Lifelong Learning, Global Social Justice, and Sustainability

Lifelong Learning, Global Social Justice, and Sustainability

LifelongLearning,GlobalSocialJustice, andSustainability

“Thisbookprovidesafascinatingaccountoftheemergenceofcurrentconcept of‘lifelonglearning’fromitsoriginsinUNESCO’snotionofLifelongEducation andassubsequentlytransformedthroughtheworkoftheOECDandtheEuropeanCommission.Whatwasoriginallyanexpansiveandessentiallyhumanistidea, theauthorsargue,mutatedintoanarrowerandmoreinstrumentalistconcept withpervasiveinfluenceonglobaleducationpolicy.ThiscriticalaccountisdistinguishedbygivingdueattentiontothemeaningsoflifelonglearningintheGlobal Southandmakesaforcefulcaseforanewvisionoftheconceptgearedtowardsa globalcitizenship.Itiswritteninanaccessiblestyleandislikelytoresonatewith awideaudienceofadulteducators.”

—AndyGreen, ProfessorofLifelongLearning,UniversityCollegeLondon,UK

“Thisexcellentstudyreconnectsuswiththemultidimensionaltheoryandpraxis oflifelonglearning:abookthatliftsthespiritsinatimeofcrisis.”

—MarenElfert, LecturerinEducationandSociety,King’sCollegeLondon,UK

“Thisbookisanimportantandwide-rangingcriticalexpositionoftheprevalentcontemporaryneo-liberaldiscourseoflifelonglearningintheEUandthe Westernworldingeneral.ItnarratestheappropriationoftheUNESCO-based humanistagendaoflifelongeducationinthe1970sand1980sbyanagenda intendedpurelytoservetheambitionsofeconomiccompetitivenessandthe labourmarket.Inthiscontextitcanbereadasapassionateappealtoprogressiveeducatorsinthecontemporaryworldtoservethetruepurposeofeducation—learningtobe.Assuchitisasmuchamustreadbookforthemasfor scholars.”

—KennethWain, ProfessorofEducation,UniversityofMalta,andauthorof TheLearningSocietyinaPostmodernWorld(2004)

LeonaM.English · PeterMayo

LifelongLearning, GlobalSocialJustice, andSustainability

LeonaM.English DepartmentofAdultEducation

St.FrancisXavierUniversity Antigonish,NS,Canada

PeterMayo FacultyofEducation UniversityofMalta Msida,Malta

ISBN978-3-030-65777-2ISBN978-3-030-65778-9(eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65778-9

©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringer NatureSwitzerlandAG2021

Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.Allrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythe Publisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherights oftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductionon microfilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageand retrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodology nowknownorhereafterdeveloped.

Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc. inthispublicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuch namesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreefor generaluse.

Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neither thepublishernortheauthorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,with respecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeen made.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmaps andinstitutionalaffiliations.

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ThisPalgraveMacmillanimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNature SwitzerlandAG

Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland

InmemoryofAnthonyMayo(1961–2019)andTedEnglish(1952–2019)

Acknowledgments

Thisbookwaswrittenduring2020whentheworldwasdealingwiththe aftermathofBrexit,theturmoilofTrump,thecontinuedeffectsofmass migration,andthepanicofCovid.Yet,manyglobalactorswereworking persistentlytofacilitateandcultivatelifelonglearningstrategies,theories, andpolicies,allinanefforttocontributetoamorerobustcivilsociety. Wededicatethisbooktothosewhocontinueinthefaceofadversityand whoreallybelieve,alongwithIrishpoet,DerekMahonthat“everything isgoingtobealright.”

CHAPTER1

IntroductionLifelongLearning:TheSerpent BeneaththeInnocentFlower?

Abstract ThischapterintroducesthetopicofLifelong Learning/Educationgivingprominencetopeopleandmovements whoadvocatededucationandlearningasalifelongprocess.Itisargued thatalthoughtheconceptofLifelongLearningseemsaharmlessconcept, thiscannotbefurtherfromthetruth.Ithasbeentwistedinsuchaway thatitreduceslearningtoasetofnarrowcompetencessuitedtoa Neoliberaleconomy.

Keywords Innocence · Insidiousness · Socialpurpose · Reductionism · Populareducation

Thisbookaddressesoneofthemostpervasiveconceptsincurrenteducationaldiscourse:LifelongLearning.Thisconceptismorecommonlyused inEuropethantheAmericaswhere,intheSouthernconeandtherest ofLatinAmerica,theterms Educacióndejóvenesyadultos inSpanish and EducaçãodeJovenseAdultos inBrazilianPortuguese(educationof LadyMacbethurgesherhusbandMacbethtodissembleinShakespeare’s eponymous‘Scottishplay’:“Lookliketheinnocentflowerbutbetheserpent underit”(Macbeth,Act1,Sc.5,l.64–65).

©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2021

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youthandadults)arepreferred.ThestoryisdifferentinEuropewhere lifelonglearningisusedinterchangeablywithdifferentsectorsofeducation,mostnotablyinreferencetotheeducationofadultsandevenolder adults.1 InNorthAmerica,thetermismorelikelytobeadulteducation oroccasionally,learningacrossthelifespan.

Ofcourse,thetermlifelonglearninglooksallsoinnocent,sostraightforward,borderingon“statingtheobvious.”Itlookslikearallying “wishywashy”calltobeinclusiveofallpersons.Andindeeditmight wellprovetobe.Oneofusvividlyrecallsa tête-à-tête withahighrankinguniversityofficialduringareceptionattheendofabooklaunch in2007.Hesaidsomethingtothiseffect:“Cananyonedisagreewith lifelonglearning?Noroomfordiscordhere…?”Theoccasionwarranted adiplomaticsilencewiththemereutteranceofa“hmmm.”Amore elaborateretortwouldhavebeen:itdependsonone’sinterpretation.As criticaleducators,wearewaryoftermsthatappeardisarminglyinnocent whentheyserveahegemonicpurpose.Dependingonone’sperspective, theymightwell,intheschemingLadyMacbeth’swords,“looklikethe innocentflowerbut”be“theserpentunderit.”

Themorewidespreadandpervasivethetermlifelonglearning becomes,andthemorepolicy-inducingitisintheprocess,themorelikely itistoserveahegemonicpurpose.Byhegemonicpurpose,wemean, echoingAntonioGramsci,thatitgarnersconsent,popularconsent,fora givenstateofaffairs,asweshallshowandargueinthistract.Hegemony, inGramsci’selaborationofthisancientGreekword,impliesleadership anddirection,theintertwiningofforceandconsent(Gramsci 1975).

LifelongLearningplaysanimportantroleinspreadingconsensusfora projectthathasbecomeallpervasivetothepointthatitispartandparcel of“commonsense,”thewaymanyofusmakesenseoftheworldwithout notingthecontradictionsrenderedvisiblebythestarkrealityofeveryday livesandtheresearchwhichservestodisputetheassumptioninquestion: theconceptofalifelongapproachtoeducationandlearning.Itmight nothavebeensopervasiveinitsearlier,non-hegemonicconceptualizationasLifelongEducation(Faureetal. 1972).Itwasexpansiveinscope andwasbornoutofthenecessitytopromote,recognize,andvalidate educationinitsdifferentformats—educationforandofall,ifyouwill. LifelongEducationwasalsobornoutofapost-Warsensethateducation inallitsformsmustbepromotedtocombatnegativeforces(Elfert 2015, 2017).Otherthaneithersimplyrhetoricor,initsmostprofoundvariety ofmeanings,thesubjectofscholarly,philosophicaldebates,exegeses,or

ruminations,ithadlittledirecteffectonpolicy,saveforpolicydocuments providedby,forinstance,UNESCO.Thetermcouldbebandiedaround withlittleconsequence.

Maybeitwasgenuinelytheterm’sinnocence-exudingapparelwhich lentcredencetotheuniversityofficial’sstatementthatwecanallagree onit.Wecanallagreeonaconceptthatseems“harmless,”oftendeceptivelyso.Wewillshow,inthelaterchaptersofthisbook,thatLifelong Educationhadpositivedimensions,beginningwithitsfocusoneducation inbroaderterms.Theparameterswerewidened.And,apossiblereason forthiswideningoftheparametersisprovidedinachapterthatfollows. Allfellinsynchwiththepoliticsofamajororganizationthatpromotedit then.ThatwasUNESCOwithits“ThirdWorld”(read:majorityworld) orientation.Wewillshowthatthenatureofmembershipandsuperpower presenceinUNESCOhadmuchtodowiththis.

Theconceptwas,ofcourse,notperfect.Aswithmostconcepts,it haditsflawsand,despiteitsoverallleft-wingtenor(Wain 2004,p.17), hadcontradictoryindividualizingsub-conceptsthatlendthemselvesto easyappropriationbyforceswithintereststhatseemedatthefurthest removefromthoseofUNESCO(BorgandMayo 2007,Bauman 2013). Wewouldsaytheywereeventuallymercilesslyexploitedforaspecific ideologicalend.ThisiswhenLLE/LLLtookonastronger,yetnarrower, socioeconomicmeaningandwastiedverycloselywithlabormarketgoals. Priortothat,asfarasUNESCOisconcerned,ithadthevirtueofhelping usseeeducationmoreexpansively.Ithelpedaffirmeducationbeyond schooling,althoughthelatterremainedimportant,andbeyondthetimeconditionedstatethatweassociatewiththemoretraditionalnotionsof schooling.

Thispromotionoflifelongeducationcoincidedwithemphasisbeing placedondifferentformsofpopular,Indigenousandnonformaleducation.Significantamountsofliteratureintheseareaswereproduced especiallyinfieldssuchasadultcontinuingeducationandcomparative education2.Onemightarguethatthishelpedfurthergrowthinthese areas.LatinAmericaandAfricagainedgreatervisibility,especiallyasmany Africancountriesattainedtheirindependenceintheverylate50sand early60s.Somewereoddformationsthroughcoloniallydevisedboundariesintheshapeofneatrectanglesorquasi-rectanglesthatwerefar removedfromIndigenousboundaries.Conflictsarosearounddifferent groupslumpedtogether(e.g.thelate60sandveryearly70sconflictin andaroundBiafra).Wereadaboutthecoloniallegaciesanddecolonizing

possibilitiesforseveralaspectsoflifeintheserelativelynewnationstates, including,wewouldargue,education.WebegantoreadaboutNyerere, Cabral,andNkrumahregardinganeducationthatneverends.Webecame familiarwithworksonAfrica,withregardtononformaleducation(it providedaSoutherndimensiontoOut-of-SchoolEducation),byAfrican andnon-Africanscholars,suchasPaulWangoola,MarjorieMbilinyi, JoelSamoff,FrankYoungman,AliAbdi,PeterRule,RuthModipa, andCatherineOdoraHoppers.AsforLatinAmerica,PauloFreireis undoubtedlythekeyfigureandmajorsourceofinspirationforeducationasanintegralcomponentofalifelong praxis ,althoughhislinks withLLLaretenuous,aswillbeshownandarguedlater.Thelistof scholarswhohavecontributedtotheliteratureonnonformaleducation inLatinAmericapromotingorcriticaloflifelongeducation/learning,or anotionofongoingeducationthatwouldfitsuchadiscussion,includes RosaMariaTorres,CarlosAlbertoTorres,DanielSchugurensky,Nelly PeñalosaStromquist,ThomasJ.LaBelle,TimothyIreland,Rebecca Tarlau,GustavoFischman,VanildaPaiva,LiamKane,LuisGandin,Maria TeresaMuraca,CarlosOrnelas,andMoacirGadotti,tonamebuta few.Theyallwroteonnonformaleducationand,whilenotallinvoked LLL/LLE,theyprovidedthose,whosoughttointernationalizethem, withmuchgristforthemill.

Wereadaboutbroaderconceptionsofeducationthroughrevolutionaryandpost-independenceprojects,someactuallygainingUNESCO awards.Cuba,Tanzania,Nicaragua,andGrenadacametothefore. Whileeasytoromanticize,especiallywhenrevolutionswereconcerned, particularinterpretationsofongoingeducationwereprovided,asfigures, contemporaryorhistorical,suchasErnesto“Che”Guevara,bellhooks, AngelaDavis,AugustoCesarSandino,JosèMarti,SimonRodriguez(the teacherofSimonBolivar),and José Carlos Mariátegui(LaChira) were heraldedaspeoplewhoadvocatedand,inthecaseofsome,embodied “praxis”asalifelongprocess.Itiscommonforthosestagingrevolutionstoinvokefiguresfromthecountries’pastandpresentthemasthe precursorsoftherevolution.Therevolutionisoftenpresentedasthe continuationofaprocessthatthesefiguresstarted(e.g.AugustoCesar SandinoinNicaragua,EmilianoZapatainChiapas,Mexico,OmarAlMuktharinthepost-1969Gaddafi-ruledLibya,morerecentlySimon BolivarinChavez-ledVenezuela).Itisnotuncommontoseethem referredtoasadvocatingeducationonthelinesofalifelongprocess.

ThoseofMarxistinspirationwouldregardrevolutionarypraxisasalifelongconcernandhenceaformofongoinglifelongeducation.Inother partsoftheworldevenJesusChristwaspresentedasalifelongeducator tothoseembracingtheChristianfaith,andthiswouldnotbeatodds withpopularimagesinLatinAmericawherethereisoftenajuxtapositionbetweenthesufferingChristandCheGuevarawiththeconceptof the SangredeCristo (BloodofChrist)havinggreatresonance.3 Oneof usrecallsatextondisplayattheCatholiccenteroncampus(St.Joe’s College)attheUniversityofAlbertainEdmonton,Canada,heralding ChristastheLifelongEducatorwhichconnectswiththeviewofChristian formationasanongoingprocessoflifelonglearningandtransformation asprofessedbyLisaKimball(2014)fromVirginiaTheologicalSeminary,RonaldHabermas(2008),orevenHabermasianscholar(Jürgen Habermas,ofcourse),MichaelWelton(1993).4

Asforcountriesemergingfromcolonialismorinthethroesofarevolution,popularandinformal/nonformaleducationprovidedanappropriate contextforIndigenousandrevolutionarylearningwhichwouldfuel theimaginationofthosewritingaboutLLE.Therewasacharmand mystiqueaboutUNESCO’sthenmasterconceptforeducation.Recall thatUNESCOitselfwasverymuchinvolvedinatransitiontocivilian ruleinatleastoneLatinArcEuropeancountry,Portugal.Populareducation,couchedasLifelongEducation,inspiredbyLatinAmerica,wasat theforefrontofthedemocraticreactiontotheformerauthoritarianism oftheSalazar-Caetanomilitaryjunta.The“revolutionofthecarnations,”broughtaboutbythe“Captains’Movement”actedasaspur fortheflourishingofpopularcultureinthecontextofLifelongEducationinSouthernEurope(Melo 1985).Apaperoutliningpopularculture effortsinPortugalwaspresentedatthe1984internationalconferenceon MediterraneaninitiativesinLifelongEducationforparticipation(Melo 1985).

Thisexcitingandimagination-fuelingpropositionhadtocoexist howeverwiththe realpolitik ofeconomicdevelopment,whichentailed therealityofacquiringtheskillsforsurvival,asindividualsandasa nation,inacompetitiveglobalenvironment(CarnoyandTorres 1990). WiththenotableexceptionofCuba,therevolutionaryaspectofone typeoflifelongeducationpeteredoutorwassuddenlyhaltedthrough suchcircumstancesas:(1)thecrushingofarevolution—Grenada(2)the toningdownofapotentiallyanti-statistadulteducation(Bhola 1988,

p.31)and,becauseofthis,thesuspensionofaFreireanpopulareducation coordinator—Portugal(LindandJohnston 1986,pp.61),(3)the1990 electoraldefeatandtheeventual“sellingout”ofaonceinspiringforce— NicaraguaandtheSandinistas(BorgandMayo 2007),(4)achangein leadershipandeconomicdirection—Tanzania.Muchofthiswasprecipitatedbyanimportantglobaleventthatwasthecollapseof“actually existingsocialism”bestexemplifiedbythefallin1990oftheBerlinWall andthedemise,followingtheshort-livedcoup,in1991,oftheSoviet Union.IthadaneffectonrevolutionarypoliticsinLatinAmerica,asdid theeventualdemiseoftheSandinistarevolutioninNicaragua(Borgand Mayo 2007,p.38).

Thedemocraticandrevolutionaryimaginaryofalternativelifelong educationwasseverelyjoltedbytheseandothereventsanddevelopments.Onceagain,theaboveprojectswerenotnecessarilyheralded, withtheexceptionofPortugal(Melo 1985),undertherubricofLLE buttheywouldeasilyhavefittedthekindofthinkingthatfallsinline withUNESCO’sexpansiveviewoftheconcept.Thisisoftenmanifestin thewritingsofexponentssuchasthethenHeadofUNESCO’sLifelong EducationUnitinParis,EttoreGelpi(Gelpi 1985, 2002),towhomwe dedicateaseparatechapter.

Inthe1990s,anewall-pervasivephilosophy“calledallindoubt” withthebloodiestofitsbirthpangshavingoccurredmuchearlier, preciselyincontextswhichwouldhaveconstitutedfertilegroundfor popularnonformaleducation,namelyChilefirst,Argentinasecondand Turkeythird,butwhichwasrenderedmoreuniversalbyThatcherism intheUK(1979,theyearironicallymarkingtheSandinistarevolution)andReaganomics(1981onward).Lifelongeducationwasstilla muchbandiedaboutconceptatthetime,stillpartofanappealing doxa, butthatwasgraduallytochange,especiallyasweenteredthe1990s. ThiswasthedecadeinwhichUNESCOtriedtoreclaimitsslipping statusintheinternationalsphere.Threatenedbytheincreasingpower oftheinstrumentalistOECD,UNESCOuppedtheanteininvitingEU CommissionerJacquesDelorstoheadupacommissiontostudyeducationforthenewmillennium,whichwasjustaroundthecorner.The DelorsCommissionwaslatetotheparty,asinstrumentalismhadalready takenholdandtherewerefewtracesofthehumanismandhopeofthe Fauredays.WhenDelors’ Learning:theTreasureWithin,wasreleasedin 1996,itcontinuedtherhetoricofUNESCO’semphasisoncitizenship

andclaimedaspaceforlearningacrossthelifespan,butitwastoolate, toophilosophicalandtooremovedfromwhatwashappeningglobally.

TheglobalmilieuinwhichDelorswaswritingwasnotreflectedinhis document.Thecreepofneoliberalismintoeducationhadlongbegun. ThisneoliberalismwasaconceptthatwastochangetheviewofLLE drastically;itworkedinpandemiclikewaystoinfiltrateallmovementsand connections.And,asinallpandemics,ourlanguageshiftedtomeetthe challenge.RatherthanLLE,wewereexposedtoanall-pervasiveconcept ofLifelongLearning(henceforthLLL),anotpoliticallyinnocentchange interminologyaswillbeexplainedinthechaptersthatfollow.Weargue, withothers,thattheoldconceptofLLEwasdisfiguredalmostbeyond recognition.Itbecamethe“TrojanHorse,”asmanycriticaleducators labeledit,forusheringinamarket-orientednotionoflearningfrom cradletothegrave,wellsuitedforfortifyingtheworkforceinthe20–65agebracketandbeyond.Underneoliberalism,theindividualassumed fargreaterresponsibilityforthecostofeducationandthestateassumed farless.Privatedonorsandfoundationswereinvitedtotakeovereducationandtocontrolit(Field 2001).Thereasonsforthischangeinthe discoursewillbeprovidedintherelevantchapter.Allwewouldstateat thisstageisthat,forthoselikeuswhoadheretoanexpansive,broad humanisticandecologicallysensitivenotionoflifelonglearning,inthe spiritofFaure,theconceptwhile,forsome,stilllookingliketheinnocent flower,became,forotherslikeus,theserpentunderit.

ItisthistrajectorythatthePivotbooktraces,fromtheinitial UNESCOdiscoursetotheneoliberalconversionandhijackingofthe concepttothehopeandpossibilitiesofferedbyanalternativeconceptualizationorseriesofconceptualizations.WetalkofUNESCOatone stagehavingaUtopianvisionofLLE(atleastinthe1960sand1970s), aswillbeargued.5 Inreality,eveninalternativeforms(alternativetothe hegemonicneoliberaloneofLLL),itwouldmakemoresensetotalkof heterotopianvisions.Thisaffectslearningwithinjustice-orientedsocial movements.Inthisregard,wewilllookatLLLfromagenderedand intersectionalperspectiveand,inaddition,fromtheperspectiveofhowa nationstate,amemberofthe“supranationalstate”thatistheEuropean Union,soldontoaneconomy-orientedviewofLLL,seekstoarticulate ideas“inandagainst”thishegemonicdiscoursetobroadentheagenda. Itdoesso,inourview,inanattempt,atthelevelofapolicydocument, torespondtonationalconcerns,anapproachthatresonateswithother nationsalsohavingregionalconcerns.

Thetrajectorytakesusalongaroutethatenablesreaderstoexplore possibilitiesopenedupbythecurrentandever-emergingdiscourse concerningLLLforSustainableDevelopment.Iftakenseriously,itmust embraceanentireholisticreconceptualizationofLLLinwhichlearning involvescriticallyquestioningnotsimplyhowweproducebutespecially whatweproduceandforwhatpurpose.Italsoposesthequestionof therelationsbetweenhumanbeingsandtherestofthecosmos,i.e.how dowelearntoliveinaworldofbiodiversitywheretheramificationsof actioninoneplacecanbefeltinotherslocatedinvariouspartsofthe world,withinandacrossthe“North”—“South”divide.

Asthebooktitlesuggests,weshallbeengaginginaninternational approachtothissubject,drawingfromEuropeandNorthAmerica,where we,thetwoauthors,arerespectivelylocated.Weshallalsobeventuring beyondaswetracetheoriginsandresonanceoftheLLLdiscoursegloballyandtrans-locally,beyondtheinterrelationshipsofnationstatesto thewaysthatpeopleareentwinedinspacesthatareneitherphysicalnor bound,inacomplicatedarrangementofideas,connections,andpeople. (seeFreitagandVonOppen 2010).

Towardtheend,wegivedueconsideration,incriticallyadvocatinga LLLforsustainabledevelopment,totheissueofmigrationwhichhas closeconnectionswithLLLwithregardtoclimatechangeandtheglobal strugglefordecentanddignifiedliving.TheSDGsareattheforeground ofouranalysisinallourdiscussions.Littledidweenvisage,whenwriting thevariouschapters,theoutbreakofthepresentpandemic,Covid-19.It wouldhavebeeninappropriatetocraftsuchaworkwithoutanysustained discussionoftheCoronavirusanditsvariousimplicationsforLLL.We thereforeaddedanoriginalchaptertothebookasoriginallyplanned.We regardedthisas derigueur.

Notes

1.Torres,R.M.(2002).Lifelonglearninginthenorth,EducationforAll inthesouth.InC.Medel-Anonuevo(Ed.), IntegratingLifelongLearning Perspectives (pp.3–12).UNESCOInstituteforEducation.

2.ItisnosurprisethenthatUNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning producesoneofthelongestrunninginternationalandcomparativeeducationjournals, InternationalReviewofEducation.

3.Weareindebted,forthispoint,toEugenioEnriqueRamirezCortez, ProfessorattheUniversityofCastillaLaManchaatCuenca,Spain.

4.Welton’sessay,“Seeingthelight:Christianconversionandconscientization. InPeterJarvis&NicholasWalters(eds.), Adulteducationandtheologicalinterpretations.Malabar,Florida:Krieger,1993,makessignificantlinks betweenChristianconversion,conscientization(Freire)andtransformative learning(Mezirow).

5.SeeMarenElfert(2017),whichprovidesanexcellent,insideviewofthe organizationandLLL,notingthepost-WarenvironmentinwhicheducationasahumanrightandlifelongeducationwithFaureetal.cameinto being.SeealsoElfert(2013)whereshereportsthatPiagetandMontessoriwereonthefirstgoverningboardofUIE,andthatMariaMontessori addressedtheinauguralmeetingoftheboard,ontheinnerlifeofpeople.

References

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Elfert,M.(2015).UNESCO,theFaureReport,theDelorsReport,andthe politicalutopiaoflifelonglearning. EuropeanJournalofEducation,50, 88–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12104.

Elfert,M.(2017). UNESCO’sutopiaoflifelonglearning:Anintellectualhistory. NewYork,NY:Routledge.

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Field,J.(2001).Lifelongeducation. InternationalJournalofLifelongEducation, 20(1&2),3–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280010008291.

Freitag,U.,&VonOppen,A.(2010).Translocality:Thestudyofglobalising processesfromasouthernperspective.Leiden:Brill.

Gelpi,E.(1985). Lifelongeducationandinternationalrelations.London:Croom Helm.

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Habermas,R.(2008). IntroductiontoChristianeducationandformation:A lifelongplanforChrist-Centredrestoration. GrandRapids,MI:Zondervan. Kimball,L.(2014).Lifelong,lifewideChristianformation:Embracingafaith thatcelebrateslife. EpiscopalTeacher. https://episcopalteacher.org/lifelonglifewide-christian-formation-embracing-a-faith-that-celebrates-life/.Accessed August102020.

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CHAPTER2

FromLifelongEducationtoLifelong Learning:RenegingontheSocialContract

Abstract Thischaptertracestheconcept’strajectoryfromanexpansive notionaspromotedbyUNESCO,totheadoptionofthetermLifelong Education,toitstransmutationinthehandsoftheOECDandtheEU, amongothers,tothereductivenotionofLifelongLearningwherethe primaryemphasisisonpersonalratherthansocialresponsibilityandthe mainpreoccupationiswithemployabilitywhichdoesnotnecessarilymean employment.Intheinitialpart,lightisshedontheworkandideasof agroupofwritersgravitatingaroundUNESCO,somebeingutopian intenor,whileothers,suchasEttoreGelpi,beingmorepragmaticin approach.ThemainpartofthechapterfocusesontheEUanditsICT andemployabilitypolicydiscoursecenteringonthenotionofdeveloping aKnowledge-BasedEconomy.Wealsonoteareturntoamoreholistic notionofLifelongLearningaspropoundedbytheUNwithrespectto theSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Wearguethatforthesegoalstobe

Thischapterdevelopsoutofthefollowingpublication:Mayo,P.(2013) RevisingLifelongLearning.13YearsaftertheMemorandum.InJ.Baldacchino, S.GaleaandD.Mercieca(Eds.) MyTeaching,MyPhilosophy:KennethWain andtheLifelongEngagementwithEducation,PeterLang.Permissionto republishinrevisedformgrantedbyPeterLang.

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realized,theLLLconceptmustbestrippedofits1990s+baggageto becomeholisticinscope.

Keywords Lifelongeducation · Lifelonglearning · Self-directed learning · Employability · Sustainabledevelopment

LifelongLearningasPartoftheDominantDoxa Europeanshavegrownusedtopronouncementsanddeclarationson learning.ThesameisnottrueinmostWesternStatessuchasCanada andtheUSA,whereeducationisoverseenoftenatthelocalleveland themostsignificantpronouncementisthebudgetallocationtoschooling orhighereducation.Ifthereisapolicydirectiveoneducation,itisoften focusedonearlyyearssuchasthecontroversialNoChildLeftBehindand itssuccessorEveryStudentSucceeds.

InEurope,theEUandvariousinternationalbodiessuchasUNESCO andOECDseethemselvesasdispensingwisdomonthedirectionof educationandlearning,certainlythecasewiththeEUMemorandum onLifelongLearning(LLL)producedin1999,anditsmuch-awaited follow-updocumentwhichhasnotmaterialized.MembersoftheEU Grundtvigworkinggroup,andothersattendingworkshops(nowcalled socialinnovationlabs)andconferencesinconnectionwiththisactionin thedecadefollowingthepublicationoftheMemorandum,werepromised thisfollow-updocument.Formany,usincluded,therewashopethatthis muchanticipatednewdocumentwouldtakeonboardinsightsderived fromthevariouscritiquesoftheMemorandumthatweremade,aspart oftheconsultationprocess,indifferentsettings.TheseincludeddiscussionsheldwithintheEU’sdifferent“epistemiccommunities.”Wewere eagertoseewhethertherewouldbedeparturesfromthe doxa which dominatedthepreviousdecadeandwhetherlessonshadbeenlearntfrom thecritiques.ThecritiquesweremadenotonlyinBrusselsandrelated forumsbutalsoinnationalseminars,inmemberstates,aswellasinthe literature.Thistopicdrewwritersnotnormallyexpectedtofeatureinthe LLE/LLLliteratureincludingtheredoubtableZygmuntBaumanwho wroteaboutitinoneofhis“liquid”books(Bauman 2005)andlaterin anadulteducationcompendium(Bauman 2013)publishedacoupleof yearsbeforehepassedaway.

OneofLLE’smajorexponents,theoristEttoreGelpi,alsoweighedin onthedebatewithabookpublishedinhisnativeItalianaroundthetime ofhispassing(Gelpi 2002).Allwasnotperceivedasbeingwellinthe StateofLLE,orLLL,bymanywritinginthisvein.Indeed,thesignsof atransitioninemphasisandpurpose,intheLLLdiscourse,hadalready beenexploredbyavarietyofwriterswithastrongcriticalacumenand socialjusticeorientation,MarkMurphy(1997),BillWilliamson(1998) andIanMartin(2000)featuringamongthem.Theycertainlyexposed “theserpent”beneath“theinnocentflower.”Thesameistrueofthe personwhointroducedoneofus,whenanundergradattheUniversity ofMalta,totheconceptandphilosophyofLLE,theprofessorinquestion beingKennethWain(1987, 2004a).BaumanquotesWainprominently, onLLL,inthe LiquidLife chapter(Bauman 2005,p.122).

Theseandotherwritersprovidedalternatives,basedonexpansive,sophisticatedconceptualizationsofLLEthatbuiltontheearlier UNESCOwritings,drawingonmajorwriterssuchasJürgenHabermas, JohnDewey,MichelFoucault,RaymondWilliams,R.H.Tawney,Bogdan Suchodolski,SeylaBenhabib(cf.Wain 2004a)andothers.

AlmosttwodecadeshavepassedsincetheEUMemorandum’spublication.Themuchpromised,inEUcircles,productionofarevisedand updateddocument,remainedjustthat—anever-to-be-fulfilledpromise. WhatwasprovidedinsteadwasaskimpyAgendaforAdultLearning whichcanbeinterpretedasalast-ditchattempt,byagroupofsocially consciouseducators,tokeepadulteducationontheEUagendafor education.

Wefeelthatthecritiques,emanatingfromdifferentquarters,would haveprovokedanoverallresponse,aspromised.Ifnotaresponse tocritiquesfromthoselikeuswhoarticulateamoregrassrootsand socialjustice-orientedLLE,itcould,morerecently,havebeenonethat addressedLLL(Gleason 2018,p.7)asconceivedby,forinstance,the WorldEconomicForumwhich,throughitsChairperson,KlausSchwab (2016),heraldedthebravenewworldofthe4thindustrialrevolution(4IR).Spokespersonsforthis“revolution”advocate,onCapitalist grounds,aprocessofLLLthatextendsbeyondSTEM,engagesthe imagination,andaccordsprideofplacetothehumanities(Lewis 2018; Gleason 2018,p.6).Weregisterourconcernsregardingwhatis,in effect,abroadnotionofLLL,guidedbytheimperativesofCapitalismandnotbythoseofagrassrootsdemocracy.Thisnotwithstanding,

theexpansivediscoursecontrastsstrikinglywiththenarroweconomicorientedapproachtoLLLthatprevailsinmostofthepolicydiscourse internationally.

Inthischapter,weprovideanoverviewoftheconceptasithas changedfromitsUNESCOorigins,tothattransmogrifiedbytheOECD butmostspecificallybytheEU,ascapturedinthesixmessagesof theEU’sMemorandumonLifelongLearning.ThelattertypeofLLL changedtheconceptinalmostludicrousways,distortingaonceexpansiveconceptbeyondrecognition—diluted/adulteratedoldwineinnew bottles?Wealsoattemptapreliminaryarticulationofhowthisconcept canberecasttoretrieveitsformerexpansivenature,andberevitalized byraisingquestionsoveragency,the“righttogovern”(sovereigncitizenship),ecologicalresponsibility,andsustainability.Italsoattemptsan initialarticulationofhowitcanbecarriedforwardtospearheadaneducationfosteringtheideaofaworldnotasitisbutasitcanandshouldbe, intermsofensuringdignifiedlivingwithinwhatsomeIndigenouspeople callthe“weboflife.”Inshort,thiswouldbeLLL/LLEfordignified livingwithinandthroughoutthecosmos(O’Sullivan 1999;Berry 1999; Cloveretal. 2013;LealFilhoetal. 2018).

TheImpetusfortheConcept’sAdoption

TheLisbonEuropeanCouncilofMarch2000,foritspart,declaredthe EuropeanUnion’stargettobethatofbecomingthe“mostcompetitive anddynamicknowledge-basedsocietyintheworld”(CEC 2001,p.6),a veryboldassertionstillbeingrepeatedtodaydespitethefactthattenyears haveelapsedsincetheoriginaltargetyear—2010.Eightmonthslater,and inresponsetotheconclusionsreachedin1996,designatedtheEuropeanYearofLifelongLearning,1 theEuropeanCommissionproducedthe muchreferenced“AMemorandumonLifelongLearning”(referenced above)whichwasmeanttoprovideasetofguidelinesforeducational policymakinginmemberstates,theEEA,andaccessioncountries,each ofwhichcarriedoutabroadconsultationprocess(CEC 2001,p.7). Thisprocessinvolvedavarietyofactionsincludingseminarsinwhichthe Memorandumwasdisseminated.Effortsweremadetodevelopnational strategiesforlifelonglearning,asweshallindicateinalaterchapter.

