Post-MaterialistIntegralEcology
ExperimentsinthePeruvianHighAmazon
FrédériqueApffel-Marglin
ProfessorEmerita,Anthropology,SmithCollege,Northampton,ma,usa fmarglin@smith.edu
Abstract
Thisessayisanexampleofapost-materialistscienceintheworkofmolecularbiologist CandacePert.Post-materialistsciencesupersedesmaterialist-reductionistscienceand integratesspiritualitywithmateriality.Thisdiscussionismotivatedbytheauthor’s experienceasanacademicinaNewEnglandinstitution.Integralecologyisentangled withpost-materialscienceasintheworkofcosmologistBrianSwimme,ThomasBerry andMary-EvelynTucker.Thelastpartdiscussestheauthor’screationofanon-profit organizationinthePeruvianUpperAmazon.Theworkofhercenterisaresponse torequestsbythelocalindigenousleadershipforanalternativetotheirslashand burnformofagriculture. Thealternativeistheregenerationofapre-Columbian anthropogenicAmazoniansoilknownasTerraPretadoIndio(blackearthofthe Indians)inBrazil,whichintegratesmaterialityandspiritualityandoffersthepossibility offoodsecurityandsovereigntyaswellasclimatemitigation.
Keywords
post-materialistscience–integralecology–spirituality–PeruvianUpperAmazon–indigenousagroforestry–slashandburnagriculture–terrapreta–anthropogenic soils
©koninklijkebrillnv,leiden,2018|doi:10.1163/15685357-02201004
Post-materialistsciencedoesnotrejecttheempiricalobservationsand greatvalueofscientificachievementsrealizedupuntilnow.Itseeksto expandthehumancapacitytobetterunderstandthewondersofnature, andintheprocess,rediscovertheimportanceofmindandspiritasbeing partofthecorefabricoftheuniverse.Post-materialismisinclusiveof matter,whichisseenasabasicconstituentoftheuniverse.
mariobeauregard,larrydossey&lisamiller1
The[PapalEncyclical,LaudatoSiofJune2015]encouragedthemoral forcesofconcernforboththeenvironmentandpeopletobejoinedin “integralecology”.“ThecryoftheEarthandthecryofthepoor”arenow linkedaswasnotfullyvisiblebefore.
maryevelyntuckerandjohngrim2
1Introduction
BothPost-MaterialistScienceandIntegralEcologyhavebeencentralthemes inmywritingsandmyteachingsforalongtime.Whatisnewformeare thesetwolabels:Post-MaterialistScienceandIntegralEcologybutnotthe themestheyreferto,themesIhavebeengrapplingwithforaverylongtime. Inthisessay,IjointhemtogetherforthefirsttimesinceIrealizedthateach ofthemseparatelyleftoutsomecrucialdimensionsinmywork,experiences andconcerns.Thenewestdimensionistheoneconveyedbythelabel‘postmaterialistscience’,alabelgivenbyagroupofscientistsatameetingin2014 intheus.3Inmyteachingsandwritings,Ihadbeenavidlyreadingtheworkof scientiststhatquestiontheClassicalCartesian-NewtonianScientificParadigm ofaninsentientmechanicalworldandsuggestedthatsomeimmaterialfactor
1 Paragraph16oftheManifestoforaPost-MaterialistScience.
2 “TheMovementofReligionandEcology:EmergingFieldandDynamicForce”introduction toRoutledgeHandbookofReligionandEcology;2016:3
3 http://opensciences.org/about/manifesto‑for‑a‑post‑materialist‑science.
suchasmindand/orspirit,and/orconsciousnesswereneitherepiphenomena ofbrainactivitynorexclusivehumancapacitiesbutratherwereabroadinthe universe.WhenIreadLisaMiller’s2015bookTheSpiritualChild,Icameupon withgreatdelightandexcitementherterm‘post-materialistscience’which thenledtofindingthe2014manifestoforaPost-MaterialistScienceonline.4 Labelsaremagicalthings;theyatoncegathertogetherheretoforedispersed ideasorrealitiesandalsoinaugurate—Iwouldevendaretosay‘create’—afield ofdiscourseandrealitythatdidnotexistpreviously.
Thejoiningtogetherofthetermspost-materialistscienceandintegralecologyseemedformetopowerfullyenableatoncetherecognitionofthecrucial spiritualdimensionofthediscourseon‘integralecology’andsimultaneously extricateitfromanyoneparticularreligioustraditionandwiththatremoveit fromtheincreasinglyloudandviolentreligiousconflictsoftoday.Furthermore itimmediatelysignalsthatspiritualitymaynotbeanon-materialor“supernatural”phenomenonexcludedfromscientificconsiderationeversinceRobert Boyle’sinventionofthescientificexperimentalmethodinmid-17thcentury. Post-materialistscienceratherseesthatmaterialityandspiritualitymaybe entirelyentangled.
Centraltothediscourseofintegralecology,especiallyinthemannerin whichPopeFranciswieldsit,istheideathatthenaturalandthecultural— i.e.theecologyandthehuman-made—arealsoinextricablyintertwined.5The ‘cryoftheearth’,namely‘thenatural’,and‘thecryofthepoor’,anaspectofthe cultural,areforcefullybroughttogetherasbeingofoneconcern,onereality. Inthisversionofintegralecologyneststhelong-pedigreedworkofespecially feministscholarswhohavecriticizedandrejectedtheexclusivedichotomy— ordualism—betweennatureandculture.6Thosescholars,andespeciallythe AustralianphilosopherandecofeministValPlumwood,havehighlightedthe colonizingdynamicinherentinsuchadualism.
InwhatfollowsIpresentfirstmyinterestintheworksofsomepost-materialistscientistsasissuingfrommyexperienceinacademia.Ifollowthisbypresentingtheworkofsomepost-materialistscientistsandendwithmyown
4 ForthisactualfindingIamgratefullyindebtedtomyfriendJacquesMabit, md whoaftera recentlongconversationbetweenuswhereIconveyedmyenthusiasmforthiscategory,went onlineandsentmethelink.
5 Foranexcellentandthoroughpresentationofthehistoryandphilosophyoftheterms ‘integralecology’seeSamMickey’s2014book: OntheVergeofaPlanetaryCivilization:A PilosopyofIntegralEcology.
6 SomenamesthatimmediatelycometomindaretheworksofMarilynStrathern,Donna Haraway,JudithButler,ValPlumwood,KarenBaradamongmanyothers.
experimentsinpost-materialistintegralecologyinanon-profitcenterIcreatedinthePeruvianUpperAmazon.Thecreationofthiscenterwasintimately connectedtothereasonsformyretiringratherearlyfrommyacademiccareer inanthropologyinaneliteNewEnglandinstitution.
2TensionsinMyExperienceofAcademia
Formetheimperativeofourtimesistheneedtohealourselves,helphealour youthandourravagedearth,inotherwordstheneedforintegralecological healing,healingthesplitbetweennatureandculture,betweenmindandbody, mindandheartandspiritandmatter.Wealsoneedtorecognizethatspiritualityisattheverycoreofsuchanendeavor.Thefollowinganecdotereported bytheColumbiaUniversitypsychologistLisaMiller,DirectoroftheClinical PsychologyProgramatColumbiaUniversityTeacherCollege,couldhavehappenedinmyowninstitution,SmithCollege,whereItaughtanthropologyfor 26years:
Afewmonthsintoherfirstyearatanall-women’scollege,[Marin]knew shewasnolongerunique.Herinitialvisittothecampushealthclinic resultedinabriefchat,followedbyadiagnosisofdepressionandan immediateprescriptionforanantidepressant;therewerenooffersfor extendedconversationbeyondmanagementofthemedication.Herinner experiencewasnotthetopicathand.Developmentaldepressionwasn’t mentioned.Herdepressionwasviewedstrictlyasanillness.7
DuringmyacademiccareeratSmith,manystudentscametomewithsimilar stories.Iremembervividlybeingtoldbydeansatorientationworkshopsfor facultythatwearenevertoengagestudentsabouttheirpersonallives.Weare teachers,notpsychologistsorpsychotherapists.Educationisnottotransform theyouthbuttoeducatethemwiththeaccumulatedknowledgehousedin printandothermediaunderthemottoof“knowledgeforknowledge’ssake”.8 However,whatfinallydrovemetoretireearlyandcreatealifemorewhole formyselfandforstudentswasthefeelingthatspiritualitywastabooasa personalexperience,althoughtotallyacceptableonweek-endsinchurchor
7 LisaMillerTheSpiritualChild:TheNewScienceonParentingforHealthandLifelongThriving. 2015:301.
8 Foramuchmorethoroughcritiqueofthismottoseemyintroductiontomy1998bookThe SpiritofRegeneration.Editedwithpratec.
templeormosque,outsideofacademia.Anthropologistsofcoursestudythe spiritualtraditionsofotherfolks,buttobepersonallytouched,inspiredorGod forbideventransformedbythose,isastrictlyenforcedtabooamongthetribe ofanthropologists.Westudyaboutotherfolks’customsandpracticesjustlike classicalnaturalscientistsstudyaboutthismindless,inert,soullessmechanical nature.
