WalkingforRevolution: FromSurrealismtotheSituationistInternational
ArielleMarshall
(UniversityofMelbourne&UniversitéSorbonneNouvelle)
[Acceptedforpublication: 09/01/2023]
TAbstract
his articleexaminestheParisianSurrealistandSituationistengagement withurbanwalkingasacriticalartisticpractice.Exploringhowthe themeofurbanwandering,essentialtoParisianSurrealisminitsearlyyears, isre-elaboratedintheSituationistconceptofthe dérive [drift],thearticle shedsnewlightontherelationshipbetweentheserivalmovements.Firstly, itoffersanarrativeaccountofSurrealistwanderingthatcloselyconsiders twoevents,theDadaistvisittoSaint-Julien-le-Pauvrein 1921 andtheaimlesswandering(déambulation)experimentinBloisin 1924,alongsidetwo landmarkSurrealisttexts,LouisAragon’s LePaysandeParis (1926)andAndréBreton’s Nadja (1928).Secondly,itsituatesthedifficultrelationshipof GuyDebordtoSurrealisminthehistoryofartisticavant-gardes.Thirdly,it highlightstheimportanceofSurrealismtotheelaborationofthe dérive,by analysingtheimplicitandexplicitreferencestoSurrealismthroughDebord’s writingsofthe 1950s.Finally,itturnstotheliteraryprecursorsofthe dérive, distinctfrombutrelatedtotheBaudelairean flâneur,toexplorethepoetic rootsofSurrealismandtheSituationistInternationalinmodernFrenchliterature.ThisarticleilluminatestheimportanceofSurrealistconceptstothe Situationistcity,todeepenourunderstandingoftheParisianavant-garde andtheirlegacies.
Laformulepourrenverserlemonde,nousnel’avonspas cherchéedansleslivres,maisenerrant.
GuyDebord, Ingirumimusnocteetconsumimurigni
Surrealism hadafundamentalroleintheelaborationofSituationisttheories andpractices,particularlyintheworksofGuyDebord.ReferencestoSurrealismappearconstantlyinDebord’swritings.Yet,therelationshipbetween thesetwoavant-gardemovementsiscomplicated,markedbystrongaffinitiesand divergences.TheSituationistrelationshiptoSurrealismisdefinedatonceby opposition—rejectingthemovement’sconceptualpillarsofchance,automatism, andtheunconscious—andbythecontinuationofSurrealistthemes,ideas,and
NewReadings 19 (2023): 19–42.
e-ISSN: 2634-6850 –Articledoi:10 18573/newreadings.138
ThisworkislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution 4 0 InternationalLicence.
URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4 0/ Thecopyrightofthisarticleisownedbytheauthor.
A.Marshall, WalkingforRevolution principles.Oneofthemoststrikingconnectionsbetweenthemisthethemeofurbanwandering,essentialtoParisianSurrealisminitsearlyyears,andre-elaborated intheSituationistconceptofthe dérive [drift].
Referencestothe dérive ofDebordandtheSituationistshaveburgeonedin recentyearsindisciplinessuchasarchitecture,geography,arthistoryandtheory, andculturalstudies;andamongcontemporaryartists,notablyinparticipatoryand performanceworks(BeneschandSpecq;Bassett;Hancox).Simultaneously,avast literaturehasemergedontheFrenchculturalandintellectualhistoryofflânerie andofwalkingasacriticalpractice.Thisarticlebuildsonthreekeystudieson thehistoryofwalkingasanaestheticorartisticpractice: Marcher,créer (2002),by FrencharthistorianThieryDavila, Walkscapes (2002),byItalianarchitectFrancesco Careri,and KeepWalkingIntently (2017),byAmericanarthistorianLoriWaxman. BothCareriandWaxmantellthestoryofhowwalkingbecameanartform,in whichSurrealismandtheSituationistInternational(SI)playtheleadingroles, settingthesceneforitsriseincontemporaryart.WhereCarericonceiveswalking asacriticalinstrumentformappingthebodyinthelandscape,originatinginthe Nomads,withatransformativeforceforselfandsociety,WaxmantakesSurrealism asthestartingpointforahistoryofambulatoryartthroughtheavant-garde. Davilaoffersadifferentaestheticunderstanding,inanon-chronologicalaccount ofwalking-as-artinthetwentiethcentury,focusingontheworkofthreeglobal artistsofthelate 1990s:GabrielOrozco,FrancisAlÿs,andurbancollectiveStalker (co-foundedbyCareri).Davilapointsoutthatcontemporaryformsofpedestrian action—especiallyStalker—oftenciteSituationist dérive asaformativeinfluence. Yet,whendescribingtheirhistoricalprecursors,DavilasteersawayfromDadaand Surrealism,centringinsteadonWalterBenjamin’sanalysisofCharlesBaudelaire’s flâneur.
Thefigureofthe flâneur,madefamousinthewritingsofBaudelaireasthe anonymous,detachedobserverofurbanlifewhodelightsinwanderingthecity, hasbeenextensivelystudied.Whileurbanwalkingasapoeticexpressionin modernistliteratureistypicallygroundedinnineteenth-centuryParisandLondon, the flâneur iswidelyheldasaParisianphenomenon,anchoredinthehistorical andgeographiccontextofHaussmann’srenovationofParisinthe 1850sand 1860s.
WhileitistemptingtoframethelaterventuresoftheParisianavant-gardethrough theliteraryfigureofthe flâneur,thiswouldbeaperilousproject.TheSurrealists andtheSituationistsaimedtodosomethingquitedifferentbysettingfootinthe streets—asIwillmakeclear—andyettheirlineageisoftenassumed,andrarely challenged,inliterarystudies,whichassimilatethemintovagueexplorationsofthe Baudelairean flâneur,sustainedmainlybyBenjamin’sinterpretationofit(Tester; Wrigley).Theallureofthisapproachisseenincontemporaryliteraryworks adoptingthe flâneur asalens,whichreadlikeguidebookstoParis,meandering throughthecity’sliterature,historyandculture:FromEdmundWhite’s TheFlâneur (2001)toFedericoCastigliano’s Flâneur:TheArtofWanderingtheStreetsofParis (2016),andMatthewBeaumont’s TheWalker (2020).Thepatternholdsforacademic works—likeanthropologistDavidLeBreton’s Élogedelamarche (2000),Frédéric
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Gros’s Marcher,unephilosophie (2008),andAntoinedeBaeque’s Unehistoirede laMarche (2016)—whichpositionSurrealistwanderingandSituationist dérive in wide-sweepingtreatmentsofwalkingasauniversalhumanaction.
ExtendingtheworkofCareriandWaxman,thisarticleretracesthestepsof walkingasacriticalartisticpracticefromSurrealismtotheSI,tomoreclosely examinetherelationshipbetweentheserivalmovementsandopenupthisdiscussiontoaliteraryperspective.Thearticlefollowsinfourparts.Firstly,it retracesthepoeticexpressionofwanderinginParisianSurrealism,throughthe considerationoftwoeventsandtwotextsofthe 1920s.Secondly,itsituatesthe difficultrelationshipofDebordtoSurrealisminthehistoryofartisticavant-gardes. Thirdly,ithighlightstheimportanceofSurrealismtotheelaborationofthe dérive byanalysingtheimplicitandexplicitreferencestoSurrealismthroughDebord’s writingsofthe 1950s.Finally,itturnstotheliteraryprecursorsofthe dérive,distinctfrombutrelatedtotheBaudelairean flâneur,toexplorethecommonpoetic rootsofSurrealismandtheSIinmodernFrenchliterature.
Landmarks
The Surrealistpoeticsofeverydaylifecanbeapprehendedintheirconceptof wandering:locatinganexpressive,revolutionarypowerinthesimpleactof walking.UrbanwanderingwasacentralthemewithinParisianSurrealisminits earlyyears,developingthroughtwolandmarkeventsandtwosuccessivetexts.