UNESCO:UtopianismandPragmatism

Lifelonglearninghas,sincethe1990s,beenandstillisakeyfeatureofthe EUagendaforeducation(seeMurphy 1997,p.362)andaknowledgebasedeconomy(KBE).AsWainandothershaveindicated(1987, 2004a), itsprogenitor,“lifelongeducation”2 hasbeenaroundforanevenlonger periodincludingthelate60sandearly70swhenitwaspromotedby UNESCOasits“masterconcept”foreducation.Itwasanintegralpart ofUNESCO’swide-rangingstrategywhichtookonboardthedifferent formsofeducation,includingthoseofanonformaltypeemergingfrom LatinAmerica,AsiaandAfrica,thathadbeendocumentedindifferent partsoftheglobe.Aspartofanoverallstrategytopromoteeducation foreveryone,forwhichlimitationswereregisteredwithregardtothe buildingofappropriateinfrastructures,ithadtobroadenwhatcounted aseducation.Itsoughttovalorizewhatpeoplealwayshad,irrespectiveof institutionalstructures,namelyformsofnonformalorinformallearning. Educationoccursinavarietyofsettings,notjustschoolsandhigher educationinstitutions.Itcanoccur“Undertheshadeofthemangotree,” toadoptaphrasefromPauloFreire(Ch.1,inFreire 2016).Itcan occurinagaragewithinashantytownontheoutskirtsofaBrazilian orothermegalopolis.Itcanoccuramongminersinthepitsandduring theirbreak-time,asoneformer(pre-1984)NationalUnionofMiners (NUM)activistinEnglandonceputittooneofus:reading Capital in thepits,withregardtocollectively-directedpoliticaleducation.Itcan occuramongfisher-folkonthejetty,besidestheseaofafishingvillage intheMediterraneanorinadifferent“primaryproduction”settingin Antigonish,NovaScotia,Canada(LotzandWelton 1997).Theseareall partandparcelofthekaleidoscopeofongoingeducationandlearning, LLE/LLLifyouwill.

UNESCOhadadecidedly“ThirdWorld”orientationatthetime, asvolumesfocusingonNonformaleducationinLatinAmericaindicate(Elfert 2017;LaBelle 1986;Torres 1990;Kane 2001).The UNESCOversionofLLEwaspromotedthroughabodyofliterature comprisingbooksandpapersbyamotleyposseofwriters,someLiberal, someRadical,someMarxistorMarxist-Existentialist,someScientificHumanist.Humanismlayatthecore.ThelistwouldincludePaul Lengrand(1970),EttoreGelpi(1985a),R.H.Dave(1976),Bogdan Suchodolski(1976),RodneySkager(1978),andArthurJ.Cropley (1980),allmenalas.Akeybookwasproducedtitled LearningtoBe

otherwiseknownastheFaureReport,namedafterthefirstcontributor (inalphabeticalorder),EdgarFaure,inalonglist(Faureetal. 1972). SomeofthewritinghaditsbasisinScientificHumanismembracedby JulianHuxley,UNESCO’sfirstDirector-General(seeFingerandAsún 2001,p.22).InKennethWain’swords,it“hadaleft-wing,humanistic, democraticcore,andconcerneditselfwithindividualgrowthandsocial development”(Wain 2004a,p.86).

Thoughbroadinscope,theearlylifelongeducationmovement, promotedbytheFaureReport(1972)throughUNESCOprovidedan expansiveandhumanisticviewoftheentireprocessofhumanlearning “fromthecradletothegrave.”ItreflectedtheopennessofthepostWarperiodandthebeliefthateducationwasmeantforself-actualization.

KennethWainreferstotwowavesofwritinginthearea,namelythe moreevolutionaryutopianwave(e.g.“towards alearningsociety”)and thealternativepragmatistapproach(e.g.whatshapehavelearningsocietiestakenorbeentakingindifferentcontextsindifferentperiods?). Onefocusesonasocietythatisnotyetwhiletheotherismoreempiricalandpragmatist,arguingfortakingstockofandbuildingonwhat is,ratherthanwhatshouldbe.Wainhadarguedthattheutopianwave canbeeasilycriticizedonthegroundsthatitprovidesaveryoptimistic viewofa“commonhumanity”inwhichdifferenceissubsumedundera singlemodel,accordingtowhichacommondestinybeckons(Wain 1987, p.230).

ThePragmatistTurn

KennethWainreferstoanalternativemodelofthelearningsociety proposedbythosemembersofthesecondwaveof“pragmatist”writers:

Thealternativeapproachisthatproposedbythepragmatists,whoareready toreverseallthesetendencies,totakedifferentsocietiesastheyareandto adoptapragmaticapproachtowardtheconceptofthe‘learningsociety’. Theyarethusreadytoarguethatthereisnotanyonemodelofsucha societythatcanbeuniversallyimposed,andthattheshapeany‘learning society’willtakedependsuponanongoingdialecticalrelationshipbetween theideological,economic,cultural,educationalfeatures thatitalreadyhas, andthelifelongeducationprogramme,embodiedby‘progressive’individualsorgroupswithinthatsocietywhoarepreparedtotakethe‘longmarch throughtheinstitutions’thatitrequires.(Wain 1987,p.230)

Wain’sadoptionofRudiDutschke’s(Germanstudentleader)“long march”phraseimpliesanevolutionaryprocessthattakestime.3 Wain includesEttoreGelpi,whodirectedUNESCO’snowdefunctLifelong EducationUnitinParis,amongthosewhofavorapragmatistapproachto lifelongeducation:anhistoricalandcomparativeapproach(seethenext chapter)withtheemphasisbeingplacedon,notthisconcept’sfuture possibilities,buttheactualpresentdayrealityinwhichlifelongeducation isrooted(Wain 2004a,p.19).GelpioncewrotethatLLEisnotanew ideaasitisafeatureofmanytraditions,emergingfromdifferentparts oftheworld.Whatisnew,heargues,isthe populardemand forlifelong education(Gelpi 1985a,p.18),alludingtoglobalwidespreadeffortsto democratizeaccess.

Insomeofthemorefacileconceptualizationsoflifelongeducation, wecomeacrosstheratherproblematicstatementthatitischaracterized byboth“vertical”and“horizontalintegration,”termswhichwerecriticizedwithinthemovementitself.Gelpi,forinstance,stressedtheidea ofconflictwithinsocieties,pointingtotheoppositionofformaland nonformaleducationincontextssuchasLatinAmericaatatimewhen countriesinthisregion,suchasChile,wereunderauthoritarianrule (Gelpi,inMayo, 1985a).Thiswaspartoftherealitywhichanumber ofUNESCOmemberstatesfacedatthetime.

Thecentralconceptisthatofthehumanbeing(or“man”asthey wroteatthetime)conceivedofwithinahumanistnotionofindividualgrowth,almostinsynchwiththeGermannotionof“Bildung.” Itwasallabout“being”inaworldincreasinglyembracingtheconsumercultureideologywithitsstresson“having,”inEricFromm’simportant distinction.PaulLengrand(1970),aMarxist-existentialist,argues:

Educationisnotanaddendumtolifeimposedfromoutside.Itisnomore anassettobegainedthanisculture.Tousethelanguageofphilosophers, itliesnotinthefieldof‘having’butinthatof‘being’.Thebeingina stateof‘becoming’ateachdifferentstageandinvaryingcircumstancesis thetruesubjectmatterofeducation.(Lengrand 1970,p.59)

TheFaureReportpresentedasimilarview.Initsnormativesenseof providing“worthwhile”knowledge,learnerswereregardedas“beings” intheprocessof“becoming.”4 Onecandetectindividualisticovertones here,extendingtotheideaofself-directedlearning,easilyappropriated laterbythosearguingforatomizedindividualsinaneoliberalworld,a

themetowhichweshallreturnwhendiscussingcontemporaryappropriationsofthisconcept.R.H.Dave,however,makesabriefpassingreference tothe“collective”(Dave 1976,p.4).Wecanspeakofcollectivelydirectedlearningtoreinforcetheideaofsocialityandthatlearningis asocialact.Thisunderscoresthecollectivedimensionofknowledge forchangepromotedbyPauloFreire(2018)andothers.JoanBofill’s (1985)educationasparticipation,afeatureofacommunalparticipatory democracyinaCataloniaemergingfromtheFrancoyearswiththeirtotalitarianismandculturalsuppression,fitsthisrubricnicely.Hehighlights communalfestivitiesofferingpossibilitiesforcollectivelearning.Hiswas aprominentvoiceataMediterraneanconferenceonLifelongEducation, heldinMaltain1984(seeWain 1985).Itcomplementedsimilarvoicesof keyfiguresattheconferencewhoseconceptualizationofadulteducation, withinthecontextoflifelongeducation,waslikewiseconditionedby thedemandsofapost-fascistcontext(AlbertoMelo 1985 regarding PortugalandGeorgePapandreou 1985 regardingGreece).5 Later,D.W. LivingstoneandPeterSawchuk(Livingstone 1999, 2004;Livingstone andSawchuk 2004),fromOntarioCanada,andBorgandMayo(2005) devotedamplespacetoacollectiveversionoflifelonglearning,the formerregardingworkers’educationandthelatterregardingeducation ingeneralandsocialmovementsinparticular.PatriciaGouthro(2009), alsofromCanada,gavespacetoacriticalnotionoflifelonglearningthat includedwomenlearningindividuallyandtogether,incontextsasvaried asthehomeplaceandtheworkplaceandcommunity.

Scholarsprovidedradicalversionsoflearningas“becoming”thatrecall Freire’snotionthatthehumanbeing’sontologicalvocationistobecome “morefullyhuman,”aconcepthemodified,inhislaterwritings,around thetimeofhisdemise,topeoplestrivingtobecomelesscontradictory, “lessincomplete”(Freire 1997).InaMarxist-humanistversionofLLE, WarsawUniversityscholarBogdanSuchodolski(1976,p.95)writesof theneedforeducationnottobepredetermined.Theallusionistoan educationbasedon praxis ,withcreativeactivitiesandthefulldevelopmentofhumanfacultiesascharacterizinggrowth.Productionhadtobe “economized,”organizedinamannerthatallowsforfullpersonaland collectivedevelopment.ThiswasmeantasanantidotetowhatDurkheim calls“anomie”andalsowhatMarxregardsas“alienation.”Suchodolski wrote,inthisregard,aboutconsumptionandthemedia,alsoaddressed byGelpi(1985b),thereforepositingthatoneofthetasksofLLEisto confrontanddismantletheconsumer-cultureideology.Onehadtolearn

orunlearntoeschewthehegemonicideaofatwo-dimensionalhuman being,namelyaproducer/consumer,rolesthatMarcusecollapsedinto theimageof“one-dimensionalman”[Sic].

Theconceptofan‘education-centredsociety’promisestoshowtheway outofthehopelesssituationresultingfromthe“producingsociety”and the“consumingsociety.”Keepingtherestraintsandobligationsimposed onsocietybyproductionandconsumptionwithinrationalboundaries,this newconceptmanifeststheprofoundvaluesofthehumanexistence,thanks toanintensificationofallhumanabilitiesandenergiesthatfurtherthe developmentofthewholepersonality.(Suchodolski 1976,p.64)

Therewasthereforeplenty,intheoldUNESCOliteratureonLLE,which canbebuiltupontosubvertthecurrenthegemoniceconomy-oriented notionofLLLandtransformitintoonethatcanserveasagenuinedemocraticandemancipatoryalternative(Williamson 1998).Thereductionist imageofpeopleasproducers-consumers,whosesenseof(individual) “liberation”ismarkedbytheirconsumptionpatterns(slaverymaskedas freedom),isdiscarded.Itisditchedforthatofpeopleassocialactors participatinginandextendingthelifeofthepolis(Martin 2000,p.5).

TheDiscursiveShift

TheLLEmovementofwritersaroundUNESCOdiedoutinthelate 80swhiletheconceptofLLLhadbythenalreadybeenusedbythe OECD(1996).NotetheOECD’semphasison“learning”ratherthan “education”inwhatlookslikeafarfrominnocentdiscursiveshift.There hasbeenashiftinemphasisfromeducationalstructurestoindividuals (TuijnmanandBoström 2002,pp.102–110);individualsurgedto“pull uptheirbootstraps”andtakechargeoftheirownlearning—self-directed learners.JohnField(2001)providesagoodandhelpfuloverviewofthe developmentofLLE/LLLaspromotedbyvariousintergovernmental institutions.WhileUNESCOprovidedabroaduseofLLE,theOECD usedLLLwithinhumancapitaltheory,“albeitlacedwithafewdashes ofsocialdemocracy”(Field 1998,p.6),andunabashedlycontinuedto doso(OECD 2007).TheOECDrendered“lifelonglearning”a“policy goal.”(Field 1998,p.31).JohnField(2010)writes:

Inpracticalterms,theactivitiesundertakenbyUNESCOandOECD mainlyhelpedfocuspolicyattentionontheeducationalneedsofthosewho hadbenefitedleastfromthefront-loadedapproachtoinitialeducation.In industrialnations,thisofteninvolveddevelopingeducationalentitlements forworkers,withlawsonpaideducationalleaveinanumberofcountries. Insome,therewasabroadentitlementtoleaveforgeneralpurposes(asin Sweden,andinstatelevellawson Bildungsurlaub inGermany);inother cases,educationalleavewasguaranteedforspecificpurposes,suchasvocationaltrainingundertheFrenchlawon congedeformation orBritishlaws onhealthandsafetyandworkplacerepresentation.Manymorecountries experiencedagrowthofadultbasiceducation,withparticularlyimpressiveinnovationsinadultliteracyprovisionandwomen’sbasiceducation. (p.90)

Thechangeineconomicclimateinthelate70s,witha“morefragmentedandturbulentlabourmarket”andthegrowthofconsumerism inWesternsocieties,madetheconceptoflifelongeducationlosemuch ofitsappeal(Field 2001,p.8).Itdidre-emergeinthe1990sin,apart fromtheOECD,theonesupranationalorganizationthathasthepower toinfluencetheeducationalpoliciesofsovereignstates—theEU.Itcould howeverinfluencesuchpoliciesthroughfundingmechanisms,evaluation measuresandclassifications,etc.,althoughitstrictlycannotdictatepolicy ineducationwhichremainsamatterofnationalsovereignty.Inasituation,however,whenmanyorganizationsinEuropeandbeyond(e.g. EuropeanUnioncentersatUSA,Australian,andotheruniversities)have becometotallydependentonEuropeanUnionfunding,theinfluenceon LLLpolicyissignificant.

LLL’sdefinitionunderlinedtheeconomicimperativesofthisdiscourse: “allpurposefullearningactivity,undertakenonanongoingbasiswith theaimofimprovingknowledge,skillsandcompetence”(CEC 2000, p.3).ThisdefinitionwasformulatedinthecontextoftheEuropean EmploymentStrategylaunchedattheHeadsofStateEuropeanCouncil, Luxemburg,1997(CEC 2000,p.3).Learningbecameacodewordfor puttingcitizenstoworkandtherebystrengtheningtheGDP.

TheMemorandum’sMessages

TheEU’sMemorandumonLifelongLearningforegroundssixkey messages.Theseare:(a)newbasicskills,(b)investmentinhuman resources,(c)innovationinteachingandlearning,(d)valuinglearning,

(e)guidanceandinformation,and(f)bringinglearningclosertohome. Itisimportanttopointoutthat,thoughmostofourdiscussionfocuses onEurope,thisdiscourseconcerninglifelonglearninghasglobalresonance,thoughitismorepronouncedinhighandmediumincome states.RenownedEcuadorianpractitionerandresearcher,RosaMaria Torres(2003,ascitedinField 2010)arguedthat“lifelonglearning” isverymuchawesternizedconceptwhichdisplacesthefocusfromthe roleofadultbasiceducationasacontributortodevelopmentinthe “majorityworld”(p.91).AsField(2010,p.90)remarks,theconnection betweenthemodernconceptofLLLandtheinterestsoftheindustrially mostadvancedcountries,withinthecontextofglobalization,represents anothersignificantshiftfromtheolddiscourseoflifelongeducationas promotedbyUNESCOandtheFaurereportwhich,wereiterate,was verymuch“majorityworld”or“Southern”influenced.Asindicatedbya varietyofwriters,includingGelpi(2002),thediscoursefocusesprimarily on“employability”which,ashearguesinthesametext,doesnotnecessarilymeanemployment.Abriefdiscussiononbasicskillswouldprovide someindicationofthemainthrustofthisdocumentintermsofits “employability”orientation.

NewBasicSkillsforAll

AreportpublishedbyCedefop,Eurydice(2001),revealsarangeofinterpretationsoftheterm“basicskills.”6 However,itisbecomingincreasingly apparentthatthedominantdiscourseon“basicskills”islabormarket oriented.Thenetresultofthisorientationincurriculumreformisthat

Arrangementsforguidance,supportandidentificationofskillsneeded bythelabourmarket,incooperationwiththesocialpartners,arehighly significantaspectsofcurricularprovision.(Cedefop/Eurydice 2001,p.15)

ThistrendtowardthemarketizationofcurriculaisechoedbyViviane Reding(2001),formerEuropeanCommissionerforEducationand Culture,inherPrefacetotheabove-mentioneddocument.Redingasserts thatitiscrucialto“adjustoureducationalsystemstotherequirements oftheeconomyandtheknowledgesociety”(p.5).Intruth,whatweare providedwithhereisarangeoffunctionalskillsinanarrownotionof competences,akeywordintheEUdiscourse.Thisdiscoursehighlightsa “commerciallyandmarket-oriented”typeofcompetences(Gadotti 2008,

p.43),oftenmeasuredthroughapositivistapproachandaccordingto outcomes,somethingwhichWain(2004b)hascriticized,citingLyotard’s notionofperformativityinthiscontext(Lyotard 1989,pp.47–53).The notionofskillsasvocationalpreparationisuniversal.InCanada,for instance,literacyfundingistypicallylocatedintheprovincialministryof Labour(MacPhailandEnglish 2013).

Thekindofcompetencesgivenimportanceinthedominantdiscourse arethosethatshould,intheory,enablepersonstobecomemorein demandinthelabormarket,more“marketable.”Thisisallinkeeping withthecommodificationandmarketizationofeducation.Educationis nolongerregardedasapublicgood.Itis,tothecontrary,regardedas aconsumerproduct,tobehadandheld,notlived.Itisoftenemphasizedthiswaybysloganssuchas“Ifyouthinkeducationisexpensive,try ignorance,”slogansthatappealtothe“commonsense”ofaconsumercultureideology.Inthiscontext,“lifelonglearning,”particularlyinits adultlearningcomponent,signifiestheupdatingofcompetencesina vocationalsense,inviewofthemobilityofcapitalandtheopportunitiesandhazardsthismobilityprovidesforemployment.Education,and especiallypost-compulsoryeducation,includingadulteducation,serves todevelop“humanresources.”Developinghumanresourcessignifies,in thiscontext,theattainmentofthosecompetences,reflectedinthebasic skillsunderlinedinMessage1,thatattractandmaintaininvestmentand thatpermitthelaborforcetorenderindustrymore“competitive.”They renderhumanbeingsmarketable,commoditiestobeboughtandsoldfor nottheir“usevalue”buttheir“exchangevalue.”

Granted,werecognizetheneedforagoodtechnicalandvocational adulteducationsetup.Thisisnotproblematic.Justbecausewearguefor amorebroadenededucationthathelpsdevelopaperson’swholerange ofsubjectivities,thisdoesnotmeanthatwegivelipservicetoone’swork capabilities.Quiteproblematichoweverareafewthings.Thefirstisthe mortgagingofachild’sfuturewhich,inthelongrun,servestolimitone’s possibilitiesatworkandinlifeingeneral.ThisisthepointthatGramsci madewithrespecttovocationaleducation(educazioneprofessionale)in thereformsintroducedtoItalybytheFascistMinisterofEducation, GiovanniGentile,duringthetimeGramscispentinprisonforhispolitical beliefsandcommitments.(Gramsci 1975)Thesecondislimitingwhat wouldotherwisebeabroadrangeofhumancompetencesandskillsto narrowlydefinedones,thosethatfittheshort-termeconomicdemands andhencethelabormarket.Thenthereistheviewregardingeducationas

anindividualandnotasocial,includingcommunity,responsibility.This istheneoliberalagendaineducation,moreaccuratelyneoliberalism tout court.Itisonethatconfinesthebroaderqualitativedimensionsofeducationtoafew.Theseincludethosewhoamasswealthandcontactsthrough social,cultural,andeconomiccapitalaccruedfromattendingeliteinstitutionsexemptfromtheserestrictions.Therestareofferedthechance tobuyvocationalservicesaccordingtomarketprices.Ifnothavingthe wherewithaltodoso,theyarefobbedoffbyanunderfunded,restricted “education”thatkeepstheminpovertyandskirmishingontheperiphery ofthemarket.Thesedivisionsandformsofeducationalapartheidapply notonlytoschoolsbutalsotouniversitiesandotherhighereducation institutions.Thefourthis,inthecaseofeducationandwork,learning how toproduce,withoutquestioning what toproduce.VandanaShiva’s writingsonsoilandnotoilraisequestionsregardingwhatweproduce, inadditiontohowweproduce(Shiva 2016).

ThisbringsintofocustheissueofLLLpredicatedonbiodiversity, thefosteringofhealthyandcosmicallyinclusivehuman–earthrelations andthesafeguardingofPlanetEarth.ThisaspectofLLLisconspicuous byitsabsenceintheEU’sMemorandum.Afollow-upMemorandum wasexpectedtobereleasedtoaddressthisissueandtherelatedissue (climatechangeanditsdiscontents)ofMigration.Suggestionsinthis regardwereputforwardatEUsponsoredconferencesregardingthe Grundtvigprogram,suchastheoneheldinBrusselsinearlyspring2011. Thatthisfollow-uppolicydocumentdidnotsurfacetendstofuelfurther suspicionsthattheEUpoliciesregardingLLLareallabouteconomic competitivenesswithlittleregardforbasichumanconcernsaboutsituationsthatthreatenourexistenceashumansandthatoftheplanetthatwe inhabit.ThesearetheissuesregardingLLLthatwewillraisefurtherin thisbook.

MissingfromtheMemorandum’ssectionon“basicskills“isthenotion ofwhatFreireandothers(LankshearandMcLaren 1993;Shor 1999) wouldcall“criticalliteracy”definedinFreire’ssenseof“readingthe wordandtheworld.”Thisissomethingwhichcannotbemeasured inpositivistterms,accordingtotheinstrumentsgearedtocondition suchresults—again performativity inLyotard’sterms.CriticalLiteracy issomethingwhichcannotbemeasuredthroughthekindofquantitative indicatorsnormallyusedinthesemeasurementexercises,LLLindicators called“qualityindicators.”CriticalLiteracywouldrenderthediscourse on“new”skills(criticalliteracyisnotanewliteracybutcanbestretched

toincludenewliteraciessuchascriticalmediaorcriticaldigitalliteracies), intheMemorandum,lessdominatedbytheideologyofcompetitiveindividualism.ItwouldrendertheMemorandummorecapableofserving thedevelopment(hopefullyongoingdevelopment)ofacriticalcitizenship andthereforeaneducationfordemocraticanddignifiedliving.

Broadeningthenotionof“skills”inthisvein,wecanspeakofthose thatenablepersonstobecome,inthewordsoftheItaliancriticalpedagogue,donLorenzoMilani,“cittadinisovrani”(sovereigncitizens)who enjoythe“righttogovern”ratherthansimply“begoverned”often,in thelattercase,atadistancethroughself-censorship.Weareherereferringtotheideaofatomizedindividualswhofacilitate governmentality, inFoucault’ssenseoftheterm.GovernmentalityreferstotheState’s productionofcitizenbehaviouraccordingtoitspolicies,fosteringmindsetsandpracticesthatallowsubjectstobegoverned“atadistance” (EnglishandMayo 2012).Thealternativeskillsandcompetences,or, morebroadlyspeaking,qualitiescalledforbycriticalcitizenship,are meanttoequippersonsnotonlyindividuallybutalsocollectively,asadvocatedbyPauloFreire.Personswouldthusbeequippedwitharangeof competencesthatwouldallowthemtocontributetothedevelopmentof agenuinelydemocraticenvironment.Areductionistdiscourseconcerning competencesandeducationwouldleadtoademocraticdeficit.Itis importanttohearkenbacktothestillrelevantdiscourseconcerning education,democracy,andthepublicspheredevelopedbyJohnDewey, J˝uergenHabermas,MichaelWelton,AndreGrace,PatriciaGouthro,Aldo Capitini,MaxineGreeneandothers,manyofwhomarefrequentlycited inthemoreexpansiveliteratureonLLE/LLL,thelearningsociety,and thepublicsphere.

Alsoincludedinthisfirstmessageistheskillofbeingabletotake chargeofone’sownlearning,somethingthat,aswehaveshown,existed andwasappropriatedfromtheoldUNESCOliteraturewhichalsocounterbalancedthiswithideasandprojectshavingacollectiveandcommunity dimension.ThisdimensionisrarelytobefoundintheEUandcontemporaryhegemonicdiscourseonLLL,althoughnothingismonolithic, includingtheEU,andmanyhavedemonstratedwaysandmeans,at“on theground”municipalorterritorial(inItaly’s territorio sense)levels, tocircumventthediscourseinmanyways—hopespringseternal.The overalltenoroftheprevailingdiscourse,however,remainsindividualistic.ItalmostechoesMargaretThatcher’sneoliberaldictumthat“there

isnosuchthingassociety.”Responsibilization(readindividualresponsibility)isthemantra.Theentireresponsibilityforlearningisthrust ontheindividual,oftenatgreatfinancialexpense,withthedanger thatfailuretoachievecanbeexplainedawayin“blamingthevictim” terms.Similarly,thetermself-directedlearning,seeminglyinnocuous, tendstopenalizelearnersforneedingateacher,wantingmentorship,and requiringdirection(Servant-MiklosandNoordegraaf-Eelens 2019).

Education,accordingtothesetenets,remainssomethingwhichone acquiresasapositionalgoodandatanexpense.Peopleareexhortedto organizetheirbudgetaryspending,throughfinancialliteracypromotion campaigns,insuchawaythattheyinvestintheircontinuingeducationon whichtheiremployabilitychancesdepend.7 Thefallacyofthishasbeen underlinedinwritings(Berg 1974)underliningthatlackofjobsispart andparcelofthecrisisoftheCapitalistsystemitselfandhasoftenlittle todowithpeople’slackofinvestmentintheirownlearning.TheincreasinglypostOECDandlaterEUeconomy-orienteddiscourseoneducation hasmadetheLLLconceptapanaceaforexistingsocialills.Theseinclude theCapitalistsystem’sinabilitytoprovidejobswithameasureofsecurity, withtheresultantemergenceofa precarieté situation,inaworldcharacterizedby“liquidity,”“risk,”and“obsolescence.”Astrictlyreductionist LLLnotionsuitsthisscenarioperfectlyasitservesasthemeanstopresent a“jobscrisis”asa“skillscrisis’(Marshall 1997).

Thediscourseoccasionallyventuresbeyondthestrictly“economic”to encompass“well-being,”withitsgreatmarketpull.Afterall,asPanagiotis Sotirisremarks:

OneshouldneverforgetthatNeoliberalismisnotjustaneconomicpolicy. Itisalsotheattempttowardsproductionofaparticularsubjectivitycentred uponeconomicself-interestandcompetition,insharpoppositiontoother, morecriticalformsofsubjectivity,suchasthatoftheactivecitizenorthe consciousworker.(Sotiris 2014,p.319)

Thisprovidespeople(thosewhocanaffordtherelevantprograms)with opportunitiesforlearningtocopewithemotionalstresssaidtoemerge fromthebrain’schemicalimbalances(certainlynottobediscounted). Whatisnotsaid,however,isthatforallthetalkof“getonyourbike” or“investinLLL,”muchanxietyiscausedbythedysfunctionalstructuringofCapitalistforcesthatareshapingpeople’slives.Theygenerate asenseofinsecurityanddespairderivingfromthecurrentsituationof

austerity,precariousliving,andinabilitytoplanlongterm.(Cooperand Hardy 2012,pp.60,61).ThisisallpartofwhatMarkFishercalls“CapitalistRealism”(2009,p.19),basedonthenotionthatpeoplecansee throughthefactthatCapitalismhasnotdelivered“bigtime”but,atthe sametime,cannotcomeupwithanyalternatives.Manyhaveconstantly beenremarkingthattheLeftitselfhasgone“bankrupt”(Giroux 2014)— nopunintendedgiventhebank-inducedfinancialmeltdownattheheart ofrecentcrisesandCOVIDpandemic.Itcanbearguedthat,rather thanformsoflearningwhichtreatthesymptoms,peoplerequireforms oflearningthatprovideacriticalreadingofthecausesthatlie,toa largeextent,inthestructuringforcesatplay.Onceagain,thecallisfor adoseofcriticalliteracythatenablesonetounveilthecontradictions thatexistinsociety,learningforsocialchangeandnotlearningsimply forindividualadjustmentandaccommodation.Alas,“socialwell-being” isbecomingsuchapartofthewidespreaddoxathatitinsidiouslyand uncriticallycreepsintotheeducationfield,renderingthekindofprovision ofwhichitformspart—“learningfordomestication”andthe“ideology ofaccommodation,”toechoFreire’searliestwritings.

Theissueisthusindividualized,renderedamatterofpersonalresponsibility,asurewayofpreventingitfrombecomingamuchwiderpublic issuehopefullyignitingcallsforstructuralchange.Onthecontrary,any socialcontractinthisregardiscontainedwithintheCapitalistsystem,and thusitdoesnottranscenditsparameters(Giroux 2020).Itisacontract thatdoesnotservetochangeCapitaliststructuresintomoredemocratic ones.It,tothecontrary,servesasa“bandaid”remedytohelpsolidify capitalism(Giroux 2020).Intheseneoliberaltimes,thisleadstheState toabdicateitsresponsibilitiesinprovidingthequalityeducationtowhich everycitizenisentitledinademocraticsocietyandshiftthementirely ontothelearnersorlargerentitiessuchasNGOs,etc.Inshort,itbecomes anotherwayforthestate,themodernneoliberalstate,torenegeona broader,transcending(presentstructuresofdominationandinequality) “socialcontract.”Asindicatedearlier,theshiftfrom“lifelongeducation” tolifelong“learning”accommodatesthisdiscourse.Wereiteratetheview, expressedbyEduardLindemanandmanyothers,thatlearningisasocial act(andthenotionofa“learningsociety”pointsusinthisdirection).It ispartlytheresponsibilityofwhatwasonceasocialstate.Inthiscontext, theMemorandum’sterm“socialskills”wouldassumeabroadermeaning, thansimplyadaptationtosocialcustomsandmores.

Itwouldneitherlimititselftothenotion,oftenexpressedinEUcircles, thattheskillsrequiredinsociallifearetheverysameskillsrequiredat theworkplace—anewformof“Fordism”ifyouwillwhereLLLwould thusbecomeanotherinstrumentformoralandphysicalregulationof socialandintimatelifetoenhanceproductivity.Whathappensoutside andinsidethebedroomisasmuchaconcernforCapitalistproduction aswhathappensattheworkplace,thesortofreinforcementofpsychophysicalhabitsoncesatirizedbyCharlesChaplininthefilm“Modern Times.”Ifanything,theonsetofCovid-19madethiscorrelationeven morepronouncedwithpeopleworkingatallhoursfromhome,inan individualized,atomizedmanner(Giroux 2021)throughonlinework, assumingthattheyhavethemeanstocarryoutthisworkandearnaliving withoutbeingplacedonfurlough,orunabashedlydischargedoutright (Giroux 2020).

ThesameappliestoLLLwhichisgraduallybecomingmoredigitally mediatedandatomized,reachingthosewhohavethemeanstoavail themselvesofthecontingentplatforms,whilemanyothers,thosewho requiremorecarefulpedagogicalapproaches,includingspecificlearning conditions(notsettingswhere,evenifacomputerisavailable,thereare toomanypeoplestrugglingtogainaccesstotheterminalatspecifictimes andinanovercrowdedhomespace)becomemoredisengaged.There aredifferentiatinganddiscriminatory“invisible”LLLpedagogiesatwork here.RatherthanLLLforall,whatweseemtohaveisLLLforsome, oftenthosewhoseeconomic,cultural,andsocialcapital,inBourdieu’s sense(Bourdieu 1977),iscommensuratewiththatrequiredforthenew teaching/learningcontingencies,tothedetrimentofthemany.Thefear isthatthiscontingencywillcontinuetobeavailedofpost-Covidgiven thatitticksalotofthebusinessmodelboxesandsuitstheneoliberal agendatoatee.TheEUMemorandumisitselfveryICTorientedand whilewearenotsayingthatitplacesexclusiveemphasisonthis,with blendedapproachesnotbeingexcluded,wetrustthat,post-Covid,LLL willnottakethisexclusiveroute.

AconceptofLLLforcriticalsovereigncitizenswould,tothecontrary, beintendedtogeneratesocialskillsthatgobeyondadaptationtoself andsocialcreationandrecreation.Itimpliesthesocial,thecommunal, andmattersofsolidarity.Howdowecreatetherelativelysafecommunal spacesthat,evenintimesofpandemics,provideaccesstothefacilities necessaryforLLLforall?

