. We rather get selfdestruction.

This book is offered as an ethos of our time. The moral demands of our ecological crisis are crucial. It is time to deal with this crisis as a global concern and not be confined with the boundaries of nations. Martin Luther’s Ethics of Creation contributes wisdom toward the “health of the whole.”

- Noel F. R. Guzman

Easter 2007 Boston, Massachusetts

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Preface vii

Abbreviations xiii

Introduction 1

Purpose and Significance 4

Methodology and Contents 8

Vital Terms 11

Chapter One: The Foundation of Luther’s Social Ethics 15

Law and Gospel 18

Authority of Scripture 20

Christological Basis 22

The Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms 24

The Sacredness of all Vocations 26

The Theology of the Cross 29

The Sacramental Basis 32

Soteriological Basis 34

Love of Neighbor 35

The Eschatological Basis 37

Orders of Creation 40

Chapter Two: Distortion of Luther’s Natural World 43

Capitalism Reshaped Luther’s Agrarian World 45

Crumbling Political Power 52

Conquest and Pillage of Foreign Lands 56

Chapter Three: The Orders of Creation 65

Luther’s Doctrine of Three Estates 70

The Essential Virtues of Three Estates 74

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Contents

Abbreviations

LW Luther’s Works, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehman, 55 vols. St. Louis: Concordia/Philadelphia: Fortress, 1955-86.

RGG Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Handwörterbuch für Theologie und Religion, ed. Kurt Galling and Hans Campenhausen, 7 vols. Tübingen: Mohr, 1957-1965.

St. L. Der Martin Luthers sämmtliche Schriften, hrsg. Von Walch, Revidierte Neuausgabe. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1880-1910.

WA D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, ed. J. K. F. Knaake, G. Kawerau, et. al., 58 vols. Weimar: Böhlau, 1883-

WA Br D. Martin Luthers Werke: Briefwechsel, 15 vols. Weimar: Böhlau, 1830

WA TR D. Martin Luthers Werke: Tischreden, 6 vols. Weimar: Böhlau, 1912-21

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IInnttrroodduuccttiioon n

Many people today barely care about what is going on ecologically in our planet. We simply pay too much attention to “human-centered” economic development and always make the environment or other creatures the “sacrificial lamb.” We always prefer the gold rather than the “health of the planet.” In fact, we refuse to deal with the compelling moral demands of endangered species and the immense ecological crisis. We never care to understand it at all. But on the other hand, we absolutely want to improve human life. However, as we deal exclusively with economic or industrial development we endanger the human species and the natural world as well. We hardly heed to the warnings of today’s ecological prophets. We exactly behave like grown-ups in Noah’s time when that prophet of old warned his people of an impending catastrophe. As Upton Sinclair quotes, “It is difficult to get a man to understand something when his salary depends upon his not understanding it.”1 Our means of improving human life is after all self-destructing.

This book comes to our aid in understanding the roots of the ecological crisis and humanity’s distant relationship with nature. The intent of this book is to reclaim the ethics of God’s creation. Every creature is not accidentally created but each one has a purpose to preserve the “goodness” of creation. Creation has ethics because every creature has an intrinsic value. Everyone in creation is ordained by God in relationship with one another. In order to preserve the “goodness” of creation, all creatures should co-exist in interrelationship and interdependence. In other words, there is an ethic of kinship in creation.

1 Quoted by Al Gore in his award winning documentary film, An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming, DVD, 96 min., (Hollywood, California: Paramount Pictures, 2006). Gore presents a real understanding about the future of our planet, a wake up call that cuts through myths and misconceptions.

1

This book is an interdisciplinary study in social ethics. Learning about the ethics of creation incorporates a lot of academic disciplines: anthropology, ethnology, theology, biblical studies, history, philosophy, missiology, geology, ecology, and social sciences.

The main argument of this book is Martin Luther, a pivotal figure of Western civilization, stood as a prophet by applying his doctrine of creation and Schöpfungsordnungen (“orders of creation”) to critique the religious, political and economic forces of the sixteenth century world that were injuring the created order through the misuse of God’s gifts (natural resources) and the degradation of nature, a critique that is still relevant today. His theology of creation was his basis for arguing that both civil rulers and citizens had to exercise moral responsibility toward the created order (ecological integrity) and equity toward the neighbor (economic justice) in order to live in a healthy world.

Being critically aware of our own religious traditions and adopting more inclusive attitudes toward the natural world and the whole of God’s creation enable us to mend ways that are detrimental to other creatures. The world could be a lot healthier and more harmonious if we all respected not just the diversity of humankind and their religions but also the diversity of God’s creation.

Thus far, Christianity has no clear or explicit understanding of the intimate relationship between humankind and the rest of creation, comparable to the understandings of the tribal religions. Christians have been stuck with the religious view of stewardship, which is basically too human-centered and profit-oriented. Instead of invoking the values of interdependence and interrelationship among creatures, stewardship is directing our species toward the total control of nature. In fact, there is no effort being made to invoke a religious attitude toward mending the destructiveness of the anthropocentric beliefs that contributed to our current ecological crisis. To quote Vine Deloria, Jr., a leading aboriginal American scholar: “Perhaps the best summary of the attitude inherent in the [Christian] liturgy is, ‘Please, God, help us cut the cost, and we’ll try to find a new life-style that won’t be quite as destructive.’”2

Martin Luther, who was initially a critic of his own religion, did not actually intend to separate or create another church but rather to reform the church in order to be more true and faithful to the Biblical faith. It is fascinating to know that in his non-allegorical study of creation

2 Vine Deloria Jr., God is Red: A Native View of Religion, 30th anniversary edition (Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing, 2003), 83.

Ethics

Creation 2

of

in the Genesis story, the reformer, who was also a biblical scholar, asserted that it is improper to desecrate the sacred writings by presenting them as “allegories” because such readings obscure what is so very clear and real in the book of Genesis. The problem with ambiguous, figurative interpretation is that it always tends to allow things to be presented out of context. Christians have significantly misunderstood the rights and powers of humanity in relation to the rest of creation. Our sophisticated world today has made the human species the purpose and the center of attention in the universe. Our stale outlook of the natural world promotes the idea that all other creatures exist for the good and benefit of humankind, and we never care if other creatures are wiped out from the face of the earth, simply because they are not as significant as our species.

Through my dealings with aboriginal cultures of Canada, South America, the United States, and the Philippines, I have developed a strong sense of kinship with such cultures and have come to share their emphasis on the value of interrelationship among all creatures. The idea of interrelationship between humanity and nature is a commonly-held religious view of indigenous peoples throughout the world. It is totally fascinating to learn about their awareness of an organic bond with the rest of creation. On the other hand, I feel humiliated to realize that the missionary expansion of my own religion (Christianity) had contributed to the decimation of many aboriginal peoples of the world, predominantly in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. What is more humiliating is that the ethnocentric missionary enterprise, in collaboration with the local and foreign traders and political forces, had also contributed to the extinction of many aboriginal tribes, as well as the loss of many species of habitats and the birds, animals, insects, fishes, plants, and forest trees that inhabit them. In Genesis terms, their kind has already lost the ability to propagate.

Everyone deserves to be reminded that the aboriginal peoples of the world are the original inhabitants of the lands that foreign settlers (immigrants) now have occupied. Lamentably, they are always labeled or stereotyped as pagans, infidels, savaged, barbarians, and cannibals. In fact, there were Christian theologians who used biblical passages to argue that these people were naturally born as slaves. In fact, in religious history some people regarded them as subhumans. Moreover, the European settlers were always portrayed as the “good guys” while the aboriginal peoples were stereotyped as warlike villains who “lurked in the darkness thirsting for the blood of innocent settlers or the calm, wise, dignified elder sitting on the mesa dispensing his

Introduction 3

wisdom in poetic aphorisms.”3 The benign image of the “settlers” is always portrayed in Western movies, plays, history books and novels in contrast to malevolent image of the indigenous.