Thefirst,on 14 April 1921,wasanafternoonexcursiontoSaint-Julien-le-Pauvre, amedievalchurchalongsidetheSeineontheLeftBankofParis,directlyopposite thecity’smostloved(nowscorched)Gothiclandmark.Announcedasthe Ouverture delaGrandeSaisonDada (“Ouverture”),thiseventcameaboutoneyearafter thelong-awaitedarrivalofTristanTzarainParisinJanuary 1920 who,along withFrancisPicabiaandmembersoftheDadagroupfromZurich,joinedthe foundersofthejournal Littérature,PhilippeSoupault,LouisAragon,andAndré Breton—chieforganizerofthisevent.Itwasadvertisedasthefirstinaseriesof “excursions&visites”innewspapersandflyershandedoutintheneighbourhood. Whiletherewerenodetailsofthe rendez-vous,therewasarationaleforthe venue.Astheposterstates:“LesdadaïstesdepassageàParisvoulantremédier àl’incompétencedeguidesetdeciceronessuspects,ontdécidéd’entreprendre unesériedevisitesàdesendroitschoisis,enparticulieràceuxquin’ontvraiment pasderaisond’exister”,1 withfutureoutingsplannedtotheLouvre,theParcdes Buttes-Chaumont,theCanaldel’Ourcq,andtheGareSaint-Lazare(fig. 1).This spotintheLatinQuarterwasneglectedonthetouristtrailandseemedtodouble asagarbagedumpforresidentsofthe 5tharrondissement.Withanunobstructed viewofthesouthernfaçadeofNotreDame,itofferedaprimevantagepointfora
1 Transl.:“TheDadaistspassingthroughPariswantingtosetrighttheincompetenceofsuspicious touristguides,havedecidedtoundertakeaseriesofvisitstoselectedplaces,inparticulartothose whichhavenoreasonforexisting.”Translationsaremineunlessotherwisestated.
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critiqueofParis,thecapitalofmonumentallandmarksandcityguides(fig. 2).This collectivegatheringsubvertedtheordinary“tourist”and“scholastic”circuitsby diversion:turningtheirattentiontobanalplacesofnoapparentvalue(thedecrepit relicandnotthemust-seebackdrop).Theparticipantswalkedaroundthesitein astrangeandconfusedmanner,beingofferedlittleinthewayofexplanation.
Fig. 1.Dadaexcursionsandvisits:Firstvisit,Saint-Julien-le-Pauvrechurch, 14 April 1921.[ExcursionsetvisitesDada: 1ère visite,égliseSaint-Julien-le-Pauvre,jeudi 14 avril 1921.BNF.]A.Marshall, WalkingforRevolution
Staginganexcursiontoaplaceofinsignificance,thisgesturehelddistinctive meaningforartisticavant-gardes—asnotedintheDadaists’pressrelease:
Ilya,paraît-il,encorequelquechoseàdécouvrirdanslejardinpourtantsi aimédestouristes.
Ilnes’agitpasd’unemanifestationanticléricalecommeonseraittentédele croire,bienplutôtd’unenouvelleinterprétationdelanatureappliquéecette foisnonpasàl’art,maisàlavie.2 (Qtd.inSanouillet 213)
Fig. 2.TheDadagroupinthegardenoftheSaint-Julien-Le-PauvrechurchinParis. [LegroupeDadadanslejardindel’égliseSaint-Julien-Le-PauvreàParis.Photo: D.R.CentrePompidou,MNAM-CCI,BibliothèqueKandinsky,FondsAndréBreton (BRET 3 37).]
Perambulatingthelinesbetweenartandlife,thevisittoSaint-Julienunderminedart’slinkstoinstitutions,culture,andcommerce.Theeventwouldproducefewobjectsofvalueformuseums,market,orevenhistoricalinterpretation. TheFrenchDadaistGeorgesRibemont-Dessaignesledaguidedtourthroughthe courtyardwithaLaroussedictionaryinhand,readingoutdefinitionsofwords atrandom.Thewalksandtheirabsurdcommentaryendedatthechurchentrance.Standingbeforeacrowd,Bretonreadamanifestothatwasbothironicand prophetic:
Toutcequis’estpasséjusqu’icisousl’enseignedeDadan’avaitquelecaractèred’uneparade.D’aprèselle,vousnepouvezvousfaireaucuneidéedu
2 Thisnote(prièred’insérer)wastitled“Faut-ilfusillerlesdadaïstes?”,afteraninquiryofthesame namelaunchedby LaRevuedel’Époque.Transl.:“Thereis,itseems,stillsomethingtodiscoverin thisgardenwhichisnonethelesssolovedbythetourists.Itisn’tananticlericalmanifestationaswe wouldbetemptedtobelieve,butratheranewinterpretationofnatureappliedthistimenottoart, buttolife.”
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spectacleintérieur.[...]Contentez-vousdetournerlatête.Noussommesen pleinParis.Ilpeutvoussemblerdouxencejourdepluieprintanière[...]de vouspromenerauborddelaSeineetdevoirennousunejeunesseespiègle semblableàlajeunesseromantique,quidonnasasèveauXIXe siècle.Le voici,cefameuxbijoudel’architecturegothiqueauxrosacestraverséesparle ciel,auxsaintsdemétalprécieuxpareilsauxapôtresdudadaïsmeenproie àlafolieÉternité.3 (Œuvres 1: 626–27)
Kandinsky,FondsAndréBreton(BRET 3 35-36).]
Themeninsuitsandwomeninfurswerehuddledunderumbrellas(fig. 3).The spectatorswereboredbythespeechesandstartedtoscatter.Uponleaving,they werehandedsurpriseenvelopeswhichcontained“phrases,portraits,cartesde visite,étoffes,paysages”,4 obscenedrawings,andevenfivefrancsnotesdefaced
3 Transl.:“AllthathashappeneduntilnowunderthesignofDadawasjustasideshow.Youcan havenoidea,judgingfromthat,ofthespectacleinside.[...]Simplyturnyourheads.Wearein themiddleofParis.Itmayseemsweettoyou,onadayofpleasantspringrain[...]tostrollbythe SeineandseeinusamischievousyouthsimilartotheyoungRomantics.Hereitis,thefamous jewelofGothicarchitecturewithRosettawindowscrossedbythesky,withsaintsinpreciousmetal identicaltoDadaapostlesfallenpreytothemadnessofEternity”(Breton,“ArtificialHells” 140).
4 Transl.:“phrases,portraits,callingcards,bitsoffabric,landscapes”.
Fig. 3.DadaeventatSaint-Julien-le-Pauvre.[ManifestationDadaàSaint-Julienle-Pauvre.Photo:RogerVanHecke.CentrePompidou,MNAM-CCI,BibliothèqueA.Marshall, WalkingforRevolution
witheroticsymbols,asPaulÉluardmentionedinalettertoTzaraon 12 April 1921 (qtd.inSanouillet 216).Itseemsthattheaudiencedispersedwithoutholdingon tothesepartingtraces.Apartfromtheposterandafewphotographs,wecan onlyreallysketchoutwhathappenedthatafternoonthroughsomefragmentary accounts.JacquesBaron,forinstance,remembersthelastDadaeventaspoorly attendedand“plutôtdéprimante”[“ratherdepressing”](45).Mostoftheday’splans werescrappedduetorain.Theeventwasnotasuccess—itremainedaone-off intheproposedseries.
Amonthlater,BretongavetheofficialrecordofDada’spassagethroughParis aspartofhisepistolarychronicleforJacquesDoucet,inapiecetitled Les“Enfers artificiels”:Ouverturedela“Saisondada 1921 ” (Œuvres 1: 623–30).Inasummary oftheeventsofSpring 1921 beginningwiththeexcursiontoSaint-Julien-le-Pauvre, Bretonwrites:“Nousavionssongéàconduirenotrepublicendeslieuxoùnous pussionsmieuxletenirquedansunesalledethéâtre”ineventswithoutanyother pretext(Œuvres 1: 626).5 WhileParisDadahadpromised“devivespolémiqueset degrandesassemblées”[“livelypolemicsandlargeaudiences”](Œuvres 1: 624),the realitywasdisappointing.Theinitialphaseofagitation,performances,andmanifestationsin 1920 gavewaytoasecondphaseofDadaactivity,withaprogramme thatincludedtheSaint-Julienvisit,theMaxErnstexhibition,themocktrialof MauriceBarrès,andthe CongrèsdeParis—eventsthatwerelargely,byBreton’s measure,failures.Thenewmomentumofthe Littérature groupwasmetbyinertia andsuspicionbytheoriginalDadaists,causingtensionswithPicabiaandTzarain particular.TheemergingSurrealistprojectcalledfordisciplinedcollectiveaction. Bycontrast,Dadawasfoundedonanarcho-individualismthatdidawaywith all structureand all hierarchy.TheorizingDadaeventsas“enfersartificiels”[“artificial hells”],BretonpointstothelimitsofDadaaestheticswhenhelaterlamentsthat themovefrom“sallesdespectacleàl’airlibre”wasnotenoughtoputanend totheDada“poncif”[“cliché”](Œuvres 3: 468–69).6 ThetitleofBreton’sarticle alludestoBaudelaire’s LesParadisartificiels (1860),anessayondrugsandcreation thatexploresthepoet’sbeautifulyettroublingvisionsundertheinfluence.However,Bretonwillhighlightadifferentsortofaestheticpleasurewhenhementions Baudelaireinthetext,whichredeemsDadainthefollowingterms:
IlestcertainquelesmanifestationsDadaparticipentd’unautredésirque celuidescandaliser.Cedernier,sifortqu’ilsoit(ilestfaciled’ensuivre latracedeBaudelairejusqu’ànous),nesuffiraitpasàprocurerlavolupté qu’onpeutattendred’enfersartificiels.Ilfauttenircompte,aussi,del’étrange plaisirqu’ilyaà«descendredanslarue»ou«nepasperdrepied»,comme onvoudra[...].7 (Œuvres 1: 625)
5 Transl.:“Weimaginedguidingourpublictoplacesinwhichwecouldholdtheirattentionbetter thanatheater”(Breton,“ArtificialHells” 140).