AWayForward

Insum,theover-emphasisonwork,employabilityandICTindicatesthat thediscoursethusfarisremovedfromabroadconceptionofeducationthattakesonboardthedifferentmultiplesubjectivitiesthatmake upcitizens.Itstillgravitatesaroundthenotionofaknowledgeeconomy which,ascertainresearchfromCanadashows,isnottherealitypeopleare madetobelieveitis.Itisadiscoursethatlimitshumanbeingstotwodimensionalpersons,consumersandproducers,ratherthanexpandsthe conceptiontoembraceamoreholisticviewofpersonswhohavetheskills toengagecriticallyandcollectivelynotonly in butalso with thework processandalsoengageinapublicspheremarkedbydifference.This wouldentailanotionofcitizenshipthatcanbecalled“reallyandcriticalactivecitizenship,”embracingthe“collective”(inthesenseofpeople workingandactingtogether,complementingeachother),ratherthan, onceagain,thenotionoftheatomizedindividual(Giroux 2021)citizen thatisoftenpromotedbythedominantdiscoursessurroundingcitizenship,towhichthecurrentCovid-19pandemicprovidesmuchgristfor themill.ManyoftheissuesbeingfacedthroughoutsocietycallforcoordinatedcollectiveactionsinvolvingbothICTandthestreetsandsquares. ThismakesusrecallthenumerousdemonstrationsinGreeceandother partsofEurope,andinmanypartsoftheArabworld,inwhathasbeen optimistically,butprematurely,dubbedthe“ArabSpring,”notnecessarily attainingthedesiredoutcomes(thestruggleremainsanongoingone). Theyarealsopublic,andnotsimplyindividual,issuesthatentailsocial responsibilities.

Astheliteratureonthiskindofactionhasshowntimeandtime again,thisongoingsocialengagementwouldentailconstantlearningand relearning,pointingtoanotionoflifelonglearningthat,asexpounded onbyWain(2004a)andothers(e.g.Williamson 1998),constitutesa refreshingalternativetotheonethatprevails.Thealternativetothehegemoniconeliesinatypeoflifelonglearningthathasbeenoccurring foryearsbutwhichhasnotalwaysbeenrecognizedassuch.Itisone whichisinextricablyintertwinedwithongoingpopularstrugglesforthe creation,safeguarding,andenhancingofdemocraticspacesinwhichmen andwomenliveassocialactors.Yet,despitetheproveneffectofsocial movementsandprotestsoncollectivechange,therearesomesuchas DavidBrooksinthe NewYorkTimes whoviewthemasineffectiveand

whoseepolicychangeascomingfrominsidethesystemthoughso-called “conservativeradicals”(Brooks 2020).

Inshort,thereareanumberofissueswhichtheEUMemorandum failedtoaddress,issueswhichconcernhumanityandtherestofthe cosmosinitsentiretyanditsdiversity.WeargueforaLLLprocess gearedtoaglobalcitizenship,onewhichisinclusiveandwhichknowsno distinctionsbetweenthemajorityandminorityworlds.Forthistooccur, werequireaconceptualizationofLLL/LLEthattranscendsthatofthe EUanditsobsessionwithregionalcompetitivenesswithinadifferentiatingCapitalistframeworkthatcontinuestospawninequalitiesandoffer “bandaid”solutionstoandforthem.Recallthattheoriginalimpulse ofestablishingLLLasthemainconceptintheEU’sknowledge-based economyderivednotfromeducatorsandculturalworkerswhohavethe potentialandtraditionofseeingeducation,andnotsimplylearning,in broad,holisticterms,butfromtheEuropeanRoundtableofindustrialists inthemid-1990s.Theirsisavisionthatisperforcelimitedtotheareas inthehegemonicdiscoursehighlightedabove.TheyaretheretoconsolidateCapitalism.Wewouldargue,specificallyinlaterchaptersconcerning LLLandtheSDGs,thatwerequireaprocessorprocessesofLLLthat callforstructuralchangeandthattranscendtheCapitalistmindsetand framework.Inthenextchapter,wevisittheworkofakeyexponentof UNESCO’sLLEdiscourse,EttoreGelpi,andhisconcernsregardingthe subsequentdistortionsoftheconceptandpossibilitiesforitsrenewal.

Notes

1.CouncilConclusionsof20December1996onastrategyforlifelong learning(97/C7/02).

2.Forhelpfuldiscussionsconcerningthegenealogyoftheconcept,seeField (2001),TuijnmanandBoström(2002),andWain(2004a).SeealsoElfert (2017).

3.Itcouldwellbepartofthe‘longrevolution’thatRaymondWilliams,who wasreadytohelparecoveringDutschke(shotatcloserange)completehis thesisatCambridge,wroteabout.

4.Morethan2decadeslater,theDelorsetal.report,alsofromUNESCO, namedthefourpillarsoflearningandeducationas“learningtoknow; learningtodo;learningtolivetogether;andlearningtobe.”Elfert(2015) notesthattheDelorsreportdoesnotuselifelonglearningbutrather “learningthroughoutlife”p.92.

5.Bothexperiencedexileduringtheirrespectivecountry’speriodoftotalitarianrule.TheexperimentsthatMelowritesaboutareverymuchThird Worldinfluenced,emergingfromLatinAmericanpopulareducationexperiences.Heironicallylefthispositionasdirectorofadulteducationinthe MinistryofEducation(seeLindandJohnston 1986,p.61)inLisbon becauseofdifferencesintermsoforientation;thereweremisgivingsabout the‘ThirdWorld’orientationofmanyoftheprogrammes.PersonalconversationwithAlbertoMelo,Brussels,2011.Papandreouwouldlaterbecome Greece’sPrimeMinisterwhohadtograpplewiththemassivedebtsituationforwhichheandhisgovernmentsufferedtheignominyofresigning tobereplacedbyagovernmentoftechnocratsimposedbytheEUandthe troika.Thefinancialmeltdownironicallyledtoclaimsconcerning‘collectivelearning’occurringwithinthe‘indignados’movementthattooktothe streetsprotestingagainstthe‘debtocracy’(seeEnglishandMayo 2012).

6.ForabroaderdiscussionoftheactionssurroundingMessage1,andtherefore‘BasicSkills’,containedinthe2001Cedefop/Eurydicedocument,see Waltersetal.(2004).Forabroaddiscussionoftheactionsinconnectionwithallsixkeymessages,presentedbythe2001Cedefop/Eurydice document,seeBorgandMayo(2005).

7.This‘financialliteracy’driveisalsoincreasinglyviewedwithsuspicionfor its‘blamingthevictim’connotations(seeEnglishandMayo 2012,p.33).

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CHAPTER3

EttoreGelpiandLifelongEducation

Abstract ThischapterfocusesontheworkofoneofLifelongEducation’smajorproponents,formerHeadofUNESCO’sLLEUnitinParis. Thechapterauthorsprovideconsistsprimarilyofananalyticreviewof Gelpi’slastworkinItalian,publishedbeforehisdeathin2002.Gelpi takesacomparativeapproachtoeducationandengageswitheducationandworkinbothindustrializedandmajorityworldgeographical contexts.Hedrawsonsomeoftherichtraditionsinadulteducation andworkers’education,arguingforaneducationinthecontextofsocial movements,includingthelabormovement.Hepromotesaneducation thatengages criticallywith workandtheeconomyratherthansimply beinganeducation for theeconomy.

Keywords Employability · Employment · Workers’movement · 150 hours · Socialmovements

Thischapterdevelopsoutofabookreview:Mayo,P.(2004).ReviewofEttore Gelpi, LavoroFuturo.LaFormazioneProfessionalecomeProgettoPolitico,in MediterraneanJournalofEducationalStudies,9(2),119–123.Permissionto republishgrantedbypublishers.

©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2021

L.M.EnglishandP.Mayo, LifelongLearning,GlobalSocialJustice, andSustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65778-9_3

EttoreGelpiisaleadingfigurewithrespecttocriticalapproachestothe studyofeducation.Untilhisdeathin2002,hewastheauthorofseveral essaysandbooksabouteducationandtheworldofwork.Hehasalso beenthesubjectofanumberofstudies,includingTimothyIreland’s monographregardingGelpi’sviewofLifelongEducation(Ireland 1978). Gelpiisundoubtedlyakeyfigureinthatmovementofwritersandpractitioners,connectedwithUNESCO,whopromotedtheconceptofLLEin theseventiesandearlyeighties.Inourview,herepresents,togetherwith BogdanSuchodolskiandarguablyPaulLengrand,theradicalversionof theconcept.Hiswasaleft-winghumanisticversionoftheconcept,a pointstressedbyWain(2004,p.17).Wain,asindicatedintheprevious chapter,considersGelpiasthemajorfigureinthesecondwaveofwriters, post-Faure.ReferenceisherebeingmadetotheFaurereport, Learningto Be,producedbyUNESCO(Faureetal. 1972)andalsoreferredtointhe precedingchapter.WainincludesGelpiamongthosewhofavorapragmatistapproachtolifelongeducation:ahistoricalandcomparativeapproach withtheemphasisbeingplacedlessontheconcept’sfuturepossibilities andmoreontheactualpresentdayrealityoflifelongeducation(Wain 2004,p.19).OnecanarguethatGelpicontinuestoadoptthisapproach inhislastbookwhichwediscussinsomedetail.

AComparativeApproach

Gelpiunderlinestheneedforacomparativeapproachtoresearchinthe areaofadulteducationinthecontextofworkandhumandevelopment. Hedoesnotlimithimselftosimplymakingsuchrecommendationsin thisbookbutalsoprovideshismonographswithaninternationaland comparativedimension.In LavoroFuturo (FutureWork),he(Gelpi 2002) discussesthethemeof“educationandwork”initsbroadercontexts. Thisentailsadiscussiononnotonlysuchgeneralconceptsasglobalizationandneoliberalismbutalsothemannerinwhichthesephenomena areexperiencedinvariousregionsandcontinentsthroughouttheworld. GelpiinfactdedicateschaptersandentiresectionsofchapterstoEurope, theNorthernandSouthernshoresoftheMediterranean,theMiddle East,Africa,andLatinAmerica.Hebroachessuchrelevantthemesas migration,thegrowthoftheinformaleconomyasaresponsetomass unemploymentandcasualorpart-timework,North–Southrelations,and thenon-equitableaccesstoinformationtechnology.Allthisservesto

provideacomparativedimensiontothediscussionconcerningtheeducation–worknexus.Comparisonsandcontrastsareavailablethroughout hisfinalwork(Gelpi 2002).Forexample,Gelpihighlightsthecontrast thatexistsbetweeneducationalprioritiesintheNorthernandSouthern shoresoftheMediterranean:lifelonglearninginSouthernEurope(one candetecttheEU’sinfluencehere)andthespecificformofpermanenteducationpresentintheSouthernpartoftheMediterranean.We arereminded,here,ofthepointmadebyRosaMariaTorresandJohn Field,inthepreviouschapter,thatLLLisaconceptthatprevailsin theWesternnationsofEurope,foregrounding,wewouldargue,the “colonisingagenda”oftheindustrialcentersevenonterritories,inthe samenationoroutside,whereindustrializationhadnottakenroot,while ithashadlittlepurchase,asfarasterminology(LLL)goes,inSouthern countriessuchasthoseontheSouthernpartoftheMediterraneanlittoral. Thespecificformofpermanentorongoing(ourinsertion)education,one findsinthelattercontext,hasstronglinkswiththeMuslimculture(Gelpi 2002,p.88).

TheMarketandPrivatization

ThepragmatistapproachshedslightonIndigenousordistinctlycommunitarianandregionaltraditionsthatcanpossiblyprovideanalternative tothehegemonicconceptsoflearningpromotedbyexternalforcessuch astheWorldBankortheInternationalMonetaryFund.Onecanalso mention,inthisregard,theWorldTradeOrganisation(Rikowski 2001). AsindicatedbyWain(2004,pp.16–17),GelpiandotherwritersonLLE wereconcernedwiththeexistenceofaneducationalsystemthatreproducedthesocialinjusticesbroughtaboutbyCapitalism.Gelpi’slastbook (Gelpi 2002)isnotanydifferentinthesensethatitcontainstrenchant criticismsoftheneoliberalideologywith,toreiterate,itsemphasison themarket,thecurtailingoftheroleofthestate,privatizationanda reductionistviewofthehumanbeingasproducerandconsumer.

Throughoutthisbook,Gelpiprovidesanattackonthegeneral tendencytocommodifyeducationandtheequallyglobaltendency, promotedbytheOECDandarguablyalsotheEU,toreducetheonetimeconceptoflifelongeducationtosimplyaconceptoflearningthat placesemphasisonvocationalpreparationtothedetrimentoftheother dimensionsintheprocessesofhumanandsocialdevelopment.One ofusvividlyrecallsadiscussionwithEttoreGelpiinCataniainthe

autumnof1999.Gelpiexpressedhisangerandindignationforwhat hesawastheadulterationoftheone-timeconceptofLLEwhich,in itshegemoniccontemporaryversion,reflectedaconcernwithdeveloping “humanresources”—atravestyoftheconceptasoriginallypropounded bythemovementofwriterstowhichhebelongedandtheunitheheaded atUNESCO.ThisbringstomindSchied’squestion:Howdidhumans becomeresources?(Schied 1995).Hewasnotreplacedonretirementand theunitwasdisbanded,areflectionofthechangeinclimateregarding LLEatthetime,apointtouchedoninthepreviouschapter.

LLEofAdults

Thesameappliestotheeducationofadults,sodeartoGelpi’sheartand animportantcomponentofLLE.AdultEducationisjustacomponent ofLLE,anall-embracingconceptaffirmingtherighttoeducationatall stagesoflifeandinvolvingallsourcesavailableforthispurpose,formal andnonformal/informal.Itwould,inourview,beamisstosynonymously usethetermandconflateitwiththelatter.This,inourview,wouldbe contrarytowhatiswidelythecasetoday.LLListhecatchierwordand looksmoreattractiveforfundingpurposes;hencetheconfusion.Gelpi regretsthatthedominantformofadulteducationnowadaysisalsoreductionist.Theemphasisisplacedonvocationalpreparationandcompetitive individualism.Hepointsout,inthisrespect,thatweseemtobeoverlookingtheexistenceofanotherversionofadulteducation,onethat enjoysastrongtraditionandthathighlightsthecollectivedimensionof learningandcriticalconsciousness(Gelpi 2002,p.160).Gelpiarguesthat thedominantformofadulteducationtodayisverymuchsubservientto capitalism’sneedsandisbornoutofanideologythatleadstomassunemploymentandaclearinabilitytosatisfysocialneeds.Hedeclaresthat massunemploymentandtheamountofsocialneedsthatremainunsatisfiedconstitutetwostrongindictmentsoftheideologyofthemarketplace (Gelpi 2002,p.44).Gelpidiscoversinthetraditionofacriticalapproach toadulteducationtheresourcesofhopetorecuperateeducationalvalues thatcancontributetothedevelopmentofademocraticenvironmentin whichonedoesnotdiscoverthecontemporary“apartheid”thatdistinguishesthe“newAthenianphilosophers”fromthe“newslaves”bothof whomareconsideredbyGelpitobemorenumerousthesedaysthan inthepast(Gelpi 2002,p.43).TheseideasrecallJohnDewey,Paulo

Freire,andahostofothereducationists,especiallythoseadoptingacriticalsociologicalandpoliticaleconomicapproachtoeducationandsociety ingeneral.

Thisbringstomindthehopesthatmanyprogressivepeoplepinon socialmovementsnowadays.Asonewouldexpectofsomeonewhohas beenconsistentinadoptingaradicalstanceandwhowasalsoveryactive intheItalianRadicalParty,ofwhichhewasafoundingmember,Gelpi expresseshisfaithinthesesocialmovements.Hedevotesspacetothe LatinAmericansocialmovements,includingtheBrazilianMovementof LandlessPeasants(MST: MovimentoTrabalhadoresRuraisSemTerra) (seeKane 2001;MayoandVittoria 2017;deSousaSantos 2017;Tarlau 2017 onthissubalternSouthernSocialmovement).Hedrawsinspiration, asfarasatransformativeapproachtoeducationisconcerned,fromthe LatinAmericanPopularEducationtradition(LaBelle 1986;Torres 1990; Kane 2001).ThisprobablyexplainshisinterestintheseLatinAmerican movementsandconfirmsthepointmadeintheprevioustwochapters, thatthetraditionofLLEwhichGelpiandothersrepresentaremore accommodatingofSouthernsocialmovementsthanthemorerecentLLL discourses.WeshallreturntothisinChapter 6 centeringonPauloFreire, themostheraldedpopulareducatortodate.

EuropeandLatinAmerica

GelpiregretsthatsocialmovementsinEuropearenotasmuchinvolved inadulteducationastheircounterpartsinLatinAmerica.Gelpiregards the150hrsinItaly,carriedoutbyatradeunionmovement,asan exampleofapositiveinvolvementbyaEuropeansocialmovementin adulteducation.1

He,however,advisescautionwithregardtothewidespreadoptimism regardingtheroleoftheso-called“civilsociety”ingeneratingatransformativepolitics.“CivilSociety”isoftenromanticized.Gelpi’sconception ofcivilsocietyseemstobedifferentfromthatpropagatedinmuch oftheliteraturenowadays.Hisconceptionseemstobeclosertothat providedbyoneofhismostillustriouscompatriots,AntonioGramsci. LikeGramsci,Gelpidoesnotromanticizecivilsociety.Gramsciindicates, inthe Quaderni andotherwritings,howhegemonyisdevelopedand cementedthroughcivilsocietythatcanbeconceivedofasaterrainof strugglethroughwhichspacesemergeinwhichthisverysamehegemony canbecontested.GelpipositsthatCapitalistforcesavailthemselvesof civilsocietytoconsolidatetheirprocessofdomination.Itiscommon

nowadaystoseeNGOsbeinginvolvedinthesocialsectorinlieuofthe state.Thisisespeciallytrueofservicesforthemostvulnerable,including sexualminorities,youngadults,unemployed,aged,etc.(seeGrace 2013). GelpiremindsusthatcivilsocietyintheWestcomprisesracistmovements andparties,besidesnumerousgroupsthatapplyviolentpressurefor motivesthatareegotisticandlimitedinscope(Gelpi 2002,p.170).Gelpi goesasfarastodeclarethat,throughthemythofcivilsociety(conceived ofandromanticizedin“progressive”termswhenitalsocontainsreactionaryforces—aheterogeneousbag),educationalsystems,whichworked wellin“MajorityWorld”countriesandinthecountriesthatprovided examplesof“actuallyexistingsocialism,”weredismantled(ibid.).This notwithstanding,EttoreGelpiremainsoptimisticthatprogressivemovementscandevelopprocessesoflearningandeducationingeneral,aswell asconceptsofwork,thatcanserveasameansofresistancewithregard totypesoflearningandworkthatareimposedfromaboveandthat areunder-girdedbytheneoliberalideology.Gelpideclaresthatunions andworkers,associationsoftheunemployed,producercooperatives,artisans’associations,salariedpeasants,andagriculturalentrepreneursremain steadfastintheireffortstodefendtheirmodeofproduction(Gelpi 2002, p.172).

TradeUnions

Itcanbeargued,echoingGelpi,thattradeunionshaveanimportantrole toplayinthedevelopmentofaprogramofworkers’educationthatis broaderandmorecomprehensiveinscopethanthekindofeducation forworkfavoredbyindustryandwhichfallsundertherubricofHuman ResourceDevelopment(HRD).Gelpiadvocatesamoregeneraleducationthattargetsallthedimensionsofthehumanpersonality.Itought tobeaneducationthatcancontributetotheconsolidationofademocraticenvironmentandthefosteringofgreatersolidarity.Inaddition,he advocatesaneducationthatcontributestothecollectivedimensionof learning,socialaction,andorganizationofwork.

AdultEducators

Tothisend,Gelpiarguesthatonemuststrivetoensurethepresenceofa cadreofwell-preparedadulteducators.Programsintendedtocontribute tothedevelopmentofadulteducatorsshouldallowopportunitiesduring

whichtheparticipantsaregivenabroadandcomprehensivepictureof societyandtheglobaleconomicframework.Inaddition,itisimperative thattheseprogramsprovidecriticalperspectivesontheseareasandrelated issues.Adulteducatorsshouldbeconcerned,accordingtotheauthor, notonlywiththetechnicalaspectsoflearningbutalsowiththepoliticsoflearningandwork.ItisimportantforGelpithatadulteducators developagoodknowledgeofpoliticaleconomyandtheanthropological dimensionoflearning.Hearguesthatthereisaneedforcomparative researchregardingadulteducationcoveringvariouspartsoftheworld. Heurgesprogressivesocialmovements,ofthekindmentionedearlier on,toexertpressureonpublicinstitutions(e.g.Highereducationinstitutions)sothattheseinstitutionscarryoutorsponsorresearchthatextends beyondthenarroweconomicinterestsoftherulingclass.Furthermore, Gelpi(2002)arguesthatoneshouldrefusetoendorseresearchthatserves thepurposeofmanipulationandthatdoesnotaddressthepopulation’s needs(p.173).Thestatehas,accordingtotheauthor,animportantrole toplayinthisregard.Ithastomakeitspresencefelttoensurequality, equity,andsocialjusticeaswellastoprojecttheviewthateducation, includingadulteducation,isapublicgoodandnotaconsumergood characterizedbyprivatizationandcommodification(ibid.,p.44).

LLLforaRadicalDemocracy

ItwouldnotbeamisstoconsiderthisessaybyEttoreGelpiamanifestoforaradicallydemocraticprocessofeducationandlearningandan equallyradicallydemocraticapproachtotheorganizationofwork.Itis amanifestothatcontributestothedevelopmentofanalternativeleftwingperspectiveonLLEandworkthatconfrontstheneoliberalideology underlyingmuchofthecontemporarydiscourseintheseareas.Thelatter perspective,asindicatedbyGelpi,placestheemphasison employability butnot employment andoncompetitiveindividualismratherthansocial solidarityandecologicalsensitivity.Inshort,itisanideologicalperspectivethatbringsaboutagreatdegreeofsocialexclusion.Gelpiprovides acriticalperspectivethatfallsinlinewiththeoften-repressedtradition ofcriticalperspectivesconcerningLLE,especiallythoseprovidedbythe exponentsofcriticalpedagogyinNorthAmericaandexponentsofleftwingperspectivesoneducationinEurope.Perhapsthemostpleasing featureofthismonographisthatheavoidsthetypeofrhetoricorrant

thatcaneasilymaraworkofthisnatureandprovidesaninternational andcomparativedimensiontothediscussionaroundthesubject,thus renderingthestudysolidandconvincing.

Conclusion

EttoreGelpiisanimportantluminaryintheeducationalandsocialfields. MarjorieMayo(1997)engageshisideasonaradicalprocessofLLE alongsideherdiscussion,inthesamechapter,ontheideasofAntonio GramsciandPauloFreire.Gelpi’sideas,summarizedinhisfinalbook whichconcludeshisoeuvre,providemuchgristforthemillforus toexplorenewpathwaysinLLE/LLLthattakeusbeyondthestrict economisticLLLdiscourseofthe1990semergingoutofEuropeand otherWesterncontexts.Hishighlightingoftherolesofbotholdand newandSouthernsubalternsocialmovements,toadoptinthelattercase fromDipKapoor(2013),providesuswithausefulandinspiringplatform toexploreLLE/LLLpossibilitiesthatcanhelpustranscendthegiven economicframework.Thisisparticularlyusefulasweexploretherolethat thewomen’smovementandecologicalmovementscanplayinnurturinga notionofLLLstrippedofits1990s“employability”baggagetobemuch broaderandmultifacetedinscope,seekingtotransformrelationsatthe levelofsocietyandthelargercosmos:socialandhuman–earthrelations. Beforethis,however,itwouldbeworthexploringhowanationstate, whileattemptingtoappeaselargersupranationalbodies,atthelevelof policymaking,seekstowormitswidernationalandcommunalconcerns tobroadentheLLLdiscourseandpolicyagendaitself,inshortworking “inandaroundthesystem,”thusprovidinggrounds,atthelevelofa policydocument,forcircumventingit.

Note

1.Aswearguedinapreviousbook(EnglishandMayo 2012,pp.85,86), itwasthemetalworkers’unioninItalywhobargainedwithemployers forgeneraleducationopportunitiestoimprovetheeducationallevelofthe rankandfile.Thisresultedinwhatbecameknownasthe‘150ore’(150 hours);theywerereallymorehoursthanthisbuttheterm150hoursstuck. Thiseducationalallowancewasmeantforageneraleducationandnotvocationaltrainingasthelattershouldbetheemployer’ssoleresponsibility.This provisionhelpedallowworkersattaina titolo (recognisedlevel)equivalent

tosecondaryeducationfirstgrade.Theyalsoprovidedpaideducational leaveforcoursesboostingpersonalculturaldevelopment,andthisapplied tovariousgroupsincludingunemployedpersonsandwomen,inthelatter caseboostingthefeministmovementinItaly.The150-hourprojectwas hailedasafineexperimentinworkingclasseducation(Lichtner1992; Titmus 1981;Yarnit 1980),andalandmarkinEuropeanadulteducation. Peoplewhotaughtinthismovement,the‘150hours’movement,reminisceonthisexperiencewithasenseofpride(EnglishandMayo 2012, p.86).

References

deSousaSantos,B.(2017). Decolonisingtheuniversity:Thechallengeofdeep cognitivejustice.NewcastleuponTyne:CambridgeScholarsPublishing. English,L.M.,&Mayo,P.(2012). Learningwithadults:Acriticalpedagogical introduction.Rotterdam:SensePublishers.

Faure,E.,Herrera,F.,Kaddoura,A-R.,Lopes,H.,Petrovsky,A.V.,Rahnema, M.,&ChampionWard,F.(1972). Learningtobe:Theworldofeducation todayandtomorrow.UNESCO.

Gelpi,E.(2002). LavoroFuturo.L’EducazioneProfessionalecomeProgettoPolitico [Futurework:Vocationaleducationasapoliticalproject].Guerinieassociati. Grace,A.P.(2013). Lifelonglearningascriticalaction:Internationalperspectives onpeople,politics,policy,andpractice.Toronto:CanadianScholars’Press. Ireland,T.(1978). Gelpi’sviewoflifelongeducation.Manchester,UK:University Press.

Kane,L.(2001). PopulareducationandsocialchangeinLatinAmerica.London: LatinAmericanBureau.

Kapoor,D.(2013).Anti-colonialsubalternsocialmovement(ssm)learningand developmentdispossessioninIndia.InP.Mayo(Ed.), Learningwithadults: Areader (pp.131–150).Rotterdam:Brill-Sense.

LaBelle,T.J.(1986). NonformaleducationinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean: Stability,reformorrevolution? NewYork:Praeger. Mayo,M(1997). Imaginingtomorrow:Adulteducationandsocialchange. Leicester:NIACE.

Mayo,P.,&Vittoria,P.(2017). SaggidiPedagogiaCritica.OltreilNeoliberismo. Analizzandoeducatori,movimentielottesociali [Essaysincriticalpedagogy: Beyondneoliberalism.Analysingeducators,movementsandsocialstruggles]. SocietàEditriceFiorentina.

Rikowski,G.(2001). ThebattleinSeattle:Itssignificanceforeducation.London: TheTufnellPress.

Schied,F.M.(1995).“Howdidhumansbecomeresourcesanyway?”:HRDand thepoliticsoflearningtheworkplace.In Adulteducationresearchconference proceedings (pp.287–292).

Tarlau,R.(2017).Gramsciastheory,pedagogyandstrategy:Educationallessons fromtheBrazilianlandlessworkers’movement.InN.Pizzolato&J.D. Holst(Eds), AntonioGramsci:Apedagogytochangetheworld (pp.107–126). Cham:SpringerInternationalPublishing.

Titmus,C.(1981).Strategiesforadulteducation. PracticesinWesternEurope MiltonKeynes,UK:OpenUniversityPress.

Torres,C.A.(1990). ThepoliticsofnonformaleducationinLatinAmerica.New York:Praeger.

Wain,K.(2004). Thelearningsocietyinapostmodernworld:Theeducationcrisis. NewYork:PeterLang.

Yarnit,M.(1980).The150hrs.Italy’sexperimentinmassworkingclassadult education.InJ.Thompson(Ed.), Adulteducationforachange (pp.192–218).Kent,UK:Hutchinson.

CHAPTER4

GlobalandNationalLifelongLearning Interactions

Abstract ThischapterfocusesontheLLLpolicydiscourseinMalta,one oftheEU’ssmallestandnewestmemberstates.WhilecreatingaNational LLLStrategydocument,meanttospearheadeducationalreform,the MaltesecaseshowshowthestateboreinmindtheLisbonobjectives,yet heldfasttoabroaderunderstandingofeducation,onethatappealstothe “democraticimaginary,”andthereforetheideaofeducationasapublic goodwithdueattentiontoenvironmentalissuesandissuesofgender, disability,andaging.Lightisshedonthedelicatewaysofcircumventing thedominantEUeconomisticdiscoursetoprovideamorebalancedview ofeducationthanthisinstitution’sfundingstructureswouldprimafacie allow.

Keywords National · Glocal · Policydocument · Publicgood · Democraticimaginary

Introduction

NationalLifelongLearning(LLL)strategiesandpolicydocumentshave beendrawnupinanumberofEUmemberstates.Thesedocumentsare meanttoprovidetheguidelineswithregardtowhatshouldbeprioritizedintheireducationsystemsandarekeypointsofreferenceinthis

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regard.Theyarejustpolicydocumentsandshouldnotbeconfusedwith actualpolicy.Asfarasresearchisconcerned,theyprovidetheoverall policydiscourseagainstwhichtheprojectsanalyzedcanbeevaluated.The actualpolicyismoredynamicandoccursinmultiplesites.Yetwhatare oftencalled“policyfidelitydocuments”canshedlightonthegeneral philosophythecountryseemstobefollowing.Ideally,onewouldexpect amodicumofdemocratizationinvolvedwhereadraftdocumentisplaced inthepublicdomaindrawingreactionsfrommembersanddifferent sectorsofthegeneralpublicandwhatiscommonlyregarded,intoday’s parlance,as“civilsociety.”Theterm“civilsociety”hashaddifferent meanings,attributedtoit,throughouttheyears,especiallyfromtheScottishEnlightenmentonward.Itiswidelyusedtodayasthethirdsector betweenthestateandindustry.

Malta,thesmallestEUmemberstate,whichjoinedtheUnionin2004, hashadsuchadocumentdeveloped.Itwasplacedinthepublicdomain, although,wearetoldthattheresponsewasquitedisappointingandthe documentwasadopted“asis”withlittlemodificationmadetothedraft version.Thereisenoughinthisdocument,however,tosuggestthatnot allEUstatesarewillingtodiscardaspectsofsocialeducation,including communityeducation,intheirarticulatedvisionoftheshapeLLLorLLE shouldtake.Theoverallvisionmightbecontradictedbyactualpolicyat thelevelofpracticeasfundingstructurescomeintoplayandthosewho paythepipercallthetune.Nevertheless,inapolicyarticulationsuchas this,wecannoteadeliberateattempttoappealtothedemocraticimaginary.Educationisregardedasamatterofbroadsocialconcern—apublic good.

ChapterFocus

IntheEU,LifelongLearningisoftenconflatedwith“AdultLearning” andthe24–65agebracketisthecohortusedforstatisticsandother dataindicatingacountry’sperformanceinthissector,wherethemajor concerniswithemployability(MEDE 2014,p.7).

TheMaltacaseindicatesthatcountriesareofteninaquandary.They mustfollowthepiperwhileatthesametimesteppingasidetoseem tobeaddressingtheoftenvoicedconcernsofmanywhoengagein “publicsphere”debates(“whosepublicsphere?”isapertinentquestion wecannotgointoatthisstage)wherehumanisticinterpretationsofthe broadremitofeducatorsandeducationprovidersareoftenpropounded.

Thediscourseisofcourseforthcomingnotonlyfromeducatorsand educationists,whooftenfeatureinthebroadcastingmediaandnewspapers,butalsofromlargesegmentsofthecountry’s intelligentsia.Of course,theyareupagainstpowerfulvoicesfromindustrywhomakeno bonesaboutwheretheirprioritieslie.ThereareechoesoftheEuropean RoundtableofIndustrialist’sconcernswhengivingrisetoLLLasthekey mantraineducationfora“unitingEurope”in1996.ThosewhoarticulatedtheMalteseLLLstrategysoughttostraddletheseoftenconflicting butintersectingareas.

TheMaltaLLLStrategydocument,however,whilecarefulnottostray farfromtheEUdiscourse,providesenoughmaterialtostimulatethe imagination,toprovideabroaddemocraticeducationpredicatedonthe principlesofsocialinclusion,thecollectiveandtheindividualdimension oflearning.

PolicyImpact

Asindicatedinthesecondchapter,LLE,aspromotedbyUNESCO,had minimal,ifany,directimpactonpolicymaking,includingnationalpolicy making.Wehaveseenhow,inLatinAmerica,theconceptbecamealmost synonymouswithpreparationforthesecondarylabormarketasintimated byLaBelle(1986),oftensignifyingpreparationforrecyclingofworkers forthismarket.Otherthanthat,itseemstohavehadlittlepurchase.Rosa MariaTorres(2013),weshouldrecall,saysthatitwasregardedasawesternizedconceptandnotonethatsuitedtherealityofthisregion.Adult BasicEducationwastheprimaryconcernthere,and,onecansurmise, thisiswhatpassedasLLEforthesecondarylabormarket.Itisclearthat UNESCO’sphilosophy(itwasadifferentUNESCOtothelaterpostSovietone)lentitselftodilutions.Andyet,coincidentallyinacontext whichprovidedneoliberalismor“monetarism”withitstrialrun(Chile underPinochet),itanticipatedtheturnthelifelongaspectoflearning wouldtakeinlateryears.