Today,however,anewkindofscienceisshowingusthatitisimpossibleto remainoutsideofwhatweobserveandlearn about.Whatwelearnisabout ourselvesaspartofwhatweobserve/measure.Thisimpossibilityisbrilliantly explainedinKarenBarad’s2007book MeetingtheUniverseHalfwaythatboth expoundsaswellasextendsNielsBohr’sworkinQuantumMechanics.With thepost-materialistmanisfesto,theinclusionofmindandspiritinwhatscientistsarefindingandinvestigatingexplicitlyhealsthedualismbetweenspiritualityandmaterialitywehaveinheritedfromthescientificrevolutionandthe enlightenment.
Formostofanthropology,theencounterwithhumansdifferentfromourselvesisnotprimarilyandnotimportantlyoneofreciprocalsharingandlearningwithandfromeachother,makingoneselfvulnerabletoperhapsexperiencingandknowingtheworldandyourselfinacompletelydifferentwaythanthe oneyouweretaught,findingtheselessonsvaluableandenrichingandadopting someofthem.Thelatterislabelled‘goingnative’andstronglyadvisedagainst inouranthropologicaltraining.9
AsthecosmologistBrianSwimmeputsitinanearlierbookofhis:“bydeprivingourselvesandourchildrenofdirectcontactwiththenuminouspowersthat filltheuniverse,wearechoosingadiminishedexistence”.(1997:46)Thelackof spiritualityinmyacademiclifeledmetoaseverelydiminishedexistence.Itwas myexperiencesinmyfirsttwoperiodsofethnographicfieldworkinOdisha, Indiathatopenedupformethosenuminouspowersoftheuniverse.Itchanged meprofoundlyandforgood.ButIhadtoperformasplitbetweenmyheart/soul andmyhead-knowingthatissocommoninthewayweareraisedandeducatedinmodernity.Ilivedformanyyearsasortofsplitexistencebetween myacademicselfandmyspiritualself.Iteventuallyinducedinmeapervasiveformofdepression.HavingtostickthingsoutatSmithatleastuntilthe youngestchildwasoutofcollege,Idecidedtotakeactionandcreatedtogether withaphysicistcolleagueatAmherstCollegeaFiveCollegesFacultySeminar
9 Irecognizethatthingshavechangedgreatlyinthefieldlately;however,anthropologyremains onthewholeadisciplinededicatedto“representing”otherworlds,apostureIhavearguedin mybookSubversiveSpiritualitiestobeadirectdescendantofthecolonialanthropologythat createdthefield.
wenamed“NewEpistemologiesandContemplation”dedicatedtohealingthat split.10Whatbecameobviousformethenisthatbythelate1990’sanyfaculty membercouldbeoutofanyimaginablesexualclosetbutnotoutofthespiritualitycloset.WetriedtochangethingsinthisFiveCollegesforumbutwere notsuccessfulininstitutionalizingthisspaceandgivingitacademiclegitimacy andcontinuityeventhoughwehadthestrongsupportofthethenchancellor oftheUniversityofMassachusetts.Itallcametonothingintheendbutthis seminarenabledmetogetoutofmydepressionandfaceacademiclifewith moreequanimity.Whenmyyoungestchildgraduatedfromcollegein2006I decidedtoretirethenextyearandcreateanalternativespacewithanalternativepedagogyandanemphasisonwhatInowcallpost-materialistintegral ecologyandthennamed‘bioculturalregeneration’.
Sohereatthefieldcampusofmynon-profitorganizationinLamasinthe PeruvianUpperAmazonwhereIamwritingtheselines,Ihavetriedtocreatea spacewherethissplitcanbehealed.Beforeturningtomyexperimentsinthis centerintheUpperPeruvianAmazon,letmefirstintroducesomeexamplesof post-materialistscience.
3AnExampleofPost-MaterialistScience
Takingaquickpulseofthesituationintheworldtoday,Iwouldsuggest thatthedualisticCartesian/Boylian/Newtonianparadigm—alsoreferredto astheClassicalScientificparadigminsciencestudies—radicallyseparating mind/psyche/spiritfromworldisstilldominantinacademiaandalltheother institutionsoftheNationState,aswellasinthemodernmediaandculturein general.Thissituationiswhathasledmetofeeltheneedtointroducestudents atmyfieldcampusinthePeruvianUpperAmazontothenewkindofpostmaterialistsciencethatisemerging.
Thefindingsofsomerecentscientificresearchopenforusthroughstrictly empiricalmeanscompletelynewvistas.Suchresearchweknowiscarriedout entirelyoutsidetheboundsofanythingremotelyreligiousorspiritualand thereforeitsfindingscannotbeaccusedofbeingacovertmeansofspreading anyparticularfaithtradition.Iwillcomebacklaterinthisessaytothenecessity ofmakingvisiblethenuminosityofsuchpost-secularandpost-materialist
10 TheFiveCollegesinthisareaofwesternMassachusettsare:TheUniversityofMassachusettsatAmherst,SmithCollege,AmherstCollege,HampshireCollegeandMount HolyokeCollege.AnorganizationcalledTheFiveCollegesInc.administersaseriesof sharedacademicactivitiesandstudentsinanyofthosecantakecoursesinanyofthem.
findings.Iwillalsoargueforthenecessitytoembodyandenactthosenew vistassinceapurelycerebral,analyticalknowledgeisnotenoughtogenerate actionsthatcanbringchangesintheworld.11 Inthislatterendeavoritwill benecessarytohaverecoursetoancient,ancestralritualsandotherformsof expressions.
Ihavechosentheresearchofabiochemist,averymainstreamhard-working scientistcompletelydedicatedtoherassaysinthelabatGeorgetownUniversity,workingfeverishlyandinherownwords,“accountableonlytomembers ofourhighlyexclusiveclub”.Whatisremarkableinthisresearcheristhatthe resultsofherpainstakingworkcompletelytransformedherinawayshecould notanddidnoteverimaginepossible.Evenmoreunusually,thetransformation sheunderwentasaresultofherfindingsinthelabpropelledhertosharewhat shehadlearnedaswidelyaspossible,beyondtheusualforaofscientificconferences,meetingsandpublications.ForthatIamdeeplygratefulsinceIlack thespecializedscientifictrainingthatwouldallowmetoreadilyunderstand— shouldIlocatethem—herandherco-researchers’scientificcommunications. Shehasalsobeenwillingtoponderthewiderculturalandphilosophicalimplicationsofherwork,somethingthatistotallydiscouragedinyoungerscientists bytheirmentorsandcolleaguesandverymuchderided.CandacePertpublishedherfindingsforawidegeneralaudienceonlysome14yearsafterher breakthroughsinthelabandofcourseafterhavingestablishedarocksolid scientificreputationinherfield.12Iwouldnotbesurprisedatallifthepublicationofherwidelyreadbookdidnotputaseriousdentinherreputationasa firstratebiochemist,especiallysinceitcontainsaforewordbyDeepakChopra, an md whoopenlyuseseasternspiritualityinhiswritings,anathematomost academicsandanexcusetodismisshiswork.
Inherstudyofpeptidemoleculesandtheirreceptorsshediscoveredthat allthesystemsofthebody—theneurological,theendocrine,theimmunologicalandthegastrointestinal—werejoinedtogetherbytheactionsofdiscrete messengermolecules.Allthedifferentsystemsofthehumanbodycommunicatedwitheachotherthroughthosemessengermoleculesandtheirreceptors. Forexample,theimmunesystemcancommunicatewiththebrainornervous systemthroughpeptidesissuingfromimmunecellsthatcouldaffectthebrain throughtheiractiononpeptidereceptorsinthebrain’sbloodvessels,onsurroundingmembranesorevenonneurons.(Pert1997:172)Thenervousandthe
11 ThisisthelessonfrombothVarela,Thompson&Rosch’sworkaswellasBrianSwimme’s 1996book.
12 CandacePert MoleculesofEmotion:TheScienceBehindMind-BodyMedicine,Scribner, 1997.
immunesystemwereshowntobeclearlyincommunicationwitheachother. Peptidemoleculessquirtedbyonesystemcouldtraveltoanyothersystemand throughtheirattachmenttoapeptidereceptorinthatothersystem,convey informationbetweenthosetwosystems.However,duetothesilonatureofacademicknowledgewherethespecializationofimmunologyandthatofneuroscienceorendocrinologyorgastroenterologyforexamplepreventedeasycommunicationbetweenthem,theimplicationsofthisdiscoverytookadecadeto haveanimpactonthosefields.Pertandherco-researcherMichaelRuffpublishedtheirfindingsin Science butthedifficultyjustmentionedresultedinit beingignoredforadecade.
Theworkhoweverfoundinterestinafieldemergingmostlyfrompsychiatry andpsychologylabelledPsychoneuroimmunologyor pni.“Byproviding pni withaclearscientificlanguage,thatofneuropeptidesandtheirreceptors, wehelpedlegitimizeit”(Ibid:176)HoweverPertandRuff’sowntermfor thisnewfieldwasdifferent:psychoimmunoendocrinesystem,feelingthatthe term‘psycho’and‘neuro’wereredundantsinceforthemthepsycheandthe neurologicalsystem/brainarebothofthesamekind:namelymind,emotions, psyche(Greekforsoul).
Cruciallyitseemstome,RuffaskedofPertwhyusetheprefix‘neuro’tospeak ofthesamepeptidefoundinthegutorimmuneorendocrinesystems?Why alsospeakofneuroreceptorsifthosetooarefoundinthosedifferentbodysystems?Pertagreedandwhentheyshiftedtousingtheterms‘peptides’or‘informationsubstances’itbecamemoreobvioustothemthattheyweredescribinga body-widecommunicationsystemsharinginformationacrosscellularbarriers betweendifferentsystemsofthebody.Becausethepartofthebrainwherepeptidesandreceptorsaremostabundantarealsothepartsofthebraininvolvedin theexpressionofemotions,theywereledtoconcludeintheirjoint1985article inthe JournalofImmunologythatthosepeptidesandtheirreceptors“thusjoin thebrain,glandsandimmunesysteminanetworkofcommunicationbetween brainandbody,probablyrepresentingthebiochemicalsubstrateofemotion.”