As a Church historian and ethicist, I found that encountering the historical and cultural influence of our beliefs and traditions was a remarkable experience that fortified my passion for the integrity of Creation. The human-centeredness or exclusivity of our Christian tradition needs a redirection in order to foster a redeeming relationship with creation and to come up with an inclusive Gospel for all creatures.

As a Luther scholar from the East (the Philippines), I found a remarkable sense of harmony with Martin Luther’s ethics of creation, because though Luther was a Western theologian, his theology and ethics of creation are akin to the Eastern tradition, and they are particularly compatible with the way the aboriginal peoples of the world seek an organic relationship with nature.

PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE

First, one significant purpose of this book is to analyze and correct detrimental elements of the Christian tradition which influenced the course of the Eurocentric missionary enterprise in its collaboration with political and global economic forces.

Second, it critically presents Luther’s unexplored ethics of the created order, or in modern terms, his ecological ethics. In his late Genesis lectures (1535-1545) and his mature exegesis of the Psalms, Luther articulated his concept of Schöpfungsordnungen, or “orders of creation,”4 in the context of a theology of creation that considers not only human but also nonhuman creatures in relation to each other. Especially in his later years, Luther affirmed the world and did not reject the world for the sake of the soul or spiritual salvation. World affirmation is one of his underpinnings of his social ethics.

Third, several studies have been undertaken on Luther’s social ethics, his creation theology, and his doctrine of creatio ex nihilo as found in his Genesis lectures. However, a

3 Ibid., 23.

4 Other related terms used by Luther in place of the word Orden (orders) are Stände (stations), Gesetz (ordinances), Ordnungen (estates), and Beruf (vocation).

4

Ethics of Creation

thorough examination of his ethics of God’s created order has yet to be presented. Recently, attention in Luther scholarship has been drawn to his Lectures on Genesis (1535-1545), which embody the thoughts of the mature Luther. To date, however, only two monographs attempt a comprehensive description of Luther’s theology of creation: David Löfgren’s Die Theologie der Schöpfung bei Luther5 and Johannes Schwanke’s Creatio ex nihilo: Luthers Lehre der Schöpfung aus dem Nichts in der Großen Genesisvorlesung. 6 Although these works have examined Luther’s theology of creation, they say nothing about the ethical implications of his creation theology. On the other hand, scholars of ecological ethics have mentioned Luther’s ethical thought only in passing, and most of these authors misread Luther as purely anthropocentric and utilitarian in his approach toward the natural world.7 This misunderstanding of Luther arises in part because scholars have failed to relate his ethics of the natural world to his theology of creation. This book carefully examines the way Luther’s ethics are related to his theology of creation so as to justify the attribution to Luther of an “ethics of creation.”

Fourth, this book also has significance for the study of the relationship of Luther’s ecological, economic and political thought. These three ethical themes were all vital to Luther as he prophetically confronted the globalizing and capitalistic nature of the sixteenth century world. One relevant work in relation to this matter is Hans-Jürgen Prien’s Luthers Wirtschaftethik, which applied Luther’s preaching on the Sermon on the Mount as the foundation of his economic ethics.8 Also helpful is Ricardo Rieth’s Habsucht bei Martin Luther, which comprehensively examined and articulated Luther’s thought on greed and its effects on faith, morality, economic

5 David Löfgren, Die Theologie der Schöpfung bei Luther (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1960).

6 Johannes Schwanke, Creatio ex nihilo: Luthers Lehre der Schöpfung aus dem Nichts in der Großen Genesisvorlesung, 1535-1545 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004).

7 Prominent among these ecological writers who discussed Luther, at least in passing, are Lutherans Larry Rasmussen and H. Paul Santmire. See the chapter on “Returning to Our Senses,” in Larry L. Rasmussen’s book, Earth Community, Earth Ethics (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1996), 270-281; in chapter 7 of H. Paul Santmire, The Travail of Nature: The Ambiguous Ecological Promise of Christian Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 121-131, and in his discussion on “The Promise of ‘God with Us,” 81-85 of his Nature Reborn: The Ecological and Cosmic Promise of Christian Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000); Michael S. Northcott, The Environment & Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and George S. Hendry, Theology of Nature (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1980).

8 Hans-Jürgen Prien, Luthers Wirtschaftsethik (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1992).

Introduction 5

life, church and civil authority.9 Mention should also be made of Paul Althaus, who briefly addressed Luther’s ethics on business, economics and political authority in his book, The Ethics of Martin Luther 10 It is noteworthy that Althaus dealt with other important ethical themes like marriage, sexuality, work or vocation, and attitude toward the state, but he is silent about Luther’s ethics of the natural world. The theological works of Bernhard Lohse, Gerhard O. Forde, Karl Holl, George W. Forell, Philip S. Watson, and Donald C. Ziemke have also discussed Luther’s ethics, particularly his economic and political ethics, but they have basically ignored Luther’s thought regarding the ethics of relationship with the non-human world.11

Cynthia D. Moe-Lobeda’s Healing A Broken World: Globalization and God made use of Luther’s soteriology—or at least her interpretation, based on the Finnish school, of the “Indwelling God” or “Indwelling Christ” as the basis of Luther’s ethics.12 In making her case, she argues that this “Indwelling God,” which she regarded as a source of moral agency, is an appropriate counterweight to profit-oriented globalization and its detrimental values. Although she interrelates Luther’s economic and political thoughts, little is mentioned about his ecological ethics. Moreover, her application of the “Indwelling God” in response to today’s globalization is predominantly anthropocentric and does not deal significantly with the plight of nonhuman creatures, which are, in fact, more vulnerable to globalization than human beings.

Fifth, this book goes beyond previous studies on Luther’s ethics by examining the way that Luther’s concern for the created order relates to his economic and political ethics, based on

9 Ricardo Rieth, Habsucht bei Martin Luther (Leipzig: Verlag Hermann Nachfolger Weimar GmbH & Co., 1996).

10 Paul Althaus, The Ethics of Martin Luther, trans. Robert C. Shultz (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1972).

11 Exception to the silence about Luther’s thought on the natural world are Bernhard Lohse’s articulation on Luther’s affirmation of the natural world and Gerhard Forde’s discussion on Luther’s eschatological thought which affirms human beings’ moral responsibility toward the earth. See Bernhard Lohse, Martin Luther’s Theology: Its Historical and Systematic Development, trans. and edited by Roy A. Harrisville (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999); Gerhard Forde, Where God Meets Man: Luther’s Down-to-Earth Approach to the Gospel (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1972). Other writers on Luther are Karl Holl, The Reconstruction of Morality, trans. Fred Meuser & Walter Wietzke, edited James Luther Adams & Walter Bense (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1979); George W. Forell, Faith Active in Love: An Investigation of the Principles Underlying Luther’s Social Ethics (New York: The American Press, 1954); Philip S. Watson, Let God be God: An Interpretation of the Theology of Martin Luther (London: Epworth Press, 1947) and Donald C. Ziemke, Love for the Neighbor in Luther’s Theology (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1963).

12 Cynthia D. Moe-Lobeda, Healing a Broken World: Globalization and God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002).

Ethics of Creation 6

an analysis of his lectures on Genesis, Psalms, and Romans, and of his writings On Temporal Government, Trade and Usury, and related treatises, sermons and letters.