Chapter 2 tracedLLL’strajectory,culminatinginitsembracebythe OECDandtheEU,aneconomicembrace,hardlysurprising,inthelatter case,givenitshavingbeenpropelledasthekeyconcepttospearhead thereformineducationandtrainingbytheEuropeanIndustrialists’ roundtable.Theorientation,unmistakablyeconomicandICToriented, thelatterthekernelofhegemonicglobalization,wasclearfromthestart. LLLwasideologicallyandtherefore,inpurpose,muchdifferentfromthe

wayUNESCOpropoundedthelifelongnatureofeducationandlearning (CEC 2001,p.9).Therewastalk,intheEUdiscourse,ofalllearning “throughoutlife”toenhance“knowledge,skills,andcompetences” personally,sociallyandasfarasemployabilityisconcerned(ibid.)The statementwassubsequentlymodified,probablyasaresultofreactionsby non-industrialists,andespeciallypeopleinvolvedaseducators,cultural workers,orsocialagents,toslightlytonedownitsdistinctlyeconomic tenorwhichsuggeststhatinstitutionssuchastheEU,panderingto differentinterests,arenotmonolithic.Theyexerciseahegemony,we wouldsubmit,whichisnevercomplete,isalwaysinthemakingand,as indicatedtimeandagain,inthisbook,containsthemeansofitsown changefromwithinitsownfissures.ImmenselyrelevanthereareGramsci’s(1975)writingsaroundhegemonyandtheinstitutionswhichcement andcontestitatthesametime—therecanbenopower(initscapillary forms)withoutresistancebutthatresistanceisneverexternaltothe powerstructureitself,toprovideaFoucaultian(Foucault 1980)perspectiveonGramsci’sconceptionofhegemony.HereliewhatRaymond Williamscallsthe“resourcesofhope”(1989)inthisspecificcontext.

Thishavingbeensaid,therestillremainstheoverarchinghegemonic viewwhich,despiteitsgradualtransmutations,istheretobeconfronted aspartofrenegotiatinghegemonicrelations,inthiscaseeducationalrelationsinsynchwithwidersocioeconomicrelations.Educationisnotan independentvariable.Itcannotchangethingsonitsown.Ourgeneral viewofLLL,intheopeningchapters,stillholdsandwouldbethetarget ofademocratizingresponsetothedominantdiscourse.Forallitssocial democraticfrills,LLLremainspredominantlyneoliberalintenor.The resistancetotheseresponsesremainsfirm,hence,asindicated,the“no show”ofthemuchanticipated“revised”documenttenyearsfollowing theMemorandum’soriginallaunch.Thedocumentwasnowheretobe seen.Anticipatingitwasasifwewerethetwotramps,Vladimirand EstragoninSamuelBeckett’s WaitingforGodot ,awaiting,invainand finallywithforlornhope,themysteriouspersontoturnup.Contraryto theplay,averyleanversionofwhatwasexpecteddidturnup.Whatwe hadwasabriefagendaforadulteducation.Recallthatthiswasundoubtedlythedesperateeffortofafewpersons,whohadmadeinroadsinto EUadulteducationorLLLcircles,tomaintainthisspecificsectoronthe agenda.Evenhere,thediscoursewasbroaderinscopethatusuallyassociatedwithaneconomicandnewbasicskills(ICToriented)LLLdiscourse.

Wastherefearofanalternativeandreviseddiscoursestrayingsignificantlyfromtheneedtoreinforcethedevelopmentofbasiceconomicand digitally-mediatedskillsnecessarytorealizethedreamorchimeraofthe unifyingEuropebecomingthemostcompetitiveKBEintheworld?This wasatatimewhentheoriginal2010deadlinehadalreadyexpired,aswith mostdeadlinessuchasthoseconcerningpovertyreductionandprobably (hopefullynot)thatconcerningtherealizationoftheSDGs—ofcourse, hopespringseternal.Thisimpasseinbroadeningtheremitforwhatpasses asLLLsuggeststhattheEuropeanpowerswouldbrooknochangesto themajororiginalobjectives.Andyet,thereremaindifferentlevelsof policymediationandrenegotiationinthedifferentcountriesofEurope, especiallythelargerones,withdifferentlevelsofstategovernancefrom externaldowntonational,provincialandmunicipal,etc.Ateachlevela freshroundofrenegotiationandinterpretationoccurs.Thisiswherethe realhopelies.Ithasitspositive,democratizingsidewhilealsopotentially itsnegativeside(e.g.occasionalmisappropriationoffunds?).

EntertheSmallMemberState Itisagainstthisbackdropofthepolicydevelopmenttrajectorythatone cananalyzeanationalLLLpolicydocument.Thenationstatehasits ownspecificcharacteristics.InthecaseofLuxembourg(oneoftheoriginalfoundersoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity,subsequentlyto becometheEU),CyprusandMalta,thereisthesmallscaleaspectto factorinwhichcanthrowadifferentcomplexiononhowLLLisinterpreted,notalwayscateredforbyEU’s“onesizefitsall”documents (Mayo 2008).CyprusandMaltaarenotonlysmallstatesbutspecificallysmallislandstateswiththeirspecificsetofissues—moreaboutthis furtheron,whenwediscusstheideaofschoolsascommunitylearning centers.

Ofcourse,asalreadyunderlined,onehastoseehowmuchoftheold UNESCOhumanisticdiscourseonLLL,orallhumanisticandnoninstrumentaleducationingeneral(anall-embracingviewoftheformerwould renderthelatterredundant),stillretainspurchaseamongthoseengaged inpolicyarticulationintheEUmemberstates.Theconcept’sevolutionor“genealogy”(toadoptWain’s 2004a Foucaultian-Nietzschean term),inChapter 2,providespartoftherelevanttheoreticalanalytic frameworkforthispurpose.Whatcanbegleanedfromthisdiscourse? Whathasbeeneclipsedandwhy?Anumberoffactorscomeintoplay:

alackofconcernwithbroaderphilosophicalorprofessedpoliticalissues amongpolicymakersposingas“neutral”?Over-bureaucratizationwith bureaucracygeneratingitsownruleswhichseepintothepolicydiscourse? Aspectsoftheauditcultureandevaluatorstatewithitspositivistapproach affectingapolicycontainingconceptsthathavetobemeasuredbyrelevantindicators,foregrounding“performativity”inthesenseexplainedby Jean-FrançoisLyotard(1989)?Theindicators,eveniflabeled“quality indicators”bytheCommission,arealmostalwaysofaquantitativenature. Oneofuswasremindedofthisinnouncertaintermswhenformingpart ofaworkinggroupcalledontodrawupasetofLLL“quality”educators;itprovedthelaststrawwhichmadehimleavethegroup.Istherea caseofhistoricalamnesiaorlackofbasicknowledgeoftherichhistoryof adulteducationandthestrugglesinwhichitwasimmersedatdifferent moments?Wehastentoremarkthatthisismorelikelythecase.Then thereisthequestionofinternationalfunding,oftenanattractivepropositionattractingplayerstothefieldwhopreviouslyhadnointerest,letalone preparation,inadulteducation.EUfunds,especiallytonewcomerssuch asMalta,constituteaninvaluablestreamtopropupeducationaland culturalinfrastructure.Thesameappliestoactualprojects.IfadulteducationagenciesinmoreendowedcountriessuchasGermanyarebecoming moreEUdependantforfunding(asindicatedbyMichaelSamlowski,in Mayo 2002,p.79)onecanimaginethesituationincountriessuchas Malta.

Fundingcomeswithstrictrules.Andyettheearliercaveatconcerning thenatureofhegemonyapplies.ItisusefultoobservehowanEU memberstatelikeMaltatakesonthepolicydiscourseandifpossible reinvents ittoaddressitsownpeculiarandwiderconcerns.

Asmallcountrywithapopulationofficiallyaround400,000but whichhasbeengrowingrecentlynotleastbecauseofimmigration, includingundocumentedimmigration,was,atthetimeofdeveloping theLLLStrategydocument,intheprocessofreorganizingitseducationalprovisioninaccordancewithitsEULisbonObjectivesobligations. Theseentailone’stacklingLLL,“embedding”itinMaltesesocietyand outliningnationalpriorities,inthisregard,fortheforthcomingyears. (MEDE 2014,p.7)Thedocumenthighlightsanumberofpoints.It underlinestheneedforcoordinationoftheLLLthatisprovidedby publicallycontrolledentities.Thisconnectswiththesmallstateaspect ofthecountrywhere,asaresultofsmallnessandhencelimitednumbers

offacilityusers(deadcapital,rigidlyspecializedemployment),duplicationpercapitaisquitecostly.Resourcesthereforeneedtobeintegrated andmanagedtightly,withmultifunctionalityakeyingredient.Thisisat oddswiththeoverspecializationofpoliciesconditionedbytherequirementsoflargerpowerfulEUmemberstates.Separatinganeducational entitysuchasaschoolfromsaycommunity/adulteducationprovision mightthereforenotmakesenseinasmallcountry.Thenumbersmight notadduptoenableonetomakemaximumuseoftheresource.In keepingwiththeEUdiscourse,thecountry’ssecondpriority,asoutlined inthepolicydocument,istoenhanceVETandthehoningand,wewould add,retooling,ofAdultSkillsforemployability,personalizedprofessional development(byimplication,thiswouldincludecontinuousprofessional development)andeconomicadvancement.Anotherpriorityisthatof enhancingthequalityofeducationprovisioninMalta.Theemphasis hereisonthequalityofadulteducatorswiththestateanditsfunded institutions,suchastheUniversityofMalta,andtheMaltaCollegeof Arts,ScienceandTechnology(MCAST)1 preparingpersonnelinthe teachingofvariousagegroups,includingadolescentsandadults.The issueofconnectivityisalsogivendueimportanceandthishasproven indispensableduringtheCovid-19pandemic.Manyeducatorshavebeen encouragedtoteachonline,andthereforethepriorityofdevelopingOpen EducationResourcesforconnectedlearningcouldnothavebeenmore timely.Theissueofsocialdifferencewasgivenprioritywiththeemphasis onincreasingandfacilitatingwomen’sparticipationinthelabormarket, “empowering”communitiesatthemarginsandimprovingolderadults’ qualityoflife.Communitylearningisalsoatargetofthisdocumentand wehaveseeninitiativesregardingschoolsascommunitylearningcenters. Inaddition,priorityisalsoaccordedtogreenerliving,thusregarding differencesasafeatureofnotonlysocialbutalsohuman–earthrelations.Oneotherpoint,alreadyputintooperationbytheappropriate nationalbodies,setupforthispurpose,isthatofdevelopingasustainable systemofaccreditationindifferentspheresofeducationfromvocational toacademic(MEDE 2014).

Thisdocumentwasdrawnupagainstthebackgroundofaworrying earlyschoolleavingorschooldisengagementratewhich,atthetime whenthenewgovernmenttookoffice,oneyearbeforethispolicydocumentwaswritten,alarminglyreachedthe22%mark,thatistosay10% abovetheEUaverage.TheEU2020strategy,asweareremindedby theNationalLLLStrategydocument,hassetatargetof40%ofyoung

peoplesuccessfullycompletingtertiaryleveleducationorothereducation ofequivalentstandard(MEDE 2014,p.9).

ThedocumentisbyandlargegearedtowardenhancingsocialdevelopmentwithoutoverlookingtheEUfocusongeneratingeconomicgrowth. Thepointtoregister,however,isthatitissomewhatproblematicto harponeconomicgrowth,detachedfromthespreadofsocialjusticeand fairdistributionofresources.Weshallargue,inthepenultimatechapter onSDGs,that,inadditiontodistribution,weneedtoquestionwhat resourcestodistributeandforwhicheconomicends.Inshort,notonly isitaquestionof how weproduceand who benefits,butalso what we produce:economicgrowthatwhoseandwhatexpense?Onefinalpoint regardingeconomicgrowthisthatmanycountriesintheso-calledBRICS group,despitetheirgrowingeconomicperformance,arehardlyworth emulatingasfarastheirsocialcasualtiesareconcerned.Ofcourse,there arelaudablepocketsandmovementssuchastheMSTinBrazil(one oftheBRICSgroup)seekingtochangethenatureofnotonlypeasant familiesbutalsothestate(thelong-termgoal)withwhomtheydevelop an“inandagainst”relationship(seeTarlau 2019).Thetaskwasmuch easierunderLulaandDilmaRoussefbutmoredifficultnowunderJair Bolsonaroandhisright-wing(neofascist,somedeclare)nefariouspolitics.

Antecedents

ThisisnotthefirsttimeanattemptatanationalLLLstrategywasmade inMalta.ThepreviousadministrationreplacedbytheMaltaLabourParty in2013alsocommissionedadraftstrategy.Unfortunately,thisdocument wasneverplacedinthepublicdomainandthereforenotadopted.One wonderswhy.Diditstrayfarofffromtheparametersallowedbythe Lisbonobjectives?Inthisregard,diditprovideasharpcontrasttothe economisticorientationofthepolicyguidelinesemanatingfromBrussels? OneoftheauthorsofthisdraftdocumentwasnoneotherthanKenneth Wainwho,asreaderswillhavenoticedbynow,isaprominentfigure intheinternationalliteratureonLLEandLLL.Hewasalsoinvolved, togetherwithoneofthisvolume’sauthors,indraftingresponsestothe EULLLMemorandumaspartofthenationalconsultationprocessin Malta.Truetohisusualself,espousinganexpansiveconceptualizationof LLE,inthemanneroftheoldUNESCOliterature,Waincriticizedthe economistictenoroftheMemorandum’sMessage4whichfocusedon whatisvaluedaslearning.Hewrotethat“thewholetenorofthesection

couldsendoutthewrongmessagetogovernments,institutions,and individuals,namelythat“whatisvaluedis only thiskindoflearning,vocationallearningforthepurposesoftheeconomyandthejobmarket.”He recognizedtheimportanceofthislearningbutmaintainsthat“learning forotherthanvocationalpurposesshouldhavebeendulyrecognisedand givenspaceinthememorandum…”2 Thiscriticismwasreproducedand sharedbyZygmuntBaumanin LiquidLife inhischapteronLLLas indicatedinearlierchapters(Bauman 2005, 2013).Thistypeofconcern fuelsfurtherspeculationwhytheearlierdraftwasnotplacedinthepublic domain,althoughthejuryremainsoutonthisone.

Therewerenosuchqualmsconcerningthepresentstrategydocument.Participationinadulteducation,asreportedinthedocument, extendedbeyondemployabilitycourses.ThereisanattempttocriticallyappropriatetheEUdiscourse,asthecountryisdependantfor manyofitsprogramsonEUfunding.Thedocument,thoughnaturally documentingprogramsostensiblyEU-driven,indicating“employability” strategies,suggestsamorebalancedapproachtoeducation—education alsohavingasocialand“publicgood”purpose.Itisnotaboutsimply beingproducers–consumers(Martin 2001).Theemphasisoncompetitivityand“employability”isofcoursethereforalltoseeandthe “employability”issueisforegroundedinthedocument.Onewouldnot expectotherwisefromadocumentemergingfromtheMinistryofEducationandEmployment(MEDE).Acloserreadingthanacursoryone wouldeasilyidentifythe socialdimension.WearetoldthatLLLisavehicle for“employabilitybutaboveallforsocialinclusionanddemocraticparticipation,personaldevelopmentandwell-being.Peopleneedtobegiven fairopportunitiestodiscoverandnurturetheirtalents”(MEDE 2014, p.15).

Thedocumentidentifiesanumberofexistingandpotentialplayersin thecountry’sadulteducationscene.Notalloftheseareeducationfor employabilityoriented.Manyareinvolvedinsocialpurposeeducation. NGOsfeatureprominentlyamongthem(MEDE 2014,pp.72–75)and thedocumenturgesfurthersupporttobegiventotheseimportantadult educationproviders.Dueprominenceisaccordedlocalcouncils(municipalcouncils)whichareinplaceineverylocalityonthesubstantially inhabitedislandsofMaltaandGozointheMaltesearchipelago.They areidentifiedinthepolicydocumentforthekeyroletheycanassumein adultcontinuingeducationprovision,andalsoincommunityeducation moregenerally.(MEDE 2014,p.40).Communityeducationandaction

should,inourview,bethe sinequanon oftheseexamplesofstategovernanceatthemunicipallevel.Wewouldalsosuggestthattheyobserve experimentsinBrazilinthecontextofthe“participatorybudget”which canalsocovereducationinitiatives.Thiswouldbeacaseoflearningfrom theSouth,andnottheonlyoneasfarasMaltaisconcerned,asweshall soonsee.Ithighlightscommunityeducationandaction,andcoordinated networksinthisregard,foregrounding,withappropriatedocumentation, issuesconcerningLLLamongmen,women,theelderly,thedisabled— inshort,socialdifference(MEDE 2014,pp.34–37).And,difference extends,aswehavenotedearlier,thespecificallyhumantothebio-centric withtheemphasis,inkeepingwiththeUNgoals,onsustainabledevelopment,involvingthegreeningofLLL,apointweexploreingreaterdepth, atagloballevel,inthebook’spenultimatechapter.(MEDE 2014,p.76)

Thedocumentwouldhavebeenoutoftunewithpresentreality, notonlygloballybutspecificallywithregardtoMaltaandtheMediterranean,haditignoredorprovidedlipserviceto Migration.Itdoes notdisappointinthisregard.MigrationisaphenomenonthattheEU Memorandumoverlooked,eventhoughthisphenomenonofmasshuman mobilityacrosstheMediterraneanwasalreadypresentaroundtheearly 2000s.TheMaltadocumentprovidesavaluablecorrectiveinthisregard, asIamsuredomanyothernationalLLLstrategydocuments.InMalta, adulteducation,mainlyintheformofadultliteracyprograms,washistoricallyanimportantaspectofthepreparationfortheemigrationofMaltese toforeignlands,notablyBritain,theUSA,Canada,Australiaand,toa lesserextent,NewZealand.NowthereverseistrueasmanyNGOsand establishedinstitutions,suchastradeunionsorchurch-sponsoredcenters, areinvolvedintheadulteducationandinitialeducation(children)of immigrantsfromSub-SaharanAfrica,theMiddleEast(Syriabecauseof thewar),andelsewhere.ThisisagrowingfieldofadulteducationprovisioninMalta,withlotsofactivitiesbyNGOs(someEUfunded)taking place,forinstance,inopendetentioncenters.TheStrategydocument forMaltaprovidessignpostsforadulteducationto“facilitatetheintegrationofmigrantsinMaltesesociety”(MEDE 2014,p.72).Wewonder whethera“10yearsafter”follow-updocumenttotheMemorandum wouldhaveattachedimportancetothisareaandwhatprovisionswould havebeenrecommended.

TheMaltesedocumentalsohighlightsinterestinginitiativesin spreadingtheartsandsciencesthroughouttheislands.TheAdultEducationSurveyinMalta(MaltaGovernment2013)hadindicatedalarge

percentageofpeoplefrequentingactivitiesofaculturalnature,cinema amongothers,andthiswasreportedwithsomeprominenceinthe nationalstrategydocument.Thiswouldsuggestaviewofadultlearning orLLLthatextendsbeyondemployability.Otherinitiativesincludethe university’sLiberalArts&Sciencesprogram,publiccourses,inthe formofExtensionUniversityContinuingEducationthatcanbeaccumulatedtowardadegree(MEDE 2014,p.56),andthisatatime whenLiberalArtshavebeenunderattack(Giroux 2014;Zakaria 2015). Interestingly,the4thIR(FourthIndustrialRevolution)discoursehas beenreclaimingtheareaasofimportanceforeconomicgrowthandwe alsohavethemuch-discussedMassiveOpenOnlineCourses(MOOCS) (Shennan 2013;Scholz 2013).

TheMaltadocumentonLLLissuesacallforconvertingoneofthe MalteseTVoutletsintoaneducationalchannel,thusrevivingastation (Education22)setupinthe1990sbuteventuallyabandoned.Italso drawsonMalteseresearchinthefield,someofwhichcriticalofthe neoliberalnatureofmuchofcontemporaryLLLpolicy(seeWain 2004a, b;Waltersetal. 2004;BorgandMayo 2004, 2005).ItscallforadepartmentofadulteducationattheUniversityofMaltawasheeded—thiswas setupinOctober2015.Thisdevelopmentalsogoesagainstthegrainas otherAnglophoneuniversitieshadshutsuchoutlets.3

Oneimportantidea,stillmovingslowlywithpilotprojectsforthe momentis,asindicatedearlier,thatofdevelopingschoolsascommunitylearningcenters(SCLCs)(Mayo 2012).Inthisregard,thestrategy documentreinforcesthepointmadetimeandagaininaseriesofpolicy documents,since1998,includingthemulti-volume,NationalCurriculum Framework(NCF).Itunderlinestheneedtoextend“theroleofstate schoolsintoadultcommunitylearningcentres”warningthatcertain “adultsmaybereluctanttousepremisesusedduringthedayasprimary andsecondaryschools.”Itthereforerepeatstherecurringpointinearlier policydocumentsonthisissuethatcertain“buildingsmaywellneed toberestructuredtoaccommodateadults;newstateschoolsneedto beconceptualisedascommunitylearningcentresfromtheverystart” (MEDE 2014,p.41).Quiterecentlyanannouncementwasmadethat astateoftheartauditoriumandsportsfacilitieswillbeaddedtoanew schoolinaparticularlocalityinMalta.Theywillbeopentoparticipation, inseveralculturalevents,bymembersofthesurroundingcommunityof St.Lucia.Inaddition,EUfundsweresecuredforaninitialpilotproject inSCLCsinValletta,Malta’scapitalcity.Thesearepositivestepsin translatingwrittenpolicyintoreality.4

Asbrieflytoucheduponatthischapter’soutset,thetaskistoput thebuildingto multifunctional use,animportantwayofavoidingdead capital,aftercertainhours,andduplicationofresourcesinasmallcontext inwhichthepercapitaexpenditureonsuchresourcesishigherthan thoseinlargercontexts.Thelatterreachalargeramountofpeople anddrawondifferentspecializedpersonnel.Thisoverspecialization mightnotworkinsmallcontextswherepeopleweardifferenthats.This appliestoeducatorswhocan,theoretically,serveaslifelongeducators, teachingchildreninthemorningandswitchingtoteachingadults,at pieceratepaymentintheeveningandforeignlanguage(mainlyEnglish) toforeignersinthesummermonths.Flexiblespecializationisofessence insmallstateswithimplicationsforteachereducation—thegoalofbeing effectivemultifunctionaleducators.

AswiththeLLLstrategydocument,therewasalsoanattemptatdevelopingSCLCs(recall:schoolsascommunitylearningcenters)inthepast. DependantonESF(EuropeanSocialFund)financialbacking,thepilot projectwasnotrenewedafteroneyear.Itmusthavebeenperceived, bylocalgatekeepers,tohavefallenshortinthisregard(Mayo 2012). Itdidnotseemtohaveconvincedtheperhaps“holierthanthepope” localgatekeepersthatitwasdeliveringaneducationfor“employability.” Newcomersaremorelikelytoerronthesideofrigidinterpretations, ratherthansimplycaution,notto“disappoint”theirBrusselsoverlords.

TheideaofSCLCsiseitheraharmlessideaoronewhichstimulates theimagination,henceitisbeingarecurringfeatureoflocalpolicydocuments.Thisideaiscertainlynotanoriginaloneandcanbetracedbackto aprojectthatwaswrittenaboutbyDidacusJules(Jules 2013)andmeant forthesmallislandstatesoftheCaribbean.ItwasintroducedinTrinidad &Tobago5—amodelforsmallstatestobenefitfromcost-effective, resourcemaximizingfacilities.Therearearchitecturalimplications.It wouldberepletewithnecessaryfacilitiesasaschool,anauditorium, amultimedialibrary,internetconnectivity,computerterminals,andof coursefinesettingswhereadultscanmeetwithoutbeing“granddaddy longlegs.”Thechallengeofeducationalfacilitiessoconceived,accommodatingbothinitialcompulsoryandadulteducation,isthatadult educationdoesnotbecomeaformofadultschooling(MEDE 2014, p.41).

Conclusion

WhileitwouldbefoolishtoavoidconsiderationsconcerningLLLand employment,giventhelatter’simportanceinpeople’slives,itissomewhat refreshingtoseeadocumentprovidingamoreorlessholisticviewof learning.Thisdocument,thoughperforceforegroundingthechallenges ofemployabilityforourlivelihood,salvagessomeofthebroadereducationaldiscoursethatcharacterizedtheoldUNESCOpromotionofLLE. Theauthorsmusthavebeenuncomfortablewithastrictlyinstrumental expositionofLLL.Theconceptofcitizenship,thedocumentprojects, extendswellbeyondthatdecriedbyMarcuseasone-dimensionalor, asisoftendenouncedintheeducationalliterature,astwo-dimensional (producer-consumer),arecurringpointofcriticisminthisbook.

Hopefully,asthebasicpreceptsguideeducationaldevelopmentsin Maltaintheforthcomingyears,recognizingthegreatdisruptioncaused bytheunanticipatedCoronavirusoutbreak,afewimportantpointsare considered.Itisincreasinglybecomingevidentthatpubliclibrariesandan effectiveonlinemultimedialibrarysystemarewidelyconsideredamajor featureofanation-wideLLLsystem.Theonsetofonlinelearningmakes thisaperfectlyattainablegoalinacountrysuchasMalta.Themajor issue,ofcourse,isthedigitaldivide,notverydrasticinthiscountry.A placeattachedtotheschool,reservedformultipurposeusageandwhich canaccommodateadultsespeciallypensionersduringconventionalschool hoursinthemorningsandafternoons,canprovideanumberofaccessiblecomputerterminalsforthosewhowishtomakeuseoftheminthe community.Coursesforthosestillnotattunedtocomputerworkcan bemadeavailableeitherbythelocalcouncilortheschoolitselfinits after-hoursprogramamongcommunitymembersinaSCLCscontext.

Thismultipurposesetupshouldnotmakeusoverlookthemany othersourcesofLLLavailableinthecommunityandsocietyatlarge. Asshouldbeclearfromourdiscussionthusfar,LLLextendsitsreach wellbeyondinstitutions,suchasschools,publiclibraries,trainingoutlets, university,MCAST,themyriaddegree-grantingprivateinstitutionsthat havemushroomedacrossthecountry,gainingaccreditationfromthe NationalCommissionforFurtherandHigherEducation(NCFHE—the nationalaccreditingagency),aswellasculturalinstitutions.Theseareno doubtkey,tangiblesourcesofLLL.Theideaofalearningsocietyor learningsocietieshoweverdriveshomethepointthatsourcesofLLL areinfinite.Therearemanylearningwebs,touseIllich’sterm,thathave

beensproutingworldwidefromculturalcirclesinFreire’ssensetoconversionofpopularcommunalcelebrationsandcommemorationsassources ofnotonlylearningbutalsoorganizednonformaleducation.Weare thinkingofprojectsinMaltaaroundwhatSpaniardscallthe“Semana Santa”withitswealthofknowledgeconcerningrituals,spirituality, colonialism/imperialism,gender,environment,art(popular/highbrow), theater,andsoforth.(GrechandMayo 2020)Theselearningsocieties canbebasedonthesomewhatIllich-inspirednotionoftheexistenceof learningwebsconstitutingofteninteractingnetworksoflearningcommunities.Eachcountryhasitsownmanifestationsofpopularevents,some external,asinmost“Southern”environments,othersheldinclosed environments.ThisisalsothestuffofLLLandLLE(Bofill 1985).

Muchhasbeenwrittenaboutlearningacrossandwithinsocialmovementswiththeirbrandof“politicsfrombelow.”Wereadaboutlearning inandwiththeMSTinBrazil,theZapatistamovementinChiapas, Mexico,thevariousmovementsinIndiaandAfrica,andonecango onandon.Needlesstosay,therehasbeengreatliteraturearoundthe so-calledOldandNewsocialmovements,asdistinguishedfromthe SouthernSubalternSocialMovementstowhichwehavejustreferred. WelearnnowadaysfromtheBlackLivesMatter(BLM)movementsand theMeTooMovements,aswellastheOccupyMovements.Thesehave capturedtheimaginationworldwideasdidtheCivilRightsmovementin the60swithitsdifferentlearningsettingssuchasinformalandnonformal learningacrosstheboardorinestablishedsettingssuchasHighlanderin Tennessee.Aswithseveralothercountries,Maltatoohasitsfairshareof organizationsconnectedwithsocialmovements.Theseprovidelearning settingsandspacesofdifferenttypes.Thelistislongandcannotbe exhausted.WecanmentiontheAllianceagainstPoverty,theEnvironmentalMovement,theCooperativeMovement,the‘JusticeinTrade’ movement,theanti-RacistMovement,Migrants’SolidarityMovement, theBLM(protestsaboutblackliveskillednotonlyintheUSAbutalso inMalta,especiallyafterthewantoncold-bloodedkillingofLassanaCisse, amigrantoriginallyfromtheIvoryCoast,allegedlybytwomembers ofthearmedforcesinanadventurousdrive-byshooting),theLGBTQ Movement,theOccupyJusticeMovement(againstcorruption,silencing ofjournalistsandtruthcover-ups,triggeredbythecar-bombassassination ofthecountry’sprominentjournalist/blogger,DaphneCaruanaGalizia). TheyincludeavarietyofNGOs,reflectingdifferenttypesofdemocratic

strugglesconcerningidentityissues,themigrationsituation,andenvironmentalprotection.Therehavebeenmovementsbornoutofsingle issuessuchasthoseagainstanattemptedGovernment“migrantpushback,”thebuildingofagolfcourseinanagrarianarea,withdeleterious effectsonfarmerslives,andtheproposedsettingupofaprivateuniversityinan“outsidedevelopmentzone”(ODZ).6 Alltheseweresuccessful intheirrespectivecampaigns.Thelearningissuesaremany.Onelearns aboutthehistoryandramificationsofCapitalistencroachmentonpublic land,primitiveaccumulation,corporatizationofhighereducation,financialspeculation,offshorebankingandinvestment,taxevasion,andthe 1951GenevaConventiononhumanandasylumrights.Onealsolearns abouttactics,organization,publicity,andadvocacy.

LLLviasocialmovementsandothergroups,strivingforsocialjustice andchange,canhelppeopleinanotherimportantway.Theycanhelp peoplelearntoconvert primafacie personalintothepublicissues.What canerroneouslybeperceivedasisolatingprivateconcernscaneasily connectwithsimilarconcernsofotherpeople.Thecollectivedimension helpsthiscomeabout.Thiscollectivedimensionoflearninghasalong history.Thisincludeseducation for theworkingclass by theworkingclass (e.g.thePlebsLeagueinEngland—seeWaugh 2009),learninginthe women’smovement(Belenkyetal. 1986),learninginthelandlesspeasants’movement(Tarlau 2019)andsoforth.Thisisakeydimensionof LLLthatismissingfromtheEuropeanLLLdiscourse,despitetherecurringphrase“activedemocraticcitizenship”.Itneedstobeacknowledged inNationalLLLPolicydocumentsandintheirtranslationintopractice or,betterstill, praxis (thebridgingoftheoryandpractice,reflectionon actionfortransformativeaction).

Notes

1.AnimportantpublichighereducationinstitutioninMalta.MCAST comprisesinstitutesandcollegesincludingauniversitycollege(separate fromtheUniversityofMalta)grantingdegreesatBachelor’sandMaster’s levels.Itprovidesbothsubuniversity-levelanduniversitylevelcourses.

2.Shortpaperon‘ValuingLearning’(EUMemorandumonLLL,Message 4),byKennethWain,deliveredattheNationalLLLConsultationConference,Malta,May2001.

3.TheDepartmentofArts,OpenCommunitiesandAdultEducation,Faculty ofEducation,UniversityofMalta.

4.Newsitem,‘Ongoingworkscontinueinthemultipurposehallbeingbuilt intheStLuciaSecondarySchool’ LiveNewsMalta (onlineportal)2 September2020. http://livenewsmalta.com/index.php/2020/09/02/ ongoing-works-continue-in-the-multipurpose-hall-being-built-in-the-stlucia-secondary-school/.Accessed4September2020.

5.InformationobtainedfromDr.DidacusJules,DirectorGeneralofthe OrganizationofEasternCaribbeanStates.

6.ThegovernmentsoughtanalternativesiteforthecampusoftheJordanianfundedAmericanUniversityinMalta.

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Waugh,C.(2009). Plebs:Thelostlegacyofindependentworkingclasseducation. Occasionalpaper.Post16Educator. Williams,R.(1989). Resourcesofhope:Culture,democracy,socialism. Ed.Robin Gable.London:Verso.

Zakaria,F.(2015). Indefenceofaliberaleducation.NewYork,NY:W.W. Norton.

CHAPTER5

LLL:AGenderedandIntersectoralApproach

Abstract ThischapterviewsLLLfromagenderedandintersectional perspective.Itarguesthatconfigurationsofsocialinequalitiesoccurand takeformwithinintersectingoppressions.Socialissueshavetobeunderstoodintermsofthewaysocialactorsaresituatedinspecifichistorical andpresentpowerrelations.Thechapteralsoarguesthatbecauseof theirdifferentdiscursivelocations,differentpeopleorgroupsofpeople havedistinctivestandpointsonsocialphenomena.Furthermore,when developingLLLpoliciesandtakingaction,weneedtomeetchallenges, concerninghistoricallymarginalizedgroupssuchaswomenandspecific ethnicgroups,withoureyeswideopen.Weneedtoremainpolitically alertinordertonavigatethesystemsthatarecontinuouslyshiftingto privilegethealreadyprivileged.