6 Transl.:“Movingfromauditoriumtotheopenairwasnotenoughtogetusawayfromthe‘Dada’ cliché”(Breton, Conversations 52).
7 Transl.:“Dadaeventscertainlyinvolveadesireotherthantoscandalize.Scandal,forallitsforce (onemayeasilytraceitfromBaudelairetothepresent),wouldbeinsufficienttoelicitthedelightthat
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Iftherewassomethingworthkeepingfromtheircollaboration,asBretonnotes,it wouldbesomethingotherthanscandal.Whilethisurbanescapadewastechnically Dadaist,itopenedthewaytoanotheradventure.TherearesignsofDadaist performance—mockery,improvisation,anattackonrepresentation,amoodof absurdity—butasarthistorianT.J.Demosnotes,“theeventisirreducibleto it,entailing,aboveall,anescapefromthecabaret”(138).Asrecentscholarship hasunderlined,theexcursiontoSaint-JuliennotonlybreakswithDada’stheatre conventionsbutprefiguresanewkindofartisticaction:walkingthecityasa meansofengagedculturalcritique(Bishop 67–71;Haladyn).
ThedeathofParisDadawasdeclaredone-by-onebydisaffectedmembers— mostfamouslyinBreton’smanifesto Lâcheztout (1922)—markingthetransition intoSurrealismproper(seeLegge).Muchlike Les“Enfersartificiels”,Breton’scollectionofessays LesPasperdus (inwhich Lâcheztout reappeared, 1924)showsthe Surrealistleader’songoingattempttoconstructhis own historyofthemovement. Withshiftingaccountsovertheyears,Bretonwillgiveafinalversionofthe“facts” inhisscriptedradiointerviewswithAndréParinaud,broadcastbetweenJanuary andJuly 1952.Bretonmayhaveseentheseinterviewsasachancetosetthe recordstraightafterthepublicationof Histoiredusurréalisme (1945),byFrench literarycriticMauriceNadeau:asyntheticnarrativethathadmainlyfocusedon thepoliticaltractsand,bydeclaringtheendofthemovementin 1939,triedto burySurrealismbeforeitwasover.WhereNadeauhaddrawnattentiontothe rootsofSurrealisminDada,Bretoninsistsuponitsrupture:“Ilest[...]inexactet chronologiquementabusifdeprésenterlesurréalismecommeunmouvementissu deDada”(Œuvres 3: 462).8 Morethananoutgrowth,BretonwilldefineSurrealism asadistinctphenomenonandtheninventagenealogythatallowshimtoefface anddiscredittheDadaepisodeasmereprovocation(seeFourny).Competing fortheplaceattheforefrontofculture,theavant-gardeformsnewmodelsof artisticproductiononthestrataandfaultlinesofearliermovement.Transforming Dada’snegativelogicofculturaldesecrationintoaconstructivelogicofsubversion, Surrealismwillreinvestthepleasureof“takingtothestreet”withpoeticmeaning. WalkingwiththeSurrealistsresumesinasecondexcursionorganizedbyBreton:threeyearslater,inMay 1924,whenBreton,Aragon,artistMaxMorise,and playwrightRogerVitractravelledbytrain 185kmsouth-westofParistoatown pickedatrandomfromamap.Conceivedasanexplorationbetweenlifewalked andlifedreamed,theysetofffromBloisonaten-dayjourneyintheLoireValley.Theaimwasthelackofallaims:anattempttoputSurrealistgamesonthe map.Orbetter,torealizeBreton’scalltodropeverything:leaveyourjob,your routine,yourfamily—getoutontotheopenroad,“Partezsurlesroutes!”(Œuvres
1: 263).AccordingtoBreton’sbiographerMarkPolizzotti,“forthemostpart,they wanderedaimlesslythroughouttheFrenchcountryside,conversingallthewhile, onemightexpectfromanartificialhell.Oneshouldalsokeepinmindtheoddpleasureobtained in‘takingtothestreet’or‘keepingone’sfooting,’sotospeak”(Breton,“ArtificialHells” 139).
8 Transl.:“Itis[...]inaccurateandchronologicallyabusivetopresentSurrealismasamovement thatstemmedfromDada.”
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resolutelyfollowingtheirlackofitinerary”(201–02).AsBretonrecallsin Entretiens ofthefour-persontripthroughemptyterritory,“déambulation”[“wandering”]cut themofffromrealityandunleashedsometroublingfantasies(Œuvres 3: 473–74). Duringreststops,theycomposedautomatictexts.Butastensionsarosebetween travellers,theexperimentended.IfthefirstwalkingeventatSaint-Julienhad overlookedaruleforengagingwiththeurban—theinterventionoftheunplanned (onthatday,shittyweather)—thenthesecondcorrectedthefaultofthefirst,but itmissedthemarkbygoing outside citylimits.
WhilethesetwopilotexcursionsfailedunderBreton’sdirection,theyinitiated apoeticsthatsingularizesthefiguresofthismovement:theSurrealistswere walkers.Walkinginthecityisanessentialthemeintheirpoeticandnarrative works.9 Andmostofall,apracticethatfilledtheireverydaylives.Whatmattered intheSurrealistexplorationofplaceswasnottheendpointbutthe passage: wanderingthestreetswithoutaimorend,fromdusktonight.Walkinginthat contrarymannerofautomatism—atoncedetachedandattentive—theSurrealists soughttoreleasedormantenergiesoftheunconsciousbytraversingurbanand mentaldisturbances.EvokedbyJacquesBaronasthe“promenadeinterminable” [“endlesswalk”](83),theSurrealistslocatedmodernlife’snewcolourandmeaning intheever-changingdynamismofthecapital.Thepoetcaughtadriftinthestreet, withitscrowds,posters,cafés,métrostations.TheSurrealistssawwalkingasa meanstojoltthescreenofhabit,toseethecityafreshthroughdisorientation andmarvellousjuxtapositions.“Larue”,Bretonwritesin LesPasperdus,“avec sesinquiétudesetsesregards,étaitmonvéritableélément:j’yprenaiscomme nullepartailleursleventdel’éventuel”(Œuvres 1: 196).10 Thegroupstrayedfrom theartistichubslikeMontparnasseandSaint-Germain-des-Prés.Theypreferred theindustrial,working-classdistrictsoftheRightBankandthecity’snorthern edge:ParisofGrandsBoulevards,LesHalles,andtheQuartierdelaPresse;Place Blanche;theParcdesButtes-Chaumont;thefleamarketsatClignancourtand Saint-Ouen.ThispracticeresultedintwolandmarkworksofSurrealistliterature, bythewriterspresentonthatdullafternoonin 1921 andthatwalkinthevalleyin 1924:Aragon’s LePaysandeParis (1926)andBreton’s Nadja (1928). IfthereisaSurrealisttheoryofwalking,itresidesin LePaysandeParis and Nadja:formallyexperimentalworksofprose,prefacedwiththeoreticalprinciples. Botharepart-fictive,part-autobiographicaltexts,interwovenwithdocumentsand foundobjects:forAragon,fragmentsofmapsandcafémenus(cartes ofallkinds), sketches,signs,newspaperclippings,photographsofinscriptions;forBreton,photographs(ofhotelsandcafés;citystreets,monuments,signs);portraitsbyMan RayandHenriManuel;postcards,letters;posters,drawings,andcollages.In Le PaysandeParis,Aragonretracestwourbanwalksindetail.Thefirstcentreson thePassagedel’Opéra,oneoftheenclosed,glass-roofedarcadesinthe 1star-