Sixth, the critical study of Luther’s anthropocentricism and theocentricism has significance for the ecological interaction between the Western Christian tradition and the nonWestern religious traditions, particularly the world’s aboriginal peoples who were directly affected by colonization, environmental exploitation, and cultural denigration. This book will usher a critical understanding of the Western tradition’s anthropocentricism that would enable Christians to correct detrimental beliefs toward nature and create a new way of interpretation that offers an ethical dealing with nature. On the other hand, Luther’s theocentricism will give light to the proper relationship of humanity with the Creator and creation.

A number of ecological writers have critiqued the beliefs and teachings of the Western Christian tradition that are detrimental to the ecological context. Though these works were not addressing directly Luther’s teachings, they deserve notice because they draw on some of the universal beliefs of Christianity that are destructive to nature. Only H. Paul Santmire, in his book

The Travail of Nature, has dealt with the critique of Luther’s anthropocentricism and theocentricism, but he has only presented a few of Luther’s writings and has not cited an interaction with non-Western views on nature. This book goes beyond this effort and presents a more comprehensive critical understanding of the anthropocentric and theocentric elements of Luther’s thought.

Finally, this book will shed light on the relevance of Luther’s ecological ethics for our current era of exploitative globalization. Much has been written on Luther’s ethics but there is no comprehensive study that attempts to relate his ethics to our contemporary ecological crisis.

The primary sources for this book will be the writings of Luther about the doctrine of creation and the orders of creation, especially his lectures on Genesis, Psalms, Romans, and Galatians; the Small and Large Catechisms; his political writings, particularly On Temporal Authority, To the Christian Nobility, Admonition to Peace, and Dr. Martin Luther’s Warning to His Dear German People; and his economic writings On Trade and Usury, Treatise on Good Works, Sermon on the Mount, The Estate of Marriage, and Ordinance for a Common Chest. 13 The foundational source will be the thought of the mature Luther in his Great Lectures on

13 The Weimar Edition of Luther’s Works, considered the critical edition, will be consulted first, with reference to the American Edition

Introduction 7

Genesis, which were delivered from 1535 to 1545, the years in which he gave the definitive formulation of his ethical principles on the integrity of the natural world and the three basic orders of creation: marriage or the family, the government or the state, and the ministry or ecclesiastical affairs.

METHODOLOGY AND CONTENTS

The methodology of this book is twofold. First, taking into account the literary genre, social background, occasion, and purpose of each primary writing, I will analyze Luther’s writings to identify his ethical norms regarding the integrity of creation, economic justice and responsible political life that affect both human and non-human creatures. Because it is vital to consider the precise meaning of his original literary expression in Latin or German, in which he consistently used certain terms to describe an ethical principle or a theological position (e.g. creatio, creatura, Schöpfung, Ordnung, oeconomia, Stand, politia, politicus), a preliminary study or investigation of these key words and phrases will also be undertaken.

Second, this book specifically examines Luther’s critique of the development of foreign trade (a globalizing trend) of the sixteenth century world and the consequential degradation of nature, which he saw as a disruption of the orders of creation.

Following the introduction, the first chapter addresses the foundation of Luther’s social ethics. This chapter is meant to comprehensively examine the foundations of Luther’s ethics, because a failure to treat his ethics in their entirety, as they relate to his theology, can easily lead to misinterpretation. For instance, his ethical thought on the integrity of creation should not be separated from his soteriology, eschatology, Christology, affirmation of the sola scriptura, his belief in natural law, his concept of the orders of creation, the foundational importance of love for neighbor, his theology of the cross, his concepts of “law” and “gospel,” his two-kingdom theory, his doctrinal arguments regarding the sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper, his view of the sacredness of all vocations, and his belief of the “orders of creation.” In this way, the importance of his ethical principles will be treated in the proper context.

Chapter two focuses on the disruption of Luther’s sixteenth century world and the reformer’s critical view of the religious, political, and economic forces that harm the integrity of

Ethics

8

of Creation

creation. This chapter portrays Luther’s milieu, so that Luther can be understood as a witness, critic, and prophet to his rapidly-changing world. Luther’s lifetime is the epoch of the dawn of the global capitalistic economy, the deterioration of feudalism, the European territorial and religious conquest of the Americas and the Philippines, the influx of gold and other natural resources from colonized foreign lands into Europe, the widespread use of the printing press and the acceleration it provided to social and religious reforms, and the rise of nationalism with the consequent displacement of Roman civilization in the domains of politics, economics, religion and language. As Walter Tillmanns wrote, “In those sixty-four years (of Luther’s life) the face of the world has changed.”14

Chapter three analyzes the significance of Luther’s concept of Schöpfungsordnungen in Luther’s ethics of creation,15 with its economic, political, and religious implications. The chapter begins by examining the three basic “orders of creation” as summed up by Luther: marriage or the family (which includes everything related to business and the economy), the state or secular authority, and the ministry or ecclesiastical affairs.16 It can be argued that, contrary to criticism which regards Luther as a theologian whose only concern is “God-and-the-soul,”17 Luther affirms the world through the responsible use of the orders of creation. Along this line of reasoning, this study argues that politics and economics are seen by Luther as ordained by God as part of the divine creation, so they should not be regarded as evil. It is rather the erring politicians, economists, and citizens who are evil. This vital principle of world affirmation strongly influences one’s view of human beings’ moral responsibility to the natural world. The

14 Walter G. Tillmanns, The World and Men Around Luther (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1959), 4.

15 Luther mentioned this theme as early as 1519 in his “Sermon on the Estate of Marriage,” LW 44: 7-14. One can find this important theme in most of his writings even in his later works on Genesis (1535-1545), which served as the core of his argument that the preservation of humankind and all other creatures depends on the responsible management of these orders, because they serve as the means by which God creates, through marriage, and establishes order, justice, and peace in the world. WA 30.II, 571-572.

16 A detailed description of the orders of creation is found in an article by Franz Lau, “Schöpfungsordnung,” RGG 5 (1961), 1492-94. Also see chapter 3 “Stations and Vocations (The Orders)” by Paul Althaus, The Ethics of Martin Luther, trans. by Robert C. Schultz (Philadelphia: Fortress Press), 36-42.

17 One critic is the systematic theologian George S. Hendry who argues that Luther lays his theology in the heart of the Augustinian theme, God-and-the-soul and had nothing to do with God-and-the-world. Furthermore, Luther, according to him, has no concern for natural theology. Hendry, Theology of Nature, 16-17.

Introduction 9

Ethics of Creation

second section of this chapter examines the distortion of these orders of creation brought about by the irresponsible use of these institutions or offices that stem from the vices of greed, arrogance and idolatry, which, according to Luther, are in violation “not only of Christian love but also of natural law.”18 Theologically, sufficient attention will be given also to demonstrate that the integrity of creation, including the “orders” or “stations” ordained by God, is still in force after the Fall.

Chapter four critically addresses the anthropocentric Luther in his view of the natural world. These anthropocentric elements in Luther’s thought, particularly his dualistic and instrumentalist views of nature, largely shared with the broader Christian tradition, brings Luther into contact with non-Western critiques. Special attention is given to non-Western traditions, particularly the aboriginal cultures that espouse an organic relationship between nature and humanity. This chapter also examines the historical and cultural roots of Luther’s anthropocentric thoughts and explores its impact on Christian mission and ecological contexts.

Chapter five presents the theocentric Luther who demonstrates the intimate relationship between God and nature. Luther goes beyond his anthropocentric and utilitarian view of creation by positing a theocentric view of creation. Furthermore, consideration of the thoughts of the mature Luther in his Genesis lectures (1535-1545) and his mature exegesis of the Psalms corrects the negative view of the natural world that he expresses in some earlier writings. My argument is that Luther began with an anthropocentric conception of creation, but came to a theocentric conception, thus coming to subordinate his human-centered tendencies. This chapter examines evidence for the ecologically sensitive Luther, particularly his belief in God’s immanence in creation, the significance of Luther’s critique of the human self-conception as “co-creators,”19 and his advocacy on extending the Gospel to the whole creation.