Keywords Gender · Women · Intersectionality · Populareducation · Socialjustice

Whetherthetermislifelonglearningorlifelongeducation,thequestion remains:Whobenefitsfromit?AsEllenCondliffeLagemann,aformer professorofoneofus,usedtoask:Whoisdoingwhattowhomandfor whatpurpose?Andsoitiswithlifelonglearningespeciallyasitrelatesto peopleofcolor,women,sexualminorities,orthosewhoseidentitydoes

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notconformtosocietalnorms.Ourstartingpointisthatthereismore thanonepersonorfactorinvolvedinunderstandingwhoisaffectedby lifelonglearningpolicies,procedures,orpractices.WefollowPatriciaHill Collins(2017)intakinganintersectionalapproachhereinrecognizing that

(1)racism,sexism,classexploitationandsimilarsystemsofoppressionare interconnectedandmutuallyconstructonean-other;(2)configurationsof socialinequalitiestakeformwithinintersectingoppressions;(3)perceptionsofsocialproblemsaswellreflecthowsocialactorsaresituatedwithin thepowerrelationsofparticularhistoricalandsocialcontexts;and(4) becauseindividualsandgroupsaredifferentlylocatedwithinintersecting oppressions,theyhavedistinctivestandpointsonsocialphenomena.(p.20)

Theintersectionalapproachtolifelonglearningmakesitclearthatthere areenormouscausesandimplicationsforinequitableaccessandparticipationtoformal,nonformal,andinformallearning,especiallyforwomen, whoaredisproportionatelyaffectedbythecracksandcrevicesinthe system.And,whetherwespeakoflifelonglearningorlifelongeducation, thefocusneedstobeontheintersectionalityofchallengesandcontexts inwhichlifelonglearningoperates,andinthepoliticsofwhetheritis supportedorisnot.Women,variousdisadvantagedgroups,theaged, andtheracializedandethnicminoritiesdonothaveunfetteredaccess tolifelonglearningoreducationalopportunitiesthoughadmittedlythere aresignsofhope.Yet,weneedtoknowmoreabouthowaccessand participationplayoutinworkplaceandlabormarket-relatedlearning,in communityliteracycontexts,andincivilsociety.Thischapterexamines someofthequestionsinthesecontexts.

Theissueoflifelonglearningcanbeapproachedfromthelocaland theinternationalcontexts.TheUN’sSustainableDevelopmentGoals (SDGS),settobeachievedin2030,arecrucialtothisdiscussion.Agenda 2030(UN 2015),whicharticulatesthegoals,hasputemphasisonGoal 4,highlightingthevalueofeducationanditsinterrelationshipstothe other17goals.Goal4(UN 2016b)reads:“Ensureinclusiveandequitablequalityeducationandpromotelifelonglearningopportunitiesfor all.”Alongsideit,Goal5pointstotheimportanceofgenderinthe achievementoftheAgendaby2030(UN 2016b):“Achievegender equalityandempowerallwomenandgirls.”Goals4and5areclosely intertwinedandunderscorethatthestakesareveryhighforwomen

andthatequityisextremelyimportantineducation.AlongwithSDG 10(reducinginequalitiesgenerally)thegoalspointtotheintersectional issuesofsustainabilityforthecommongood.

TheinternationalcommunityisempoweredbytheSDGstowork forgenderandeducationforall,whichiscrucialsincealltheinternationalassessmentsshowthatwomenandgirlsarechallengedtobeequal inlifelonglearningpursuits.UNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning’s 4thGlobalReportCardonAdultLearningandEducation (UIL 2019) acknowledgesthatwhilewomen’sparticipationinALEisgrowing,they continuetolagbehindandtendtoengagelessinprogramsforprofessionaldevelopment,whichhasimplicationsfortheirparticipationinthe labormarketandeventualequitableparticipationincivilsociety.The stakesarehigh.

SocialTransformationPerspective

Theconceptofsocialtransformationcanbehelpfulhereinunderstanding theneedtolookatthelargerpicture,andtorenegotiateourboundaries whenitcomestocreatingalevelplayingfield.

ThissocialtransformationapproachisevidentinworkbyDarlene Clover,CindyHanson,andAndreaCornwall(seeEnglishandIrving 2015)allofwhomareworkingtoadvancetheworkofwomenin thecommunity,bothnationallyandinternationally.Theyarecallingfor genderjusticeandforlearningtheoriesthatrecognizethecentralityof womeninlifelonglearning.

WedrawherealsoonNancyFraser’s(2003)theoriesofjusticeand injustice,particularlyhertwinconceptsofredistributionandrecognition,tolookatlifelonglearningforwomenfrombothaneconomic justiceperspectiveandfromarecognitionorculturalapproach.This theoryofjusticepushesapoliticsofculturalrecognition(groupand individualidentity)andeconomicredistribution(changestothemarket andeconomicdistribution).AccordingtoFraser,itisnotenoughtobe recognizedasagrouporanindividual:weneedtohaveredistribution ofresourcesandrecognitionofthemultipleeffectsandcontextswhich operateonus.Frasercallsattentiontotheembeddednatureofsocial injusticeinlives,notjustsurface-levelsexdifferences.Hernotionsof equalityshowthatoneapproach,e.g.identitypolitics,willnotwork—we needtorecognizethemultiplewaysinwhichwomenneedtoberecognizedandtheirresourcesredistributed.Onlyinusingbotheconomical

andculturalresourcesandperspectivescantheinjusticesofmisdistributionandmisrecognitionberealized.Herconceptualizationofjustice makesitclearthatamultiprongedapproachisnecessary.

Fraser’s(1990)ideasfitwithinasocialtransformationapproachto learning(seeEnglishandIrving 2015).Socialtransformation,inthe traditionofFreire,drawsoncriticalconceptsofparticipatorydemocracyandontransformativelearning.Thissocialtransformationperspective takestheviewthatnothingbutatotaltransformationoftheinterlocking systemsofoppressionwilldo.Thisperspectivecanbeseenbestinthe workonpopulareducationbeingcarriedoutbysocialmovementtheoristssuchasShirleyWalters,AstridVonKotze,andShaunaButterwick. WaltersandVonKotze(2019),forinstance,arguethatpopulareducation isthewayforwardinasocietyobsessedwithleaguetables,internationalassessments,andadiscourseofaccountability.Theycallforteaching andlearningatthelocallevel,engagingpeopleinprojectsintheirown freedom.Thereisreasontofindhopeintheirapproaches.Whereas genderwasallbutabsentfromdeclarationsresultingfromCONFINTEA VIinBelém,byAgenda2030(UN 2015)ithadbeenputbackonthe tableinGoal5andhastakenacriticaltransformativeapproachtointegratingitintotheSDGs.Women’srightstosustainablelivinghavebeen enshrinedininternationalpolicy.

Yet,itisnotenoughtosaythatwomenhaverights.AsformerUS SecretaryofState,HillaryClinton(2020),haspointedout,theserights needtocontinuetobepoliticized:Womennotonlyneedhumanrights, butalsothepowertoexercisethem.Writingsome25yearsafterher addresstotheUN’sFourthInternationalConferenceonWomenin Beijing,HillaryClintonreiteratedher1995declarationthatwomen’s rightsarehumanrightsandviceversa.ThePlatformforActionthat resultedfromBeijinghasbeenaguidinglightinwomen’srightssincethat time.Clintonpointstothewaysinwhichwomen’sleadershipincountrieslikeFinland,NewZealand,andGermanyhashelpedthosecountries negotiatetheCOVIDcrisisbetterthanothers.Shealsonotesthat nationslikeCanada,Sweden,France,andMexicoareworkingtoincrease women’svisibilityatthepoliticallevel.Yet,Clintonlamentsthecontinued problemsandthewaystheyhavenotbeenabletofullyclaimtherightsto education,housing,andparticipationindemocraticfora.Drawingonthe workofCambridgeclassicist,MaryBeard,Clintonshowshowmisogyny hasbeenapersistentandinsidiousideaforcenturies.Ascontroversialas

ClintonhasbeeninAmericanpolitics,shehasmadesubstantivecontributionstoourunderstandingofwomenandtheircontributionstothe publicsphere.Thechallengescontinue.

WomenattheCenter:Literacy, Work,andLifelongLearning

Buildingonthesevarioustheoreticalframeworks,welookhereatseveral keyareasthatneedtobeattendedtoinlifelonglearningtoputwomen atthecentersotheycanclaimtheirrightsinlifelonglearning.

FocusonLiteracy

Women’sliteracyisimportantforthefamily’sliteracy,forparticipation inschooling,forcenteringlearningincommunitiesandnationstates. Nowhereisthismoreimportantthanindevelopingcontexts,theissues ofwomenwithaccesstoschoolingcontinues.Literacy,asDaphneNtiri (2015)notes,isanareainwhichwomen’sleadershipisessential.She drawsattentioninparticulartoAfricanwomenwhoareaffectedby lackofaccessandprivilege,andhowthisdisadvantageaffectsthemand theirhouseholds.Theyarelesslikelytobeabletoaccessresources,to participateinschooling,andtohavethetechnologicalsavvytoaccess resources.Astheprimarycaregiver,universally,womenhavetheneedto haveresourceslikefamilyliteracyattheirdisposal.Ntirinotesthatwomen needliteracytobenotonlyliterateinanarrowsensebuttoparticipate fullyincivilsociety,both“knowingandunderstandingtheworldand women’splaceinthatworld”(p.12).

Ntiriandherauthors(2015)knowwhereoftheyspeakwhentheycall attentiontothecrisisinliteracy.Theglobalreportsonadultliteracyand skills,especiallythereportsfromUNESCO(GRALE)andtheOECD, showthatwomenaregenerallythelosersespeciallyinthemajority world.RoutinereportsfromtheProgrammeforInternationalStudent Assessment(PISA)andtheProgrammefortheInternationalAssessmentofAdultCompetencies(PIAAC;seeOECD)continuetoshow thechallengestowomenandgirlsintermsofliteracyandeducational achievement.Yet,wemustusecautioninreadingtheseassessments,based astheyareonmasculinistnotionsoflearningandvalue,astheygivepride ofplacetoalimitedsetofskills(DeakinCrickandJoldersma 2007).What isoftenignoredinthemisthemanywaysinwhichlearningisembedded

inthelifeworld,thehomeplace,andthecontextsinwhichwomenlive andfunction(seeGouthro 1999).Theissueisnotonlyhowliteracyis measuredbutwhatismeasuredasliteracy.

AhelpfulapproachtoviewingliteracyisofferedbyUlrikeHanemann (2015),theunnamedauthorofUIL’spolicybriefonliteracy(UIL 2017). Hanemannpointstotheneedtoseeliteracyasoneofacomplexset ofskillsandcompetenciesthatneedconstantcareandupdating.She viewsliteracyaslessaplace-in-timeskillandmoreasonethatisaffected bylearningthroughlifewithinvariouscontexts.Thislifelonglearning continuuminvolvesfamilyliteracyprojectsthatbringfamiliestogether andsituateliteracyinthelifeworld.Hanemann(2015)showsinher ownintersectionalapproachtoliteracythatitcannotbeadiscreteset ofskillsandmustbeanintegralpartofliving.Herapproachchallenges thelargelyindividualisticapproachofmanyoftheinternationalassessmentslikePIAACorevenUIL’sGralereports(e.g.UIL 2010).Such globalassessmentscanbeseenasisolatingpersonsandskillsfromcapacity buildingandengagedparticipatorydemocracy.

Insupportofsimilarlyinclusiveapproachestoliteracy,LynnTett (2020)providesahelpfulanalysisoffamilyliteracyprojectsintheUK. UsingthedistributiveandrecognitionframeworksofNancyFraser,Tett drawsattentiontoissueswithidentitypoliticsandtheeffectsthisisolated theorizationhasonourunderstandingofwomenandtheirlearning.She pointstotheproblemsthatcomewithfocusingsolelyonequalityof opportunitywithouttakingamorecomprehensiveapproachtoviewing theeffectsofmisdistributionandmisrecognition,whicharepartofa neoliberalmindsetofatomizationandindividualism.

WomenandWorkandLearning

Asecondareatoexaminehere,withaparticularlensonwomenand LLL,istheworldofworkwherewomenareparticularlydisadvantaged,especiallywithregardtolearningintraditionaltimesandspaces. Neoliberalismpromoteslockstepprogressionthroughorganizedlearning programsinstate-sanctionededucationalinstitutionsinpreparationfor participationinaproductivelabormarket.Itthenassumesfullandequal accesstocontinuoustrainingandeducation.Yet,itisclearthatthislinear trajectoryisfollowedlessandlessbywomenwhocontinuetobedisadvantagedbythelabormarketandcontinuetohavechallengesinincome andemployment,relativetomen.

Inaspecialissueofthe JournalofVocationalEducationandTraining, editorsNiemeyerandColley(2015)pointoutthattheconsistentissue forwomenrelatestothedifferencebetweenreproductionandproduction.Intheirwords,“thepersistentinequalitybetweenwomenandmen wasandisstillrelatedtothegeneraldivisionbetweenpaidlabourand unpaidhomework,closelylinkedtosocieties’constantreproductionof genderedpatterns”(p.2).Thisrecognitionofthehomeplaceandcaring responsibilitieshasbeengivenlipserviceformanyyears;onewonders whenchildcaresubsidies,moreflexiblehours,andmorepaidfamilyleave willbeimplementedtohelpwomenparticipatemorefullyinlearningand theworkplace.

Writinginthesamespecialissueofthe JournalofVocationalEducationandTraining,SueWebb(2015)drawsattentiontofemalemigrants whoareaffectedbothbyworkplacepoliciesthatdonotacknowledge raceandgender.Shemakesanargument,basedonherqualitativework withwomenwhoarehighlyskilledmigrantsenteringAustralia,thatthere needstobemoresupportforthetrainingofmigrantsastheyfaceparticularlanguageandcolorbarriersthatarenotfacedbywhitewomenwho arequicklyassimilatedintotheAustralianculture.Webbandtheother authorsinthisissuearekeentoshowthatgenderintersectswithlabor andwithfullandactiveengagementintheworkforce.Innotaddressing themultipleintersectoralissuesatplay,everyoneloses.

Similarly,Avisetal.(2017)“emphasisethatraceisnotadiscrete formofidentitybutonethatisco-constructedwithsocialclass,gender, dis/ability,ageandsexuality”(p.288).Theypointtothewaysinwhich VETisusedtode-skillimmigrantsandtochannelthemintotraining orjobswellbelowtheiracquiredlevelsofexpertise.Forwomenthis maymeannotfindingaworkplacethatacknowledgesandrewardstheir educationallevel.Thereisaclearneedforsophisticatedandcomplicated nationalqualificationsframeworksthathelptonegotiatejobentryand migration,andtointerruptsystemicracism.

Likewise,apprenticeshipprogramsforwomenintheskilledtrades, incountrieslikeCanada,canworktoundervaluepotentialforvarious segmentsofthepopulation.Althoughtheseprogramstendtoshow opennesstoallcitizens,especiallywomen,theyassumehomogeneity andgenderneutralityonthepartofthelearner(StatisticsCanada 2020).Gearedtohelpwomentrainandtherebyincreaseearnings,these programscansometimesrequirewomenintheirchildbearingyearsto workawayfromhomeonjobsitesindifferentprovincesandterritories,

suchasintheTarSandsofNorthernAlberta.Someoftheseapprenticeshipprogramsdoindeedhelplearnerswithchildcaresupportand transportation,makingparticipationaccessible.Clearly,amultifaceted approachisrequiredtofullyintegratecitizensintotheseopportunities.

Womenintheacademyalsohaveissuesthataffecttheirlearningand participationintheacademicworkforce.EversoleandCrowder(2020) showthatforwomentherearemajorissuesinhighereducation.They haveadifferentsetofcircumstances,usuallylinkedtochildcareand familyresponsibilities,thataffecttheirabilitytoresearchandteachat thesametime.Theacademicmotheroftenhastocontendwiththesame rulesandresponsibilitiesasothers,withoutanyaccommodationfortheir circumstances.HutchinsandKovach(2018)lookatadvancingwomen insciencetechnologyandengineeringcareersinhighereducationand suggestinterventionssuchasfamilyfriendlypoliciestobringinwomen andminoritiesintofieldstowhichtheyhavebeenhistoricallyunderrepresented.Multiprongedapproachesthatrecognizegender,ethnicity,family status,andagemustallbeconsideredinsupportingthem.

Discussion

Foralltheprogressforwomenandracialandethnicminorities,there continuetobelifelonglearningchallenges,eveninsupposedWestern democracies.ThefirstBlackUSpresident,Obama,electedin2009,isnot likelytoberepeatedsoon,thoughin2020aBlackwoman,daughterof twoimmigrants,KamalaHarris,wasnamedasavice-presidentialcandidate.Thevisualimpactofawomanofcolorinaleadingpositionina Westernstateisapowerfulone.Yet,HarrisandObamaarehardlyrepresentativeofthosewhoarechallengedinthelifelonglearningspectrum. Botharefrommiddle-classfamiliesandhavehadmanyeducationaland economicadvantages.

Theseexceptionsaside,writerssuchasPatriciaHillCollins(2017) notethatnoneoftheexistingsystems,neitherliberalismnorparticipatory democracy,workforcitizenswhoareracializedoreconomicallydisadvantaged.Theyhavenorightsinasystemthatissupposedlyuniversallyfree andopen,duetothemultiplesystemsofoppressiontowhichtheyare subjected.Justhavingequalrepresentation,orhumanrightsasClinton (2020)framesit,isnotenough—wehavetodonewthingsinnewways tointerruptthepoliticsofmisdistributionandmisrecognition(Fraser,in Dahletal. 2004).

COVIDchallengesusinparticularwaystolookatthepoliticsof lifelonglearningformanygroups,especiallywomenandmarginalized groups.TheUN(2016a)hasobservedthat“COVIDhasbeenespecially hardonwomenandmayhavereversedsomeoftheirgainsinwaysthat aredetrimental.”Theygoontosay:

Womenplayadisproportionateroleinrespondingtothevirus,includingas frontlinehealthcareworkersandcarersathome….Womenarealsoharder hitbytheeconomicimpactsofCOVID-19,astheydisproportionately workininsecurelabourmarkets.Nearly60percentofwomenworkinthe informaleconomy,whichputsthematgreaterriskoffallingintopoverty. (UN 2016a)

Ourchallengeistocontinuetomeetthesekindsofchallengeswithour eyeswideopen.Weneedtoremainpoliticallyalertinordertonavigatethesystemsthatarecontinuouslyshiftingtoprivilegethealready privileged.

References

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CHAPTER6

PauloFreireandtheDebateinLifelong Learning

Abstract PauloFreire’snameisoftenreferencedindebatesaroundLLE andLLL.Thechaptertacklesthisquestion:shouldPauloFreire’sname andconceptsbepulledintothecurrentdiscourseonLLLinEurope aspromotedbytheEU?Thischapteranswers“No”,iftheversion ofLLListhehegemoniconereflectingthereductionist,economyorienteddiscoursefocusedexclusivelyon“employability”onneoliberal lines,anathematoaFreireanconceptionofeducationandlearning.The answeris“Yes”iftheconceptofLLLisassociatedwithanalternative discourseavoidingstrictlycorporatebusinessinterpretationsandthatsees itasanall-embracingmobilizingforceforchangeandrevitalizationofthe publicsphereandPlanetEarth.

Keywords Criticalliteracy · Conscientização · Biodiversity · UNESCO · EarthCharter

Thischapterisreproduced,withmodifications,fromthechapter:Mayo,P. (2019).PauloFreireandthedebateinlifelonglearning.InC.A.Torres(Ed.), TheWileyhandbookofPauloFreire.Wiley-Blackwell.Permissiontorepublish grantedbyWiley-Blackwell.

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IntheEUMemorandum’sconsultationprocesswithdifferentstakeholdersandacrossdifferent“epistemologicalcommunities”inthe Union’sfold(BorgandMayo 2005),suchas“workinggroups,”the namesofseveralkeyeducationthinkerswerebandiedabout.Includedare thosewholendtheirnametoEUprojects,suchasJanAmosKomensky (JohnAmosComenius),ErasmusofRotterdamand noblesseoblige,as farasadulteducationgoes,NikolajFrederikSeverinGrundtvig—indeed, allEuropeanfiguresandCentralorNorthernEuropeanonesatthat. ItwouldhowevercomeasnosurprisetoidentifyoneSouthernand non-Europeanthinkerwhosenamewouldfeatureinthesediscussions— PauloFreire.1 Thequestionthatarisesis:shouldPauloFreire’sname andconceptsbedraggedintothecurrentdiscourseonLLLinEurope aspromotedbytheEU?Asarguedinthischapter,theanswerwouldbe “No”iftheversionofLLListhehegemoniconereflectingthereductionist,economy-orienteddiscoursefocusedexclusivelyonthe,often illusory,notionof“employability”onneoliberallines,anathematoa Freireanconceptionofeducationandlearning.2 Theanswerwould,on theotherhand,beanunequivocal“Yes”ifthenotionofLLLadoptedis associatedwithanalternativediscourseeschewingstrictlycorporatebusinessinterpretationsandthatconceivesofitasanall-embracingmobilizing forceforchangeandrevitalizationofthepublicsphereandPlanetEarth. ItisimportanttorememberherethatFreiredidnotcomedeus exmachinaintotheworldwithrevolutionaryideas.Hegrewupina culturethatwasripeforchangeandhewasinfluencedbythoseideasand peoplearoundhim,includingliberationtheology.Hisideasweredeeply influencedbyMarxismandChristianity,andwerepromulgatedbymany otherssuchasRosaMariaTorresandbellhooks.Theeducationalworld wasopentohisinsightsasawaytocounteractincreasingindustrializationanddehumanization.Hooks,forinstance,hasbeenclearonFreire’s influenceonherandherinfluenceonhim,makinghimmoreawareofhis sexismandhisneedtoembracefeminisminhiswork(seeKirylo 2011).

RecallthatLLEwasintegraltoUNESCO’seffortstopromoteeducationworldwide,especiallyinlow-incomecountries,someofwhomhad onlyrecentlybecomeformally“independent”seekingtoshrugoffthe shacklesofcenturiesof“directcolonialism”(seeChapter 1).Theimpossibilityofensuringtheconstructionofschoolsforeveryoneineachofthese countries(recallhowTanzania,underPresidentJuliusK.Nyerere,could onlyprovideuniversalprimaryeducationby1977)musthaveprompted

UNESCOtoforegrounddifferentformsofeducationincludingIndigenouseducation(Semali 2009)andotherformsofnonformaleducation, includingpopulareducationinLatinAmerica(LaBelle 1986;Torres 1990;Kane 2001).RecallthatUNESCOhadadecidedly“ThirdWorld” orientationthenandtheconceptofLLEledtofurtherUNESCOliterature,andthatproducedbycollaboratingagencies,highlightingdifferent formsofeducationinthemajorityworld(e.g.Bhola 1984;Lindand Johnston 1986).Itisworthreiteratingthatthiswasatimeofinteresting developmentsinAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmericawithCuba’srevolution stillgoingstrong,backedbytheUSSRthatthenconstitutedanimportant forceintheUNandUNESCO,theGrenadianandNicaraguanrevolutionsandthepostindependenceeducationalprojectsinTanzaniaunder Nyerere(Chapters 1 and 2;MhinaandAbdi 2009).Meanwhile,countries inAfricaandelsewherereleasedthemselvesfromPortugal’scolonialhold, alsoindirectlyliberatingthecolonialpowerintheprocess.Theevents broughtanendtothedictatorialregimeinPortugalandservedasacatalystforthecountry’stransitiontocivilianrule.Recallalso,withrespectto theargumentinthischapter,thatUNESCOplayedakeyroleinPortugal’seducationduringthistransitionperiod(MeloandBenavente 1978; Guimarãesetal. 2018).

Inthiscontext,theassociationbetweenLLEandPauloFreirewas averyplausibleone,eventhoughFreirehimselfneversystematically adoptedthetermanddidnotbelongtothatcoterieofwriterson differentaspectsoftheconceptwhogravitatedaroundUNESCO.3 The “ThirdWorld”orientationofUNESCOanduseoftheconceptoften madeFreireapointofreferenceinsomeoftheliterature,especiallythe firstwaveofwritingsaroundLLE.Education,initsnormativesense ofproviding“worthwhile”knowledge,can,accordingtoFaureetal. (1972),enablepersonstobecomebeingsinprocess,“incomplete”beings intheprocessofbecomingin“anunendingprocessofcompletionand learning”(p.157).Recallthattheevolutionaryconceptionofmoving towardalearningsociety,ortheideaofpeopleas being and becoming ratherthanastheyare,musthaveechoedFreire’snotion,asexpressedin PedagogyoftheOppressed,ofaperson’s becomingmore (sermas )andthe statementthattheontologicalvocationofhumanbeingsistobecome “morefullyhuman”(Freire 1970; 1993,p.44).Thelatterformulation iscriticizednowadaysforitsinherentessentialism.

TheFaureReportregardednationsashavingthepotentialtobecome “learningsocieties”(Faureetal. 1972,p.263)alsoconceivedofasfuturisticandutopian(seeFaureetal. 1972,pp.163–164).Wehaveseenhow Wain(1987,p.230)underlinedthisveryoptimisticandtotalizingview ofa“commonhumanity”overridingdifference,apointwhichcanalsobe madeofFreire’searlywork(Freire 2018);seeWeiler’scriticism(Weiler 1991).

Wehaveseen,thankstoWain(1987, 2004)andothers,howthe secondwaveofwritersonLLEwasmorepragmaticinorientation,with EttoreGelpiasarguablyitsmajorrepresentative.Thefocuswasmore onempiricalevidenceofhowLLEisplayedoutindifferentcommunitieswithdifferentculturesindifferentpoliticalandeconomicscenarios. Putsimply,theargumentgoes:LLEandLearningSocietiesalreadyexist andthetaskistoidentifythewayLLEandLearningSocietiesoccurin differentcontexts.Likewise,theideaoflearningorganizationsemerged andgainedprominence,withscholarspromotingthenotionofevery spacebeingalearningspace(Senge 1990).

Mythinkingisthatlifelongeducation,fundamentally,belongstothe historyofeducationofallcountries;itisnotthereforeanewidea…(Gelpi 1985,p.18)

Thisleadstoamorecomparativeapproach,evidentinGelpi’sownwork (Gelpi 1985, 2002)whichspans,albeitthrough“armchairempiricism,” differentcontinentsthathevisitedasamuch-travelededucationist.Needlesstosay,LatinAmericaanditsdifferentformsofpopulareducation featureprominentlyinGelpi’ssurveys,andthismakestheconnection withPauloFreireevenstronger.ItwouldbepertinenttonotethatGelpi isonrecordashavingonceaskedthequestion:arethereotherFreires intheSouth?(Gelpi 1999,p.263).Heobviouslyfeltthatanempiricalapproachtotheareawillforegroundotherthinkersandpractitioners fromtheSouthinadulteducationandLLEtoredressanimbalancein theinternationalliteraturedominatedbyNorthernwriters.Indeed,there aremanyFreiresintheSouthandaroundtheworld,promotinghisideas andfurtheringaMarxistanalysisoflearning,includingthosewhowork inafeministMarxistframework(CarpenterandMojab 2011).

FreireandUNESCO

WhileFreireneverassociatedhimselfwiththeLLEmovement,theexpansiveversionprovidedbyUNESCOallowedscopeforhisideastoform partoftheLLEdiscourse.Hisassociationwithnonformaleducation, especiallythroughhissignificantworkamongfunctionallyilliteratesin Angicos,enablingthemto“readthewordandtheworld”(Freireand Macedo 1987;Freire 1995),musthaverenderedhim derigueur forany discussiononthesubjectwithinthecontextofLLE.

ItwasadifferentUNthentotheonethathasbeenoperatingsince thefalloftheSovietUnion;UNESCO’spoliciesreflectedthis.The UNESCOliteracyawardwasgiventoentitiesresponsibleforsomeof themostleft-wingexperimentsinliteracyeducation.Theliteracyaward, sponsoredbytheUSSRbetween1970and1992,carriedthenameof NadezhdaKrupskayaLenin,who,amongotherthings,ledtheSoviet Union’sAdultEducationDivisionandwasDeputyEducationCommissar to AnatolyLunacharsky.OncetheSovietUnioncollapsed,thatawardwas nolongergiven.FreirehimselfwasarecipientofaUNESCOAward, althoughnottheKrupskayaPrize:hereceivedthe1986–1987Peace Prize.4 ArticlesonorbyhimappearedinUNESCOpublicationssuchas Prospects,InternationalReviewofEducation,and UNESCOCourier.In short,theThirdWorldfocusandexpansiveviewofeducationpromoted byUNESCOeasilyaccommodatedFreire’sideaswhoseearly Pedagogy oftheOppressed andIvanIllich’s DeschoolingSociety werepublishedin EnglishjusttwoyearsaheadofFaureetal.’s LearningtoBe.Bothwere majorexponentsofthekindofout-of-school-education(populareducationandlearningwebs,respectively)thatappealedtoUNESCOwithits emphasisonthevalidationofnonformaleducationaspartofLLEforall. OnedimensionoflearninggivenlipserviceinUNESCO’sdiscourse, however,is,aswehavecommentedupon,the collective.Onlyonrare occasions(RavindraDaveandBogdanSuchodoloskiprovidesomeexamples)inthepasthastherebeenareferencetothecollective(Dave 1976, p.4).RecentexampleswouldbeUNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning’semphasisonfamilylearningandliteracy(Hanemann 2015)aswell aslearningcities.Yet,thecollectivedimensionoflearningisanimportant aspectofFreire’spolitical-pedagogicalapproach.Peopleliberatethemselvesnotowntheirownbutinconcertwithothers,wearetoldin PedagogyoftheOppressed (Freire 2018,pp.85–86).

Wekeeparguingthatself-directedlearninghastoomuchofanindividualisticringtoitandappealedtotheOECDandtheEUwithinfinitely moredirecteffectsonpolicymakingineducationthanUNESCOcan everhave.Theirstrongerinfluenceresultsfromthestructuringfinancial resourcesattheirdisposal—andthisdespitethefactthattheEUissaid tohaveonlya“partialjurisdictionovereducationalmatters”(Murphy 1997,p.362)amountingto,inJackieBrine’swords(1999),a“still narrowlydefinedlegalcompetency”inthearea(p.53).TheEUcanfund nationalandlocalprojectsonalargescale.Astheoldsayinggoes,those “whopaythepipercallthetune,”somethingUNESCOcanneverdo, despitethelaudableresearchprojectsandreportsitcommissions(e.g. GlobalEducationMonitoringReports,GlobalReportonAdultLearning andEducation-GRALE)inthehopeofinfluencingpolicyatnational, regional,orotherlevels.

TheOECDandEU’s“economiccompetitivity”intentions(Regmi 2015,p.133)havebeenregisteredinearlierchapters.IntheEU’scase, educationwasmeanttoserveasameansofbringingnationstogetherto pooltheireducationalinfrastructuralresourcesforgreatercompetitiveness (Murphy 1997,p.363)inthefaceofthetransnationalandmultinational corporations’abilitytoreaptheadvantagesofeconomiesofscalethrough theexpansionofinternationalcapitalmobility.Withthefirstimpulsefor thisturncomingfromnoteducationistsoreducatorsbutfromindustrialists,withthepublicationof EducationforLife:AEuropeanStrategy (Kairamo 1989),anylink,tenuousthoughitmighthavebeen,between FreireandtheideaofLLE,islikelytohavebeenseveredinthisscenario. Coupledwiththefactthat,asfarasFreire’sLatinAmericancontextgoes, LLLverymuchbecameaWesternizedconcept(Torres 2013),which removesthefocusfromtheroleofadultbasiceducationinthemajority world’sdevelopment(Field 2010,p.91),thelinkwithFreirebecoming evermoresevered.Wearenowatthefurthestremovefromthespiritof theFaureReport(1972),letaloneFreire.

Needlesstosay,wewilloccasionallynotetheoddreferencetoFreire inthecontemporarydiscoursebecauseitremainstrendytobandyhis namearoundandtoco-opthisideas,aswithMOBRALunderthemilitarydictatorshipinBrazilwhichkepthiminexilefor16yearsandmore recentlyCharterSchoolsintheUSA,somehavingtheeffronteryto nametheirschoolsafterhim.Hisnameisusedinthesamewaythat SwatchWatchesandEnergydrinksuseand,thusbesmirch(byassociation),CheGuevara’sname—aninsulttohisrevolutionarymemory.

Infact,morethananythingelse,Freire’spedagogyismoreintune withattemptstoprovidecriticalprogressiveantidotestothe“technicalrational/employabilityfix”foundincurrenthegemonicLLLdiscourses. Freire’sideaspromoteaviewoflearnersascollectivesocialactorsas opposedtothosewhoadvocatethecurrentmantraforLLLbased on“employability”(which,asGelpi 2002 remindsus,doesnotmean employment).Theyarealsoopposedtotheideaofpeoplereducedto two-dimensional,oreffectivelyone-dimensional,producers/consumers, thelatter,aswehaveseen,withakeyquotetoboot,ironicallybeingthe objectofcriticismbyBogdanSuchodolski(1976)inhisspecificuseof theLearningSocietyconcept(p.64).

WhiletheemphasisinthewidespreadhegemonicuseofLLLison learningforliquidlife(seeBauman 2005, 2013),alifethatlacksstability andischaracterizedbyprecariousness,Freire’snotionisonthebroader politicaldimensionsoflearningto“readthewordandtheworld.”This typeoflearningentailsanengagementin criticalliteracy whereby,collectivelywithothers,onehelpsunveilcontradictionsinthecurrentsociety. Aswemakethepointinalaterchapterongenderandlearning,this typeoflearningisanimportantstepforpeopletoexercisethe“right togovern”inthecontextofsovereigncitizenship,afarcryfromwhat hasbeencriticizedashegemonicLLLfor“governmentality,”toadopt Foucault’sterm,learningself-regulation(Olssen 2006).

Freire’sapproachcontinuestomakesenseinasituationwhenthe promisesofwhatresults,intermsof“employability”conditions,from whatpassesforconventionalLLLareconstantlybroken(Brownetal. 2010).PhilBrown,HughLauder,andDavidAshton(Brownetal. 2010)challengetheconventionalwisdomthatmoreeducationwilllead togreaterindividualandnationalprosperity.Drawingonabodyofinternationalresearchtheyunderlinetheglobalcompetitionforrewarding, middle-classjobs.Arguingthatthereexistsanauctionforcut-priced brainpoweronthebasisamassiveexpansionofhighereducationworldwide,theypositthatemergingeconomiessuchasChinaandIndiahave providedanewhigh-skill,low-wageworkforcethatiscausingalackof good,lucrativejobs.Thestruggleforthesejobswillleavemanyhighly qualifiedpeopledisappointed,sufferingunderemployment,precarious living,andpossiblypoverty(EnglishandMayo 2012,p.80).