However,inherbookPertmodulatesthissingleemphasisonemotion.She statesthatwhatsheandRuffhavebeentalkingaboutallalongisinformation. Shespeculatesthatthemindistheflowofinformationasitmovesamongthe cells,organsandsystemsofthebody.Althoughthemindashumansexperience itisimmaterial,italsohasaphysicalsubstrate:thebodyandthebrainaswell astheimmaterialflowofinformation.Shewritesthefollowingonpage185:
Themindthen,isthatwhichholdsthenetworktogether,oftenacting belowourconsciousness,linkingandcoordinatingthemajorsystemsand theirorgansandcellsinanintelligentlyorchestratedsymphonyoflife.
Thus,wemightrefertothewholesystemasapsychosomaticinformation network,linking psyche,whichcomprisesallthatisofanostensibly nonmaterialnature,suchasmind,emotion,andsoul,to soma,whichis thematerialworldofmolecules,cells,andorgans.Mindandbody,psyche andsoma.
Herworkandthatofherco-researchers,totallyempirical,totallybasedon endlessseriesofcarefullypreparedlabassays,endsupwithresultsthatupend oneofthemosttenaciousofmodernity’sdualism,thatbetweenmindand body.Sincethebodyispartofthematerialexternalworld,partofDescartes’ resextensa,herworkhasfarwiderimplicationsaboutsupposedlysoulless, mindlesspurelymaterialnature.
Pert’sanswertothefollowingquestionfromskepticalreductionistcolleaguesopensupatrulyparadigmshiftinghorizon.“Doesn’ttheflowofpeptide change thephysiologicresponses,whichthencreatethefeelingsweexperience?Doesn’tthechemicalreleaseofendorphins cause thefeelingofpain relief?”Shedoesnotdenythatthisistruebutpointsoutthatitisonlyhalfof thetruth.Whatshehasdiscoveredandverifiedbiochemicallyisthatchanges inrateanddepthofbreathingbringaboutchangesinthequantityandkind ofpeptidesreleasedfromthebrainstemandviceversa.(Ibid:312)Since manyofthepeptidesareendorphinswhicharethebody’snaturalopiates, ourconscious,willedchangesinbreathingpatternbringaboutadiminishing ofpainthroughthereleaseofendorphinsviapeptidemessengermolecules. Anotherconsciouslywilledpracticethatissimilaristhatofbiofeedbackthat isabletocontrolpain,heartrate,bloodcirculation,tension,andrelaxation forexample.Suchdiscoveriesleadhertothefollowingextraordinarystatement:
Wecannolongerthinkofemotionsashavinglessvaliditythanphysical, materialsubstance,butinsteadmustseethemascellularsignalsthatare involvedintheprocessoftranslatinginformationintophysicalreality, literallytransformingmindintomatter.Emotionsarethenexusbetween matterandmind,goingbackandforthbetweenthetwoandinfluencing both.
Ibid:189
Thus,thepeptidesandreceptorsamounttoaprocessofinformationexchange, oftwo-wayconversationsbetweenallthesystemsofthebody,goingonbelow thethresholdofconsciousness.Thepeptidesandtheirreceptorsalsoamount toconversationsbetweenourconsciousmindandwillandthoseprocesses
insidethebody.Thistwo-wayinformationprocesstakesusoutoftheNewtonianbilliardballparadigmwithone-waypushesfrombehind.
AnotherprofoundrealizationcametoPertviaafriend,Dr.RobertGottesman.Gottesmanbringstheconversationaroundtheconceptofinformation andquotesGregoryBateson’sdefinitionofinformationas‘thedifferencethat makesadifference’.13Itiscrucialtorealizethattheperceptionofadifference thatmakesadifferencecanonlyoriginateinaparticularobserverorperceiver, itisonlysototheobserver.Inthiswayofunderstanding,ornewmetaphor,the observerisanactivepartindefiningrealitysincethedifferencethatmakesa differenceissoonlytotheobserver.14
TowardtheendofherbookPertcomestotheconclusionthatthispsychosomaticnetworkshehasdiscoveredanddescribedisrunbyanintelligencenotof theindividualbutsharedamongallhumanityandalllife.Recentresearchhas shownintelligenceinmycelium,intreesandtheirrootsystem,possiblyinall plantlife,inanimals.Humansareonlynodalpointsinavastsharednetwork madeupnotonlyofhumansbutofthenon-humanworldaswell.Shestates that:
Itisthissharedconnectionthatgivesusourmostprofoundsenseof spirituality,makingusfeelconnected,whole….Tothinkotherwiseisto suffer,toexperiencethestressesofseparationfromoursource,fromour trueunion.Andwhatisitthatflowsbetweenusall,linkingandcommunicating,coordinatingandintegratingourmanypoints?Theemotions! …Ibelievethatthereceptorsonourcellsevenvibrateinresponseto extracorporealpeptidereaching,aphenomenonthatisanalogousto thestringsofarestingviolinrespondingwhenanotherviolin’sstrings areplayed…Theonenessofalllifeisbasedonthissimplereality:Our moleculesofemotionareallvibratingtogether.
Ibid:312
Thisdedicatedbiochemist,throughpatientdetailedandsustainedresearch wellinsulatedfromreligionorspiritualityhascometoaviewpowerfullyevok-
13 SeeBatesonStepstoanEcologyofMind,1972.
14 ThisiswhatNeilsBohr’squantumphysicsshowedalso.Forabrilliantexpositionand extensionofBohr’sworkseeKarenBarad MeetingtheUniverseHalfWay,2007.Inbotha jointlywritten2017bookandmy2011bookIhaveusedextensivelyBarad’sworkonBohr.I wouldconsiderBohrandBarad’sworkasbeingexamplesofpost-materialistscienceand offeringaradicallynewparadigmtoreplacetheClassicalScientificone.
ingindigenousandotherworldviewswithoutevermentioninganyparticular religiousorotherspiritualtraditions.Historyortheologyarenotfieldsthatbiochemiststypicallyfrequent.ThatispreciselywhythespiritualitythatPertdiscoversandarticulatesattheendofherbookqualifiesasdeservingthelabelof apost-secularandpost-materialistspirituality.Ithasitsrootsironicallyenough inempiricalresearchcarefullyinsulatedfromanythingremotelyspiritual.The findingsdonotspringfromanyoneparticularreligionorspiritualtradition andthuscannotbeperceivedasattemptingtofindwantingandsubtlytryto undermineone’sownreligiousorspiritualtradition.Itisdifficulttoaccuseitof “unbelief”sincebeliefnowhereplaysapartinit.Furthermore,thespirituality Pertinvokesisgeneralandvagueenoughtobeinterpretedinothertraditions’ languages.Intoday’sworldwherereligiousstrifeisonceagainfrontandcenter inthenews,thisiswelcomenewsindeed.
ThefollowingexampleIthinkmakesmypointratherforcefully.PopeFrancis’sencyclicalhopefullywillbewidelyread,sharedandtakentoheart.However,Idoubtthatthosewhothinkthattheirreligionistheonlytrueonewill botherwiththistext.Infact,surfingrecentlyontheinternet,Icameupona seriesofshortvideosshowingPopeFrancisvisitingandreachingouttomany leadersofotherfaithsandofotherChristiantraditions.Thelastvideototally tookmebysurprise.ItturnedoutthatthiswholeserieswascreatedbyaChristianfundamentalistgroupthatinthelastvideoportrayedPopeFrancisasthe anti-Christ,assatanic,andthefountofallcalamitiesbefallingtheworldtoday, duetohiseffortstoreachouttootherChristianchurchesandtonon-Christians ofmanyotherreligioustraditions.
4Cosmology,Spirituality,andLessonsfromtheDrugEpidemic
CosmologistBrianSwimmesharesarevealingpersonalstoryaboutcosmologicaldiscoveriesandattemptstocommunicatethem.Whendescribinghis feelingswhenenteringintothenewscientificcosmologicalfindingsandorientation,peopleoftenaskedhimifheuseddrugs.Hisinitialreactionwasto somewhatangrilyrejectsuchasuggestionwhichheassociatedwithhislistener’sequatingthefeelingscosmologicalscientificdiscoveriesinducedinhim withtrippingandallthenegativeconsequencesthatcamewithdrugaddiction. However,uponreflectionSwimmecametoverydifferentviews.Heconcluded thatalcoholanddrugsareanintrinsicfeatureofconsumerism,necessaryforits sustainability.Consumerismisbasedonthebasicassumptionofthemodern worldview,namelythattheworldismadeofdead,inertobjects.Theseobjects areinSwimme’sironicwordsmostly‘unmanufacturedconsumergoods’.The
deliriouslyabundantgloryofthenaturalworld,ofthecosmos,isreducedtoan inertmechanismthereforhumans’exclusiveuse.