18 Natural law is prominent to Luther’s ethical thought. He defines it as “a law written in each human heart.” It is also a law which is the concern of human conscience. According to him, common natural laws such as to honor parents, not to kill, not to commit adultery, to serve God, etc., prevail and remain in all lands. See Against the Heavenly Prophets, LW 40: 97 and On Trade and Usury, LW 45: 247.

19 Humans are “co-workers,” not “co-creators.” Der Mensch ist Mitarbeiter cooperator Gottes, aber nicht concreator Predigt am Michaelistag, 1539. Luther cited I Corinthians 3:9 by saying that creatures are cooperatores Dei or “fellow workmen with God.” Moreover he said, “In all their working together there is one thing the creatures cannot do, they cannot produce or give life on their own; this the Creator has reserved to himself alone. He will have his creatures as ‘co-workers,’ not ‘co-creators.’” WA 47, 857, 35.

10

Chapter six summarizes the book and serves as the concluding chapter. The argument will be made that Luther’s ethics of creation is relevant to our world today and to our current ecological crisis.

VITAL TERMS

There are several terms used in this book that could be tricky to define. A caution is needed in dealing with Luther’s texts because discovering “what Luther really means” by a given term or phrase is often not a simple matter.

The first crucial term to understand is his use of the word “creation,” which is creatio or creatura in Latin and Schöpfung in German. However, it is important to know that at times Luther used creatio as “act of creation,” and creaturae as “creatures.” For the purpose of this book, the term “creation” signifies not just the material creatures and their integrity but also the orders being established by God in creation, which involves home, marriage, government, church, vocations, and all aspects of everyday life.

The second term requiring definition is “stations” or “orders.” Luther used Ständ, Orden and Ordnung in German which suggest the same essential concept. These terms refer to the idea that at creation God established specific structures, stations, or orders for the purpose of preserving the life of all creatures and the establishment of order, justice, and peace in the world.20 At times Luther also spoke of “ordinances,” “estates,” “institutions,” “offices,” “occupations,” or “calling,”21 and they have the same thrust as “orders” and “stations.” We should be cautious not to equate the meaning of Ständ or Ordnung with “ranks,” “social standing” or “class” when dealing with creation because it distorts Luther’s idea. These “orders of creation” complement each other and no station is above or below the other. This breaks the medieval idea, as Bernhard Lohse argues, that “the spiritual estate is above the temporal, that the

20 WA 30: II, 571-572; LW 46: 246-248. Luther also wrote, “It is God’s work to have distinct stations in the world, and that these make for right and righteousness and thus preserve the peace.” WA 31: I, 410; LW 13: 370.

21 The German term Ständ does not only mean “station,” “order,” or “estate” but also “level,” “rank,” “position,” “class,” and “social standing.” The term Orden suggests a better understanding; it means “order,” “arrangement,” “orderliness,” and discipline.”

Introduction 11

latter must serve the former.”22 This book will uphold Luther’s idea of “orders of creation” as proof that all creatures are interdependent and interrelated.

The third term is “ecology” or “ecological.” This word was not used in the time of Luther. It first appeared in the English language in 1873 when the impact of “deep concern about the environment” stirred some people around the world.23 Although this was an alien term to Luther, he articulated the substance of the term by using the phrases “preserving God’s creation”24 and “taking care of this earth.”25 For the purpose of this book, “ecology” or “ecological” refers to the natural world as an interconnected whole, in which all things, both human and non-human beings, are related in a complex interdependence. This meaning of ecology implies that the anthropocentric view of the world, or the concept that the natural world exists only for human benefit, is undermined by the ethical idea of Luther that humans have the moral responsibility to preserve the well-being of nonhuman creatures. Furthermore, the ideal of human domination, which leads to overconsumption (gluttony in Luther’s context) and environmental devastation, should be replaced with the idea of ecological interconnectedness.

The fourth term is “economy” or “economics.” For Luther it means “household,” or “management of the domestic affairs of a home or family.” In Latin it is oeconomia, from the Greek oikos which means “house” and nemein, which means “to manage.” Luther mentioned this term as one of the basic orders of creation, that is “household” or “family” or “the estate of marriage,” including everything related to management of business and economics. For the purpose of this book, “economy” or “economics” is defined as the discipline of human life that deals with the proper management and responsible use of the earth’s natural resources in order to

22 Lohse, Martin Luther’s Theology, 246.

23 Lynn White, Jr., “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis,” Western Man and Environmental Ethics: Attitudes Toward Nature and Technology (Reading, Massachusetts: Addisson-Wesley Publishing Company, 1973), 20.

24 Preservation of creation points toward the creative work of sustainability among all life forms in the planet. There is enough sustenance for all creatures. In fact, it is also enough for the future generation. “Absolutely nothing,” Luther wrote, “in the entire creation would have been either troublesome or harmful for man. . . . Everything that was created by God was good. God did not stop on the seventh day. He works not only by preserving His creation but also by changing and renewing His creation. Nor it is true that God has refrained from creating new classes. . . . Since Adam was still holy and innocent, all the living beings dwelt with him with the greatest delight, ready for every kind of service. He works not only by preserving God’s creation but also by changing and renewing the creation.” Lectures on Genesis, LW 1: 77.

25 Letter of Luther to Johann Ruehel (June 15, 1525), WA Br 3: 531.

12

Ethics of Creation

have a stable and sustainable life. Luther’s idea of “household” or the “management of the domestic affairs of a home or family” will be integrated with my discussion on economics especially stressing its ethical implications, considering Luther’s idea that the good management of a household is one of the cornerstones of society.26

The fifth term to be defined is “politics”. Luther used the word politia in Latin which means “the state” or “the administration” and the adjective politicus which means “belonging to civil authority.” Politia is one of the three general headings in Luther’s “orders of creation,” which calls responsible citizens for an active involvement in society and temporal government for the sake of justice for the neighbor. For the purpose of this study, “politics” refers not only to political rulers but also to the citizens as both sectors exercise their moral responsibility toward society, government and the natural world. “Politics” for Luther is not to be seen as evil, because it is ordained by God for the preservation of peace, justice and the well-being of creation.

The sixth term is “anthropocentric.” It signifies the traditional idea of viewing human beings as the center of attention in the whole created order. Humans are viewed as the central element or purpose of the universe. Moreover, this human-centered view suggests that all other creatures are inferior to humans because they are the subjects for human dominion and use. Special attention is given to the critique of the anthropocentric elements of Luther’s thought which shared this tendency with the broader Western Christian tradition.

The seventh term is “theocentric.” It means viewing God as Creator who is immanent in all created beings and who works with humans and the established orders of creation for the preservation and redemption of the whole creation. For Luther, to have the true knowledge of God and the restored imago Dei (“image of God”), implies that human beings should radiate the perfect knowledge of and love for other creatures. Luther’s theocentric idea is profoundly articulating a Christian message that allows human beings to relate harmoniously with nature.

26 One of Luther’s legacies is his deep concern about the education of children and youth for public service. The Christian household, the civil rulers and the schools, according to Luther, are vital in the education and preparation of youth to be assets in society and to be effective workers in preserving the Schöpfungsordnungen. The home, the church and the state are all in need of dedicated stewards of God’s gifts. See Luther’s writing, To the Councilmen of all Cities in Germany That They Establish and Maintain Christian Schools (1524), WA 15, 27-53; LW 45: 339-378. The subject on “Christian Household” is well articulated by William H. Lazareth in his book Luther on the Christian Home: An Application of the Social Ethics of the Reformation (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg Press, 1960), 152-156.