Thereisalsoanideologyatplayasweandmanyothershaveargued (seeChapter 2)thattheonusisontheindividualinaprocessofwhathas beentermed“responsibilisation”(seeLeibenbergetal. 2015).Survival

andwell-beingbecomemattersofindividualratherthansocialresponsibility,hence,itisworthreiterating,thediscursiveshiftfromLifelong Education,witheducationhavinganormativedimension,toLifelong Learning.Thischangeinemphasis,inourview,expressedearlier,enables theconcepttoeasilydovetailwiththehegemonicviewthateducationand socialwell-being(asisthecasewithotheraspectsofstateprovision,such aspensions,nowbecomingnon-sustainable)arecharacteristics/virtuesof the“goodcitizen”whodoesnotdependonthe“nannystate”andpublic funds(asifthecitizendoesnotpaytaxestobolsterthesefunds—public fundsforprivategains?)(BorgandMayo 2005,p.207).

Theclearinference,asthoughonecannotrepeatthemantraoften enough,isthatfailuretoinvestinLLLisanindividualerrorofjudgment (seeChapter6inGirouxandSearlsGiroux 2004).Ifthelinkbetween FreireandtheoldUNESCOliteraturewouldhavebeentenuousbut plausible,anylinkwiththelatereconomy-orientedandneoliberalvariant oftheconcept,morphedintoLLL,isuntenable.Itwould,inourbook, beanathematoFreireortoanyonesubscribingtoaFreireanconception ofeducation.

AlternativeLLL

FreirestrikesusasbeingmostrelevanttoalternativedemocraticconceptionsofLLLwithsocialjusticeasthegoalinmindandtheideaof “criticalliteracy”asthemajorprocessinvolved,akeyfeatureofongoing democratization.Intheseconceptions,learningisrecognizedasalifelongprocess,capturedinFreire’sideaofpersonsintheconstantstruggle tolearntocometotermswiththeircontradictions.Thisiscarried outwithaviewtogeneratingtransformativeaction—actionintended toenableonetoconfrontone’scontradictions,tobecomeless“unfinished”/incomplete,lessincoherent,asFreireputitacoupleofyears beforehepassedaway.ThisemergesfromthepiecebyFreire(1997) in MentoringtheMentor,andworkssubversivelybelowtheradarinallhis work.ItisimpliedinFreire’sexhortation,in PedagogyoftheOppressed, torecognizethepresenceofandtoconfrontthe“oppressorwithin”— the“oppressorconsciousness”(theinternalizationoftheoppressor’s image),echoingHegel’sMaster–Slavedialectic,manifestinavarietyof placesincludingtheater(SeeSamuelBeckett’s WaitingforGodot and thesubplotinvolvingPozzoandLucky).In PedagogyoftheOppressed,

Freirehadarguedthat,throughaproblem-posingapproachtoeducation,humanbeingsareconceivedofaspersonsengagedina“processof becoming”;theyareunfinishedpersonsengagedinandwithan“unfinishedreality”(Freire 1970; 1993,p.84)—moreaccuratelytheirtaskis tostriveto“becomemore”(sermais ),notinanindividualistic,atomizedsensebutinharmonywiththecollective.Beingcentraltohisnotion of“historyaspossibility,”thenotionof“incompleteness”remainsakey themeinhisworkandfeaturesinpracticallyallofhislaterworkswhich includeatleastoneessay,availableinEnglishtranslation,focusingonthe topic(Freire 1997,pp.73–79).LLLtocounterincompletenessmakes senseinthiscontext.ItisLLLwhichisbroadinscopeandbasedona seriesofethicalcommitmentstoothers.ItisLLLpredicatedonlovefor others,forhumanity,andtherestofthecosmos,inaprocesswhereby peopleseethemselvesrootedin,ratherthanapartfromandreadyto exploit,nature.Thisrepresentsasignificantdeparturefromtheanthropocentrismofhisearlyworkandimages(see,forinstance,thereproduced imagesinFreire 1973).ThisapproachtoLLLisunderpinnedbysocial transformativelearningonthelinesofwhatFreire(1997)hascalled “unityindiversity.”Heusedittoaccountforsocialdifferenceandas partofasearchforelementsunifyingthevarioussubalterngroupsintheir struggleagainstoppression.Onecanbuildonthisnotion,alsotakenup byhisfollowersandbyFreirehimselfthroughthe“thematiccomplexes” introducedtothe“popularpublicschools”inSãoPaulo.Freirewas EducationSecretaryinSãoPaulo’sMunicipalGovernmentinthelate80s (Freire 1993;Torres 1994;O’Cadizetal. 1998)helpingintheformulationofpoliciesthatgaverisetotheseschools.Ecologicalissuesfeatured prominentlyamongthegenerativethemes,withintheinterdisciplinary curriculum,developedintheseschoolsaspartofthereformintroduced byFreireandhisassociates(seeO’Cadizetal. 1998,pp.152,201).In lightofallthis,diversitywouldassumeabroadermeaninginaconcept ofLLLmarkedbyourconnectednesstotheecosystemthatsustainsus, asopposedtothecurrentstatecharacterizedbythetechnical-industrial valuesofWestern-Eurocentricculture(O’Sullivan 1999).Onewould thereforespeakoftheneedfor“unityinbiodiversity”inthiscontext (Mayo 2004,p.100).

Freire’scollaboratorsandfollowershavetakenthisfurtherwithwork inconnectionwiththeEarthCharter(CartadaTerra),acharterthat recallstheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(IPF 2000,pp.11–12),andSustainableDevelopment.Oneimportantworktobecited,in

thiscontext,isthatbytheCostaRicanbased,FranciscoGutierrez,and CruzPrado(2000),theterm Ecopedagogia beingusedinthiscase.Itis alsohearteningtonotethattheInstitutoPauloFreire(IPF)inSãoPaulo, officiallyfoundedonSeptember1,1992,hasaprograminEcopedagogy, contributingtotheconstructionofa planetarycitizenship.

Allthisliesinstarkcontrasttothesoullessnatureofalifecentering onthevagariesandvolatilityofthemarket,where“clinicalefficiency” becomestheprimevalue.WemustaskwithJanetStein,“Efficientat what?”ThenotionofLLLconcomitantwithFreire’sideaswouldbeone inwhichpeopleareconceivedasrelationalbeingsinharmonywiththe restofthecosmos,asdistinctfromanindustriallyconditionednotionof LLLwherebypeoplearerestrictedtoconstantly(re)learningtheskillsto produceandconsumewithoutlimits,actions.Needlesstosay,thelatter hasrepercussionsforthesurvivalofPlanetEarthborrowedfromfuture generations—arecurringthemeinthisbook.AsGadotti(2016)argued “TheWorldBankandtheEuropeanUnion’sconceptionofLifelong Education(read:LifelongLearning,ourinsertion)pointstoadirection runningcontrarytoonethatleadstoafairandsustainablemannerof living.Theaimofthesebodiesisthestandardization,andnotconnectivity indifference,andindividualism,notsolidarity”(p.9).5

TheUN,incontrast,regardsLLLasanimportantvehicleforattaining itssustainabledevelopmentgoals.ForLLLtobemeaningfulinthis urgentstruggle,itmustberescuedfromthereductionist,economicorientedparadigminwhichitiscurrentlyentrappedtobepresentedas broaderinscope,embracingallformsofintra-humanandhuman–earth relations.Freire’spedagogicalpoliticswouldfindacongenialhomeinthe widerconceptionofLLLforsustainabledevelopment,certainlyintune withthewritingandteachingoffellowLatinAmerican,PopeFrancis (2015).Weshalladdressthisingreaterdetailinthenextchapter.

TherelationalaspectofLLL,withitscollectiveand“unityindiversity” dimensions,bringstomind,onceagain,socialmovements,oftendecried forbeingmorefocusedonsinglespecificissuepoliticsthanonabroader politicstargetingthestructuralforcesofoppressionthatspanvarious differences.Itisforthisreasonthatwewerecarefulnottoextricatethe discussionaroundtheWomen’sMovementfromthewiderissueof intersectionality withregardtootherformsofoppressionandmacro/micro aggressions.Wepursueintersectionalitylaterinthisbook.Itisthetaskof confrontingsingleissuepoliticswithabroaderpoliticsthatledFreireto usethephrase“unityindiversity”(Freire 1997)inthefirstplace.That

piecein MentoringtheMentor wasaresponsebyPauloFreiretoactivists andscholarsexpressingtheirviewsfromdifferentsocialvantagepoints. TheWorldSocialForum,emergingfromhisnativeBrazil,providesan idealcontextformanyofthesemovementstocoalescearoundaneffortto confrontneoliberalglobalizationasapowerful,all-pervasivestructuring force.Needlesstosay,Freire’snameandworkwere,andcontinuetobe, inthevarioussocialforums,constantandveryaptsourcesofreference.

SocialmovementsappealedtoFreire.Mostofhisbooksfromthe mid-1980sonwardattesttoFreire’srecognitionoftheroleofsocial movementsasagentsofchange.Hiswritingsandinterviewsrevealhow theemergenceoftheMST(MovimentodosTrabalhadoresRuraisSem Terra—LandlessPeasantMovement)inBrazil(Tarlau 2017, 2019)and othermovementselsewhere,includingEurope,capturedhisimagination. Hehimselfwaspartof,andindeedcontributedto,amovement,the LiberationTheologymovement,whichstroveforanimportantprocessof change,ofradicalization,withintheCatholicChurch,animportantinstitutioninLatinAmericaandbeyond.HeandhisteamattheEducation SecretariatinSãoPaulosawthemselvesasgivingrisetotheemergenceof acurriculumreformmovement.MOVA-SP(Stromquist 1997)hasalso beendescribedasa“federationofmovements”(O’Cadizetal. 1998, p.57).

Freirestrovetobringsocialmovementsandstateagenciestogether inSãoPaulowhenEducationSecretarythere(seeChapter3inO’Cadiz etal. 1998).Ironically,givenFreire’suseofthephrase,O’Cadiz,Wong, andTorresquotedMoacirGadottiassayingthat“beingtacticallyinside andstrategicallyoutside”thesystemwasthestanceadoptedbysocial movementswithrespecttotheirrelationshipwiththeSãoPauloEducationSecretariat.Theywerewaryofthestate’snatureinthiscity,even, ifinthisparticularcase,thestatewasbeingrepresentedbyaprogressive municipaladministration(O’Cadizetal. 1998,p.44)whichhowever dependedforitsfundingonaFederalgovernmentundercontrolofthe opposingparty.Thisattitude,onthesocialmovements’part,didnot deterthemunicipalgovernmentfromstrivingtoforgeacollaborative partnershipwiththem.

AsafoundingmemberofthePT(PartidoTrabalhadores—Workers’ Party),apartyborn,toacertainextent,outofsocialmovements,Freire alsoinsistedthatthepartyhadtolistentoandlearnfromsocialmovementswithouttryingtotakethemover.Heisonrecordashaving said:

Today,iftheWorkers’Partyapproachesthepopularmovementsfrom whichitwasborn,withouttryingtotakethemover,thepartywillgrow; ifitturnsawayfromthepopularmovements,inmyopinion,theparty willweardown.Besides,thosemovementsneedtomaketheirstruggle politicallyviable.(Freire,inEscobaretal. 1994,p.40)

Workinginthecontextofsocialmovementsimpliesanongoingprocess oflearningandrelearning,formally,nonformally,andmainlyinformally.6 SocialmovementlearningprovidesanalternativeformofLLLtothe mainstream.Thisprocessoflearningprojectsnotionsofpeoplenotin two-dimensionalreductionisttermsbutprimarilyassocialactors(Martin 2000).ItistothistypeofLLLthatFreireappeals,becomingquiterelevant.ThisalternativeconceptofLLLmakesFreirerelevantinviewof theprocessof conscientização embeddedinhisapproachtogainingcriticaldistancefromwhatpeopleknowtoperceivethingsinamorecritical light(Praxis ),thusseeingthroughtheideologyoftheprevalentsocioeconomicsystemandworkingthroughthecontradictions.Thisprovidesan antitheticalviewofLLLbasednotonaviewofworking fortheeconomy, withalltheillusionsofprosperityinvolved,buton engagingcriticallywith it andsocietyingeneral,understandingitsunderlyingcontradictions. WhiletheEUpromotesdigitalandotherfunctionalliteraciesasits much-valuednewbasicskills,Freirepromotedcriticalliteracy,which, aswehadoccasiontocommentcountlesstimes,isconspicuousbyits absenceintheEUdiscourse.Criticalliteracyhasthepotentialtoenable onetoreadandwrite(Taylor 1993)theworldaswellasthewordthrough theprocessofpraxiswhichenablesonetostandbackfromthecontext oneknowstoseeitinamorecriticallight.Thatthistermislackingfrom theEUMemorandum’slistof“newbasicskills”isrevealingwithregard tothetransmissionmodelinherentinthisparticularhegemonicnotionof LLL.AFreire-inspirednotionofLLLwould,tothecontrary,bebased ontheuseofskillsnotsimplytofunctionintheeconomy,important thoughthisis,buttointerpretandchangeit.Thishearkensbackto theoldSocraticdictum,asreproducedbyPlatointhe Apologia,thatan unexaminedlifeisalifenotworthliving.Alsonotworthlivingisalife thatdoesnotallowpeoplethepossibilityofcollectivelychangingit,thus rewritinghistoryintheprocess.

Furthermore,thisalternativeFreireanprocessofLLLisbasedon notsimplyengaginginindividualsolutionstoanxietiesderivingfrom currentstatesofrisk,liquidityandprecariousness,preventingpeoplefrom

planninglongterm,buttocriticallyreadtheworldandidentifythe structuringforcesthatcausetheseeffects—thedysfunctionalstructuring Capitalistforcesshapingpeople’slives.Theygenerateasenseofinsecurityanddespairderivingfromthecurrentsituationofausterity,precarious living,andinabilitytoplanlongterm(CooperandHardy 2012,pp.60, 61).Onceagain,ratherthanLLLtreatingsymptoms,thereappearstobe aneedforLLLthatprovidesacriticalreadingofthecauses(seeMayo 2017).

SocialTransformativeLLL andthePoliticsofHope

Ratherthansimplyantibioticsandothermedicines,whatisrequiredis social/structuralchangeforgreatersocialjustice.ThekindofLLLforthis purpose,forwhichFreire’spedagogicalideasarerelevant,isonepredicatedonaconceptionoftheworldnotasitisbutasitcanandshould befromasocialjusticeperspective.ItisLLLwithasociallytransformativeedgethatFreirehelpsinspireratherthanthekindofneoliberalLLL weencountertodaywithitsreproductivefunctionbasedontheproblematic“Capitalistrealism”(Fisher 2009,p.19)mantrathatthereisno alternative(TINA)tothepresent.

Toendonapositivenote,reflectingapedagogyandpoliticsofhope (Freire 1994),wereiteratethatwewoulddowellnottoregardsuch institutionsastheEUasmonolithic.Wealsorepeat,inthisregard, thathegemonicstructurescontain,withintheirinterstices,thespacesand possibilitiesforcontestationandmovementtowardchange.Thisishow hegemonyworks,beingnevercompleteandconstantlyinflux.TheEU isnoexceptionandsotherearepossibilitiesforthoseoperating“inand againstit”tobringasociallytransformativeedgeintotheirLLLwork, wormingtheiragendasintotheprogramsavailable,being,onceagain,as FreireandotherBrazilianswouldputit,“tacticallyinsideandstrategicallyoutside”thesystem.Whatrendersthisevenmorepossibleincertain countries,albeitthelargerEuropeanoneswiththeirregionalvariations,is thattherearedifferentlayersofmediationthatapolicyhastogothrough toreachthegrassrootsterritory/siteofpractice:fromBrusselsitself, wheredifferentpolicyactorswithdifferentorientationsarepresentin variousEUepistemiccommunities,bringingtheirownvaluestobearon policyinterpretation,7 tothenationalcoordinatingbodytotheregional areasorterritories,inItaly’s territorio sense,andtothemunicipalities.

Lotsofhybridization,transmutations,andappropriation,hopefullycriticalappropriation,canoccuralongtheway.Muchdependsonthestance adoptedbythegatekeepersconcerned,some,aswehaveseeninrecent accessioncountries,provingmorerigidthanothers.Theflowishowever neverstraightforward.Aswithteachersandschoolleaders,whoreinvent andmediatepolicydiscoursesintheirspecificsitesofpractice(Giroux 1988),peopleentrustedwithimplementingpolicycanalso“reinvent” suchpoliciesintheirownspecificcontexts—allmediatorsintheprocess ofculturaltransmissionandproduction.Thisshouldofferhopetothose seekingtotransform“inandagainst”aneoliberal-drivensystem.

Notes

1.Aneyewitnessaccount.PeterMayowasaworkinggroupmemberforthe GrundtvigprojectandalsoamemberoftheworkinggrouponQuality IndicatorsforLLL.Herepresentedhiscountry,Malta,inbothareas.

2.ThiswasalsothepositionthatMoacirGadotti(2016)defendedat CONFINTEABRASIL + 6,heldinBrasília,Brazil,April25–28,2016, ataconferencesessionon“PopularEducationandLifelongEducation.”

3.Anexceptionishisaddressatthe40thAnniversaryofUIL,SeeP.Freire. (1992).Thepurposeofeducation.InUIE(UNESCOInstituteforEducation)(Ed.), The40thAnniversaryoftheUNESCOInstituteforEducation UIEReports,6(pp.23–28).Hamburg:UNESCOInstituteforEducation.

4. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001229/122930Eo.pdf.

5.AtentativetranslationfromtheoriginalinPortuguesebyMoacirGadotti. Theoriginalreads:“AconcepçãodeEducaçãoaoLongodaVidadoBanco MundialedaUniãoEuropeiaapontaparaumadireçãoopostaaummunto justoesustentável.Aapostadessesorganismoséauniformizaçãoenãoa conectividadenadiferença,oindividualismoenãoasolidariedade.”Gadotti uses“LifelongEducation”(EducaçãoaoLongodaVida)althoughthe termusedbythetwoinstitutions,especiallytheEU,isLLLwith,aswe haveseen,allitsideologicaldifferencesfromtheoldUNESCOconceptof LLE.

6.WearehereusingUNESCO’sclassifications(CoombsandAhmed 1974), regardingdifferenttypesofeducation;theseclassificationsserveaheuristic purpose—weoftencomeacrossacombinationoftwoormoreoccurring inextricablyinagiveneducationalexperienceorproject.

7.AclassiccaseisthedecisionbytherelevantbodyinBrusselstosupportthe proposalforanInternationalErasmusMundusMasterinAdultEducation forSocialChange(IMAESC)withitscontentverymuchfocusingaround

socialjusticeandinwhichFreireanpedagogyplaysanimportantpart. Itwasaccordedthelargestallocationoffundsfromamongtheselected ErasmusMundusInternationalMasterprograms. http://www.gla.ac.uk/ postgraduate/erasmusmundus/imaesc/.

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CHAPTER7

LLLChallenges:RespondingtoMigration andtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals

Abstract Thetwenty-firstcenturyhasseenmassivemigrationofpeoples escapingthedegradationoftheenvironment,effectsofwar,threatsto security,andlackofopportunityintheircountriesoforigin.Thosewho survive,somecomingtotermswiththetraumaoflosinglovedonesalong theway,enterasmigrants,refugees,andtemporaryworkers.Thispaper examinestheplightofthesevulnerablemigratorypopulationsinlightof theglobalresponsibilityforattainingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals (SDGs)by2030.Specialattentionisgiventothesupportsnecessaryfor alifelonglearning(LLL)responsetoenablethispopulationtolivea lifecharacterizedbydignity.TheauthorsargueforaLLLprocessthat addressestheparticularpoliticsof“disposability”(Bauman 2006,p.40) surroundingmanymigrants’lives.

Keywords Lifelonglearning · Migration · Poverty · SDGs · Temporary workers · Work

Thispaperisreproducedfrom:LeonaEnglishandP.Mayo.(2019).Lifelong learningchallenges:RespondingtomigrationandtheSustainableDevelopment Goals’ InternationalReviewofEducation,65(2),213–231. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11159-018-9757-3.

©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2021

L.M.EnglishandP.Mayo, LifelongLearning,GlobalSocialJustice, andSustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65778-9_7

Introduction

Onecouldbeforgivenforthinkingthatthenationstatenolonger matters,giventheamountofmigrationfromcountrytocountryinthe twenty-firstcentury.Evenacasualglancethroughinternationalpublicationssuchasthe NewYorkTimes showsthatmigration,especiallythe decadesofillegalmigrationofMexicansintotheUSA,istopofcitizens’ minds.ThesameappliestomigrantsinEuropewheretheir“illegality” andtheirbeing“Sans-Papiers”1 (Badiou,ascitedinNail 2015,p.109) rendersmigrantsTCNs(ThirdCountryNationals),thetermforpeople intransitfromtheirhomecountryandintheprocessofmovingto another(intheEU,non-EUcitizens).Theyareexposedtoexploitationthroughoutthejourneyand,ifsuccessful,laterexposedtotraffickers (thosewhosmugglemigrantsforhugesumsofmoney,oftenreferredto inLatinAmericaas coyotes )atoneendandunscrupulousemployersat theother.Theycapitalizeonmigrants’lackofchoiceinhavingtowork, asdisposablebeings(Bauman 2006),forapittance,withthethreatof deportationhangingoverthem.Whileothersworkinthecomfortoftheir homesorinotherrelativelysecurespaces,migrants,togetherwithothers whoplacetheirbodiesonthelinebecauseofthenatureoftheirworkor simplybecauseofprecariousemployment,facethethreatoftheCovid-19 pandemicasthealternativeisstarvation.Yet,inthefaceoftheseodds, manypersevereintravelingtoEurope.Inthefirstsixmonthsof2017, morethan116,000migrantshadenteredEurope(IOM 2017).2 Despite thedifferencesamongmigrants,refugees,andtemporaryworkers,3 we seegreatsimilarityintheirissues—thequestfordecentworkandLLL opportunities—andaddressthemcollectivelywithaparticularfocuson theintegratedeffortsnecessarytomakeimprovementpossible.

Therighttodignifiedbasicliving,essentiallyentailingfullaccessto thoserightsthatarethebedrockoftheUnitedNations’Sustainable DevelopmentGoals(SDGs),4 isseverelylimitedinnon-legalizedand vulnerablemigrantpopulations,whoarethefocusofthischapter.The 17SDGs,especiallyGoal4foraqualityeducationandGoal8fordecent work(thosemostdirectlyrelatedtolivesofmigrants)areunlikelyto beachievedbytheproposedUNdeadlineof2030,inpartduetothe inabilitytoeffectivelyaddressmigration,compoundedbyseveralissues, mostnotablytheoutspreadofCovid-19,oftenludicrouslyblamed,in Right-wingsources,onmigrantsthemselves.Thischapterarguesforthe centralityofLLLpoliciesandpracticesintheglobalefforttorespond

toincreasedmigration.WedrawonUNESCOpublications,published literature,andexamplesfromselectcountries,tomakethecaseforLLL, usedinitsall-embracingmeaningofeducationandlearningatallstages oflife,andpolicyapproachesthatmightleadtomigrantsbeinggainfullyemployed.Inourview,LLL’sintersectoralprinciplewouldlieatthe heartofapedagogicalefforttocontributetowardattainingsustainable development.

Wedraw,forthispurpose,onUNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning’s(UIL)definitionofLLLas:

rootedintheintegrationoflearningandlivingcoveringlearningactivitiesforpeopleofallages(children,youngpeople,adultsandtheelderly, girlsandboys,womenandmen)inalllife-widecontexts(families,schools, community,workplaceandsoon)andthroughavarietyofmodalities (formal,non-formalandinformal)whichtogethermeetawiderangeof learningneedsanddemands.Educationsystemsthatpromotelifelong learningadoptaholisticandsector-wideapproachinvolvingallsubsectorsandlevelstoensuretheprovisionoflearningopportunitiesfor allindividuals.(UIL 2015,p.2).

ThisisquiterefreshingwhencontrastedtotheEU’sdefinitioninthe Memorandum.Theholisticapproachspeakstotheeconomic,cultural, andotherresourcesneededtomakelearningarealitybothinschools andinthecommunity.Thisdefinitionguidesourdiscussionofvulnerable migrants.

TheUN’sInternationalOfficeofMigration(IOM)reportsquarterly onmigration,includingonthesurgeofpeoples,fromSub-SaharanAfrica (SSA)andtheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA),totheEU, throughaccesspointsintheMediterranean.Oftendisplacedanddisenfranchisedfromconflictzones,somemigrantsfirstcrosstheSaharatrying tosurviveLibya(includingthosewhocomefromtheMiddleEast,especiallySyrianrefugees)andthenattemptthedangerousMediterranean crossing.Some22,394peopleofallageslosttheirlivescrossingthe Mediterraneanduringthelasttwodecades(BrianandLaczko 2014, p.20).Thereisnosignofsuchacarnageabating,thetollbeing3279in 2014;3784in2015;5098in2016;and521injustthefirsttwomonths of2017(IOM 2017).5 Yet,thisisnotexclusivelyaWesternphenomenon as“South”–“South”migrationalsocreatestensions;witnessthereception ofZimbabweanswhomovetoSouthAfrica(Claassen 2017).

Evenmorethana“SocialEurope”ora“SocialAmerica”(seeWorth 2006)—statesthatprovideforthesocialwelfareofcitizens,theformer morethanthelatter—thereisneed,weargue,forasocialworld.This wouldbebasedonageneralawarenessthatpracticesinonepartofthe globehaveramificationsforotherregionsandcontinents,asallareinterconnected:politicsinthe“North”haverepercussionsinthe“South” andviceversa.Therelationbetweenthetwo,however,oftenremains acolonialonecharacterizedintheSouthasinequalityandoftenbya lackofsocialsupportssuchashousingandmedicalservicesforall.This isfarfromaSocialWorldwhereprovisionismadeinallrespectsfor thewell-beingofpeoples,regardlessofcitizenship.ThereisaparticularneedtoechotheSDGs’emphasisonLLLtobeanintegralpart ofthisvision:thestakesarehigh.TheUNESCOInstituteforStatistics andtheGlobalMonitoringReport(UISandEFA-GMR 2017)notes “ifalladultscompletedsecondaryschool,theglobalpovertyratewould bemorethanhalved”(p.1).AchievingtheSDGsrequiresconsiderable interdependence,especiallyofgoals4and8.

Thereare,however,fewcomprehensiveandeffectivepoliciesintheEU andelsewheretocoordinatethemigrantsurgeortowelcomenewcomers. Thusfar,mostpoliciesregardingmigrantsarelefttothenationstate,a pointwhichcallsintoquestiontheso-calledrecedingofthenationstate inacontextofglobalization(seeAugustínandJørgensen 2016).Solidaritybetweenmemberstatesonthisissueisabsentasaresult(Mallia 2012).Understandably,therefore,therearefewifanypoliciesforLLLto addresstheseissues.NosuchpolicyisfeaturedintheEUMemorandum onLLL(CEC 2000, 2001),forinstance,andanyeffortstoincludeitin aproposedreviseddocumenttenyearsafteritsintroductionfailed.

Low-incomecountries,mostlylocatedintheglobalSouth,“arehome toadisproportionatelylargeshareoftheglobalout-of-schoolpopulation”(UIS 2017,p.9).ThecreationofadequateLLLpolicieswould constituteamassiveparadigmaticshiftinworldhistoryandcanbea catalystforpreventingmigrantsandrefugeesfromriskingtheirlives.A migrationpolicythatfocusesonLLLwouldconstituteoneofthecontributorymeanstobringaboutahumanitarianchangeinthisaspectofcross bordermobility.Westressthekeyword“contributory”sincewerecognize thateducationcannotchangethingsonitsownasitisnotanindependentvariable.Itcan,however, contribute,togetherwithothervariables suchaspovertyreductionandaccesstodecentwork,tochange.

InternationalResponsetoMigrants:PolicyGaps

Globallytherehavebeenvariableresponsestomigrants.ThoughtheEU countries,forinstance,haveagreedontheDublinRegulation(EU 2013), whichaddressesTCNimmigrationandasyluminaspecificand,tosome, problematicmanner,therestillremainsalargegapinimplementationand compliance,andtherehasbeenlittleornoattentioninthisRegulation toLLL.ThismixedreceptioncontrastssharplywiththeEU’strumpeting ofa“SocialEurope”orthenotionthatthesecountriescatereffectively forthesocialwelfareofcitizensthoughpolicyandbenefits(Mayo 2017; Worth 2006).

TheissuehasbeenexacerbatedbyterroristattacksinParis,Nice, Madrid,London,Brussels,NewYork,andothercities,linkedtoparticularregionsandreligionssuchasradicalIslam.Europeancountriessuch asSlovakiaandHungaryhavedeepenedtheirresistancetoimmigration andheightenedthedegreeofIslamophobiabystatingapreferencefor migrantswhoareChristianratherthanMuslim.Ofcourse,theinsidious issuehereisthedistortedconflationofMuslim,migrant,andrefugeewith “terrorist.”Migrantsareleftfounderingasaresultofthesereactionary policiesandpractices,includingthexenophobiadocumentedinSouth Africa(Claassen 2017),whichcausesinsufficientattentionbeingdevoted tolifelonglearningstrategies.Onceagain,migrantsareoftenmadescapegoatsforthespreadofthepandemic,asituationusedasapretextforthe closureofportsinMaltaandItalyduringtherecentlockdownbecauseof Covid-19.SheerignorancehasledtoxenophobicreactionstothepresenceofEastAsianpeopleintheWestandelsewhere,includingHigher Educationstudents.

AlongwithEurope,NorthAmericahasbeendeeplyaffectedbythe riseinmigrantsandasylumseekers.Canada,forinstance,hasreceived migrantsthroughoutitshistoryasithasacomplexethnicmakeupand definesitselfasmulticultural,soimmigration,migrants,andrefugees havebeenpartofitshistoryanditscomplexion.Withtheexception ofthedispossessedIndigenous,mostCanadiancitizensaremigrantsor offspringofmigrantsofsomesort.Thecountry’sstrictimmigration policy,however,prioritizesskillsandemployability.Atthetimeofwriting, Canada’sissueisthewaveofmigrantswhohaveenteredtheUSAand arebreachingCanada’sbordersinboththeWestandEast,toavoid limitedpotentialforfullUSintegration,especiallyamongfirst-generation migrants.Trump’sracialandneofascistpolitics,inthisregard,exacerbates

thissituation.AsfarasCanadaisconcerned,thissystemhasitsweaknesses,sinceevenprofessionallyeducatedmigrantsareunemployedand underemployedintheirnewhostcountry(Slade 2015,p.67).Though basiceducationisprovidedtoallcitizensfreeofcharge,asthroughout theEUwhere“everyforeignminorevenifundocumentedhastheright tobeenrolledinpublicschools”(TarozziandTorres 2016,p.107), accesstopublichighereducationisnot.Yet,acomprehensivenational policythatstressesdecentworkandeducation,orsourcesforlifelong learningformigrants,includingthosewhohavebecomethebackbone oftheserviceandfoodproductionindustries,arevirtuallyabsent.Critics suchasShan(2015b)pointtothewaysinwhichexistingandpartial policiesandpracticesfocusondeficitsofmigrants,insteadofassets.

Evenwithinspecificcountries,theresponsetomigrants,includinga willingnesstoprovidebasicservicessuchaseducation,ismixed.While majorUScitiessuchasNewYorkCity,LosAngeles,andChicagohave declaredthemselvessanctuarycitieswillingtotakeinmigrants,thishas notbeenaninternationaltrend,norhasitnecessarilybeenwellreceived bythoseopposedtomigrantsandincreasedmigration.Howaredifferent countriesrespondingtomigrationinthecontextofrealizingtheSDGsby 2030?HavetheydevelopedaLLLresponse?Thisisdifficulttoascertain asevenagenciessuchasIOMreportnumbers,notactualpolicies.

ClosertotheheartofthehumanitariancrisisinEurope,thecountries ofMaltaandGreeceprovidestrategicentrypointstoEuropethrough theMediterraneanSea(MayoandPisani 2017).Bothcountrieshave beenreachedbyundocumentedarrivalsfromNorthAfrica,theMiddle East,andSub-SaharanAfrica;asituationthathaslongbeenconstructed asanongoingcrisis(seeMainwaring 2012).Yet,theDublinRegulation (EU 2013)makesitimperativethateachcountryretainthenon-legalized migrants(theyarefingerprintedlesttheymovetosomeothercountry) becauseitassignsresponsibilityforexamininganasylumclaimtothe memberstatethatmarksthefirstpointofirregularentryintotheEU.The talkofEuropean“responsibilitysharing”and“solidarity”arebypassedby theDublinRegulationthatplainlyandsimplykeepsmigrantsgrounded inthecountriesofentry,subjecttoothercountries’willingnesstoshare someofwhatpoliticiansproblematicallycallthe“burden,”althoughonly afewcountrieshaveshownsuchacommitmenttodate.Inthepast, therewerecasesofresettlementintheUSAandwehavewitnessedthe announcementofthefirstEUrelocationexercise(EC 2017).TheEU’s plantodistribute120,000refugeesamongdifferentEUmemberstates

metwithresistance(especiallyfromPoland,Slovakia,andHungary)with onlyMaltaandFinlandthenoncoursetofulfilltheirobligations(Mayo andPisani 2017).OutsidethisspecificEUrelocationexercise,other EuropeancountriessuchasGermanyhavetakenmorethantheirshare ofrefugees.Meanwhile,processingofasylumapplicationstakesalong time,asmigrantfuturesareleftdanglingwithoutprotectionoraccessto rights,work,andeducation.