9 ThewalkerisakeyfigureinRobertDesnos’s Lalibertéoul’amour! (1927)andPhilippeSoupault’s LesdernièresnuitsdeParis (1928).
10 Transl.:“Thestreet,withitscaresanditsglances,wasmytrueelement.ThereIcouldtestlike nowhereelsethewindsofpossibility.”
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rondissement,datingbacktothe 1820s.InsidewastheCaféCertâ,theregular meetingplaceforthe Littérature group,aswellastheDadaistspassingthrough Paris.Anarchitecturalvestigeofanearlierera,thisPassagewoulddisappearby thetimeofAragon’spublicationduetomodernization.Thenarratorcastsan ethnographicgazeontothecity,atonceparticipantandspectator,attentiveto theexchangesbetweenmerchants,escorts,waiters,concierges,hairdressers,and clients(Sheringham 75).WhiletheseobservationsareinformedbytheFreudian notionthathiddendesiresconstructreality,thisisnotaFreud-inspireddream spaceofneo-Classicistedifices,dramaticperspectives,phallicforms,andbarren landscapesinvitingpsychoanalyticinterpretation.Rather,theauthordepictsa spaceofmarvelandreverie in theurban—acertainmagicthatAragonlocatesin theunnoticedatmospheresofpublicbathsandbrothels,placesdevotedtosensual pleasure.Mythisnolongerissuedfromthegods,theheavens,theidols,but formedinthesphereoflivedexperience:“Desmythesnouveauxnaissentsous chacundenospas”(Aragon, Paysan 13).11 LePaysandeParis mapsthemovement ofbodiesthroughurbanspaces,uncoveringthecity’sactivitybehindfaçadesand closeddoors,toexaltanewcultofephemerathatAragoncallsa“mythologie moderne”.
TheSurrealistwalkerisledbyamysteriousforce,mostoftenawoman—real orimaginary:12 themythicsourceofinspiration,thesuperiorbeing,andincarnationofenigma(Clébert 434–35).TheSurrealistcityisasiteoferoticencounter, aplacetoignitesexualfrissonintheflowofstrangers.Thisisthepremiseof Nadja,thelandmarkSurrealistanti-novelbyBreton:alovestorythatbeginswith achanceencounterontheboulevards(Œuvres 1: 643–753).Bretonrelatesthe principlesofobjectivechance(hasardobjectif),scrutinizingthe“facts”ofhislife withtheclinicaltoneofmedicalexamination.Themaineventhappenswhile hewalks: Breton,wanderingwithoutaimoroccupationdowntherueLafayette, crossesawomanbythenameofNadja.Fromthere,hedocumentstheirnine-day affairinachainofmeetingsandwalksacrossParis.Thenarratorismagnetized bythefemininefigure(herselferrant)whosecontourshetracesthroughaseries ofimpressions,comments,doubts,andruminations.Bretoncelebratestheprotagonist’ssurrealvisionsandperipateticlifeasadifferentwaytoexperiencethe world,framingmadnessasalteredstatesofmindratherthansymptomstocure. Inanaccountofhisobsessivelibidinalandsentimentalinvestments,realitybecomestwistedwithcompulsive,evanescentprojectionsofdesire,turningobjects intothetangiblefigurationofBreton’sownfantasies.Thecityandwalkerbecome entangledinthiswindingstorythatflickersbetweenconsciousandunconscious thoughts—athemethatextendsacrossBreton’strilogy LesVasescommunicants (1932)and L’Amourfou (1937).Inthisway, Nadja illuminatesthementalaspectof theoddpleasureobtainedin“takingtothestreet”,sotospeak.
11 Transl.:“Newmythsspringupbeneatheachstepwetake.”
12 Asin“L’EspritNouveau”(1922),whereBretonandAragontrailayoungwomanthroughthestreets ofSaint-Germain-des-Prés(Breton, Œuvres 1: 257–58).
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Distinguishedbyanidiosyncraticproseatthelimitsoffictionandautobiography, LePaysandeParis and Nadja areemblematicoftheSurrealistattitude treadingthelinesbetweenartandlife.Insearchofsurpriseencountersand creativeinspiration,transfiguredbydreamsandsensualexperiences,thecapital ofBretonandAragonopensagatewaytoanotherworld:oneofauthenticpoetic anderoticlife.TheSurrealistcityisbothhallucinatoryandrealist.Hallucinatory,becausethewalkerlosesthemselfintimeandspace,withinasubjective dreamscapethatescapesobjectivereality.BretonandAragontreatthecityas alabyrinthofhiddenmeanings,decryptingthesignsand“secrets”thatunderlie façades,arcades,andlandmarks—anurbanfabricrichinmeaningsinaccessibleto theclear-cutfacultyofhumanreason.While,fromtheoutside,theSurrealistwalk appearsdisordered,likethefreeflowofimagesandpsychicdrives,thenarrative giveswanderingsensethroughquestandinquiry,culminatinginidentityandlove (Bancquart).Realist,becauseSurrealistitinerariesarechartedthroughtheconcrete realityofParis,referringto“anchors”(repères)thatorientthewalkertowardanend point(dénouement).Thisisadualismthatcharacterizes surréalité asBretondefinedit,twoseeminglycontradictorystatesofconsciousness,likealuciddreamer whoseestheworldwithdoublevision(Œuvres 1: 319).TheSurrealistssawthecity asaspaceforpersonalexploration,drawingonthisexperienceasasourcefor poeticrevelationsandself-transformation.Thesetextsofferanimplicittheoryfor Surrealistwandering:awaytore-enchanttheeverydaythroughsubjectivityand theactofattention.
Imprint
By themid–twentiethcentury,Surrealismwasbecomingknownasthemost influentialartisticmovementoftheirgeneration.InParisaftertheSecond WorldWar,thenewleagueofartisticavant-gardesfacedadoublechallenge.First, toaddresstheheritageofSurrealismthatdominatedtheculturalfieldand,second, toconfrontitspresentformandlivingleader:theinimitableAndréBreton(see Penot-LacassagneandRubio).Oneofthefirstgroupstoemergeinthisscenewas Letterism,thecollectiveofartistsandtheoristsledbyIsidoreIsouthatresurrected, inlargepart,theDadaistattackonlinguisticorderthroughexperimentsinpoetry, painting,film,andperformance.In Introductionàunenouvellepoésieetàune nouvellemusique (1947),Isoudescribedthehistoryofartsastwosuccessivephases: the“amplifying”[amplique]phase,movingtowardprogressinmeansofmimetic representation,andthe“chiselling”[cisélante]phase,workingtodestroythose means(liketheLetteriststhemselves).Bybringingthedestructiveprocesstoits limit,Isouannouncedhismovementasthe“final”avant-gardethatwouldachieve theso-calledendofart.WhenabreakawayfactionofLetterismformedaround GuyDebordin 1952—theLetteristInternational(LI),tobecometheSituationist International(SI)in 1957—thisgoalwastakenforward.TheSIdeclaredthemselves thetruesuccessorsofDadaandSurrealism,overcomingthe“failures”offormer avant-gardesinafinalstageofmodernartthatwouldintegrateeverydaylife.
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Withthesameemancipatoryagenda,Debordcombinesthetheoreticalstandpoints ofDadaandespeciallySurrealism—negationandconstruction—foraso-called supersession(dépassement)ofart.
Ifnoveltyisparamountfortheavant-garde,theymustreinventmodelsof artisticcreationthatsurpassearliermovements—thisprocessismimeticandalwaysreactionary.Inthesamewaythatthemanifestowasusedstrategicallyby theartisticavant-gardetogalvanizecollectiveidentity,conditioningthedevelopmentofonemovementtothenext,DebordannexestheSurrealistframeworkto negatethepastuntilthepresent,assertinghisgroup’sagencyincultureandsociety.TheSIrespondedtotwofailuresofrevolutionarypraxis:thedisintegration oftheavant-gardeandthedeclineoftheradicalLeft.Inthefirstexpression oftheirpolitical-aestheticstance, Rapportsurlaconstructiondessituations (1957), presentedattheSI’sfoundingconferenceatCosiod’Arroscia,Debordarguesthat aregressivepatterndestinedtheavant-gardetofail:whenacollectiverecognizes thattheirwilltochangetheworldisunachievable,thegrouprevertstothedogma theyhadinitiallyrejected.