Introduction 13

Pages 14-218 are excluded for copyright

E-Book is available from the author at noel.guzman@juno.com or message him at academia

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233

Index

aboriginal peoples: belief on kinship with nature, ix, 3, 142, 38n, 152-153, 167, 198; belief on God in creation, 175; Christianization of, 132, 12n, 145, 154, 163, 97n; culture: 10; exploitation of: 44, 61-62, 118, 127, 143, 149, 153, 211; extinction of, 3, 62, 52n, 118, 127, 149, 152, 211; regarded as heathen, 148, 157 Abraham, 141, 41n, 142

Acosta, José, 164, 101n

Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, 55 Adam, 106, 142n, 133, 189, 192, 93n

Admonition to Peace, 47, 11n, 48, 16n

adultery, 93-94, 180

Africa, 3, 57, 144-145, 160, 209

African jungle, 209

Agoncillo, Teodoro, 58, 41n agrarian society, 44-52, 45, 5n Agricola, Johann, 20, 23n allegories, 3, 174, 175, 26n, 176, 204 allegorical interpretation, 3, 174-176, 204

Althaus, Paul, 6, 10n, 16, 8n, 19, 19n, 26 44n, 29, 52n, 83, 60n, 87, 75n, 87, 75n, 109, 152n, 154n, 136, 28n, 140, 28n, 151, 70n, 78n, 152, 76n, 157, 92n, 186, 73n

Amazon rainforest, 164, 209

American Indians, 151, 61n American precious metals, 49-50, 56, 36n, 61, 62, 52n

Americas, 3, 9, 43, 49, 50, 57-58, 40n, 62, 52n, 144, 158, 97n, 160, 215; South, 3, 145

Anabaptists, 66, 6n, 101

ancestral land, 44, 144, 148, 152, 158, 205

anthropocentric: defined, 13 anthropocentric Luther: ix, 127-167

anthropocentricism, 2, 4, 7, 11, 12, 14, 131, 146, 157, 173, 207 anthropological dualism, 133-140, 15n anthropology, 133, 136, 140, 164, 101n, 195

Antinomians, 20, 23n apartheid, 169 Apilado, Mariano, 143-144, 51n Aquinas, Thomas, 45, 6n Arab invasions, 56 Aristotle, 45, 6n, 136-138, 26n, 158-159, 98n

Armstrong, Edward, 197, 112n arrogance, 10, 75, 103, 115, 211, 213, 215 Asendorf, Ulrich, 37, 84n, 99, 120n Asia, 2, 145, 209 Augustine, Saint: theology, 10, 17n, 22, 31n, 35, 74n, 66, 5n, 91, 129, 5n, 130-132, 133, 15n, 134, 19n, 135, 21n, 22n, 141, 41n, 142, 150, 152, 155, 86n, 172, 175, 25n, 176, 184, 64n, 186, 78n Austria, 53

Barbarians, 3, 148, 153 Barbour, Ian, 116, 183n

Barros, Marcelo de, 128, 3n barter economy, 45, 49 Battle of Mactan, 58, 41n Bayer, Oswald, 133, 18n Bergreen, Laurence, 56, 36n Berry, Thomas, 128, 3n, 161, 107n, 165, 123n biocentricity, 128, 163 biocentric salvation, 147

235

biodiversity, 121, 145 biology, 194 biomass energy, 213 biosphere, 163

Black Death, 56

Blickle, Peter, 46, 7n

Boff, Leonardo, 128, 3n

Bondage of the Will, 197, 91n born again, 75, 32n, 44, 2n, 173, 14n

Bornkamm, Heinrich, 16, 8n, 22, 36n

Bosch, David, 131, 11n bourgeoisie, 49 boycott, 102

Braudel Fernand, 45, 3n, 4n, 49, 17n, 18n, 19n

Brazil, 58

Brendler, Gerhard, 55, 34n

Brosché, Fredrik, 151, 71n, 72n

Browning, John, 207, 8n

Buddhist, 163

Bühler, Pierre, 37, 84n

Calvin, John, 66, 129, 5n, 135, 150, 158, 176, 29n

Callicott, Baird, 137, 31n, 162, 110n, 163, 116n, 164,118n calling, 11

Canada, ix, 3 cannibals, 3, 148 capitalism, 44-52, 77, 205

Caravias, José Luis, 128, 3n carbon dioxide emission, 209, 210, 16n

Caribbean islands, 145

Casas, Bartolomé de las, 58, 40n, 62-63, 54n, 55n, 158, 96n, 97n, 159, 101n

cathecism: defined, 180

Charles V, 52-55, 58, 158, 97n children, 28, 179, 44n, 180, 198, 207

China, 87, 73n

Christian ethics, 21-22, 216

Christianity: belief in creation, 132, 133, 5n, 143; dualistic heritage, 137; Eurocentric mission, 3, 4, 127, relationship with nature, 2-3, 7, 132, 12n, 143, 150, 157, 95n, 198; missionary expansion, 3, 59-60,

143-145, 198; theological complaint against, 116, 183n, 139, 38n, 147-148; Western tradition against nature, ix, 133140, 149-150, 157, 95n

Christocentric, 119

City of God, 35, 74n, 130, 133, 15n, 141, 146, 46n, 184, 64n, 187, 78n Cobb, John B., Jr., 139, 38n co-creator, 10, 19n, 186-195 Columbus, Christopher, 57-58, 40n, 59 commons: defined, 46; 205, 208; global, 209 communitarian, 149 commonwealth, 208, 209, 210 Confessions, 150, 174 Constantino, Renato, 58, 41n consumerism, 212 corpus Christianum, 24, 61n, 106 Cortés, Hernando, 59, 45n cosmic homelessness, 146 cosmology, 146 Counter-Reformation, 59, 60 Cowie, Leonard, 46, 5n, 57, 39n, 59, 43n Coward, Harold, 128, 4n co-worker, 10, 19n, 70, 99, 186-195, 217 creatio: defined, 11 creation: defined, 65; dominion over, 62; ethics of, 1; Eucharistic community, 176; integrity of, 3; living preachers, 124; sacrament, 176; theology of, 4-5; work of God:, 128 creatio ex nihilo, 5, 188, 189, 191 creatura or creaturae: defined, 11 Crossley, Robert, 48, 14n cross-bearing, 210, 216-217 Crow, Fools, 128, 3n Cruel predators, 120, 122, 211. See also Predation Crusades, 59 curse of the earth, 124

David, king, 99, 110 debt-burdened countries, 149, 210 debt servicing, 209 deforestation, 47, 48, 144, 150, 209 De doctrina Christiana, 155, 86n

Index 236

Deloria, Vine, Jr., 2, 2n, 148, 61n, 62n, 153, 78n, 158, 96n, 164, 120n, 121n, 166, 126n, 205-206, 7n

Diet of Worms, 20, 22n, 53-54 Dionysius of Alexandria, 174 diversity, 2. See also biodiversity divorce, 89, 92-93 dominion perspective, 13, 114, 116, 117 166. 199 double predestination, 152 dualism, 133-140, 162, 164, 188, 205. See also Anthropological Dualism