Humansareofthisworld,createdfromandwithit,andthiswesternmodern paradigmcutsusofffromtheextraordinaryexpressivenessofthisliving,sensuous,numinousworld.Weareleftaloneamongourkind,bereftofthisnuminous andexuberantlyvariedpartofourselves.Thenon-humanworld,thecosmos hasagency,sentienceandmore.CandacePertwritesthatlikeinformation, emotionstravelbetweentworealms:mindandbody;thepeptidesandtheir receptorsinthephysical,bodyrealmandtheemotionsinthenon-material mindrealm.Informationbelongstoneitheroftheserealmsbuttouchesboth, occupyinganon-materialrealmcalledbyinformationtheoriststhe‘inforealm’.Sheconcludesthat“[i]nformationtheoryreleasesusfromthetrapof reductionism,positivism,determinismandobjectivism.Informationtheory isarichlanguageofrelatedness,cooperation,interdependenceandsynergy.” (Pert:1997:261).
Theseandothersuchfindingsamongseveralpost-materialistscientistshave barelypercolatedwithinacademia,letalonethewidersocietyandculture.All themajorinstitutionsofmodernsocietyarestillbasedontheoldClassical Scientificworldview,onethatgivescertaintyandpoweroverthenon-human worldandallthosehumansperceivedasbeingclosertoit.15Soallthoseinstitutionsarenotgoingtowelcomewithopenarmsthekindofnewssomescientists arebringinguslately.Thereactioniswhattheneo-JungianpsychologistJames Hillmancalls‘collectiveego-defenses’oftherepressedunconsciousofmodernity.16 Modernityisstilloverwhelminglyinthegripofthisdeadworldwhich isalsoadeadening,pathologicalworld.Swimmethinksthat“hopingforaconsumersocietywithoutdrugabuseisaspointlessashopingforacarwithout axlegrease.”Inwhatfollowsheexplainswhy:
Whenhumansfindthemselvessurroundedbynothingbutobjects,the responseisalwaysoneofloneliness…Butisolationandalienationare profoundlyfalsestatesofmind.WewerebornoutoftheEarthCommunityanditsinfinitecreativityanddelightandadventure.Ournatural geneticinheritancepresentsuswiththepossibilityofformingdeeply bondedrelationshipsthroughoutalltenmillionspeciesoflifeaswellas
15 BrunoLatourcallsthis“TheModernConstitution”in WeHaveNeverBeenModern; hup 1993.SeealsoValPlumwoodonthedominating,colonizingnatureofthisworldview, especiallyFeminismandtheMasteryofNature.London:Routledge,1993. 16 JamesHillmanTheThoughtoftheHeart&theSouloftheWorld;1992:93.
throughoutthenonlivingcomponentsoftheuniverse.Anyultimateseparationfromthislargerandenvelopingcommunityisimpossible,andany ideologythatproposesthattheuniverseisnothingbutacollectionofpreconsumeritemsisgoingtobemaintainedonlyataterribleprice.
1996:33–34
Todaythistenmillionspecieshasbeenseverelydiminishedwiththelargest extinctionofspeciessincethedisappearanceofthedinosaurs,andonecaused byhumans,givingourgeologicerathelabelofthe‘anthropocene’.17 Weare allindeepmourning,depressedandbereftwhetherweareawareofit,orof itsdeeplyingcausesorwhetherwehaverepressedallofthistoourcollective unconscious.
Interriblesynchronicity,afterwritingthesewords,IopenedmyonlineNew YorkTimesandinitonJanuary6,2017,Ifindanarticleonthedevastatingdrug addictionepidemicthroughoutthe50usstatestitled“InsideaKillerEpidemic: ALookatAmerica’sOpioidCrisis”detailingwithprecisefiguresthe‘terrible price’consumersocietypays:
OpioidaddictionisAmerica’s50-stateepidemic.Itcoursesalonginterstatehighwaysintheformofcheapsmuggledheroin,andflowsoutof‘pill mill’clinicswherepainmedicineishandedoutlikecandy.Ithasripped throughNewEnglandtowns,wherepeopleoverdoseintheaislesofdollarstores,andithasravagedcoalcountry,whereaddictsspeed-dialthe soledoctorintownlicensedtoprescribeamedication.
Publichealthofficialshavecalledthecurrentopioidepidemicthe worstdrugcrisisinAmericanhistory,killingmorethan33,000peoplein 2015.Overdosedeathswerenearlyequaltothenumberofdeathsfrom carcrashes.In2015,forthefirsttime,deathsfromheroinalonesurpassed gunhomicides.
Andthere’snosignit’slettingup,ateamofNewYorkTimereporters foundastheyexaminedtheepidemiconthegroundinstatesacross thecountry.FromNewEnglandto“safeinjection”areasinthePacific Northwest,communitiesaresearchingforawayoutofaproblemthat canfeelinescapable.
Well,theproblemwillcontinuetobeinescapableaslongasourcollective egodefensesrepressthedepthsourceofourmurdersome400yearsagoin
17 SeeElizabethKolbertTheSixthExtinction:AnUnnaturalHistory.2014.
WesternEuropeoftheexperienceandcelebrationofthisnuminousworld fromwhichwesprangandofwhichwearemade.Thismurderwasnecessary totheemergenceofthisconsumersocietywherejustabouteverythingisa commodityandthusforsale.ThatworldwasthencalledAnimaMundi,The SouloftheWorldandisextraordinarilyreminiscentofAmazonianandother indigenousworldviews.
Meanwhile,thereishopefulnewsfromLisaMiller.Inher2015book The SpiritualChild shemarshalsanimpressiveamountofscientificpsychological researchshowingunambiguouslythatthe only thingthatcanprotectupto 40%adolescentsandyoungadultsfromdrugaddiction,60%protectthem fromdepressionand80%protectthemfromriskysexisspirituality.Sheechoes thewordsofJacquesMabit md,founderanddirectorofCenterTakiwasiin Tarapoto,Peruthatwithremarkablesuccesstreatsdrugaddictioncombining westernpsychotherapywithindigenousancestralplantmedicineandshamanism.18Millerstatesthattheescapeandconnectionteensexperiencewithdrug use“needstobeunderstoodasaspiritualquest,inherentlygoodandimportant.”(2015:43)SuchaviewisalsosharedbySwimmewhowritesthat:
Itissimplynothumanfinallytolivealifesealedofffromallconscious contactwiththosepowersatworkthroughouttheEarthanduniverse andwithineveryoneofourcells.Sointolerableisthissenseofbeingout ofit,ofbeingleftout,ofbeingwithoutcentralmeaningfortheworld, wewillresorttoanyroutetoeasethepain.Andthequickandmindless way…istoingestmind-alteringchemicalsthatdissolvethethinveneerof consumerculture…spirituallydessicated…[and]outoftouchwiththe numinouspowerspervadingeachbeingintheuniverse…Thus,ifonly foramoment,andsometimesatahorriblecost…onecanbeathome againinthegreatfloodofbeauty.
1997:35
Miller’sbookfocusesitsenergiesonbringingtoparentstheresultsofrigorous andmultiplescientificstudiesthatallamounttoshowingthatlivedspiritualityistheonlypreventivemeasurethatworks.Shedoesnotspendherenergies ontracingthedepthcollectiverootsofthedrugepidemicinmodernconsumersociety,althoughsherepeatedlypointstotheproblemwithamisplaced 18 Myownnon-profitcenter,SachamamaCenterforBioculturalRegeneration(scbr),ahalf hourdrivefromTakiwasi,hasforyearshadacollaborativerelationshipwiththatcenter.
emphasisonmaterialscience.Sheemphasizesthesplitthatoccursearlyin children’sdevelopmentbetween“logic-basedlearninganddirectexperience andinnerheartknowing”(Ibid:169)Shestressesmodernculture’s,particularly Americanculture’s,lackofvaluegivenespeciallytochildrenandadolescents’ innervoicesandinnerwisdomas“notreal,…notscientific”.(2015:74)
Educationalinstitutionsfrom k throughPhDoverwhelminglyemphasize therational,analyticalmind,leavingtotheartssuchconcernspertainingto thecreativeimaginationbutnotto‘reality’.Shecallsthisinnerwisdom‘heart knowing’andaddsthat“[d]uetosocializationinourcurrentsociety,heart knowingisoftenblocked,denied,ordisintegrated.Thisleadstoenormous suffering,aswecanbecomecutofffromotherpeople,ourhigherselves,and evenourtranscendentrelationship.”(Ibid:78)
Millerreferstoanewkindofscientificresearch,anewgenerationofempiricallybased post-material scientificresearch.Althoughshemakesnodirect referencetoCandacePert’sresearchorthenewcosmologyofSwimmeand others,thosewouldcertainlyqualifyforherlabelof post-material scientific research.AccordingtoMillerchildrenarebornwithanaturalsenseofbeing relatedtoeverything:
Childrenareentrancedbynature…Allthingsinnatureareassumedpart ofthefamily.Thisnaturalcuriosityishuman,andthesenseofacaring relationshipwithalllivingbeingsisspiritual.Childrenhaveanatural spiritualattunementwiththeworldaroundthem:theyrelatetoanimals, trees….
Theyoungchildisbornwiththisassumedrelationshipwithallof nature,fromgoslingstogalaxies.