TherearetwomovementsemphasizedinDebord’shistoryofmodernart,allowingforanarrowdefinitionoftheSI’sorigins,consequences,andaestheticaims. First,theDadaists,whodeliveredafatalblowtothetraditionalconceptionofculturebutordainedtheirowndissolutionthroughalogicofabsolutenegation:“Ses violentesmanifestations,dansl’AllemagneetlaFrancedel’après-guerre,portèrent principalementsurladestructiondel’artetdel’écriture,et,dansunemoindre mesure,surcertainesformesdecomportement(spectacle,discours,promenade délibérémentimbéciles)”(Œuvres 311–12).13 WhatexactlyisDebordreferringto here,intermsofDadaist promenade?ItisstrangethatDebordwouldevenmentionsuchathing.TherearevirtuallynotracesoftheBerlinDadaists’actionsin thestreet,giventheirpreferenceforcontext-basedephemeralpractices(Grindon 92).Thisleavestwopossibilities:DebordmayrefertotheDadaEarlySpring Exhibition(Dada-Vorfrühling)atapubinCologne,April 1920,wherevisitorswere escortedthroughtheurinalsbyagirlrecitingpoetryandthengivenaxestodestroytheartworksdisplayedinthecourtyard.14 Butitismorelikelythatherefers totheaforementionedwalktoSaint-Julien-le-PauvreorganizedbyBretoninMay 1921 aspartofParisDada,whichalsofeatured,amongotheroddities,deliberately idioticspectaclesandspeeches.Breton’saccountoftheSaint-Julieneventinhis interviewwithParinaudwouldhavebeenaccessibletoDebord;theseriesairedon nationalradioandwaspublishedinfullbyGallimardin 1952.Thesecondfocusof Debord’shistoryofmodernartis(ofcourse)theSurrealists,whoendeavouredto defineafieldof“actionconstructive,àpartirdelarévoltemorale”[“constructive actiononthebasisofmoralrevolt”](Œuvres 312)butresortedtodependenceon
13 Transl.:“Itsviolentmanifestationsinpost-warGermanyandFrance,mainlyconcernedwiththe destructionofartandwriting,and,toalesserextent,withcertainformsofbehaviour(deliberately idioticspectacles,speeches,walks).”
14 WhenMaxErnstandotherswereexcludedfromamuseumexhibition,theydecidedtoholdtheir owninapublichouse,theBrauhausWinter.
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automatismandtheunconscious.Thesepointsaredevelopedinthefirstissue ofthejournal Internationalesituationniste,publishedoneyearlater,openingwith apiecetitled“Amèrevictoiredusurréalisme”[“TheBitterVictoryofSurrealism”].
Debordwrites:
lesurréalismearéussi.Cetteréussiteseretournecontrelesurréalisme[...] aveclesautrescontradictionsducapitalismeévolué,lesmêmesimpuissances delacréationculturelle,maintientl’actualité dusurréalismeetenfavorise demultiplesrépétitionsdégradées.
Lesurréalismeauncaractèreindépassable,[...]parcequ’ilestdéjà[...]un supplément àlapoésieouàl’artliquidésparledadaïsme,parcequetoutes sesouverturessontau-delàdelapost-facesurréalisteàl’histoiredel’art,sur lesproblèmesd’unevraievieàconstruire.Desortequetoutcequiveutse situer,techniquement, après lesurréalismeretrouvedesproblèmesd’avant (poésieouthéâtredadaïstes,recherchesformellesdanslestyledurecueil Mont-de-Piété).15 (3)
Asanexampleofaquestion predating Surrealism,DebordcitesBreton’sfirst publishedwork, Montdepiété [Pawnshop](1919),acollectionofexperimentalpoemswrittenbetween 1913 and 1919.Inthesubsequentarticle“Lebruitetla fureur”,byproposingtoinventa“mouvementpluslibérateurquelesurréalisme de 1924”(5),Debordrevisitsapivotaltimeinthegroup’shistory:theyearof theopeningofthe Bureaudesrecherchessurréalistes,thepublicationofBreton’s Manifestedusurréalisme,andthelaunchoftheirflagshipmagazine LaRévolution surréaliste.AlthoughDebordremainedconceptuallyindebtedtotherevolutionary outlookofSurrealisminthe 20s,hefeltthatthemovementhadbetrayeditsoriginalspirit,mainlyduetoitscommercialsuccessanddeclineintooccultismfrom the 30sonward.Whilepreparingthesecondissueof Internationalesituationniste, Debordexplainstheprivilegedplaceofthismovement—thatis,alongcritique ofSurrealismplacedfirst-upintheinauguralissueofthejournal—inaletterto ConstantNieuwenhuys,knownasConstant,dated 8 August 1958:“lesurréalisme s’estprésentécommeuneentreprisetotale,concernanttouteunefaçondevivre. C’estcette intention quiconstituesoncaractèreleplusprogressif,quinousoblige maintenantànouscompareràlui,pournousendifférencier(lepassaged’unart révolutionnaireutopiqueàunartrévolutionnaireexpérimental)”(Correspondance 129).16 Exaltingpoetry,desire,andspontaneity,theSIwillradicalizeSurrealist
15 Transl.:“SURREALISMISASUCCESS—but[...]thissuccesshasturnedsurrealismagainstitself. [...]contradictionsofadvancedcapitalismhavereducedsurrealismtoanendlessparadeofdegraded repetitions.[...]surrealismcannotovercomeitscharacter,becauseitisalready[...]a supplement totheartandpoetryliquidatedbydadaism,andbecauseallitsoverturesarebeyondthesurrealist epiloguetothehistoryofartontheproblemsofareallifetoconstruct.Allthosewhoattemptto situatethemselves after surrealismonceagaindiscoverquestionswhich predate it(Dadaistpoetry ortheatre,formalresearchinthestyleofthe Mont-de-Piété collection)”(Debord,”BitterVictory”).
16 Transl.:“Surrealismpresentsitselfasatotalproject,concerningawholewayofliving.Itisthis intention thatconstitutesSurrealism’smostprogressiveaspect,which[nowrequires]ustocompare ourselvestoit,soastodifferentiateourselves[fromit](thetransitionfromautopianrevolutionary
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principlesinordertoeclipsethe“armchairpolitics”oftheirpredecessors,proposingafull-blownrevolutionaryprogrammethataddressedthecultureofeveryday life.
WhileDebord’scritiquein“Amèrevictoiredusurréalisme”dissectsthetheoreticalbasesoftheSurrealistproject,thisisnotalwaysthecaseintheLIandSI publications.TherampantmentionsofSurrealismandSurrealistmembersfound intheLIbulletin Potlach andthejournal Internationnalelettriste aretypically polemicalintone,takingtheformofacerbiccritiquesorpersonalinsults,fired atAndréBretonandhisentourage.Bretonandco.aredepictedbytheLIas sell-outs,conspirators,gangsters,Stalin-sympathizers,andproponentsofso-called “sénile-occulte”Surrealism.AsKrzysztofFijalkowskiexplains,the“principaltarget fortheLI’sandSI’spersistentandsometimesfrankly adhominem attacks”wasnot thehistoricalinterwarSurrealistgroup(thehardcorebuiltaroundBreton,Aragon, Éluard,Soupault),butratherthepost-warParisianSurrealistgroup:theircontemporaryrivals(28–29).Inadditiontothecall-outsintheirrespectivejournals,there wereanumberofface-offsbetweentheLIandthepost-warSurrealistgroup. Thetwogroupsevenattemptedtocometogetheronajointprotestaroundthe commemorationofArthurRimbaud’s 100thbirthday.TheLIacceptedtoco-sign aSurrealisttractaboutthemisattributionofapoemtoRimbaud, Çacommence bien! [ItStartsWell!];but,inamatterofweeks,thetractwasre-printedbytheLI as Etçafinitmal [AndItEndsBadly],markingtheendofabriefalliance.17 TheLI ripintotheSurrealistsforabandoningtheirprojectforsocialrevolution,characterizingthemascapitalistsworkingtosafeguardtheacademyandthebourgeois world:“Breton,aujourd’huic’estlafaillite.[...]Lemouvementsurréalisteest-il composéd’imbécilesoudeFAUSSAIRES[?]”(Debord, Œuvres 165).18 Weshouldnot,however,reducetheirconflicttothesurfacedisturbanceof polemicdiscourse.Shocktacticsandprovocationsaretheammunitionofavantgardes.AsFijalkowskinotes,eventhoughtheLIandtheSIroastedthepost-war Surrealistgroup,theystillacceptedandintegratedmanycentralSurrealistattitudes thatdefinedthemovementinitsfirstdecade,likeitsfocusoneverydaylived experience(28).WhiletheLIlambastsSurrealismfortheirfaults,themovement isconstructedontheirprecedent.TooutdoSurrealism,Debordconfrontsand emulatesitconstantly.IfweaccepttheviewofJérômeDuwa,itwasthisrivalry withParisianSurrealismthatledDebordtoalignwithRevolutionarySurrealism inBelgium,pursuingcollaborationswiththepoetPaulNougéandhisyounger associateMarcelMariëninthemid-1950s.Consideredtheprimarytheoristbehind BelgianSurrealism,NougéhadalwayskeptdistancefromtheParisianfaction;he preferredtherationalovertheirrational,rejectingtheconceptsofautomatismand theunconscious,thussharingmanyofDebord’sviewsonBretonianSurrealism arttoanexperimentalrevolutionaryart)”(Debord, Correspondence 149;thechangestothetranslation aremine).