TheMDGs,theSDGs,andLLL

Inanefforttoprovideleadership,theUNhasworkedacrossandwith statestoprovideguidance,bothintermsoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs),whichweresucceededin20156 bytheSustainable DevelopmentGoals(SDGs)scheduledtobemetby2030.Inarticulating thesegoals,theglobalcommunityhopestoorienttheworldtoissues thatareinterconnectedandproblematicforsustainabilityontheplanet andwhichunderscorebasichumanrights.Innamingqualityeducation asGoal4,theUNproposesto“Ensureinclusiveandequitablequality educationandpromotelifelonglearningopportunitiesforall.”Thisseems innocuousformany,yetitisthegoalthatismostentwinedwithnot onlyGoal1(povertyreduction)andGoal8(decentwork),butalso withGoal5(genderequality)torenderpossiblesuchgoalsasgood healthandwell-being(Goal3).ThetargetsforGoal4arealsoinstructive here.Specifically,target9looksatincreasingaccesstohighereducationthroughscholarshipstoenableadultstoincreaseaccesstovocational training,inparticular.

DespitethepromiseoftheSDGs,foramigratorypopulation,thestateless,thelandless,andthedispossessed,thegoalsremainillusory.Asthe UILdefinitionofLLLnotes,anyapproachtosupportthesemigrantsand theirlearning,specificallytheimplicationsofGoal4,hastobeinclusive andholistic,andinterdependentonothers,asthissectiondemonstrates.

SpecificAttentiontoAdult LearningandEducation

AlthoughGoal4isbroadandencompasseslearningallthroughthelife course,adultlearningandeducation(ALE)isespeciallyneededforadult migrants.UNESCO(2015)seesALEascrucialinworkingwiththose

whoareinaprecariousstate,callingforspecialattentionto“vulnerablegroupssuchasindividualswithlowlevelsor,orno,literacyand numeracyandschooling,vulnerableyouth,migrantworkers,unemployed workers,membersofethnicminorities,indigenousgroups,individuals withdisability,prisoners,theelderly,peopleaffectedbyconflictordisasters,refugees,statelessordisplacedpersons”(p.11,paragraph23c). UNESCO’sattentiontoadulteducationisinsyncwiththeneedto assistthosewhoaremigratingastheyhavebeen“affectedbyconflict ordisaster,[orare]refugees,statelessordisplacedpersons”(ibid.).In addressingeducation,andespeciallyALE,receivingcountriesarebetter abletohelpthewholeorextendedfamily.UNESCOisstrategicin drawingattentiontothesecountries’needsandtheirALEagenda: provideaholisticapproach,asopposedtoexclusivelyemphasizingvocationalskillsandassimilation.

Verstehen7:Understanding thecausesofmigration

OneimportanttargetforLLLingeneralisthefosteringofageneral understandingworldwideofwhymigrantsleavetheirplaceoforiginand comeknockingatthegatesofcountriesperceivedtobeprosperous. CountriesinNorthAmericaandEuropearenotwithoutblameinterms oftheircontributionstoscenariosinAfricaandotherareasforming partoftheTricontinentalworld(Africa,Asia,andLatinAmerica)8 that leadtomassmigration.PeoplemightbefleeingIndigenouspractices suchasfemalegenitalmutilationandwarsfueledbyaWestern-based armsindustry.Theyarealsofleeinglegaciesofcenturiesofcolonialism includingeducationallegaciesasaresultofwhichtheWestispresented asthe“Eldorado”forthegoodlifeincontrasttotheunderdevelopment oftheircountriesbroughtaboutbyEuropeancolonialpowersandtheir networksofbeneficiaries(seeRodney 1973).Thenthereistheissueof climatechangeandtheprecariousstateofPlanetEarth,ofteninduced bytheravagingeffortsofWestern-basedcorporations,effortsthatwreak havocamongthelivesofimpoverishedpeoplesinbothNorthandSouth. Makenomistake,migrationfromSouthtoNorth,andfromSouthto South,willriseexponentiallyinthecomingyearsascorporationscontinue toplaceprofitbeforepeopleandseekshort-termgratification.Evenin thispandemicsituation,severalstatesplaceeconomicimperativesover thelivesofpeopleaseffortsaremadetoexpeditethereturntowork

and“normalcy”asfarastheeconomygoes,evenwhenthepandemic showslittlesignofabating.Somearesacrificedonthealtarofeconomic efficiency,especiallytheoldandvulnerable,withJairBolsonaro’s“So what?”becomingasloganinBrazilagainstsuchdiscriminatepolicies.All thisaddstothe“humanwastedisposalindustry,”inthelateZygmunt Bauman’swords(Bauman 2006).Thisraisestheissueofbeinggrievable, inJudithButler’s(2016)terms;whoisallowedtoliveandprosperand whoisallowedtobegrieved?

Theriseinvoraciouscapitalismcontributesimmenselytothe“greenhouseeffect”whichrenderstheimpactofindividual’seffortsatsustainablelivingminisculewhencontrastedwiththeeffortsthatareexpected ofcorporationsandotherpowerfulentities.Climatechangewillbecome unbearableforpeopleintheSouth:theyear2015wasthehottestthus farandtheUNIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangepredicts anincreaseof1.5degreescentigrade.20–30%oftheplanet’sspecies wouldbeatriskofextinction.Inthesummerof2015–2016,Southern Africafacedcalamitousdroughtsthatwereunprecedentedwithmillions facingstarvation.Asclimatechangegetsworse,millionswillfacefamine, extremeweather,floods,andheathwaves;warsoverresourceswilloccur anddiseaseslikemalariawillhitcountrieshithertounaffectedbythem (Empson 2016,pp.1and2).Manyarethosewhowillrisklifeand limbtoevadetheirsituation—escapingwaroverresources,droughts,and diseases.Droughtsareoftennotassistedbyappropriatefaminerelieffrom Westernpowersandcorporationslestthemarketpricesbecomedestabilized.ThisisaCapitalistpracticeoflongstandingincludinghistorical tragediesastheIrishpotatofamineinthenineteenthcentury(Empson 2016,p.17).Thissituationcontinuestoprevailinmanyplacestoday9 (e.g.hoardingofriceinIndia—Young 2003).Suchinactionisexcused byinfluentialpoliticianswhofailtoprovidereliefonthegroundsthatit isaresultoftheoverpopulationmentionedbyThomasRobertMalthus,10 atheorydebunkedscientifically,alongtimeago,byMarxandEngels11 andothers(Empson 2016,p.17).Thereisenoughfoodtofeedeach persononPlanetEarthalmosttwiceover12 butheartlessandunscrupulous“profitbeforepeople”considerationspreventitfromreachingthose whoneeditmost(ibid.).Thesameappliestoothereffectsthrough theweakeningofpublictransportinfavoroftheuseofpollutingcars (Empson 2016,p.23),tonameoneotheraspecthavingadetrimental effectontheclimatesituation.

LLLforSDGSwouldthereforeincludenotsimplyeffortstohelp migrantssurviveintheirnewenvironment,butawidespreadprocess ofconscientization,13 initiallybasedonaprocessof verstehen (understanding)ofsomeoftherealcausesofmassmigrationfromSouthto South(e.g.fromMogadishutoLibya—Lutterbeck 2012)and,forthose whomanagetosurvivethere,SouthtoNorth.Thisprocessof verstehen, inHannahArendt’ssenseoftheword,istheinitialsteptohopefullymake peopleactasglobalcitizensbyputtingpressureontheinstitutionsof capitalismtochangetheirmodusoperandi—understandingandadvocacy asfeaturesofLLL.Massagitationandmobilizationareneededtosave PlanetEarthandthereforepreventpeoplefromforciblybeinguprooted insearchofsurvival.Theneedis,onceagain,forasocialworldconsisting ofpeoplewhoseethemselvesasbeingrootedinandnotstandingapart fromNature(Empson 2016).

LLL,generatingawarenessandunderstandingofthelargerissuesand providingthetoolsforadvocacy,cancoexistwith,ifnotbeanintegral partof,downtoearthprocessesoflearninginvolvingavarietyofsurvival andempowermentskillsandstrategies.Oneoftheseconcernssecond languageacquisition,aspecificlifelonglearningtaskthatisimportanthere forthesuccessofGoal4.Migrantsmayormaynothavethelanguageor indeedtheliteracyskillsnecessarytosucceedinthenewenvironment. Inmoststates,languageproficiencyisrequiredforparticipationinthe labormarketandalltoooftenthisproficiencyisdeterminedbytesttaking thatmayormaynotcorrespondtothejobbeingsoughtorthereceiving society.Drawingonherextensiveresearchonskillsandeconomicpolicies, Gibb(2015)notesthatinthis“globalknowledgeeconomy,thenewwork orderinvolvesa‘novelwordorder’”(p.251);languagecanbeusedto excludepeople—itcanbeawayofstrengtheningnationalidentityand buildingexclusionarybordersforthosefounddeficient,asifmigrantsdo nothavetheirmanystrengths,potentiallyasourceofsocialenrichment. Ratherthanassistingwithimmigration,stringentlanguagepoliciesand lackofinstructionsupportthecontinueddominanceofWesterncolonial powersandtheeconomicandsocialstratificationofnewcomers;migrants areconstructedasdeficit.

Gibb(2015)pointstotheneedforthoselanguageassessorsand testsforassessmenttobeheldtohighstandardsoftrainingandreview; else,theyfurtherreducethecomplexityoflanguagetoawrittentest andultimatelyshort-changenewcomers.Oftenforgotteninworkwith

migrantsistheneedtoincorporatedifference:societiesthatareinclusive,14 notassimilative,workbetterformigrants(Shan 2015a)and citizensingeneral.Thehomogenizationofculturesworkscontrarytothe SDGswhichadvocatebiodiversity,relationalbeings,partnerships,equality forcitizens,notcentralizationandreproduction.Inclusionofcitizens mustbeaboutwhatGuo(2015)calls“pluralistcitizenship”(p.49)or onethatisaboutdiversityanddifference,ratherthanhomogeneity.Guo seesethno-culturaldiversityasessentialforchangeanddifference.

MovingtoRedresstheDeficitApproachtoSkills

Goal8,decentworkandeconomicgrowth,iscentraltothemigrants’ abilitytosucceedeconomicallyandcontributetothenewsociety.To assistwiththis,andultimatelyservetheneedsofthelabormarket, somereceivingcountrieshavedevelopedelaboratesystemsofeducational transferknownasRVA(Recognition,ValidationandAccreditation), whichhasacacheinmanyspheres,asittriestoprovidecredentialing andrecognitionofacquiredskillsandabilities,includingthosefrom everydaylife(UNESCO 2012).Theintentisprimarilyforintegration intothelabormarket,regardlessofwheretheyweretrainedorcredentialedorwheretheypreviouslyworked(Singh 2015,p.2).RVAallows themarginalizedtoberecognizedfortheirnonformalandinformal learning.RVAispremisedonthenotionthatalllearningissocialand needstobeevaluatedinitssocialsphere.Indocumentingbestpracticesaroundtheworld,indevelopedandso-calleddevelopingcontexts, Singhobservesthatsomecountrieshavebeenmoreeffectivethanothers inimplementingthesystemsofRVAorpriorlearningandassessmentand recognition(PLAR),asitisvariouslyknown.

Indeed,accordingtoarigorousanalysisofsixteenRVAframeworks, Allais(2011)hasshownthatdespitethepromise,RVApracticeshavenot beenfullyintegratedwhetherforlackofsupportorlackofimplementationpolicies.InEurope,RVAisespeciallyimportanttoEUcitizens travelingacrossdifferentcountriesintheUnion,especiallyattheUniversitylevelthroughtheEuropeanCreditTransferSystem(ECTS)within whatisknownastheBolognaProcess.15 Anumberofcountriesoutside theEU,suchasMorocco,Egypt,andTurkey,areseekingtohavetheir systemdevelopinlinewiththeEUprocess—asourceofinternationalization,theprocess,inEUparlance,ofenticingstudentsfromoutsidethe EUtostudyathighereducationinstitutionswithinit.Therewasalsoan

attempt,throughtheUnionoftheMediterranean,16 withitssecretarial baseinBarcelona,tocreateaEuro-MediterraneanHigherEducation area,which,oneassumes,wouldallowforknowledgeandqualifications transfer(Mayo 2019).EUcountriesalsoassessqualificationsofmigrants, formalandnonformal,throughtheirnationalqualificationsframework (NQF).ThestudyofRVAmakesclearthat,todecreasebarrierstoentry toeducation,theworkplace,andsocialnetworks,eachcountryneeds mechanismsthatprovideequivalenciesandeaseaccess.Theyareessential totheSDGs’achievement.

Yet,oftenthoseRVAsystemsthatexistareadhocandneedtobe morerobust(Kahanecetal. 2013)andseenastrustworthyiftheyare tobeusableandpractical.Clearly,RVAiscomplex,multifaceted,and affectsmovementofmigrantsbetweenprovincesandcountries.Ultimately,however,whattheseprogramsproposetodoismovemigrants fromtheworldofdeficittotheworldofassets.Insteadoffocusingon whatmigrantsdonotknow,suchsystemsfocusonwhattheyknowand trytosupportandaccentuatethat.

AttendingtoProfessionalKnowledgeinPractice

Goal8,decentworkandeconomicgrowth,isentwinedwiththegoal toendpoverty(Goal1)andworldhunger(Goal2).Allofthesegoals areimportant,giventhepracticalrealitythatprofessionalknowledgeand skillaremigratingsteadilyacrossborders,carriedbyvulnerablepeople, includingthoseprofessionallyeducated,whomaybeavoidingenvironmentaldisasters,war,andinhospitablelivingconditions.Adulteducator BonnieSlade(2015)haslookedcriticallyatthemovementofknowledge inthecontextofmigration,pointingtotheneedtoattendtotheflow ofskills,professionalcompetences,andabilities.Dependingonthekinds ofeducationandqualificationspoliciesthatrespectivecountrieshave,this professionalknowledgeinareassuchasengineering,law,andmedicine, forinstance,isharnessedornot,tothedetrimentofthereceivingcountry. Manymigrantshaveproblems,asSladepointsout,arisingfromthe factthattheiroverseas’experienceandeducationareoftenundervalued andmisused,resultinginde-skilling,underemployment,andalienation. CountrieslikeCanadaandtheUSA,withalonghistoryofimmigration,havenotnegotiatedtransferofskillswell,resultinginabroken immigrationsystemthatsaysitvaluestheseskills,diplomas,andcompetenciesbutfailstodosoinmostcases.InEurope,manycountries

haveatleasttriedtousethecredentialingsystem,includingthosemost affectedbytheflowofundocumentedmigrants.InMalta,forinstance, theslownessofthebureaucraticprocess,inrecognizingdiplomasand otherqualifications,discouragespeoplefromapplyingforrecognition ofcredentials;thisjeopardizestheiremploymentprospects(ibid.).The EuropeanNetworkagainstRacism(ENAR)indicated,inashadowreport aboutMaltain2014,thatlackofrecognitionofforeignqualifications isa“criticalproblem,”forcingasylumseekersandothermigrantsinto underemployment(Attardetal. 2014).Thereportstatesthat

asylumseekersandothermigrantsareoftenforcedtoundertakeemploymentwhichtheyareoverqualifiedfor.Thereisanunderlyingassumption thatmigrants’capabilitiesarelimitedtocertainjobs,anattitudewhichis oftencoupledwithacharityinstinctofthinkingthat“atleastthey’redoing somethingandearningsomething.”Thisfailuretorecognizequalifications mustalsobeconsideredwithinthecontextofalabourmarketwhichhas beengearedtoattracthighervalueaddedactivities.(pp.20,21)

Thisattentiontoskillsandknowledgeisimportantfortherecognitionof professionalknowledge,acquiredthroughyearsofeducationandtraining (Slade 2015).Itisawayofattendingtotheinformationandknowledge thatcomeintoacountry,mostlyuntappedandunderutilized.Sladenotes thatalltoooftenthereislackofrecognitionanduptakefortheskillsand knowledgeprofessionalsbringfromtheirhomecountry.Thetranslation ofskillsandabilitiesacrossbordersisespeciallyproblematicforimmigrant women.SladesumsuptheALEresponsibility:

Professionalmigrantsareoftenshockedtoexperiencedeskilling;theydo notimaginemigrationtobeatransitionfromprofessionalpracticeto labourjobs.Butalthoughdeskillingisexperiencedindividually,itisstructurallyaccomplishedandadulteducationhasbecomeavitalpartofthe institutionalresponsetodeskillingthroughprovisionofcoursesgearedat helpingimmigrantprofessionalsgetbackintotheirprofessions.(p.72)

Slade’spointisthatworkingtokeepprofessionalsinjobstheyaretrained forandtohelpmigrants,documentedandundocumented,moveinto thesekindsofworkisapriorityforadulteducators.Inmanyways,her argumentupendsthedebatethatALEshouldbededicatedtosocial purposesandreformratherthantoservethegovernmentortheneeds ofthelabormarket.ALEshouldincludeboth.Thelabormarketand

itsneedsisanadulteducationissuebecauseitisa“peopleissue”that involvesmeaningfulwork(Goal8)neededtohelpsolveaverycomplex socialissue.Inmovingpeopleacrossborders,wemovecapital,including culturalcapital.Wemovepeoplewhoseroles include and extend beyond thoseofworkers.Thisiswhyadulteducators,consciousofaholisticview ofpersons’educationandlives,needtobeinvolved.

ChallengesforLLL,SDGs,andMigration

Nationstatesarestrugglingwithmigrationandwiththebasicsof providingsupportforthosestreamingacrosstheirborders;theconundrumishowtocontinueleadinganationofcitizenswhileintegrating newcitizensinameaningfulmannerthatadvancesthequalityoflifefor all.TheUNexpressedtheneedforgovernmentstoengageinthelong processandstruggleofachievingtheSDGs,fornotonlytheirowncitizensbuttheglobalcommunity.Fromalifelonglearningperspective,the taskisdaunting,especiallyinlightoftheimmediacyofthe17SDGsslated tobeachievedby2030.

Whatisunaccountedforhereisthewaythatmigrantsresistsystems thatoppressthem,suchasfindingundergroundsourcesofemployment. Migrantshavealwayslearntandwillalwayslearntoresistoppressionand lackofopportunity(Mirchandanietal. 2010).Forallmigratorypopulations,therearechallengesbutalsoresistancesthatneedtobetraced andaccountedfor,eveniftheyarehidden.Resiliencehasalwaysbeen afeatureofmigrantsinboththeirjourneythroughhazardousroutes, includingridingacrossaragingseawhichwaspreviouslyalientothemas theyhailedfromlandlockedterritories,andtheirekingoutanexistence, thoughmarginalized.

Giventheunprecedentedwavesofmigrationinthetwenty-first century,theglobalcommunityisfacingissuesofenormousimportfor socialcohesionandthestrengtheningoftheeconomicandsocialsystems inwhichsocietiesareembedded.Whiletherehasbeenacoordinated effortinternationallytoidentifytheSDGsandtoarticulatetheworld wewant,therehasnotbeenacoordinatedinternationalresponsewith respecttolearning,education,anddecentwork.ThetimelyaccomplishmentoftheSDGsdemandsthattheirneedsbeaddressed.Achievementof theSDGsisimpossiblewithoutactivegovernment,citizensupport,and advocacyformigrants.ThoseconcernedwithLLLareinakeyposition

toaddresstheSDGsnotonlythroughassistingmigrantstobecomeintegratedthroughlanguageandhousingefforts,butalsothroughaddressing governmentpoliciesthataffectthehealthandwell-beingofpeoples(Goal 3).Wemovenowtooffersomekeypointstoconsiderwithregardtopolicymaking,curriculumdevelopment,and“facetofacepractice”inLLL, bearingsustainabledevelopmentinmind.

Policymaking,Curriculum Development,andLLLPractice

ItisclearthatLLLforSDGsneedstoaddresstheissueofdisposabilityor unworthiness(quasi-humanbeings—TarozziandTorres 2016,p.106), whetheritappliestohumansorotherspecies.Migrantshaveforlong beenvictimsofwhatZygmuntBauman(2006)calledthe“humanwaste disposalindustry”(p.36)thatincorporatesotherelementsinthecosmos, allseenasthingstobeboughtandsoldasobjectsofcommodification. Theissueofeducatingagainstdisposability,initsbroadestbiodiverse sense,becomesanurgentissueforalleducation,notjustadulteducation. Itwouldbuildonthepremisethatweareallrelationalbeings,livingand actinginrelationtootherspecies-beings,fosteringtheideathatweare rootedinalargercosmosentailinghealthyintra-humanandhuman–earth relations.

LLLforSDGswoulddevelopinamannerthatregardshumanbeings ashavingarangeofsubjectivitiesthatextendbeyondthoseofbeing migrants,membersoftheIndigenouspopulation,workers,etc.Adult educators,oranyothereducatorsforthatmatter,woulddowelltokeep inmindthatalthoughtheworkfactorweighsheavilyonmigrants’minds, thenotionofcitizenshipascribedtothemwouldextendbeyondthat ofbeingproducers/consumers.Hencetheeducationprovidedneedsto helpmigrantsobtainsecureemploymentcommensuratewiththeirqualificationsandlifeexperience;itshouldalsobemoreholistictoenable themtobecomecriticallyactivecitizenswithbasichumanrights.Forthis reason,westatethatLLLforSDGsshouldextendbeyond asistencialismo (welfarism).17 Theeducatorsinvolvedwouldavoidtreatingmigrants asdeficits.LLLwould,drawingonPauloFreire’s(2018)approachto education,providespaceforpeopletoactas subjects andnot objects in history.

Thiswouldentaillearningthattreatsmigrantsasactivebeingsand notsimplypassiveconsumersofknowledgefromabove.Itwillengage

theirownstrengthsandculturesandbuildonthem,takingintoaccount theirperspectivesonthings,allowingthemco-ownershipoftheprogram throughdemocraticparticipationandadialogicalapproachwhereall knowledgeisatthecenterofepistemologicalco-investigation.Itwould entail praxis orthemeansforallparticipantsinthegroupsetting, includingtheofficialeducator,togaincriticaldistancefromtheirpastand presentenvironmentstoperceivetheminacriticallight.18 Inthisregard, LLLforSDGswouldprojectthenotionofmigrantsnotasdeficits,empty receptaclestobefilledwithinformation,butasactivecitizenswhoparticipateinthemakingofhistoryandcontributetochangingsocietyintoa moresociallyjustone.LLLwouldbepremisedonthevalorizationof theirmanyroles,includingbutnotexclusivetotheroleoftheirlaborin thesmoothfunctioningofsomeofthehostcountry’sessentialservices— healthandtransportservices,childandelderlycare,etc.LLLcanalso fosteranunderstandingoftherichnessoftheculturesthatmigrantsbring withthem,indicatingthesecultures’contributionsto,andoftenappropriationby,“WesternCivilisation.”Thisisallpartoftheculturalcapital thattravelswithmigrantsacrossborders.

Tothreatenwithdeportationpeoplewhohavecontributedtothe community,inthisandotherways,isracism toutcourt. 19 Forthisreason only,LLLforsustainabledevelopmentneedstoconfrontxenophobia byhavingastronganti-racistdimensionatitscore.Programsandpoliciesinthisregardwouldhaveastronginterethnicdimensiontargeting peopleworkingorincontactwithimmigrants:army,police,peoplein theentertainmentindustry,teachers,journalists,membersofthejudiciary,etc.Thereisaspecificanti-racistrolefortradeunionsandagencies ofworkers’educationhere.Workers’education,inthecontextofLLL, canprovideanunderstandingofthenatureofworkers’solidarityinthis dayandage.Socialclassesare international andnot national inscope.A LLLprogramme,demonstratingcognizanceofthis,wouldhelpcounter thedangerofmisplacedalliances.Thesemisplacedallianceswouldinvolve peopleofopposedclassinterests,autochthonousworkers,andbusiness people,combiningeffortsagainsttheeconomiccompetition(Marshall 1997)—foreigncompaniesandforeignersthreateninglocalworkers’jobs (Mayo 2016).

ThedisproportionateburdenofmovementonSouthernpeoplehas beenacenturiesoldcolonialpolicythatservestosegmenttheworking classonethnicandnationoforiginlines.Thissuggeststhatananti-racist

approachtoLLLforSDGscanberootedindiscussionsconcerningcolonialisminallitsforms.Thisconsolidatestheviewexpressedearlierthat LLLhasanimportantroletoplayinthestruggletogenerateanunderstandingofthecausesofmigrationand,wewouldadd,theirderivation fromtheunequalexchangerelationonwhichsomeWesterncountries thrive.

Conclusion

Theforegoingdiscussionunderlinesthecomplexnatureofsupporting lifelonglearninginthetwenty-firstcentury.Onecannotengageinwork andlearningwithmigrants,inthecontextofintegralandsustainabledevelopment,withoutaddressingtherelatedpoliciesandissuesin receivingcountries.Thischapterandthebookingeneralhaveraised issuesofgovernmentregulation,strugglestorecognizequalifications, andmisinformationaboutmigratorypopulations.Thechallengesare many.EducatorsoperatinginthecontextofLLLcanworkwithlearners, includingmigrantlearners,tocreatea safespace formigrantstoovercomethefearoftheiroppressors,especially,butnotonly,withregardto thelabormarketandthethreatofdeportation.Theissueofgenuinetrust iskeyinanyeducationalencounterinvolvingpeoplewhoaredifferently locatedinsocial,cultural,andgeographicspaces.

Thesearchforgenuinedemocraticintra-humanrelationsisanintegral partofachievingtheSDGsby2030,especiallyinachievinggoalsrelated todecentwork,education,andthealleviationofpoverty.Wehavemuch tolearnabouthumanrelations,fromourencounterswithandinclusion ofmigratorypopulations.

Wereiteratethatallarerelatedandconnectedinthisworld.Therecan thereforebenocarefullydelineatedsocialcontext(e.g.region,country, orcontinent:“SocialEurope”)unlessitexistsinharmonyandinsolidaritywithasocialworld.Weareinvitedtoembracethischallengeinthe contextofanincreasinglycomplexandmobileworld.

Notes

1.TheFrenchterm sans-papiers [without(identification)papers]refersto immigrantswithoutlegalstatus.

2.EuropeandCentralAsiaareamongthemostimportantregionsinterms ofmigratoryflows—withGermany,Spain,theUK,andFrancehosting

thehighestnumbersoftheestimated31.9millionnon-EuropeanUnion (EU)nationalsresidinginEurope.Thetwosubregionscombinedhost 72.5millionmigrants,representing8.7%ofthetotalpopulation.Despite theeconomiccrisis,netmigrationremainspositiveinthemajormigrant destinationcountries.AllfigurestakenfromIOM.

3.TheInternationalOfficeofMigrationdefinesamigrantas“anyperson whoismovingorhasmovedacrossaninternationalborderorwithina Stateawayfromhis/herhabitualplaceofresidence,regardlessof(1)the person’slegalstatus;(2)whetherthemovementisvoluntaryorinvoluntary;(3)whatthecausesforthemovementare;or(4)whatthelength ofthestayis(IOM 2011).Arefugee“issomeonewhoisunableor unwillingtoreturntotheircountryoforiginowingtoawell-founded fearofbeingpersecutedforreasonsofrace,religion,nationality,membershipofaparticularsocialgroup,orpoliticalopinion”(UNHCR 2010, p.3,referringtoUN1951).Atemporaryworker,inthiscontext,is definedassomeonewhoentersanothercountry,albeittemporarily,tofill immediatelaborneeds,asinharvestingseasonalfoods.

4.Fordetaileddefinitionsofeachofthe17UnitedNationsSustainable DevelopmentGoals(SDGs),visittheSustainabledevelopmentknowledgeplatformat https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs [accessed 6November2018].

5.WeareindebtedtoMariaPisanioftheUniversityofMaltaandtheIntegra Foundationforpointingustothissourceofinformation.SeeMayoand Pisani(unpublished 2017).

6.TheeightMillenniumDevelopmentGoalswereconcernedwith(1)eradicatingextremepovertyandhunger;(2)achievinguniversalprimary education;(3)promotinggenderequalityandempoweringwomen; (4)reducingchildmortalityrates;(5)improvingmaternalhealth;(6) combatingHIV/AIDS,malariaandotherdiseases;(7)ensuringenvironmentalsustainability;and(8)developingaglobalpartnershipfor development.Achievementswereevaluatedinafinalreport(UN 2015).

7.TheGermanverb verstehen meanstounderstand.Inthisparticular context,werefertothesenseitwasusedinbyphilosopherHannah Arendt(1906–1975),namelyasadeepunderstandingofthehuman condition(Arendt 1964, 1998,p.6).

8.Theterm“tricontinentalworld”wascoinedbyCheGuevaraandFidel CastrointhewakeoftheCubanRevolutionin1959.Theyenvisioned a“solidarity[oftheseregions]againstforcesfromtheeconomicand militarypowersoftheGlobalNorth”(Elam 2017,p.2).

9.ThisisalsoreflectedinComeon!Capitalism,Short-termism,Population, andtheDestructionofthePlanet(VonWeizsäckerandWijkman 2018), themostrecentinaseriesofreportstotheClubofRomepublishedsince Thelimitstogrowth(Meadowsetal. 1972).

10.ThomasRobertMalthus(1766–1834)wasanEnglishpoliticaleconomist.

11.GermanpoliticalphilosophersKarlMarx(1818–1883)andFriedrich Engels(1820–1895)engagedinvirulentcritiquesofMalthus’populationtheoriesin Capital,Vol.1(Marx 1887,p.357), TheoriesofSurplus Value,1861–1863 (Marx 1951),and TheConditionoftheWorkingClass inEnglandin1844 (Engels 1987).Foracriticalcommentaryonthese trenchantcriticisms,seeYvesCharbit(2009),especiallyChapter 5

12.ArecentreportonFoodsecurityandnutritionintheworld(FAO 2018) doesnotconsiderwhetheraredistributionofallavailablefoodresources worldwidewould,theoretically,besufficientformorethanthecurrent worldpopulation.However,thereportprovidesdatawhichdemonstrate theimbalance:“Theabsolutenumberofpeopleintheworldaffectedby undernourishment,orchronicfooddeprivation,isnowestimatedtohave increasedfromaround804millionin2016tonearly821millionin2017. ThesituationisworseninginSouthAmericaandmostregionsofAfrica; likewise,thedecreasingtrendinundernourishmentthatcharacterizedAsia untilrecentlyseemstobeslowingdownsignificantly.Withoutincreased efforts,thereisariskoffallingfarshortofachievingtheSDGtarget[this referstoSDG2]ofhungereradicationby2030”(FAO 2018,p.xiii).

13.Theonline OxfordEnglishDictionary definesconscientizationas“the actionorprocessofmakingothersawareofpoliticalandsocialconditions,especiallyasaprecursortochallenginginequalitiesoftreatmentor opportunity;thefactofbeingawareoftheseconditions”(OED 2018).

14.Aninclusivesocietywelcomesdiversity,regardingnewcomerswhobring theirownculturestotheirhostcommunityasanenrichment.Bycontrast, anassimilativesocietyexpectsnewcomerstoadapttoitssocialandcultural norms.

15.TheBolognaprocesswasdesignedtoensurecomparabilityinthestandardsandqualityofhighereducationqualifications.Itenablesuniversity studentsintheEuropeanHigherEducationArea(EHEA)tochoose fromawideandtransparentrangeofhigh-qualitycourses.Itisbasedon theBolognaDeclaration(EHEA 1999)whichwassignedbyEducation Ministersfrom29Europeancountriesin1999.

16.Accordingtoitsownwebsite,“theUnionfortheMediterranean(UfM) isanintergovernmentalEuroMediterraneanorganisationwhichbrings togetherall28countriesoftheEuropeanUnionand15countriesofthe SouthernandEasternMediterranean”(https://ufmsecretariat.org/whowe-are/ [accessed9November2018]).

17.TheSpanishword asistencialismo referstoapoliticalattitudeoriented towardsolvingsocialproblemsbywayofexternalassistance(charity) insteadofmakingeffortstogeneratestructuralsolutions.

18.Inthiscontext,thetermpraxisreferstolearningthrough“refectionand actiondirectedatthestructurestobetransformed”(Freire 2018,126).

19.Thisracismconsistsofalabelingthaterasesthemultifacetedidentityand nameofthepersonconcerned—wellcapturedinWoodyGuthrie’sclassic folksong“Deportee”(Guthrie 1948).

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CHAPTER8

LifelongLearningintheTimeofCorona19

Abstract Covid-19posesanumberofchallengestoLLL.Ithasturned theday-to-dayworldofeducationonitshead.Educationalternatives offercertaineducatorsarelativelysafeadjustmenttothechangedscenario instarkcontrasttootherpeopleforwhomthecurrentsituationpresentsa choice:exposureorstarvation.Precariouseducators,includingacademics workingpart-timeandaccordingtodefinitecontractsandstudents comingfromhumblebackgrounds,alsofaceproblemsinthisageof Corona.Furthermore,withintherelativelysafe“middleclass”contextof secludedandvirtuallymediatededucationalworkandtransaction,there arestillissuestobeconsideredbearinginmindtothefutureofLLLitself.

Keywords Precariat Socialclass Ethnicity Virtuallearning Blended learning · Community · Study-environment

Thischapterdevelopedoutof:Mayo,P.(2020).TheCoronaChallengeto HigherEducation. CultureeStudidelSociale,5(1),Specialissue,371–376. Retrieved http://www.cussoc.it/index.php/journal/issue/archiv.Permissionto republishgrantedbypublishers.

©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2021

L.M.EnglishandP.Mayo, LifelongLearning,GlobalSocialJustice, andSustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65778-9_8

Introduction:PhantomCity?