Ibid:125–126
Millerbasestheseassertionsonseveralscientificstudiesoftwins,bothidenticalandnon-identical,thatshowunambiguouslythatweareinherently,geneticallyspiritual.19 Sherefersespeciallytoalandmark1997twinstudyfocusing oninnerpersonalspiritualitybyKennethKendler.Theterminologyusedinthis study—andothers—speaksofspiritualityasvarietiesoftranscendentrelationship.Itisclearthattheword‘transcendent’isusedinthesestudiesdifferently thanreferringtosomethingsupernatural.Itdoesnotreferparticularlytoa dualistnotionoftheultimate,orGod,asbeingoutsideofcreation.Tomy
19 SeespeciallyMiller2015:54–64.
earsthisuseoftheterm‘transcendent’isalmostsynonymouswitheither theterm‘numinous’or‘sacred’.Sincethisessayiscentrallyconcernedwith post-materialistscienceandintegralecologyandthedeeprootsinmodernity ofthecurrentintegral—ecologicalandsocial—crisesmychoiceoftermsis guidedbythat.Miller’scentralfocusisguidingparentstowardhelpingthe developmentofalivedspiritualrealityintheirchildrenasthemostand seeminglyonlyeffectivepreventionagainstthemostdevastatingepidemicsof addiction,mentalillnessandotherdestructivebehaviors.
Oneveryimportantdistinctionshemakesinherownlaboratorystudyof adolescent individuation isthatbetweenlivedrealityandborrowedreality.In theirindividuationprocessduringthedecadefrom14—theageofpuberty— and25—earlyadulthood—teensandyoungadultsdeveloptheirnatural,genetic,spiritualityandlearntodistinguishitfromtheonereceivedfromtheir immediatesocialcontextandculture.Suchaprocesstakesagreatdealof bothemotionalinvestmentaswellashardintellectualwork.Pubertynotonly unlockstheprocessofsexualmaturitybutalsoisatimeof“abiologically primedtidalsurgeinnaturalspirituality”(Ibid:64).
Sheseemstoconcludefromherandothers’studiesthatforspiritualindividuationtosuccessfullyprotectagainstthemostdestructiveofbehaviors, thisprocessofindividuatingournaturalspiritualitymustbesuccessfulinthe sensethatiteventuatesinalived,embodied,experiencedspiritualityhighly meaningfultotheadolescentoryoungadult.Intheprocess,sheandhercoresearchersfoundthatnobodyhastalkedtothem[theadolescents/youngadults] aboutthisexperience.“Withoutsupportedandguidedspiritualawakeningin adolescence,outteensarelefttofendforthemselves.Thecostishigh.”(Ibid.71) Sheisalsoclearthatasuccessfulprocessofspiritualindividuationmayormay notincludethefamilyreceivedreligion.Theprocessmayreplacethereceived familyreligioustraditionwiththeyoungperson’sownlivedspiritualityora mixofbothofthese.However,Millerisclearthatforasuccessfulprocessof individuationtotakeplaceithastogothroughapersonallylivedexperience wherethespiritualityisembodiedandintenselyfelt,whateveritscharacteristicsmightendupbeing.Suchaprocessshouldbeimpregnatedwithwhatshe callsheartknowing,akindofknowingnotcultivatedinmodernity.
SimilarlyBrianSwimmepointsoutthatthedry,rational,abstractlanguage pervadingClassicalScience—andhopefullylesssopost-materialistscience— cannotleadustochangeoureverydaybehaviors:“Factsbythemselvesarenot enough;whatisneededisembodiment…Whatweneedisjustthesimple recognitionthataswedepriveourselvesandourchildrenofdirectcontact withthenuminouspowersthatfilltheuniverse,wearechoosingadiminished existence.”(1996:45–46)
Itispreciselythisneedforembodimentandexperientiallearningthat hasledmetodevelopthefollowingexperimentsinpost-materialistintegral ecologyinmynon-profitcenterinthePeruvianUpperAmazon.
5ExperimentsinthePeruvianUpperAmazon
Weareinthemidstofvastdestruction,butitissimultaneouslyamoment ofprofoundcreativity…Ourhumanroleistodeepenourconsciousnessinresonancewiththedynamicsofthefourteen-billion-yearcreative eventinwhichwefoundourselves.OurchallengenowistoconstructlivablecitiesandtocultivatehealthyfoodsinwayscongruentwithEarth’s patterns.Ourroleistoprovidethehandsandheartsthatwillenablethe universe’senergiestocomeforthinaneworderofwell-being.Ourdestiny istobringforthaplanetarycivilizationthatisbothculturallydiverseand locallyvibrant,amultiformcivilizationthatwillenablelifeandhumanity toflourish.
brianswimmeandmaryevelyntucker20
Intheyear2011,IwasissuedachallengebyseveralKichwa—thelargestindigenousgroupinthisregion—leaders:arequesttoprovideanalternativetotheir swiddenagriculture—alsoknownasslashandburnagriculture—whichis gravelyendangeredbyrecedingforestcover.Thethenpresidentofoneofthe largestKichwaindigenousorganizationssaidthefollowingtoagroupofUniversitystudentsfromtheusIhadbroughttohiscommunity:21
Ourcustomistoopenchacras[foodfield]intheforest,cuttingthetrees, notuprootingthem,andthenburningthebranches.After3to4yearswe lettheforestregenerateduringsome8,10,15yearsandthenwecutthe treesagain.Wearethreebrothersandourwidowedmother.Togetherwe own18hectaresandwearenolongerabletoopenbigfoodgardens.We canonlymakesmallchacras.Wecannolongercutdowntheforestand moreandmorelandisbecomingdegraded.Howarewegoingtosurviveif wecutdownthelittleforestthatremainsforus?Wewillhavetomigrate andwedonotwanttodothat.Wehopethatyourcentercanhelpusto learnanothermannerofgrowingfoodthatdoesnotrequirecuttingdown theforest.
20 JourneyoftheUniverse,2011:116–117.
21 ItapedthisspeechdeliveredinJulyof2011.
Knowingthatslashandburnagriculturewasoneofthemaincausesof deforestationintheAmazonbasinaswellasbeingthe3rdcauseofclimate warmingintheregion,Ialsoknewthatthischallengewouldresonatedeeply withthestudentsfromusandCanadianUniversitiesIregularlybroughttomy center.Itwouldalsobetherightvehicletocreateanexperientialaswellas intellectualpedagogyofthekindIcouldnotimplementatmyowninstitution, SmithCollege;therightvehicleforenactingapost-materialistintegralecology atmycenter.
TheanswertothisindigenousKichwaleader’srequestwastoregenerate terrapretadoindio [blackearthoftheIndians]—themillenniallyfertileand sustainablepre-ColumbianAmazoniananthropogenicsoil—fortheKichwa communities.22Thisisthemainprojectwehavebeendoinginmycenterfor thepastsevenyears.Ithasadoublepurpose:1.Toachievefoodsecurityfor thesmallestfarmersbothindigenousandmestizo,toreforest,tocontributeto solvingtheclimatecrisisaswellasmakevisiblethespiritualcoreofsuchsoil making.232.TointroducestudentsfromtheNorthexperientiallyandintellectuallytoapost-materialistintegralecology.WeinvolvestudentsfromeducationalinstitutionsintheusandCanadainnotonlylearningaboutthisamazing soilbutinactuallyhelpingmakeitwiththeirhands,theirheartsandtheirsouls. Ibringthestudentsbothtotheschoolswithwhomweworkaswellastostay forafewdaysinanindigenouscommunitytolearnfirsthandfromthem.
Itisnecessaryatthispointtopresentinmoredepthwhatthissoilrepresents andwhyitissoimportant.Theexistenceofthissoilhasbeenknowntoavarietyofspecialistssinceatleastthemiddleofthe20thcentury.24However,itis reallysincethe1990’sthatarchaeologicalinvestigationsintheBrazilianAmazonhaveaccumulatedirrefutableevidenceoftheanthropogenic—namely human-made—natureofthoseancientblacksoilsfullofbrokenceramics. Thoseblacksoils,longassociatedwithpre-Columbiansettlements,arenow revolutionizingourreceivedknowledgeofthepre-Columbianhistoryofthe Amazonbasin.
WhenIwasingraduateschoolpursuingadoctorateinculturalanthropology inthe1970’s,thereigningparadigmabouttheAmazonbasinwasdominatedby thetheoryofarchaeologistBettyMeggersasarticulatedinherbookAmazonia:
22 LaterIalsosignedanagreementwiththelocalprovincialschoolboardtocreateecological learninggardensinseveralhighschoolsandprimaryschool,withthistechnique.
23 Onthisworkseeour2017book:RobertTindal,F.Apffel-MarglinandDavidShearerSacred Soil:BiocharandtheRegenerationoftheEarth,NorthAtlanticBooks.
24 Althoughinitialtentativereportsbeganin1870butwereknowntoonlyaveryrestricted groupofspecialists.
ManandCultureinaCounterfeitParadise(1971).Meggersarguedthattheharsh environmentoftherainforestandtheverypoorAmazoniansoilsputabsolute constraintsonthetypeofagriculture—andthereforeculture—humanscould developthere.Inherview,Amazonianagriculturecouldnotriseabovethe unproductiveslashandburn,semi-nomadicstyleofcultivationcharacteristic ofthepeasantandindigenoussettlementsinmuchoftheAmazonbasintoday.