17 AresponsetotheSurrealistcounter-tract FamiliersduGrandTruc,publishedafewdaysearlier.
18 Transl.:“Breton,thisisbankruptcy[...]IstheSurrealistmovementcomposedoffoolsorFORGERS[?]”.
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(likethoseinthe 1957 Rapport).DuringhisvisittoParisin 1954,Nougéproposed thattheLIcollaboratewiththeBrussels-basedjournal Leslèvresnues,directed byMariën,whichbecameavenueforaseriesofkeytextsbyDebordbetween September 1955 andNovember 1956,including“Introductionàunecritiquedela géographieurbaine”[“IntroductiontoaCritiqueofUrbanGeography”](1955)and “Théoriedeladérive”[“TheoryoftheDérive”](1956).
Passages
I
f SurrealistPariswasthesiteoferoticencounter,fortheSituationists,thestreets arethetargetofcritique:thecitywasmodelledonrationalistlogicinservice ofcapitalismandthestate.Throughmodernity,Parishadbeenmonumentalized, museumified,engineered,andorganizedinwaysthatbuiltalienationintourban life.First,inHaussmann’srenovationoftheSecondEmpire:aplanofmonumentalstreetsandhomogenousbuildingsthatforcedtheworkingclassoutofthe centreanddividedthecityalongclasslines.Andthen,inthevastnetworkof roadsreservedforbourgeoisdevices(cars);thenewly-constructedorbitalhighways(périphériques);andtheoppressiveurbanschemasandconcretetowersof LeCorbusier.Thesocialagendasofmodernistfunctionalism—initiallythought toimprovelifeforthemasses—hadactuallybeensubsumedbytheproductivist discourseofcapitalism,reducinglifetorepetitive,utilitarianactssanctionedby businessandbureaucracy.Thecity’suser,unthinkingsubjectofhabitsandroutinemovements,passedthroughthestreetsinmonotonouscircuitsfromhometo work.AssuggestedinDebord’sfilm Surlepassagedequelquespersonnesàtravers uneassezcourteunitédetemps (1959)[“OnthePassageofaFewPersonsThrough aRatherBriefUnityofTime”],“Ilsnevoyaientpasl’insuffisancedeleurville.[...] Nousvoulionssortirdececonditionnement,àlarecherched’unautreemploidu paysageurbain,depassionsnouvelles”(Œuvres 478).19 TheSituationistspropose acounter-useofthecitytowilfullydisruptthepedestrian’shumdrumrepetitions. TheirzonewasParisoftheLatinQuarter:stretchingfromthebarsandtavernsof Saint-Germain-des-Présinthe 6tharrondissement,tothestreetsaroundtheSorbonne,ruedelaMontagneSaint-Geneviève(theLIandlatertheSituationistHQ) andthePlaceContrescapeinthe 5th.Seeingthecityfalltotheutilitarianlogicof modernity,thegroupwilldevelopapoeticsofmovementtoreclaimurbanspace overrunbybourgeoisvalues—namely,inthe dérive,firstpracticedinSummer 1953 duringtheearlyyearsoftheLetteristInternational(LI).
WhileitiswidelyacknowledgedthattheLetteristsandtheSituationistsappropriateSurrealistwanderingintheirconceptofthe dérive,thereismoretobesaid onthisrelationship.Aesthetically,SituationistdrifthasbeenframedbyJean-Marie Apostolidèsasbotha continuity and opposition oftheSurrealistimagination,or byAlexandreTrudelasthemovefromdreamstointoxication.BorisDonnémakes
19 Transl.:“Theydidnotseethedeficiencyoftheircity.[...]Wewantedtobreakoutofthis conditioning,inquestofanotheruseoftheurbanlandscape,inquestofnewpassions”(Debord, “Passage”).
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acompellingcasefortheSurrealistinfluenceonthe dérive,suggestingthatthe inspirationwascatalysedin 1953 throughDebord’sencounterwithIvanChtcheglov (aliasGillesIvain),extractingside-by-sidequotesfromBreton,Chtcheglov,andDebordofastoundingsimilarity.Chtcheglov,aRussianpoetwellversedintheworks ofBretonandAragon,mayhavepassedontoDebordasetofpatentlySurrealist ideaswithoutrecognizingtheirorigin;fromthisperspective,driftseemedtobe littlemorethanan“imaginativeupdate”ofagameforwhichtheruleswerefixed inSurrealistliteraturetwenty-fiveyearsearlier.Yet,Donné’sclaimthatDebord couldhavereceivedtheseideaswithoutdetectingtheirsourcesseemsunlikelyin lightofhisexchangeswithclassmateHervéFalcoubetween 1949 and 1953 (predatinghismeetingwithChtcheglov),whichshowDebord’spassionforSurrealism asateenager(seeDebord, Marquis).InalettertoFalcoufrom 1950 thatiscovered inaboutthirtyaphoristicphrasesalludingtoDadaistandSurrealistauthors,two ofthesephrasesinparticularstandout.Intheuppercornerofthepage,Debord reworksBreton’sfamousclosinglinesof Nadja,“LabeautéseraCONVULSIVEou neserapas”(Breton, OEuvres 1: 753),rephrasedbyDebordas:“L’AMOUR/ne peutêtrequeconvulsif/neserecommencepas”,20 whileinthelowersection,he writes:
LesRencontres
ellessontfortuites ellessonttoutce quivautlapeine demarcher(Debord, Marquis 59)21
Theemphasisplacedhereonlove,chanceencounters,andwalking,alongsidethe severalreferencestotheSurrealisttextsthatDebordreadsatthetime—acorpusto which,in 1951,headdsBreton’s Anthologiedel’humournoir and Amourfou,aswell asAragon’s LePaysandeParis (Marquis 72)—leadsmetobelievethatDebordwas awareoftheoriginofthesethemesbeforethetimethe dérive wasconceptualized. Inthiscriticaldebate,IwillarguemorealongthelinesofSimonSadler’sdiscussion in TheSituationistCity,suggestingthattheurbanandconceptualprioritiesofthe dérive weredeliberatewaystocreatedistinctionsfromthebetter-knownSurrealist precedents.Intheirengagementswiththecity,thereisacrucialshift:fromthe Surrealistuseofspectacle for critique(asstagedattheSaint-Julienevent),tothe Situationistcritique of spectacle.Attentivetotheconditioningmechanismofa media-crazedsociety,asSadlernotes,fortheSI,spectacleisnotthegatewaybut thebarrier(15).