Earth Day, 116, 183n Eastern tradition, 4, 205 Ebeling, G., 133, 17n ecclesia, 70, 106-110 ecology, viii; defined, 12 ecologist, viii economics: defined, 12; 50 economists, 9, 95 economy: defined, 12; 214 Edwards, Mark, 54, 32n, 86, 73n Egypt, 76, 39n, 211 Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 86, 73n Eisleben, 75, 31n election belief, 150-154, 74n Elk, Black, 128, 3n Empedocles, 137 encomienda, 63, 55n endemic diseases. See Epidemics. Engels, Freidrich, 47, 8n England, 53 environment, defined, viii,12 environmentalist, viii Epicurus, 137, 32n Erasmus, Desiderius, 36, 74n, 151 Espinosa, Alfonso, 22, 29n ethics of kinship, viii, 1, 149, 161, 163, 165, 170, 197, 198, 205, 206, 214, 215 ethnology, 164 eucharistic beings, 172 Eurocentricism, 59, 63, 158-167 European culture, 43, 1n, 59, 42n extinction, 121, 151-152

family, viii, 28, 80-85, 205 Ferdinand of Aragon, 57, 59 feudalism, 8, 9, 43-45, 48 Ficino, Florentine Marsilio, 186, 77n filial obedience, 28, 214 Filipinos, 58, 41n finality of things, 38, 203-204. See also Nearness of the End Fire, John, 162, 111n First Nations, 147 First World nations, 209 Fletcher, Susan, 210, 16n Forell, George, 6, 11n, 75, 31n Forde, Gerhard, 6, 11n, 38-39, 87n, 88n, 171-172, 9n, 203, 1n Fox, Matthew, 128, 3n, 166, 125n, 125, 39n Fowler, Robert Booth, 155, 84n, 156, 91n France, 53, 54 Francis, Saint, 117, 129, 5n, 197 Frederick the Wise, 54, 55, 100 Freedom of the Christian, 54 Frimmer, Steven, 56, 36n frugality, 76-77, 210, 211-213 Frunkfurt, 77, 212 Fuggers, 51, 23n, 53, 97 Fühner, Wener, 20, 21n

Galeano, Eduardo, 62, 52n Gebara, Ivone, 128, 3n Gentz, William, 138, 34n Germany, 46, 53, 54, 61, 47n, 77, 87, 88, 73n, 100, 211, 212 Germans, 46, 7n, 76, 39n, 211 globalization, viii, 6, 7, 36, 80n, 48, 49, 51, 63, 84, 98, 103, 205, 206, 208 global warming, 158, 209, 210, 16n gluttony, 13, 78, 211 golden rule, 17 Gore, Al, 1, 1n gospel for omni creaturae, 195-202 government, 13, 24, 37n, 97, 101, 126n, 112, 208, 210 Great Peasants’ War, 54, 80, 90

Index 237

greed, 5, 9, 47-48, 63, 75, 77-78, 103 117, 164, 191, 211, 213, 215

Greek philosophy, 133, 15n

greenhouse gases, 209, 210, 16n

Gregory, Saint, 196 Grounds, Richard, 154, 80n

Grünenberg, Hans, 51

Gustafson, James, 194, 100n, 101n, 195, 102n, 201, 125n

Gutenberg, Johannes, 86, 73n

Hanke, Lewis, 158, 97n, 159, 99n, 100n

Harmelink, Daniel, 22, 28n

Hart, John, 128, 3n, 4n, 171, 7n, 182, 40n 198, 115n

Hartsough, Mildred, 51, 23n

Haught, John, 128, 3n, 146, 56n, 204, 115n

Hähle, Fritz, 24, 36n health of the whole, ix, 120, 210 heaven, 132, 14n

Hebraic thought, 138, 188, 213

Hellenistic, 127, 165, 195

Hendry, George, 5, 7n, 9, 17n, 66, 5n, 145

Henry the navigator, 57

Hertz, Karl, 16, 7n

Hierarchical view on nature, 188

Hilary of Poitiers, 174, 175, 25n, 176, 31n

holistic mission, 147

Holl, Karl, 6, 11n

Holy Roman Empire, 51, 23n; defined, 52 household: defined, 12; 80-83

Hsia, R. Po-Chia, 58, 41n

humanism, 43-44, 186, 77n

humility, 26-27, 76, 102, 120, 121, 190, 210, 213-214

Hutter, John, 66, 6n

Iberian Peninsula, 56-57

idolatry, 10, 75, 103, 115, 191-192, 198, 207, 211, 213, 215

imago Dei: defined, 13; 34, 75, 116, 121, 170, 179, 183, 60n, 187, 188, 189, 84n, 194, 202, 214, 215 immanence of God, 169, 177, 188, 203 immigrants (foreign settlers), 3, 4

Imperial Roman Law, 46, 7n imitatio Christi, 22 incarnation, 33, 171, 193-194 India, 56, 57 indigenous American culture, 159, 101n, 162 individualism, 43, 59, 42n, 130-131, 136, 11n, 149, 150, 205 Industrial Revolution, 144, 160 inferiority of women, 170-171, 206 infidels, 3, 59, 153-154 integrity of creation, 81, 111, 120, 167 intercommunion, 163 interconnectedness, viii, 162, 175, 177, 199 interdependence, viii, 1, 2, 11, 26, 79, 161, 162, 170, 176, 198

International Monetary Fund, 210 interrelationship, viii, 1, 2, 139, 161, 162, 176, 198, 214 intrumentalism, 157, 161-162, 169 Iranaeus, 129, 5n Isabella of Castile, 57, 59 Islam, 56, 36n, 154

Janz, Denis, 141, 42n Japan, 210, 16n Japanese, 209, 14n Joest, Wilfred, 133, 17n John I, King, 57 Judaism, 154 justice: distributive, 139; economic, 2, 8 justification by faith, 130, 150

Karant-Nunn, Susan, 96, 103n Karlstadt, 66, 6n, 85 Katharina von Bora, 80 Kee, Howard Clark, 53, 30n, 203, 213 Kim, Sebastian H. C., 199 kingdom of God, 24, 27, 76, 166, 203, 213 kinship, See Ethics of Kinship Kleckley, Russell, 65, 1n Kleinhana, T.J., 138, 34n Kluger, Jeffrey, 209, 15n Kolde, Dietrich, 141 Korea, 86, 73n

Index 238

Koreans, 209, 14n

Kyoto Protocol, 210, 16n

Lafitau, Joseph, 159-160, 101n

Lage, Dietmar, 22, 28n

Landlords, 44

Lapulapu, 58, 41n

Lau Franz, 9, 16n, 66, 3n

larva Dei: defined, 30-31, 41, 97, 105, 109, 173, 177, 178, 184, 191, 216

Latin America, 209 law of nature: see natural law

Lazareth, William, 13, 26n, 74, 29n, 81, 50n, 215, 34n

Legazpi, Miguel Lopez de, 58

Leo X, 52-54

Lienhard, Marc, 22, 29n, 23, 35n

Lindberg, Carter, 53, 30n, 55, 35n, 141, 43n

Lindenau, Sigmund von, 91

Loewenich, Walther von, 29, 51n

Löfgren, David, 5, 5n, 66, 6n, 69, 12n

Lohse, Bernhard, 6, 11n, 12, 22n, 22, 29n, 25, 40n, 27, 46n, 29, 51n, 31, 62n, 40, 92n 123, 210n, 133, 17n