Thatoldparadigmisnowinthedustbin.Archaeologistshavediscovered that,indeed,thishuman-madepre-Columbianblacksoilgaverisetoahighly productivepermanentagriculturewhichinturnenabledtheriseofcomplex andpopulouscivilizations.Citiesalongthecourseofriversincludecomplex ceremonialcentersandgoonforaslongas30kilometers.Therearefound allthehallmarksofcivilization.Expertshavecalculatedthatterrapretado indio—thePortuguesenamegiventothissoilbyBrazilianfarmers—wasable tosupportapopulationofaboutthesamesizeasthepopulationoftheAmazon basintoday.Thisisanextraordinaryclaim,revisingallofourreceivedwisdom whichonceconsignedtheentirepre-ColumbianAmazonbasintoascant populationofprimitive,wanderingtribes.25
Yet,evenintheheydayoftheSpanishempire,thefirsteyewitnessaccount oftheAmazonbythefriaroftherebelFranciscodeOrellanawhofirstwent downtheAmazonin1541–1542,namedGaspardeCarvajal,wasconsignedto therealmofpureinvention,orworse,politically-motivatedmendacity.SubsequentSpanishexpeditions,severaldecadeslaterinthe16thcentury,reported onlysmall,scatteredsettlementsamidverydenserainforest.Nolargecities, nosignofhighcivilizations.YetthankstothedemographicresearchofHenry Dobyns,26wenowknowthatbetween95%and99%oftheindigenouspopulationsuccumbedtoEuropeandiseases,forwhichtheylackedimmunity,aswell astotheirenslavementandbrutaltreatmentatthehandsoftheSpaniards.Itis indubitablyclearnowthatCarvajal’saccounthasbeenvindicatedbyscientific investigations.
Itwasnot,then,avirginrainforestthroughwhichOrellanajourneyedbuta fertilegarden.27Thelongwhitecities,greatplazas,humanmademoundsand
25 ForareviewarticleonthesearchaeologicalfindingsseeHeckenbergeretal.“Amazonia 1492:PristineForestorCulturalParkland?”,2003:1710–1714.
26 Thisresearch—andalotmorebesides—hasbeenmadeavailabletoawidepublicthrough theworkofajournalistwriter,CharlesMann:1491:NewRevelationsoftheAmericasbefore Columbus.2005.
27 ThemythoftheVirginAmazonianRainForesthasbeenlaidtorestbythecombinedscholarshipofWilliamCronon(1996),WilliamBalée(2013),SusannaHecht(2014),Michael Heckenberger(2003)amongmanyothers.
ceremonialcenters,widecausewaysreachingfarinland,canalsandintensely fertileagriculturalfieldsmeltedintothinair,theirremainsswallowedupby densetropicalforestandshiftingrivers.
Thesearchaeologicaldiscoverieshavenotonlyrevolutionizedourknowledgeofthehistoryofthepre-ColumbianAmazonbasin,buthavebroughtin theirwaketheinterestofsoilscientistsandotherexperts.ProfessorJohannes Lehmann,nowoftheSoilSciencesdepartmentatCornellUniversity,wasworkinginManaus,BrazilbeforecomingtoCornell,andbecameintriguedbythe blackearththatarchaeologistswereexcavating.Henoticedthatthissoilwas highlyfertileandproceededtoanalyzeitwiththethoughtthatsuchknowledge mightmakeitsreproductionfeasible.Followinginthefootstepsofanearlier scientist,WimSombroek,herealizedthatifsuchanamazinglyfertilesoilcould bere-created,itwouldbeaboonforfarmersnotonlyintheAmazonbasin butworldwide.WhatLehmannfoundnotonlyconfirmedthereportsoflocal farmersusingthisblacksoiloftheIndiansbuthediscoveredthepresenceofa specialtypeofcharcoalinitwhichlaterwasnamedbiochar.
Thisspecialingredientturnedouttobeamiraculousone.Biocharisporous and,inhumanterms,neverdecomposes:theoldeststrataofthissoilhave beendatedtobe8500yearsoldandthebiocharinitpersists!28 Itsporosity anditsdurabilitymeanthatnutrientsattachtoitforeverandarenotwashed awaybythetorrentialAmazonianrains,thusexplainingthetrulyastounding longevityoftheproductivityofthesesoils.Butthisisnotall;moreamazing still,Lehmannfoundthatbiocharhasapowerfuldrawdowneffectoncarbon dioxide,whetheremittedbyrottingvegetationinthesoilorbyburningfuel andforests,amongotherthings.BiocharnotonlysequestersCO2fromthe atmosphere,itkeepstheCO2fromescapingonceitisbackinthesoilagain.
Thisrevolutionarydiscoverymeansthatwenowcanpotentiallycreatevast sinksforgreenhousegaseswhilesimultaneouslycreatinganextremelyfertile soilthatneedsnochemicalfertilizers.Lehmann,inshort,showedthatthissoil, namedterrapretadoindio[blackearthoftheIndians]inBrazil—ismuchmore fertilethanothersoilsintheAmazonbasin,canproduceagreaterquantityof foodonsmallerlandsurfaces,andsequestersgreenhousegasesbyfixingthem inthesoilandabsorbingthemfromtheatmosphere.
Biocharorganicagriculturesequesterssome20%ofCO2fromtheatmosphere.Additionally,sincethistypeofpermanentagricultureobviatestheneed tocutdowntheforesttomakeafoodgardenusingslashandburntechnique, anddoesnotburnthetrees,theoveralleffectisapowerfulmannerofneutraliz-
28 WebsiteofProf.Lehmann:http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/lehmann/.
inggreen-housegassemissions.Accordingtoscientistturnedbiocharagricultureentrepreneur,DavidShearer,biocharagriculturecansequesterandstore inthesoilanastounding4gtof ghg.29
Thefocusonclimatemitigationhasbeenmostlyonreducingemissions. Astheseriesofinternationalmeetingsontheclimatecrisishaveshown,the internationalcommunityhashadgreatdifficultyinagreeingonrulestocurb greenhousegasemissions,rulesthatwerefinallyagreeduponattheParis cop21inDecember2015eventhoughtheyamounttoonlyafractionofwhat isneeded.Thediscoveryofterrapretaandbiocharmakeitpossibletostart rightnowspreadingthisformofagriculturethatsimultaneouslycansolve thefoodsecurityissuefortheworld’ssmallfarmerswhilealsosequestering greenhousegases.Infact,thistypeofsoilholdsthepromiseofachemicalfreehighlyproductiveorganicagricultureasanalternativetothefossilfuel intensiveindustrialagriculturedominantintheglobalNorth,aswellasin manypartsoftheglobalSouthwhichisresponsiblefor24%of ghgemissions globally.30
IntheAmazonbasin,wheretheoverwhelmingmajorityofsmallfarmers useslashandburnagriculture,theneedforterrapretaisquiteurgent.Slash andburnconsistsofmakingaclearingintheforestbycuttingtreeswithout uprootingthem,amethodonlymadepossiblebythesteelaxesandothersuch implementsbroughtbytheSpaniards.31Thefallentreesarethenburntinorder togivesomefertilizingphosphatetotheverypoorclayishAmazoniansoil, allowingcropstobegrownintheclearingforonetofouryears,dependingon theinitialfertilityofthesoil.Inorderforthismethodtobesustainable,ithas beenshownthatanaveragesizefamilymustown50hectaresofforest.Farmers arethenabletogiveenoughtimeforarobustregenerationoftheforestcover beforeoncemoreclearingthesameparceloflandforanotherfoodgarden.
29 SeeSacredSoil,Chapter6.
30 Informationfromthe unfcc websiteon4/1000RegenerativeAgriculture:http://www .hummingbirdproject.org/the‑hummingbird‑project/cop21‑the‑41000‑initiative/consultedonJanuary12,2016.
31 Steelaxesmakeitpossibletomakeclearingsintheforestinrecordtimecompared withstoneaxes.Ontheexperimentscarriedouttoshowthatslashandburnagriculture wasmadepossiblebySpanishsteelaxesseeWilliamDenevan“Stonevs.MetalAxes: Theambiguityofshiftingcultivationinpre-historicalAmazonia” JournaloftheSteward AnthropologicalSociety,1992:153–165andRobertCarneiro“Treefellingwiththestone axe:AnexperimentcarriedoutwiththeYanomamöIndiansofSouthernVenezuela”in C.Kramered.Ethnoarchaeology:ImplicationofEthnographyforArchaeology,ColumbiaU Pr.1979:21–58.
Yetthepaceofdeforestationhasacceleratedtosuchadegreethatthereisno longersufficientforestlefttorecuperatefromslashandburn.
Itisamongthesefarmerswithindigenousrootsthatmyinvestigationsinto terrapreta/biocharhavetakenplace.Indeed,itisurgentlyneededthere.The departmentofSanMartininthePeruvianHighAmazon,wheremycenteris located,hasthedubiousdistinctionofhavingthehighestrateofdeforestation inallofPeru.Whilefarmersareurgedbythegovernmentnottocutand burnthetrees,withoutanaffordable,technicallysimplealternativeandone culturallyappropriate,thosesmallfarmershavenooptionbuttogrowtheir foodinthewaytheyhavedoneiteversincethearrivaloftheSpaniardssome 500yearsago,whensteeltoolswereintroducedandknowledgeof terrapreta wasmostlylost.Thecombinationofthosehistoricaleventsestablishedthe prevalentcontemporarypracticeofslashandburn,orswidden,agriculture.