Educationisconstantlybeingexposedtoseveralchallengesinthisdayand age.TheCovid-19pandemichasofferedaseriesofchallengeswhichhave plungedmanyeducatorsandstudentsalikeintomodesofdeliveryand interaction,thatdifferconsiderablyfromthehithertoestablishednorm. Asweargueinthischapter,certaineducationalinstitutionsoffertheir educatorsarelativelysafeadjustmenttothechangedscenario(somehave beenattunedtothisforquitesometimebeforetheoutbreak).Thisis incontrasttootherpeopleforwhomthecurrentsituationpresentsa (Hobson’s?)choice:exposureorstarvation.Evenwithintherelatively safe“middleclass”contextofsecludedandvirtuallymediatededucational workandtransaction,thereareissuestobeconsideredwithregardtothe futureofeducation,especiallyinstitutionaleducationitself.

DesperateattemptstocurtailthespreadoftheCoronaVirusaresaid tohaveturnedmanylocalitiesindifferentpartsoftheworldintoseeminglyphantomcities,specificallyaftertheoutbreakofthefirstwaveof thevirusandsubsequentlockdown.Forsome,thiswasaspectreofan “unrealcity.”Forothersitlaidbaretheclearandunadulterateddesign ofthecityitself,citycenterorsquare.Therearethosewhohailedcity vistas,includingopenspaces,as“thingsofbeauty”untrammeledbysuch paraphernaliaasticketbooths,marketstalls,coffeetables,chairs,and umbrellas.Othersunderlinedtheeerinessofthesite—asettinginwhich strangematterscanunfoldandwhichfuelstheimagination.Itisnosmall matterthatthosemostdirectlyaffectedbyCOVIDarealreadymarginalized.Thosewhoworkonthefrontlinesintheservicesector,thosewho havethefewesteducationalcredentials,forinstance,areexposedmore tothevirusandhaveaccesstofewerresources,ifinfected(Walleretal. 2020).Theseareoftenwomen.

OneofthemorehelpfulanalysesofhowALEcanbeatoolinthis pandemicisprovidedbyLopezandMcKay(2020).TheyseeCOVID aspresentingahealthliteracychallengeandtheypointtotheroleof ALEinincreasingliteracyandinpreventingfurtheroutbreaks.Yet,they recognizetheenormouschallengeoflowliteracyrates,especiallyinfragile states,andtheysuggestthereisaneedforacross-sectoralapproachto theseissues.Intheirview,literacycannotbeaddressedinisolationfrom health,labor,environment,andsoon.TheauthorsdrawonMcKay’s researchinSouthAfricatoshowhowhealthliteracycanbeembeddedin literacycampaignstoincreaseknowledgeandproactivebehaviorsinthe

faceofpandemicslikeAIDS.Aswell,LopezandMcKayshowthatALE canbeusedtoincreaseliteracy,numeracy,anddigitalinclusion,which areimportantforcitizenstonegotiateseriousillness.Theyarguethat whenALEisfullyintegratedintoanationalandinternationalresponse, itispossibletodiminishthenegativeeffectsofapandemic.Yet,they acknowledgethatthereareissuesinusingALE,atalllevels.Wefocus nowonseveralissuesthataffectthehighereducationsector,inparticular.

Education,Middle-ClassJobs, andtheClass/EthnicDivide

Educationsites,especiallyhighereducationcampuses,havenotbeen immunetothisprocess.Theinstitutionsinquestionhavebeen“closed” siteswithadministrationreducedtoskeletonstaffandeducatorsurged toseekalternativewaysofinteractingwithstudents.AsDonatelladella Portaunderlined,inaFacebookremark,middle-classworkallowsfor suchcontingenciesasbeingabletoworkfromhome,apossibilitynot allowedtomanyworkingclassandcertainservice-orientedmiddle-class professionals,thelatter,wewouldadd,includingmedicaldoctors,nurses, healthworkersingeneral,andpharmacists.Areeducators,involvedin educationasalifelongprocess,engagedin“middleclass”workfostering a“middleclass”ethosevenwhenworkingwithpredominantlyworkingclassstudents?Theyareoftensaidtobe,inthewordsoftherecently deceasedEricOlinWright(Wrightetal. 1998),inacontradictoryclass location.“Thepandemichascomplicatedtheclassdivide,bysingling outaprivilegedclassofthosewhocanworkfromhomeinasecure labourcondition.1”(DellaPorta 2020;LopezandMcKay 2020).She raisesanimportantsociologicalquestionforthoseengagedinexploring thenatureofclassstratificationinthisdayandage:“…whoisproducing anddistributingallthoseproductsthatkeepthosewhocan[be]comfortableathome…”?(ibid.)Wemightthereforearguethatthesecentersin thecityandadjacentstreetsarenotasbarrenascertainpicturesshown onthesocialmediaandnewspaperswouldhaveusbelieve.Thereare momentswhentheyarefullofpeoplescamperingaroundastheirlivelihooddependsonthis.Thisisatimewhenabuseandexploitationof thoseengagedintheinformaleconomy,necessaryincertaincountries orregionstokeeptheformaleconomyafloat,reachanunprecedented level(Borg 2020).The“realmofnecessity”hasnotrecededintothe backgroundforcertainpeople.

Therecanbementalhealthissuesarisingfromlivinginarestricted roomortwo,oroutsidesleepingundercardboardcovers,inshacks,or beneathbridges(RosaLuxemburg’smosttangibleformof“barbarism” today)—allthisincontrasttothepalatialsettingsofcertaindwelling places.Themostgraphicillustrationofthisdestitutionistheheartrendingsightofmenandwomenfilingoutsideaprominentmegastore, onBrussels’RueNeuve,at19.00CET(closingtime),onacoldand wetDecemberevening,awaitingtheirshareofcardboardboxestoseek refugewithinthem.ItevokesKingLear’s“poornakedwretches”lamentationandsoul-searchingoutsidethehovel.2 Ofcourse,thesesightsare experiencedinseveralcitiesthroughouttheworld—anindictmentof contemporarybarbarism.

Thereisademarcationwithregardtothosewhocanworksafely andcontinuetoliveandsurvivethevirusandthosewhohavehad theiroddsondoingsolengthened.StudentsthroughouttheLLLand Life-widelearningspectrums,morethantheirformallydesignatededucators,featureamongthem.Whilesome,educatorsandstudents,can teach/learnonlinefromthecomfortoftheirhome,manyothersneed toberelievedoftheirovercrowdedspacesandattendtofamilylivelihood concernsincluding“hiddeneconomy”engagement.Socialclassand,we wouldadd,ethnicitybecomeimportantvariablesinthechancesofovercomingorsuccumbingtothevirus,especiallyintheareaofmenialand intermittent,oftenclandestine,workcarriedoutbyimmigrantsespecially undocumentedimmigrants.Onewouldhavetoaddheretheintersections ofsocialclass,ethnicity,gender,citizenship/non-citizenship(including sanspapiers ),andage.Elderlypeoplewithouthelporassistanceandliving ontheirownareparticularlyvulnerableinthisregard,andonehastosee howolderadulthoodintersectswithmanyoftheothervariables.

Thechoicefortheseisbetweenexposureandstarvation;andpeople whohaveriskedthevagariesofthedesert,theanarchicstateofLibya andtheocean,aremostlikelytobereadytoriskexposuretothevirus. SomewerelessfortunateasthepretextofCoronapreventedtheirhithertoresilientbodiesfromenteringSouthernEuropeanports,anumber succumbingtothefatalityofdehydrationordrowning—asadandtragic endtoabravebutdoomedsaga.Thisiscompoundedbythestubbornnessofuncompromising,dour(heartless?)governmentsintentonforcing abigoted,self-interest-drivenEuropeanUniontoshareintheresponsibilityoftakingmigrants,asindicatedinthepreviouschapter.Atatime

whenyouwouldexpectapandemictoboomoutloudthecallforcooperationandcompassion,givingthelietoMargaretThatcher’smantra “Thereisnosuchthingassociety,”therearethosewhopersistina“dog eatdog”mentality.Self-interestliesattheheartofnotonlyindividuals, underneoliberalism,butnationstatesasawhole.3 OrganizedLLLcan easilyreflectthismentality.

AllintoProperPerspective

AllthisistoplacethetravailsofLLL,inthetimeofCorona,into properperspective.Inmanyrespects,therearesourcesofLLL,suchas universities,withtheirmainstreamandcontinuingeducationprograms, whichprovideprivilegedplaces.Ofcourse,therearemanyexceptions: studentssurvivingtheHEandcontinuingeducationfeesregimeand otherconditionsbytheskinoftheirteeth,livingincrowdedspaces wherethetranquillityofonlinelearningandhomestudyingeneralis aluxury“devoutlytobewished”butdifficulttorealize—allthiswhile assumingthattheycanaffordacomputeranditsaccessories,some,at best,sharingonecomputeramongseveralfamilymembers.4 Thisalso appliestoschoolchildrenwhoseonlysourceofformaleducationistheir schooling,fromwhichtheycanbeeasilydisengaged,unlessenticingand meaningfulpedagogicalapproachesareadopted.

Thisdisengagementbecomesmorepossiblethroughthelessintimate relationshipsspawnedbyonlineplatforms,especiallywhenlargeclasses inthepubliceducationsystemareconcerned.Itseemseasierforyoung learnerstodisappearofftheradarthisway.Weneedtogaugetheimpact ofthe digitaldivide onstudentselectingtogoAWOL.(Apple 2020; Giroux 2020).Quiteserious,insofarastheonlineapproachisconcerned, isthedangerofde-skillingeducatorsasthecontingencylendsitselftothe greateronsetofprepackagedlearning.Thiscansatisfymajorcommercial interestsineducation,withlittleregardtocontext,especiallycommunity context.ThisisalreadyafeatureofLLL,brandedGlobalLLL,worldwide.Thereisthedangerthatthisindustryprovidesaquickfixsolution forLLLbothduringtheCoronaperiodandalsointhelongterm,based ontheevercommerciallydrivenbeliefthat“aonesizefitsall”approach canprovidebetterlearning“outcomes.”Apartfromtheneocolonial issuesitraises,anapproachthatiscontextuallyinsensitive,italsoassumes alotofthelifelonglearnersregardingaccesstodifferentsourcesofeducation.Itminimizedtheroleofthefullbreathinghumansubjectthatisthe

lifelongeducator.Thisisequallytrueoftheschoolteacher,thefurther educationeducatororthehighereducationlecturer.Thissituationcan easilyplayintothehandsofthosewhoadvocateteacher-proofsystems. Italsoexacerbatestheclassdivideregardingnotonlyaccesstosophisticatedapparatusesandphysicallearningspacesathomeorelsewhere butalsothemateriallyrewardingcultural,social,andeconomiccapital, inBourdieu’sterms(Bourdieu 1977),for“homeschooling”andhence homeLLLinsuchcountriesastheUSA,asindicatedbyMichaelW. Apple(2004,p.176)andothers.CanwespeakhereofLLLforgreater socialatomization?(ibid.,Giroux 2021).

ThereisthenthecaseofadjunctfacultyinHigherEducation (includinguniversity)LLLoftenpaidatpiecerate.Theycannotbenefit fromthetimeandspaceaffordedtheirfull-timecolleaguesforresearchas theyareoverburdenedbyexcessiveteachingandmarkingloads.Some needtojuggleuniversityteachingwithotherjobs.Adjunctfaculty, workinginprecariousconditions,areanincreasingfeatureofcontemporaryHigherEducationinmanypartsoftheworld—thefirstcasualties ofcrises-inducedcuts.Thisishowthepost-1968massuniversityorHE institutioncopeswithincreasingstudentnumbers.Many,sincethetimes ofRaymondWilliamswiththeOxfordDelegacyforExtra-Muralstudies, havebeeninvolvedasmarginaltutors,whenLLLtakesonadistinctly adulteducationapproach(Williams,inMcllroyandWestwood 1993).

Theseareimportantconsiderationsthathavetobetakenonboard whenexploringLLLalternatives,fromasocialjusticeperspective,atthe timeofCoronaandafter.Ourguessandfearisthatallthiswillcontinue tobegivenshortshrift.SchoolsandHEinstitutions,andespecially universities,byandlargestillaccommodateamiddle-classviewpoint.Let ustakeHEasanexample,acomponent,likeschoolsandotherentities, ofanall-embracingLLE/LLL.DespitelaudableandinterestingexperimentsamongpeasantsinLatinAmerica5 (DeSousaSantos 2017;Connell 2019;Mayo 2019;MayoandVittoria 2017)andalsoinWesternEurope (Neary 2014;Earl 2016;Tarlau 2019),theinstitution,asweconventionallyknowit,andinwhichmostacademicswork,remainsa“bourgeois institution”withanunmistakablybourgeoisagenda.Manyinstitutions havecomealongwaysincetheexclusiveandexclusionarydaysofold, thoughthefewelitebastionsthatsurviveandthriveonendowments,elite residuesfromthatperiod,persistintheirsocialselection—your Grandes écoles andOxbridgecolleges.

Thegeneralethos,however,aswiththewholecompetitiveeducational ethos,remainswhatitwaswhenwewereundergrads.Whatfollowsthereforecancomeacrossascarpingbyrelativelyprivilegedcommentators.Yet thereareissuestoberaisedwithregardtotheseinstitutions’future,the epistemologicalfoundationsoftheknowledgetheypromote(DeSousa Santos 2017)andtheirchancesofengagingwidercommunities(Walcott 2020),inshorttheirgreater,genuinedemocratization.Thesameapplies toschools,thetopicofmuchSociologyofEducationandCriticalEducation/Pedagogyovertheyears.Theirbasictenetsneednotberehearsed; theyhavebeenengagedthroughoutthebook(seeMcLaren 2015).

StandardCoronaResponse

DuringthisperiodofCovid-19,educatorshavebeenurged,ifnot compelled,irrespectiveoftheirtrainingforthispurpose,toplacetheir coursesandcarryouttheirteachingonline.Thishasledmanytoherald the“bravenewworld”ofonlinelearningasthepanaceaforthecrisis. Therearethosewhowouldconsiderthepresentperiodasthepotentialwatershedinestablishingthisalreadywidelypracticedmodeof deliveryasthedominantformofteachinginHigherEducation.This reaction,couchedinphrasessuchas“everycloudhasasilverlining,”is tobeexpectedandfallsinlinewiththeneoliberaltenetsthathavebeen underlyingmostcommonsensethinkingaboutmass-orientededucation. Weargueforcautioninthisregard.

Thehistoryofeducationisfullofepisodeswhennecessity,through crisesintheformofoccupation,ledtoingenuity.UnderNazioccupation,Polishuniversitieswentunderground;studymaterialmovedfrom oneplacetoanother.Thisechoedtheearlier“flyinguniversity”ofthe Partitionperiod,whenMarieCurie(Puiu 2020)andJanuszKorczak wereamongthestudents.Itwasinnovativeandattestedtotheresilience ofthePolishacademiccommunity(studentsandprofessors)involved.It resurfacedwhenPolandwasunderSovietcontrol.Theymirroredwhat wentoninpubliccompulsoryeducationwhichwascomplementedby clandestine,perhaps“flying,”learningsettings.

Thepresentcrisismakesthosewhoareresistanttomoderndigitally mediatedtechnologytaketheplunge,whetheradequatelytrainedfor thispurposeornot.ManyeducatorsfromGreece,Italy,Cyprus,and theUKrevealedthatonlinelearningisanewexperiencefoistedon unpreparedpeople,educators/learnersalike.6 Itmightenablethemto

transcendarchaicways.Itiscommonknowledgethatmostuniversities throughouttheworldhaveplacedtheircoursesandaredeliveringtheir teachingonline.Someuniversitiesalreadyhadadequatepreparationfor thisasagoodpercentageoftheirstudentsaredistancelearningstudents. Itislikelythattheteachersinvolvedhavehadadequatetraining.Aformer tutorattheUK’sOpenUniversity,whichbacksdistancelearningwitha varietyofotherapproaches,includingtutorialscarriedoutbyacademics ensconcedindifferentpartsofthecountry,spentayear’spreparation periodbeforejoiningtheuniversitystaff.Thishoweverdoesnotapply toallHEstaff.Wouldthesameapplytoschoolteachersandpopular educatorsinaLLELLLcontingencysituation?Thepresentcrisiscanwell makeusrecall,incertaincases,thesituationduringtheimmediatepostrevolutionliteracycampaignsinLatinAmericaandelsewherewhenyoung literacyworkerswererushedtothefieldwithoutadequatepreparation (Arnove 1986).AsLLLeducators,wehavebeenthrowninatthedeep end,becauseofthiscrisis.Willonlineproductionandeducationhave tobecomeamajorcomponentinteachereducationprogramsconceived inaLLE/LLLcontext?Theyounggenerationofstudent-teachers,as moststudentsthesedays,seemstobeenormouslysavvyinmattersof handlingICT.Asprofessors,weoftenbecometheir“students”inthis regard.Thesameappliestoparents,inMaltesefamilyhouseholds,who, inanadulteducationresearchproject,claimedtolearnabouttheusesof computersfromtheirownchildren—acaseof LLE/LLLandintergenerationallearning (Borgetal. 2016,p.64)Again,thisrecallsthecaseof theliteracy brigadistas duringthe Cruzadadealfabeticación inNicaragua who,whileteachingliteracy,werelearningmodesofcommunityliving fromtheirhostsinthecountry(Arnove 1986)—casesofintergenerational learning.

Thismassscaleonlinelearningapproachcanextendbeyondacrisis responseastheinstitutionbeginstoseethelucrativesideofit,ameansof spreadingone’snetfarandwide.ThisismorelikelytobethecaseofHE institutionsinthisneoliberalage.Theyareurgedto“market”and“sell” theirprograms,aperceivedmeasureoftheir“validity”(Mayo 2019). Nowitwouldbefoolishtooverlookonlinelearning’spositiveaspects, reachingcommunitiesatthefurthestremovefromtherestrictedphysical spacesofuniversities,schools,andcenters.Itreachescommunitieswith issuesconcerningphysicalaccessandtime.

Oncethedustsettles,however,willtherebespaceforcriticalreflectionregardinghowtechnologicallymediateddeliverycomplementswhat

isgoodabout“facetoface”andadequateteacher-studenthumaninteraction?Itisclaimedthatonlinelearningcanaddressmassstudentsanywhere andatanytimethroughouttheworld.Educators,therefore,reallyneed tothinkabouttheappropriatepedagogicalapproachtotakeandusemade ofthemostmoderntechnology.Developmentofgoodlearningenvironmentsrequiresspecialistskillsandisateameffortbasedoncollaboration betweeneducators,communities,andlearningdesigners.Thereisalsothe dangerofsurveillanceespeciallywhenthesessionsarerecordedostensibly forthebenefitofthosewhocouldnotgainaccessinrealtime.Thefear ofrecordingsandofoutsidepartiesgainingaccesstotheconversations mightmakeparticipantshesitanttotalkfreelyinthevirtualclassroom sessions,especiallyforeignstudentsinHEhailingfromcountriesabroad withapoortrackrecordwhenitcomestohumanrightsandcivilliberties.Theywouldfeartheextent,realorimaginary,ofthehomecountry’s intelligenceoperations.

Towhatextentisonlinelearningpartoftheblendedapproachwhich reservesspacefordifferentformsofinteractionincluding“humanto human”and“humantoearth”interaction?Thepushforalucrativeshare oftheglobalHEeducationmarket,forinstance,caneasilymakeinstitutions,inthissector,forgetthe“facetoface”aspectoftheblended learningapproach.Meanwhileeliteschools(“blue-chip”schools,colleges, oruniversities)continuetoenjoyamonopolyinthelattertypeof learning.

Howdowestrikeahappymediumbetweenonlineand“facetoface” teachingatanystageofLLE/LLL?Willonlinelearningcontinuetodrag educationfurtheralongthebusinessroute(Giroux 2014)7 orwillitplay itspartinanoverallconceptionofeducationasapublicgood?Andifitis tobepartofeducationasapublicgood,whatprovisionistobemadein conditionsofnormalcy,thatiswheneducationinstitutionsreopentheir doors,toensurethatallstudentshaveaccesstotheresourcesnecessary foragenuinelygoodqualityeducationtowhichtheyareentitled(faceto faceorblended)?Tostrikeanoptimisticnote,ashopespringseternal,we reproducethewordsofoneoftheUS’smostprominentcriticaleducators,IraShor:“Criticalteacherswhoquestiontheunequal,toxicstatus quowilldelivercriticaleducationnomatterthedeliverysystem”(Shor, inMayo 2020).

ConsumerProductorPublicGood?

COVID-19andNeoliberalism

Itistheuncriticaleducators,thosewhogowiththeflow,eversoeager toembracenewfads,whoareofgreatconcerntous.Thereisaterrible andunequalworldouttherethatneedstobeconfronted.Covid-19has shownthetruefaceofneoliberalismasyearsofrenegingonandshreddingofthesocialcontracthavefinallytakentheirtollwithfewpublic resourcesavailabletocountersuchacalamity.Webelieveinasocial contractthattranscendstheCapitalistsystem(Giroux 2020).Hopefully, themuchprofessedandnewlyrediscoveredsenseofsolidarityamong certaineducators,intheseCoronatimes,willenablethemtorethinktheir missionaspeoplewhonotonly interpret theworldbutcontributetoward changing it.Todothis,thegenuinehumanfactorinresearchandeducationremainskey.Thevirtualclassroommightbeservingitspurposeas acontingencyduringthecrisis.Oncethecrisisisover,woulditbeonly partofamoreholisticapproachthatforegrounds“facetoface”encounters?Ourfeelingisthattheeducator’sapprovingeyecontact(difficult tooccuronline)canbeenoughtoencourageshyorhesitantstudents toexpresswhattheirfacialgesturesuggestsbutwhichwouldotherwise remainsuppressed.Theholisticapproachwouldalsoincludeengagementwithcommunities(Walcott 2020)andever-changingcommunities atthat—migrantsareimportantagentshere(Mayo 2019).Thisappliesto alldisciplinesfor,asasciencestudentisonrecordashavingsaid,during thepandemic,“…now,whentheworld’sattentionisonavirus—atopic I’vespentmywholeadultlifestudying—whatIthinkaboutmostare socialstructures,inequality,andsacrifice.Ithinkaboutpeople.”(Quizon 2020)—LLE/LLLina“socialcontract”thattranscendstheCapitalist framework.ThisaccordsduesocietalimportancetotheHumanitiesand SocialSciencesbut,wewouldargue,thatsimilarimportanceoughtto begiventomostLLE/LLLareasofknowledgeandlearningastheyall impactonsocietyandtherestoftheenvironment.

Notes

1. https://www.facebook.com/donatella.dellaporta.Sheremindedus, throughpersonalcorrespondence,thatnotall“smartwork”is“middle class”andnotall“middleclass”workcanbecarriedoutfromhome.

2.“Poornakedwretches,wheresoe’eryouare,Thatbidethepeltingofthis pitilessstorm,Howshallyourhouselessheadsandunfedsides,Yourloop’d andwindow’draggedness,defendyouFromseasonssuchasthese?O,I

haveta’enToolittlecareofthis!Takephysic,pomp;Exposethyselfto feelwhatwretchesfeel,Thatthoumaystshakethesuperfluxtothem,And showtheheavensmorejust.”Lear,inWilliamShakespeare, KingLear Act 3,scene4,28–36.

3.Somuchfortheso-calledrecedingofthenationstatethroughthe intensificationofglobalization.

4.IndebtedtostudentsintheUniversityofMaltaMAAdultEducationclass ACA5001forthispoint.

5.TheseincludehighereducationinstitutionsconnectedwithsocialmovementsasaretheEscolaNacionalFlorestanFernandez,connectedwith theLandlesspeasantmovement(MST)inBrazil,andtheUNITIERRA inChiapas,Mexico.

6.ElectronicexchangeswithoneofthepresentauthorsduringtheCovid-19 lockdown.

7.QuiteinterestinghereisthedevelopmentofMOOCS(MassiveOpen OnlineCourses).Dotheyrepresentacaseof“testingthewaters”fora businessapproachtoHigherEducation?SarahSpeight(2017)indicatesthe gradualmainstreamingofMOOCS.Theyarebecomingafeatureofdegree coursesofferedataconsiderablefinancialcost.SpeightarguesthatMOOCs targetpeoplewithagoodeducationandfamiliarwithbasiclearningmodalities.Theyarethosewhocanaffordthe“stateoftheart”facilitiesthat enablethemtocopewiththeonlineprovision—acaseofgivingmoreto thosewhoalreadyhave?IsthisaCPD(continuingprofessionaldevelopment)outlet?Thefeestructureforcoursesissteep,accordingtoSpeight (2017).MOOCsareconsideredakeyfeatureoftheFourthIndustrial Revolution(4thIR)(XingandMarwala 2017).

References

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NameIndex

A

Abdi,A., 4, 77

Arendt,H., 102

B

Bauman,Z., 3, 12, 13, 53, 81, 94, 101, 107

Beckett,S., 48, 82

Benhabib,S., 13

Bofill,J., 18, 58

Bolsonaro,J., 52, 101

Bourdieu,P., 27, 122

Butler,J., 101

Butterwick,S., 66

C

Capitini,A., 24

CaruanaGalizia,D., 58

Chaplin,C., 27

Christ,J., 5

Cisse,L., 58

Clinton,H., 66, 67, 70

Clover,D., 14, 65

CondliffeLagemann,E., 63

Cornwall,A., 65

Cropley,A., 15

Curie,M., 123

D

Dave,R.H., 15, 18, 79

DellaPorta,D., 119

Delors,J., 6, 7

Dewey,J., 13, 24, 38

Durkheim,E., 18

Dutschke,R., 17

E

Elfert,M., 2, 15

Engels,F., 101

Erasmus,D., 76

F

Field,J., 7, 19–21, 37, 80

Fisher,M., 26, 87

Foucault,M., 13, 24, 48, 81

©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusive licensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2021

L.M.EnglishandP.Mayo, LifelongLearning,GlobalSocialJustice, andSustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65778-9

Fraser,N., 65, 66, 68, 70

Freire,P., 4, 15, 18, 23, 24, 26, 39, 42, 58, 66, 76–87, 107

Fromm,E., 17

G

Gadotti,M., 4, 21, 84, 85

Gelpi,E., 6, 13, 15, 17, 18, 21, 29, 35–42, 78, 81

Gentile,G., 22

Gouthro,P., 18, 24, 68

Grace,A., 24, 40

Gramsci,A., 2, 22, 39, 42, 48

Guevara,E., 4

Gutierrez,F., 84

H

Habermas,J., 5, 13, 24

Hanemann,U., 68, 79

Hanson,C., 65

Harris,K., 70

Hegel,F., 82

HillCollins,P., 64, 70

Huxley,J., 16

I

Ireland,T., 4, 36

J Jules,D., 56

K

Komensky(Comenius),J.A., 76

Korczak,J., 123

Krupskaya,N., 79

L

LaBelle,T.J., 4, 15, 39, 47, 77

Lengrand,P., 15, 17, 36

Lindeman,E., 26

Lunacharsky,A., 79

Lyotard,J.-F., 22, 23, 50

M

Malthus,T.R., 101

Mariátegui,J.C., 4

Marti,J., 4

Martin,I., 13, 19, 53, 86

Marx,K., 18, 101

Mbilinyi,M., 4

Melo,A., 5, 6, 77

Milani,L., 24

Modipa,R., 4

Murphy,M., 13, 15, 80

N

Nkrumah,K., 4

Ntiri,D., 67

Nyerere,J.K., 4, 76, 77

O

OdoraHoppers,C., 4

P

Papandreou,G., 18

Plato, 86

Prado,C., 84

R Rodriguez,S., 4

Rule,P., 4

S

Samoff,J., 4

Sandino,A.C., 4

Schugurensky,D., 4

Schwab,K., 13

Shakespeare,W., 1, 127

Shiva,V., 23

Skager,R., 15

Slade,B., 98, 104, 105

Stromquist,N., 4, 85

Suchodolski,B., 13, 15, 18, 19, 36, 81

T

Tawney,R.H., 13

Thatcher,M., 24, 121

Torres,C.A., 4, 5, 15, 39, 75, 77, 83, 85, 98, 107

Torres,R.M., 4, 8, 21, 37, 47, 76, 80

V

VonKotze,A., 66

W

Wain,K., 3, 13, 15–18, 22, 28, 29, 36, 37, 49, 52, 55, 59, 78

Walters,S., 55, 66

Wangoola,P., 4

Welton,M., 5, 15, 24

Williamson,B., 13, 19, 28

Williams,R., 13, 48, 122

Wright,E.O., 119 Y

Youngman,F., 4 Z

Zapata,E., 4

SubjectIndex

A

Adulteducation, 2, 5, 12, 13, 18, 22, 36, 38, 39, 41, 48, 50, 51, 53–56, 76, 78, 100, 105–107, 122, 124

Africa, 3, 4, 15, 36, 54, 58, 77, 97, 98, 100, 101, 111, 118

Atomised, 17, 24, 27, 28

B

Brazil, 52, 54, 58, 80, 85, 101

C

Capitalist/ism, 13, 25–27, 29, 37–39, 59, 87, 101, 102, 126

“Captains’Movement”, 5 Cedefop, 21 Chile, 6, 17 Christian, 5, 97

Citizen/ship, 6, 14, 20, 24–29, 57, 59, 69, 70, 81, 94, 96–98, 102, 103, 106–108, 119, 120

Class(social), 69, 108, 120

Collective(learning), 18, 30, 38, 40, 47, 59, 79

Colonial/ism, 3, 5, 58, 76, 77, 96, 100, 102, 108, 109

Community, 18, 23, 24, 46, 49, 51, 53–55, 57, 64, 65, 95, 99, 106, 108, 111, 121, 123, 124

Covid-19, 8, 27, 28, 51, 71, 94, 97, 118, 123, 126

Cuba, 4, 5, 77

D

Delorsreport, 29

Disposability, 107 Distancelearning, 124 Diversity, 29, 83, 103 Dublin(Regulation,Convention), 97, 98 E

Employability, 21, 25, 28, 41, 42, 46, 48, 51, 53, 55–57, 76, 81, 97

©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusive licensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2021

L.M.EnglishandP.Mayo, LifelongLearning,GlobalSocialJustice, andSustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65778-9

Employment, 21, 22, 41, 51, 57, 68, 81, 94, 105–107

EuropeanNetworkagainstRacism, 105

EuropeanSocialFund/ESF, 56

EuropeanUnion, 7, 14, 20, 84, 120

F

FaureReport, 16, 17, 21, 36, 78, 80

Feminism, 76

G

Governmentality, 24, 81

H

Hegemony, 2, 39, 48, 50, 87

Highereducation, 12, 15, 23, 59, 70, 81, 97–99, 103, 119, 122, 123

Humanities, 13, 126

I

Indigenous, 3, 5, 14, 37, 77, 97, 100, 107

Individualistic, 17, 24, 68, 80, 83

4thindustrialrevolution, 13

Informallearning, 15, 64, 103

Intersectionality, 64, 84

K

KingLear, 127 Knowledge-BasedEconomy(KBE), 15, 29

L LatinAmerica, 3–6, 15, 17, 36, 39, 47, 77, 78, 85, 94, 100, 122, 124

Learningsociety, 16, 24, 26, 57, 77

Literacy, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 30, 54, 64, 67, 68, 79, 81, 82, 86, 100, 102, 118, 119, 124

M

Macbeth, 1

Market/ization, 3, 20–23, 25, 37, 47, 51, 53, 65, 68, 71, 84, 101–103, 105, 109, 118, 124, 125

MassiveOpenOnlineCourses (MOOCS), 55

Memorandum(onLLL), 12, 14, 20, 52, 96

Migration, 8, 23, 36, 54, 59, 69, 94–96, 98, 100, 102, 104–106, 109

Military, 5, 80 Muslim, 37, 97

N

Nationalpolicy, 47, 98

Neoliberal/ism, 7, 17, 23, 26, 27, 41, 47, 48, 55, 68, 76, 82, 85, 87, 121, 123, 124, 126

Nicaragua, 4, 6, 124

Nonformaleducation, 3, 15

O

OECD, 6, 12, 14, 19, 20, 25, 37, 47, 67, 80

Online, 27, 51, 57, 111, 120, 121, 123–127

P

Pandemic, 7, 8, 26–28, 51, 94, 97, 100, 101, 118, 119, 121, 126

Performativity, 22, 23, 50

Populareducation, 5, 6, 66, 77–79

Portugal, 5, 6, 18, 77

Pragmatism, 15

Praxis, 4, 5, 18, 59, 86, 108, 111

Precariat/ious/precarieté, 25

Privatisation, 37, 41

Publicsphere, 24, 28, 46, 67, 76

R

Race/ism, 64, 69, 108

Refugees, 94, 96–100

Resistance, 40, 48, 97, 99, 106

Revolution/ary, 4–6, 13, 76, 77, 80

RVA/Recognition,Validation, Accreditation, 103, 104

S

School-leavers, 51

SchoolsasCommunityLearning

Centres/SCLCs, 51, 55–57

Self-directedlearning, 17, 25, 80

Skills, 5, 20–28, 48, 49, 67, 68, 84, 86, 97, 100, 102–105, 125

Socialism, 6, 40

Socialmovements, 7, 18, 28, 39, 41, 42, 58, 59, 66, 84–86

Soil, 23

State, 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 14, 17, 20, 26, 37, 40–42, 45, 46, 49–52, 54–56, 67, 68, 70, 82, 83, 85, 86, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 118, 120, 121

STEM, 13

SustainabledevelopmentGoals/SDGs, 8, 29, 49, 52, 64–66, 94, 96, 98, 99, 102–104, 106–109

T

Tanzania, 4, 6, 76, 77

Theology, 76

U

UNESCO, 3–7, 12–17, 19–21, 24, 36, 38, 47–49, 52, 57, 67, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 95, 99, 100, 103

UnitedNations/UN, 54, 64, 66, 71, 77, 79, 84, 94, 99, 106

Utopian/ism, 7, 15, 16, 78

V

Verstehen, 100, 102

VET, 51, 69

W

WaitingforGodot , 48, 82

WorldEconomicForum, 13

Y Youthandadults, 2