Inthe“Théoriedeladérive”(firstpublishedin Leslèvresnues,no. 9,November 1956),Deborddefinesthe dérive asa“techniquedupassagehatifàtraversdes ambiancevariées”22 wherethedrifterdropsalltheirregularmotivesformovement
20 Transl.:“LOVE/canonlybeconvulsive/cannotberepeated.”
21 Transl.:“Encounters/theyarefortuitous/theyareall/thatitisworth/walkingfor.”
22 Transl.:“techniqueofhastypassageovervariedambiances”.
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andaction,“pourselaisserallerauxsollicitationsduterrainetdesrencontresqui ycorrespondent”(Œuvres 251).23 Insimpleterms,the dérive translatesastheintentionalactofspontaneouswalkingthroughthecity.Practicedaloneorinsmall groups,a dérive consisted(atitsinception)ofunplannedmovementsfromone neighbourhoodtoanother,incyclesofwalking,drinking,anddrifting—toexcess. Termeda“ludique-constructif”[“playful-constructive”]behaviour,driftingfocuses ontheimmediate,sensoryexperienceofthecity,andispremisedonoppositiontotheclassic,leisurelynotionsofthevoyageandthestroll(promenade).In thistext,Debordgivesmentiontothefamousaimlesswandering(déambulation) eventin 1924,departingfromatownselectedatrandom,fatedtobe“unéchec morne”[“adismalfailure”]because“l’erranceenrasecampagneestévidemment déprimante,etlesinterventionsduhasardysontpluspauvresquejamais”(Œuvres 252).24
DebordthencitesthephysiologistPierreVendryès,whohadcommentedon thisanecdoteinanarticletitled“Surréalismeetprobabilité”intheneo-Surrealist magazine Médium (no. 3,May 1954)comparingtheSurrealistexperimenttohis observationsoftadpolesinatank.Adoptingasatiricalstanceon“libérationantidéterministe”,Debordseemstoholdtheauthorwithasmuchintellectualcapacity astadpoles—andtheSurrealistswithless:the“têtards[...]ontcetavantaged’être ‘aussidénuésquepossibled’intelligence,desociabilitéetdesexualité’”(Œuvres 253).25
IfDebordisatpainstosethisproposalapartfromBreton’spilotexcursions inthe 1920s,hemanagestodownplaychanceintheequation—Breton’s objective chance,thatis.The dérive doesn’tseekrandomnesswithoutaim,butinvolves bothaletting-goandanintention.Itisasetoftechniquestorecordthereal movementofabodythroughspace,awayofchartingflowswithanurbanindex. Someplacesareattractive,othersrepellent;thedrifterrespondstothepush-pull effectoftheirsurroundings.The dérive tapsintotheatmospheresofparticular districtstostirvariationsinemotionsandbehaviour,seekingoutcontraststhat couldprovokenewexperiencesandperspectivesofthecity.WhiletheSurrealists sawchanceasaforcetobreakrationalconstraintsandtriggerself-transformation, insyncwiththeunconscious,theSIframedthe dérive asameansforbroader socialtransformationwithconsciousintent:theyinsistupontheneedtowalk differently,purposelysubvertingmundanepatternsofmovement,tocritiquethe capitaliststructuresofurbanlife.
WhileanyonefamiliarwiththeliteraryworksofParisianSurrealismwouldbe abletoseeurbanwalkingasamajortheme,thetaskoffindingacriticaltextthat elucidatesthisideamightnotbesoeasy.OfthefewmentionstoerrancyorwalkingintheSurrealistmanifestoes,themoststrikingofthesearepoeticevocations: Aragon’snotionofthe“surréel”asarelation“quifuitcommel’horizondevantle
23 Transl.:“toletthemselvesbedrawnbytheattractionsoftheterrainandtheencounterstheyfind there”.
24 Transl.:“Wanderinginopencountryisnaturallydepressing,theinterventionsofchanceare poorertherethananywhereelse.”
25 Transl.:“tadpoles[...]havetheadvantage[overtheSurrealists]ofbeing‘asdevoidaspossibleof intelligence,sociabilityandsexuality’.”
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marcheur”[“thatfleeslikethathorizonbeforethewalker”]in Unevaguedesrêves (18);Breton’shalf-dreamedvisionofthe“hommemarchant”[“walkingman”]cut intwobyawindowinthe Manifestedusurréalisme,andhisdepictionof“l’idée surrealiste”as“lapromenadeperpétuelleenpleinezoneinterdite”inthe Second manifeste (Œuvres 1: 325, 791).26 ThisworkstotheadvantageofDebord,who devisesatheoryforSituationist dérive basedonarationalapproach.“Théorie deladérive”readsasanopen-endedexperiment:Debordoutlinestheparametersof dérive intime(hourstodaystomonths)andspace(cities,landscapes), settingthescopeofthisexperimentalfield,itsbestconditions(climate,lightrain; nottoolate);rulesandexceptions(taxis,“static-dérive”[“static-drift”]);witha quasi-scientificlanguage(“composantes”[“elements”],“unités”[“units”],“relevés” [“surveys”])likedatatobeanalysed,quantified,plottedonurbanterrain. The dérive isgroundedinthecomplementaryconceptof psychogéographie, presentedin“Introductionàunecritiquedelagéographieurbaine”(firstpublished in Leslèvresnues,no. 6, 1955)as“l’étudedesloisexactesetdeseffetsprécisdu milieugéographique,consciemmentaménagéounon,agissantdirectementsurle comportementaffectifdesindividus”(Debord, Œuvres 204).27 Psychogeography tracesthepathandobservationsofthe dérive intheformofdescriptiveaccounts (comptesrendus),images,andmaps.However,psychogeographyisatbestahybrid science,mixingtheobjectiveandsubjective—justlikethe dérive occursinconcrete reality,butseekstoextractitsaffectiveandpoeticquality.Thistensionisreflected inthe“Introductionàunecritiquedelagéographieurbaine”:itisacriticaltext strewnwithreferencestosocialscientists(geographers,sociologists,andurbanists); alongsidereferencestoworksofarchitectureandart(paintingsbytheSurrealist precursorGiorgiodeChirico,depictingthetroubling“quartiersd’arcades”[“arcade districts”](Œuvres 207);theBaroquepainterClaudeGellée,dit LeLorrain)and literature.DebordmayavoidcitinganySurrealistauthors,buthegetsawfully close:“‘L’imaginaireestcequitendàdevenirréel’,apuécrireunauteurdont,en raisondesoninconduitenotoiresurleplandel’esprit,j’aidepuisoubliélenom” (Œuvres 209).28 DebordisherequotingBreton’spoem“Ilyauraunefois”,from LeRevolveràcheveuxblancs (1932).Intheclosingparagraphof“Théoriedela dérive”,Debordwrites:
Jenem’étendrainisurlesprécurseursdeladérive,quel’onpeutreconnaître justement,oudétournerabusivement,danslalittératuredupassé,nisurles aspectspassionnelsparticuliersquecettedériveentraîne.Lesdifficultésde ladérivesontcellesdelaliberté.[...]Unjour,onconstruiradesvillespour dériver.29 (Œuvres 257)
26 Transl.:“theendlesswalkinaforbiddenzone”.
27 Transl.:“thestudyofexactlawsandpreciseeffectsinthegeographiccontext[...]actingdirectly ontheaffectivebehaviourofindividuals”.
28 Transl.:“‘Theimaginaryiswhattendstobecomereal’,mayhavewrittenanauthorwhosenameI havesinceforgotten,duetohisnotoriousmisconductontheplaneofthemind.”
29 Transl.:“Iwillneitherdwellontheprecursorsofthedérive,thatwecanrightlyrecognize,or excessivelydistort,intheliteratureofthepast,norontheparticularpassionateaspectsthatthis
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Twoyearslater,in 1958,Debordwillrepublish“Théoriedeladérive”inthesecond issueof Internationalesituationniste,withafewimportantchanges.Asentence wasadded,emphasizingmethodovermannerbyputtingacaveatontheoutput:“Cequel’onpeutécrirevautseulementcommemotdepassedanscegrand jeu”(“Théorie” 22).30 Thetworeportsof dérives alongwithtwopassageswere removedfromthetext,leaving,inplaceofthisfinalparagraph,anabruptconclusion:“(Asuivre...)”[“Tobecontinued”].WithDebord’sinsinuationsthatwecan effectivelyrecognize or misappropriatetheliteraryprecursorsofthe dérive,his initialcommentwarrantsspeculation.
Precursors
Walking inthecityisunquestionablyamotifinmodernFrenchliteratureand, asIshowedearlier,essentialtotheSurrealistworksofAragonandBretonin the 1920s.TheSituationistsmaysidesteptheSurrealistclassics,buttheyexaltthe movement’sprecursors:fromtheMarquisdeSadetotheComtedeLautréamont, JonathanSwift,CharlesBaudelaire,ArthurRimbaud,GuillaumeApollinaire,Jacques Vaché,andArthurCravan.ForDebord,theinfluenceofSurrealismreachesbackto hisyouth;hisletterstoFalcouaretheproof.NotonlywasBretonthefirstversion thatDebordreadsofKarlMarx,GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel,andSigmund Freud,butalsolikelyhiswayintowritersthatDebordadmiresandwillcite(or détourne)acrosshisoeuvre.