Giventhehugeamountofdeforestationduetotimberexploitation,monoculture,oilexploration,ranchingandmining,smallfarmerstodayhavebuta fractionofthenecessary50hectaresforswiddenagriculturetobesustainable. InthedepartmentofSanMartin,smallfarmersownbetween3to10hectares perfamily,asituationthatleadstoshorterandshorterperiodsfortheregenerationoftheforestcoverafterafoodgardenhasbeenabandonedandtheopeningofanewfoodfield.Thishasledtothealarminggrowthofdegradedlands wheretheforestnolongerregeneratesandthesoilhaslostallfertility.Since theprospectofstoppingthemostinvasiveextractiveoperationsintheAmazon basinaredimindeed,anaffordable,simpleandappropriatealternativetoslash andburnagricultureforsmallfarmersisadirenecessity.Furthermore,experts haveestablishedthatslashandburnagriculture,withitsimmensereleaseof co2 intotheatmosphere,isthethirdcauseofclimatewarmingintheregion. Evenifitwerepossibletoredistributelandsothatsmallfarmersownedthe requisite50hectaresforsustainableswiddenagriculture,thecurrentclimate crisismakessuchavisionofsocialjusticenotsufficientbyitself.
Theresearchofsoilscientistsonthecompositionofterrapretamadeitpossibleforusatscbrtosuccessfullyregenerateit.32Oneofthefirstthingsaquick perusalofthisliteratureteachesisthatthebulkoftheorganiccomponents ofthisanthropogenicsoilvaryaccordingtolocation.Inotherwords,thepreColumbianancestorsoftoday’sindigenousandmestizopeoplesusedwhatever
32 SeeespeciallyJohannesLehmannetal.2003publication: AmazonianDarkEarths:Origin, Properties,Management aswellas:WilliamsWoodsetal.2009publication: Amazonian DarkEarths:WimSombroek’sVision.J.Lehmann&S.Josepheds.BiocharforEnvironmental Management (2009).ForaveryreadablepopularbookseeAlbertBates TheBiochar Solution,2010.
fertileorganicmatterwasathand.Thiswasacrucialdiscoverybecauseitmeant thatwecouldusewhatwaslocallyathandandfreelyavailable.Itisclearthat forthistypeofpermanentagriculturetobeadoptedbysmallfarmerslocallyit wouldhavetobefree—oratleastextremelyaffordable.
Terrapretaisalsofullofpiecesofbrokenceramicsandtheseceramicsare foundevenlydistributedwhereverterrapretahasbeenfound.Intheliterature onterrapreta,theprevailingviewisthattheycomefrommiddens,household trashheaps,alsofromsomeburialsand,mostimportantly,alsofromclayvesselsforfermentinghumanexcrementintohumanure.Clayvesselsofbetween 20and60litercapacitywithlidswerefoundlinedupinterrapretasoilnear houses.Theycontainedfermentedhumanexcrement,apotentsourceoffertility.33Asiswellknownpre-ColumbianAmazoniansdidnothavedomesticated animalsandthusanimalsourcesofmanureandtheymadeintensiveuseof humanmanure—orhumanure—tocreateterrapreta.However,clayshards arefoundinallterrapretaandnotonlyinthelargepre-ColumbianAmazoniancities.Whatarchaeologistsreportisthatallterrapretaisuniformlyseeded withsuchceramicpieceslikeraisinsinafruitcake.Certainly,agreatportionof thoseceramicshardscamefromhumanurevessels,howeveritishighlylikely thattheshardsfoundinterrapretafieldsfurtherawayfromhumansettlements camefromadifferentsource.
Aremarkablerevelationthatcamemywayfrommyindigenouscollaboratorsisthatsomeoftheseshardscomefromofferingstothespiritsofthefood fieldor chacra.Ihavetodatefoundnotraceoftheuseofclayvesselstocollectandfermenthumanmanure.Eventoday,thepracticeofofferingceramic shardstothespiritsofthefoodfieldisfoundpracticedbysomeeldersamong theindigenousKichwa,butunfortunatelyitissuccumbingtothenegativegaze fromthedominantmestizosocietythatviewssuchpracticesassuperstitious. Despitehundredyearsofoppressionoftheirtraditionalways,theindigenous communitieswithwhomwecollaboratearedelightedtooncemoreofferbrokenceramicstothespiritsofthechacraatthetimeofplanting.Theysaythat theyknowthattheirancestorsusedtomakesuchofferings,notonlyfrommemorybutfromthefactthatwhentheymakeanewclearingonaveryoldchacra theyfinditfullofceramicshards.
Unsurprisinglytheoverwhelminglanguageofthescholarshiponterrapreta remainsclassicallyscientific,thatisquantitative,materialist,anddevoidof attentiontoworldviewsorspirituality.Infairness,itmustbesaidthatthispiece ofethnographicinformationshowingcontinuitybetweentoday’sindigenous
33 SeeUteScheubetalTerraPreta(2016:42&Ch.6).
KichwasofSanMartin,Peruandtheirpre-Columbianancestorsinspiritual matterswasnotavailablepreviously.However,givenanthropology’sgeneral adherencetothewesternmodernworldviewofanagency-less,insentientand mechanicalnature/cosmos,itishighlylikelythatsuchinformationwould beseenasaprojectionontothenon-humanworldofmeaningscreatedby humans.
Themembersofthenativecommunities scbr collaborateswitharemore thanhappytore-enactthesegesturesofreciprocitybetweenthemselvesand thespiritsoftheirchacrasduringplantingtimes.Theyalsoinvitemystudents andmetoparticipateinthesegesturesalongwiththemandIsuggesttomy studentstospeakintheirownwords,fromtheheartiftheysowish.Insuch ways,wenotonlylearnabouttheKichwas’worldviewofanuminous,sentient andaliveworldpopulatedwithspiritsthatareallkintothehumansbutalso awakenwhatLisaMillerhascalledournatural,geneticallybasedspirituality.
Toexciseritualgesturesandtheworldviewthoseexpressamountstoanact ofbiopiracy.34 Formeitispreciselythosegesturesandtheworldviewthey enact—oneofaliving,sentientandnuminousearth/cosmos—thatshows methatthemostamazingsoilintheworldwas co-created bythehumans andthespiritsoftheearth/cosmos.Itisnotdifficulttoseethespiritsofthe earth/cosmosasembodyingtheagential,sentientnatureoftheearth/cosmos. Itisformeperhapsthemostcrucialofalltheelementsinthisterrapreta becauseitgivesusalivingalternativetothedominantworldviewofanagencyless,inert,mechanicalearth/cosmos.Thisclassicalscientificworldviewwasthe intellectualbasisforthelaterindustrialrevolution.Itlegitimateditandmade itpossible.35
BesidesthisIalsotrytoopenstudents’heartstothenuminosityofthis earthandofthecosmos.Weparticipateinweeklysharingeveningsandother
34 Wedonotwanttocommitthebio-piraticalpracticeofextractingindigenousknowledge ortechnologieswhilerenderinginvisibletheworldviewthatgavethembirthandnot sharingtheprofitsmadefromsuchbehavior.Suchactshavebeencritiquedascolonizing moves,wherewhathasbeenappropriatednotonlyentersthebodyofthedevourerbut disappearsasaunique,differententity,aprocessthatRajivMalhotrahascalled‘digestion.’ RajivMalhotra BeingDifferent:AnIndianChallengetoWesternUniversalism.NewDelhi; Harper&Collins.2011.
35 Ihavearguedthisatgreaterdepthandlengthin SubversiveSpiritualities.SeealsoJames Curry EcologicalEthics,2011.JamesScott SeeingLikeaState (1998)showshowthenewly createdNationState,createdafterthetreatyofWestphaliathatputanendtothe30 years’warin1648,basedtherevenuesystemoftheNationStateonthethenbrandnew materialistparadigm.Withmercantilismandlatercapitalismalltheotherinstitutionsof theNationStateweresimilarlybased.
enactmentsthatfeelappropriatetothegrouptoawakenournaturalspirituality.36AllofthisandmoreIhavelabelled‘post-materialistintegralpedagogical’ practiceswherepersonalhealingaswellasembodiedhands-onworkwiththe earthandofcourseintellectualwork,muchofitintroducingstudentstoapostmaterialistnewscienceandritualenactmentscombinetobringabouthealing, aswellasalivedunderstandingofwhatapost-materialintegralecologicallife mightlookandfeellike.
IndigenousspiritualityhereinthePeruvianHighAmazonisaunionbetweenancestralshamanismandCatholicism.ItseemstomethatwithPope Francis’sextraordinaryecologicalencyclical LaudatoSi aswellashisapology toindigenouspeoplesoftheAmericas,thehorrendoushistoryofthebrutallyenforcedintroductionofCatholicismherehasbeentransformedinto somethingmoreakintoahealingunion.WiththisencyclicalCatholicismhas re-investedthenon-humanworldwithnotonlyintrinsicvaluebutalsowith numinosity.Fortheindigenousandmestizocuranderoshere,Catholicismand ancestralindigenousspiritualityarenotexperiencedasantagonisticnorasseparate.Thisiscertainlyoneoftheblessingsoflivinginanoralmilieuwherethis historyhaslostitshorrorthroughamemorybluntedtothevanishingpoint.