Lombard, Peter, 90, 84n

Lotther, Melchior, 51-52

love as a creational virtue, 35-38, 74-75, 121, 187, 195, 198, 200, 210, 214-216

Luther, Elizabeth, 80, 50n

Luther, John, 80, 50n

Luther, Magdalene, 80, 50n Luther, Margaret, 80, 50n Luther, Martin: as a monk, 44, 2n; conversion experience, 44, 2n; on authority of scripture, 20-22, 22n; on baptismal theology, 8, 32-33, 61n; on Christian home, 13, 26n, 72; on Christology, 8, 22-24, 28n; on economic ethics, 5-6, 8, 10; on eschatology, 8, 3740, 82n, 92; on ethic of the household, 80, 80-83; on ethics of natural world, 6-7, 1n, 38, 56n, 64, 98; on family, 8, 9, 13; on globalization, 5, 8; on integrity of creation, 9, 40-41; on justification by faith, 18, 23, 154; on law and gospel: 18-19; on Lord’s

supper, 33-34, 181, 32n, 33n; on love of neighbor: 35-37; on marriage, 8, 9, 13, 8894; on masks of God: 30-31, 56n; on natural law, 8, 10, 18n,15-18; on orders of creation, 9, 10, 12, 24, 36n, 40-41, 65-130, 15n, 223; on political ethics, 5-6, 8, 10, 24, 36n, 25, 96-108; on priesthood of all believers: 29, 83, 86; on rare birds on earth: 18, 23, 30, 94, 185, 211, 224; on reason: defined, 15, 17; 88; on relationship between God and nature, 10, 171-186; on sacredness of all vocations, 9, 26-29, 73, 25n; social ethics, 8, 15-41, 66; on sola scriptura, 8, 20-22; on soteriology, 6, 8, 18, 32, 34-35, 38, 69; on theology of the creation, 5, 29-31, 66-67; on theology of the cross, 8, 38, 90, 92, 190, 200, 216; on two-kingdom doctrine, 8, 24-26, 37, 73; on world affirmation, 10, 39-41, 85n, 6667, 95-105; spiritual conversion, 44, 2n; on youth: 13, 26n, 85-89, 186-187 Luther, Martin II, 80, 50n Luther, Paul, 80, 50n Lyra, Nicolaus de, 95, 100n

Magellan, Ferdinand, 58 Maguire, Daniel, 132, 4n Manetti,Florentine Giannozzi, 186, 77n Manifest Destiny, 154 marriage, viii, 11, 81, 89-96, 205, 207 Matthew, Kuzhippalli Skaria, 50, 23n Maurer, Wilhelm, 71, 16n McDonagh, Sean, 209, 14n McGrath, Alister, 29, 52n McNeill, John, 16, 7n Melanchton, Philip, 40 Mendieta, Gerónimo de, 60 metaphysical, 176 mining, 44, 50 missiological sense, 170, 204 Moe-Lobeda, Cynthia, 6, 12n Moltmann, Jurgen, 127-128, 1n, 2n, 136, 13n, 135-136, 25n, 172, 12n, 173, 13n monasticism, 43, 44, 2n Moors, 56, 59

Index 239

Mosaic Law, 18, 20

Moses, 16, 19, 68, 108, 174-176, 26n, 204

Müntzer, 66, 6n, 86 Muslim, 56-57

Nash, James, 120, 200n, 147, 60n, 166, 109n, 194, 99n nationalism, 54

natural law, 10, 18n, 15-18, 33n, 78, 179 nature: defined, 65; full of Bible, 182 nemein: defined, 12 neo-colonizers, 210

Neo-Platonism, 138, 37n nephesh: defined, 137-138 Netherlands, 49, 17n

New World, 50, 59, 60, 61

Nicholas of Lyra, 174 Noah, viii, 1 Northcott, Michael, 5, 7n

Nürnberger, Klaus, 152, 73n, 154, 79n

Nygren, Anders, 24, 36n

Oberman, Heiko Augustinus, 55, 33n

Oecolampadius, Johannes, 177 oiconomia: defined, 13; oikos: defined, 13 oil, 212

Old Germanic Law, 46, 7n

Orden: defined, 11 orders of creation, see Luther, Martin Ordnung: defined, 11 Oriental tradition, 138. See Eastern tradition Origen, 129, 5n, 134, 19n, 138, 37n, 174 original sin, 41 overconsumption, viii, 12, 77-79, 105, 143, 198, 211, 212

pagans, 148

Pagden, Anthony, 164, 101n panentheistic: defined, 178 Paul, Saint, 17, 122, 130, 134, 19n, 138, 21n, 144, 41n, 146, 156, 172, 203, 214 parental authority, 81-82, 53n parsonage, 80

Peacocke, A. R., 186, 77n, 193, 97n, 98n

Peters, Thomas, 20, 21n Pflanz, Han Henning, 37, 84n Philip II, 49, 17n, 59 Philippines, vii, 3, 4, 9, 58, 41n, 59, 143 pilgrims, 142, 146, 155 Pilgrimage on Earth, 131, 141-149 Plato, 115, 135, 21n Plotinus, 138, 37n politia: defined, 13 political ethics, 25-26 politics: defined, 13 politicus: defined, 13 poor, vii, 46, 47, 48, 97, 103, 148, 167, 210, 212 Portugal, 57-58 poverty, 208 predation, 153, 159, 168, 206, 215, 216 predestination, 150-154. See also Election Prester John, 56, 36n Prien, Han-Jürgen, 5, 8n, 72, 20n Prince Philip of Spain, 59 printing press, 9, 44, 51, 86-87, 73n private property, 47-48 propagation, 118, 126 prophet, 1, 2, 9, 44, 203, 205, 207 prophetic ministry, 109-113 Protagoras, 186 Protestant ethic, 150-151, 68n Puritans, 150-151, 68n Pythagoras, 135, 23n racism, 158-160 Raines, John, 24, 35n rare birds on earth See Luther, Martin Rasmussen, Larry, 5, 7n, 128, 4n, 177-178, 35n, 187, 80n reciprocity: defined, 149, 154 reconquista, 56, 59, 44n redemption of creation, 132, 14n, 217 Reformation, 44, 2n, 52, 55, 100 religion of love, 139, 165, 206 Renaissance, 43, 1n, 56, 57, 59, 42n, 186, 76n, 77n repentance, 19, 99, 108, 207 resurrection, 138

Index 240

retribution, 122, 135, 13n

Rieth, Ricardo, 7, 9n

Righteousness, 122-125

Robertson, Edwin, 22, 28n

Roman Catholic, 55 Rome, 53, 54

Romero, Emilio, 62, 52n

Ruehel, John, 12, 25n, 39, 90, 85n

Ruether, Rosemary Radford, 62, 52n, 128, 3n, 145, 53n

Saccas, Ammonius, 138, 37n

salvation, spiritual, 132, 37n

Santmire, H. Paul, 5, 7n, 7, 5n, 7n, 8n, 129 5n, 141-142, 45n, 146, 58n, 150, 66n, 155, 85n, 160, 105n, 166, 108n, 169-170, 2n, 197, 111n, 113n, 199, 117n, 118n

savage, 3, 148, 153

Schöpfung: defined, 11

Schmiechen, James, 43, 1n

scholasticism, 4, 45

Schultz, Henry King, 66, 6n

Schwanke, Johanne, 5, 6n, 68, 9n, 69, 13n

Schwarz, Reinhard, 72, 21n

Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, 158, 97n

Sermon on the Mount, 47, 13n sex, 88-94, 207

Simmons, Ernest, 179, 46n

Simons, Menno, 66, 6n

Sinclair, Upton, 1 sins of overindulgence, 211-212 slavery, 158-159, 98n, 161, 165 Snyder, Gary, 163, 112n

Soelle, Dorothee, 135, 24n, 139-140, 39n, 140, 40n, 166-167, 128n, 129n, 130n sojourner, 142. See also Pilgrim solar energy, 213

Sorrel, Roger, 197, 110n soul, 131-140, 23n, 138, 34n, 151, 155, 86n Spain, 49, 17n, 56-57, 59, 158

Spalatin, Georg, 90 Spanish Hapsburgs, 49, 17n

Spiritualists, 101 Ständ: defined, 11 stations: defined, 11

stewardship, 2, 148, 161-162, 199, 205, 206 Stoicism, 137

Strauss, Gerald, 40, 89n, 90n, 179, 44n, 207, 9n

Strieter, Thomas, 96, 107n, 107, 98n

Strohl, Jane, 37, 84n subhumans, 3 sustainability, viii-ix, 12, 24n, 13, 121, 191n, 163, 171, 217 Switzerland, 53 symbiotic, 170 syphilis, 61, 112