6Conclusion
PersonallyIwasunabletoaccomplishformyselforformystudentsthisintegrationofhands,heart,mindandspiritwithinacademia.Therearegoodreasons forthis.However,Iamconvincedthatothersareabletocreatesuchspacesfor themselvesandtheirstudentswithinacademia.Mydestinyhasbeentocreate analternativespaceoutsideacademiawhereapost-materialistintegralecology canbeenactedwhereallofuscanexperiencealivedspirituality.Theindigenousandmestizocontextinwhichweworkat scbr—whereshamanismis vibrantlyalive37 andwherethousandsofmedicinalplantsgrow—isparticu-
36 OnnaturalspiritualityseethesectiononSpirituality:LessonsfromtheDrugEpidemic andtheworkofpsychologistLisaMiller.
37 Iamwellawareofthemanypitfallsthathasresultedfromtheenormouspopularityof Amazonianshamanismgivingrisetocharlatansandhastilytrained curanderos withall thedangersthatthisposes.However,thiscurrenttroublingsituationtakesabsolutely nothingawayfromthosecurandero(a)swhoaregenuineandresponsible.Shamanic ceremoniesandforestretreatsusingthethousandsofAmazonianmedicinalplantsin anyofthefollowingcategories:sacred,teacher,purgativesandhousehold,allofwhich arenon-addictiveandextremelyeffectiveinprovidingdeepandlastinglivedspirituality
larlypropitiousforfosteringbothpost-materialistintegralecologyandalsoa lived,embodiedspirituality.
IhavecreatedthisspaceinordertotryandapproximatewhatSwimmeand Tuckerspeakofintheepigraphtothislastsectionoftheessay: Ourroleisto providethehandsandheartsthatwillenabletheuniverse’senergiestocomeforth inaneworderofwell-being.Ourdestinyistobringforthaplanetarycivilization thatisbothculturallydiverseandlocallyvibrant,amultiformcivilizationthat willenablelifeandhumanitytoflourish.Itisaprofoundlyinspiringvisionand alsoaveryambitiousone.Mycenterisasmallsteptowardaccomplishingthis anditinfusesmewithhopeandjoy.Inthelastfewyearstheparticipantsin mysummerprogramsseemtohavesharedinthishopeandattesttotheir transformationandtheopeningforthemofnewinspiringhorizons.
References
Apffel-Marglin,Frédériquewith pratec (1998) TheSpiritofRegeneration:Andean CultureConfrontingWesternNotionsofDevelopment.London:ZedPress;alsoNew York:StMartin’sPress.
Apffel-Marglin,Frédérique(2011)SubversiveSpiritualities:HowRitualsEnacttheWorld. NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Apffel-Marglin,FrédériquewithRobertTindallandDavidShearer(2017inpress) SacredSoil:BiocharandtheRegenerationoftheEarth.Berkeley:NorthAtlanticBooks. Balée,William(2013) CulturalForestsoftheAmazon:Ahistoricalecologyofthepeople andtheirlanguages,UniversityofAlabamaPress.
Barad,Karen(2007)MeetingtheUniverseHalfway.Durhamnc:DukeUniversityPress.
Bates,Albert(2010) TheBiocharSolution.GabriolaIsland, bc.Canada:NewSociety Publishers.
Bateson,Gregory(1973)StepstoanEcologyofMind.NewYork:BallantineBooks.
Butler,Judith(1990)GenderTrouble:FeminismandtheSubversionofIdentity.NewYork; Routledge.
Carneiro,Robert(1979)“Treefellingwiththestoneaxe:Anexperimentcarriedoutwith theYanomamöIndiansofSouthernVenezuela”inC.Kramered.Ethnoarchaeology: ImplicationofEthnographyforArchaeology,ColumbiaUniversityPress:pp.21–58.
experiences.Theyarealsoextremelyefficaciousincuringnotonlyphysicalailmentsbut mentalonesaswellandespeciallydrugaddiction.SeeMabitinWinkelman&Robert PsychedelicMedicine;Metzner TheAyahuascaExperience;DennisMcKennainOpcit. Shultes,HoffmannandRäthkeFoodoftheGodsamongothers.
Cronon,William(1996)“Thetroublewithwildernessorgettingbacktothewrong nature” UncommonGround:RethinkingtheHumanplaceinNature.Ed.W.Cronon, pp.69–90.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company.
Curry,James(2015)EcologicalEthics:AnIntroduction.2ndeditionrevised&expanded. Cambridge,uk:PolityPress.
Denevan,William(1992)“Stonevs.MetalAxes:Theambiguityofshiftingcultivationin pre-historicalAmazonia”JournaloftheStewardAnthropologicalSociety,pp:153–165 Grim,JohnandMaryEvelynTucker(2016)“TheMovementofReligionandEcology: EmergingFieldandDynamicForce”introductiontothe HandbookofReligionand Ecology,eds.Grim&Tucker.NewYork:Routledge.
Haraway,Donna(1991) Simians,Cyborgs,andWomen:TheReinventionofNature.New York;Routledge.
Haraway,Donna(1987)PrimateVisions:Gender,RaceandNatureintheWorldofModern Science.NewYork;Routledge.
Haraway,Donna(1997) ModestWitness@Second_Millenium.FemaleMan_Meets_OncoMouse:FeminismandTechnoscience.NewYork;Routledge.
Hecht,SusannaandKathleenD.Morrison(2014)TheSocialLivesofForests:Past,Present andFutureofWoodlandResurgence.Chicago.UniversityofChicagoPress. Heckenberger,Michaeletal.(2003)“Amazonia1492:PristineForestorCulturalParkland?”Sciencepp:1710–1714
Hillman,James(1992) TheThoughtoftheHeart&theSouloftheWorld.Dallas,Texas: SpringPublications,Inc.
Latour,Bruno(1993)WeHaveNeverBeenModern.Tr.CatherinePorter.Cambridge,ma: HarvardUniversityPress.
Lehmann,Johannesetal.(2003) AmazonianDarkEarths:Origin,Properties,Management.Dordrecht,Boston,London:KluwerAcademicPublishers.
Lehmann,JohannesandStephenJosepheds.(2009) BiocharforEnvironmentalManagement,ScienceandTechnology.London&Sterling,vt:Earthscan.
Mabit,Jacques(2007)“AyahuascaandtheTreatmentofAddictions”in Psychedelic Medicine:NewEvidenceforHallucinogenicSubstancesasTreatment.Eds.Michael J.Winkelman&ThomasB.Roberts,vol.2.Pp.87–105.Westport,ct:Praeger.
Malhotra,Rajiv(2011)BeingDifferent:AnIndianChallengetoWesternUniversalism.New Delhi;Harper&Collins.
Malinowski,Bronislaw(1935)CoralGardensandtheirMagic.2vols.NewYork:AmericanBookCompany.
Mann,Charles(2006) 1491:NewRevelationsoftheAmericasBeforeColumbus,Vintage Books.
McKenna,Dennis(2007)“Thehealingvine:Ayahuascaasmedicineinthe21stcentury”inMichaelJ.Winkelman&ThomasB.Robertseds. PsychedelicMedicine:New evidenceforhallucinogenicsubstancesastreatments.Westportct:Praeger,pp:21–44.
Meggers,Betty(1996)[1971] Amazonia:ManandCultureinaCounterfeitParadise. Washingtondc:TheSmithsonianInstitution.
Metzner,Ralphed(2014)TheAyahuascaExperience:ASourcebookontheSacredVineof Spirits.Rochestervt.:PartStreetPress.
Miller,Lisa(2015) TheSpiritualChild:TheNewScienceonParentingforHealthand LifelongThriving.NewYork:St.Martin’sPress.
NewYorkTimes,(2017)“InsideaKillerEpidemic:ALookatAmerica’sOpioidCrisis”, NewYork:onlineedition.
Pert,Candace(1997) MoleculesofEmotion:TheSciencebehindMind-BodyMedicine NewYork,London,Toronto,Sydney:Scribner.
Plumwood,Val(2003) FeminismandtheMasteryofNature.London&NewYork: Routledge.
PopeFrancis(2015)LaudatoSi.Encyclical.Online.
Scheub,HaikoPieplow,Hans-PeterSchmidt&KathleenDraper(2016) TerraPreta: HowtheWorld’sMostFertileSoilCanHelpReverseClimateChangeandReduceWorld Hunger;DavidSuzukiInstitute,Vancouver,Berkeley:GreystoneBooks.
Schultes,RichardEvans,AlbertHoffmanandChristianRätsch(1992)PlantsoftheGods: TheirSacred,Healing,andHallucinogenicPowers.Rochestervt:HealingArtsPress. Scott,James(1998) SeeingLikeaState:HowCertainSchemestoImprovestheHuman ConditionhaveFailed.NewHavenct:YaleUniversityPress.
Strathern,Marilyn(1988)TheGenderoftheGift:ProblemswithWomenandProbemswith SocietyinMelanesia.Berkeley;UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
Strathern,Marilyn&CarolMcCormackeds.(1980) Nature,Culture,andGender.Cambridge;CambridgeUniversityPress.
Strathern,Marilyn(1992) AfterNature:EnglishKinshipintheLateTwentiethcentury. Cambridge;CambridgeUniversityPress.
Swimme,BrianThomasandMaryEvelynTucker(2011) JourneyoftheUniverse.New Havenct:YaleUniversityPress.
Swime,Brian(1996) TheHiddenHeartoftheCosmos:HumanityandtheNewStory. Maryknoll,NewYork:OrbisBooks.
Varela,Francisco,EvanThompsonandEleanorRosch(1993)TheEmbodiedMind:CognitiveScienceandHumanExperience.Cambridge,ma:mitPress. Woods,WilliamI.,WenceslauG.Teixeira,JohannesLehmann,ChristophSteiner,AntoinetteWinklerPrins&LilianRebellatoeds(2009) AmazonianDarkEarths:Wim Sombroek’sVision.SpringerDigitalBook.