Tappert, Theodore, 109, 155n, 145, 54n

Tasmania, 145 Tawney, R. H., 97, 110n Tetzel, John, 53 Thackeray, Frank, 57, 37n, 86-87, 73n theocentric: defined, 13 theocentric Luther, viii, 169-202 theocentricism, 6-7, 10 theodicy, 123 theologia cruces See Theology of the Cross in Luther, Martin Third World, 143, 209, 210 Tillmann, Walter, 9, 14n, 52, 27n, 57, 38n, 58, 40n

Tinker, George, 149-150, 64n, 65n, 154, 80n Todorov, Teveran, 62, 52n tower experience (Turmerlebnis), 44, 2n Tranvik, Marc, 32, 62n Treaty of Tordesillas, 58 Tribal religions, 2, 149 trichotomy, 137

Trigg, Jonathan, 31, 61n Trinkhaus, Charles, 186, 77n Turkey, 87, 73n Turks, 56, 36n, 63

Twelve Articles of the Peasants, 46-47, 9n, 10n

United Nations, 210, 16n United States, vii, 3, 148, 61n, 209, 210 use and enjoyment, 155-166 usury, 99, 205, 210 utilitarian, viii, 182. See also

Index 241

Instrumentalism

Vikings, 58, 40n

Vitoria, Francisco de, 159, 101n

Walker, Williston, 136, 15n, 138, 37n

Wartburg, Germany, 54

Watson, Philip, 6, 11n, 30, 57n, 31, 59n, 170, 4n, 216, 39n

Wee, Paul, 208-209, 13n

Western hegemony, 59-60, 61, 47n, 162-165

Western Christian tradition. See Christianity

Westermann, Claus, 138, 35n

White, Lynn Jr., 12, 23n, 116, 183n, 136, 12n, 144, 52n, 155, 82n, 157, 95n, 172 wholistic, ix, 31

Wiesner-Hanks, Merry, 96, 103n

Wingren, Gustaf, 30, 57n, 37, 82n, 65, 1n withdrawal from the world, 44, 2n, 205

Witte, John, 207, 9n

Wittenberg, 51, 53, 54, 75, 31n, 90 women, 83, 115, 172, 207. See also Inferiority of Women works righteousness, 197 world affirmation, 4, 9, 101, 204 World Bank, 210

youth, 12, 26n, 28, 82, 83, 85-89, 180, 181, 207, 213

Ziemke, Donald, 6, 11n

Zwingli, Ulrich, 66, 177

Index 242

Scripture Index

Genesis

1:1 175, 23n

1:2 173, 16n, 174, 21n, 178, 37n, 42n 179, 43n, 182, 53n, 185, 71n, 204

1:3 23, 34n

1:17-19 110, 158n

1:26 34, 71n, 75, 32n, 33n, 108 148n, 111, 162n, 113, 172n, 116 186n, 120, 189n, 190n, 191n,192n 119, 195n, 121, 169, 1n, 170, 6n 185, 43n, 186, 188, 215, 36n

1:26-28 116

1:27 119, 196n

1:28 60, 47n, 117, 188n

1:28-29 78, 46n, 212 22n

1:29 78, 46n

1:31 119, 194n

2:1 125, 223n, 200, 121n

2:2 68, 11n, 69, 14n

2:16 70, 15n

2:16-17 88, 78n, 80n, 97, 113n, 92 90n, 106, 142n, 113, 170n

2:18 89, 83n

2:19 192

3 123

3:1 115, 178n, 180n, 180, 48n, 183 60n, 199, 119n, 200, 120n

3:4-5 114, 174n, 199, 119n

3:5 114, 187

3:7 123, 211n

3:14 174, 19n, 204, 3n

3:17-19 111,161n, 163n, 164n, 112 165n, 166n, 167n, 115, 201n 122, 206n, 207n, 208n, 209n 123, 213n, 214n, 124, 215n 216n, 217n, 218n, 220n

3:19 125, 224n

3:22 114, 175n

3:23-24 174, 20n, 175, 24n, 176, 27n

4:1 112, 169n

4:2 63, 58n, 112, 168n, 120, 187n 156, 90n

4:4 115, 181n, 116, 182n

4:26 115, 179n

5:5 78, 47n, 212, 23n

6:3 99, 116n

6:4 95, 105n, 98, 115n, 105, 139n

7:1 73, 24n

9:6a 102, 131n

9:6b 102, 129n

11:27 119

12:1 142, 46n

13:2 123, 212n

13:10 97, 112n, 105, 140n, 191, 89n

13:11-13 104, 138n

14:4-6 102, 130n

18:15 70, 15n

19:6-9 93, 94, 100n, 101n, 102n

21:17 190, 85n, 87n, 191, 90n

243

23:3-4

142, 47n, 143, 50n

23:5-6 75, 34n, 213, 25n 214, 29n, 30n

26:24-25 104, 135n, 136n

27:5-10 82, 58n

27:28-29 70, 15n

28:1-2 93, 96n

35:9 203, 2n

38:1-5 108, 149n

41 76, 37n

41:40 76, 34n, 100, 122n 123n, 124n, 213, 28n

42:7 99, 117n, 100, 125n

46:28 192, 93n, 94n, 193, 95n

47:13-14 76, 39n, 100, 122n, 207, 10n 211, 19n

47:14 77, 42n, 212, 20n

49:3 108, 151n

Exodus 1:20ff 82, 52n 9:16 152

33:19 152

Psalm

2 22, 32n

8 24, 39n, 119, 197n

8:6 119 14:1 115

19:3-4 196 27 193, 74n

77 120, 202n, 121, 204n, 200, 120n

77:1 189, 56n, 215, 37n

77:11-12 173

82 25, 42n, 101, 128n, 101, 127n 108, 150n, 109, 153n, 116, 171n

82:1 98, 114n

82:6 178 90 68 100:3 191 101 107, 147n, 110, 156n, 157n 111, 160n, 183, 59n

Proverbs 3:5-6 201, 126n 22:4 75, 35n, 213, 26n

104n

Mark 1:15 108 16:14-20 203, 103n 16:15 37, 81n, 143, 176, 3n, 196 105n, 206

Luke 6:20 143 6:31 17

101:2 110 102 23, 34n 110 94-95, 104n 111 73, 25n, 172, 11n 111:2 172, 10n 111:4 172

244

Scripture Index

Isaiah 14:5-6 24 26:4 138 Daniel 12 138, 34n 12:2 138 Matthew 4:4 184 5:15 95, 104n 5:16 94,

5:32 93 5:44 29 6:19 12n, 47 6:26 183 7 29 7:12 17 7:18 36 10:23 104 19:6 91 19:9 93 23:12 27

John 10:29 151

Acts

5:29 82, 58n, 105, 214

Romans 1:2 21

1:20 156, 87n 2:14 17

5:5 156, 88n

8:7 156, 89n

8:18-22 200, 122n

8:20 68 8:28 152

8:28-29 150 9-11 152 9:18 152

13:4 24, 113

I Corinthians

3:9 11, 19n, 191

7:10-11 95

II Corinthians

5:6 135, 142, 143, 156, 87n

Galatians

5:8 22, 30n 5:17 133

Ephesians 5:21-24 165

Philippians 2 213 2-3 214

Colossians 1:23 176, 3n, 203

I Thessalonians

4:13-14 136, 29n 5:23 134, 20n

Hebrews 11:9, 10, 13-16 145, 41n 13:5 30

I Peter 2:9 94, 104n

I John 3:2 193

Scripture

Index 245

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