SurrealismloomslargeinDebord’sworkandthinking.Fragmentssnatched fromSurrealisttextsareeverywhereinhiswritings.OnechallengetopinpointingtheSurrealistinfluenceliesindiscerningbetweenthesaidand unsaidatthe discursivelevel,betweentheexplicit,ononehand,andimplicitallusions,onthe other.Debord’sreadingnotes(fichesdelecture),citations,andshortcommentaries organizedinthefolder“Poésie,etc.”withintheFondsDebordattheBibliothèque nationaledeFrance,transcribedintegrallyinthevolumeeditedbyLaurenceLe Brasunderthesametitle(2019),areacrucialsourceforintertextualreadings.As GabrielZacariassuggestsinthepostfaceof Poésie,etc.,thesecitationsandcommentarieshadakeypurposeforDebord:asourcefor détournement,appropriating theminhiscriticalworksasmuchashisfilms.31 Debordkeptinmindthepoems ofApollinaire,Baudelaire,andothers,thatherecitedfirstbymemory,andthen foundlaterinhisnotes(Poésie).BasedonDebord’snotes,itseemsthatwhat interestedhimmostinBaudelairewasneitherhispoetry,northe flâneur.Most citationscomefromthesecondpartof LesParadisartificiels:Baudelaire’stranslationandcommentaryof ConfessionsofanEnglishOpium-Eater (1821),byThomas DeQuincey,whichrecountstheauthor’sdrugaddictionandlongwalksunderthe dériveentails.Thedifficultiesofthedérivearethoseoffreedom.[...]Oneday,wewillbuildcities fordrifting.”
30 Transl.:“Writtendescriptionscanbenomorethanpasswordstothisgreatgame.”
31 ForanEnglishtranslationofZacarias’spostface,see“TheBuddingForest:GuyDebord’sReading NotesonLiterature”inthisthemedissueof NewReadings (pp. 1–18).
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influence,driftingthroughtheworking-classstreetsofLondon.TheSituationists willoftenevokeDeQuincey’s Confessions (thestoryofAnnofOxfordStreetin particular)asprecursorsofthe dérive (seeDebord,“Préface”;“Urbanisme”).
AlmostalltheSituationistheroes(Swift,Sade,Rimbaud,Apollinaire,Cravan, DeQuincey)arefeaturedinBreton’s Anthologiedel’humournoir (1940),atext thatDebordownedandanalysed(Poésie 94–98).The“Poésie.etc.”folderincludesDebord’snotesonSurrealistmaterials—thefirstfiveissuesof LaRévolution surréaliste andthecollectionof Manifestes (Sagittaire, 1955)—which,asFabrice Flahutezsuggests,reflecthisunderstandingofSurrealism,substantiatedbyaclose readingofBreton.IntheanalysisDeborddevotesto Manifestes (Poésie 85–95), heturnsspecificallytoBreton’sfamouslistofprecursorsinthe 1924 Manifeste dusurréalisme,notingthe“systématisation(abusive)detoutgénie...”[“(excessive) systemizationofallgenius...”],exclusivelylyricpoets.Debord’snotesonthe Manifestes werelikelywrittenbetween 1955 and 1965,bywhichtimehewasprobably quitefamiliarwiththelandmarkworksofSurrealism.Thislisthadalreadycaught Debord’sattention;heuseditfor“Unprojetd’article-détournementdeBreton”,a draftthathesenttoChtcheglovinNovember 195332 seekingsuggestionsforthe definitiveversion,whichappearsin Potlach (no. 2, 29 June 1954)withtherevised title“Exercicedelapsychogéographie”[“ExerciseinPsychogeography”]:
Piranèseestpsychogéographiquedansl’escalier.
ClaudeLorrainestpsychogéographiquedanslamiseenprésenced’unquartierdepalaisetdelamer.
[...]
Jackl’Éventreurestprobablementpsychogéographiquedansl’amour.
[...]
AndréBretonestnaïvementpsychogéographiquedanslarencontre.33 (Œuvres 136–37)
AsfortheSurrealistprecursors,manyinformedtheSurrealistpoeticsofwalking.TheworksofAragonandBretonreferdirectlyandindirectlytotheirliterary ancestors:whetherintheallusionto LePaysanperverti,bylibertinewriterRétifde laBretonne(whodescribeshisnocturnalwalksin NuitsdeParis),ortheinfluence of Aurélia,byGérarddeNerval(whowriteselsewhereof Promenadesetsouvenirs), intherepresentationofdreams,madnessandlove,channelledin Nadja.As MichaelLöwynotes,theSurrealistsneverhidtheirfondnessforthenineteenthcenturyRomantictradition,butwerehighlyselectiveintheirattachments;they weredrawnmosttowriterswhocontestedbourgeoiscapitalismwithanambition tore-enchanttheworld(138–42).WheretheRomanticshadventuredintonature lookingforsublimeexperience,theSurrealistslocatedarevelatorypowerinthe urban:ontheboulevards,bytheSeine,inthemiddleofParis—latentzonesof surprisesandmagic.
32 ReproducedinDebord, Marquis 145
33 Transl.:“Piranesiispsychogeographicalinthestairway./ClaudeLorrainispsychogeographical inthejuxtapositionofapalaceneighbourhoodandthesea./[...]/JacktheRipperisprobably psychogeographicalinlove./[...]/AndréBretonisnaivelypsychogeographicalinencounters.”
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RovingthecitywithoutagendaundoubtedlydescendsfromtheBaudelairean flâneur:thesolitary,anonymous,bourgeoisstrollerathomeinthefluxofthe city,afigureentwinedwiththechangingurbanlandscapeofParisinthemid–nineteenthcentury.Inhisessay LePeintredelaviemoderne (1863),Baudelaire detailshisconceptofmodernityalongsidetheaestheticofthe flâneur,whoseeks out“labeautépassagère,fugace,delavieprésente”[“thefugitive,fleetingbeautyof present-daylife”(Painter 40)](Œuvres, 2: 724)—embodiedintheartistConstantin Guys,whosepen-and-inksketchescapturedthespeed,fashionsandimpressions ofParisoftheSecondEmpire.IftheSurrealistattitudeextendstheideasof Baudelaire’saestheticmanifesto,itwouldbeinthepremiseofcontemplatinglife, thenfindingthemeanstoexpressit:isthisnottheavant-gardegoalafterall,to realizeartwithinlifeitself?Amblingthestreetswithoutoccupationorpurpose, Baudelaire’sdandy flâneur hasthemeansandtimetowaste.Apopularfigurein nineteenth-centuryliteraturebeforeBaudelaire’sportraitofit,theParisian flâneur wastypicallybourgeois—showninLouisHuart’svignettes Physiologieduflâneur (1841)andinHonorédeBalzac’s Théoriedeladémarche (1833):a“code”forthe walker,definingtherightappearances,postures,expectations,andbehaviours.As capitalismhadputanendtoidlesociety(sociétéoisive),whatwasonceamarkerof privilegeinthetimeofBalzacorBaudelairewasshamefulintheearlytwentieth century.FortheSurrealists,walkingwasnotonlyawaytowastetime,but toactivelysubverttherigidworkinghoursofmodernlifewithananti-conformist stance.Thisisnottosuggest,however,thatthe flâneur doesn’tresistthebourgeois’ transformationofthecity.BaudelaireregretsthelossduetoHaussmannization, particularlyoftheareasofoldParis—expressedfamouslyin“Lecygne”(inthe “Tableauxparisiens”cycleof Fleursdumal):“laformed’uneville/Changeplus vite,hélas!quelecœurd’unmortel” Œuvres, 1: 85).34 Asamodeofurban explorationandcritique,thisresonateswithAragon’s Paysan,whoperceivesthe changesinthosespacescalled passages asif“iln’étaitpermisàpersonnede s’arrêterplusd’uninstant”[“itwereforbiddentostopformorethananinstant”] (19–20).AragoncreatesadeeplypersonalmappingofParis,navigatingthecityas bothaphysicalandmentalspace.Likewise,Breton,whoexploresacomplexworld ofurbansignsandsymbols,tounlockhiddenmeaningsanddesires.Whilethe charactersof LeSpleendeParis (1869)arefascinatedbythesurprisingbeautyof thestreets,the flâneur maintainsasenseofdistanceandanonymity;Baudelaire’s cityisatheatreandthe flâneur adetachedobserverofurbanscenes.More thanpassiveobservation,theSurrealistwalkerseekstoactivelyinterpretthecity, unearthingdeeperlayersofpsychicandpersonalmeaning.
TherelationshipofSurrealismtoBaudelairewastheobjectofanearlystudy bySwissliterarycriticMarcelRaymond, DeBaudelaireausurréalisme (1933)—a bookwithinbothBretonandDebord’spersonallibraries.Raymond’sessaytraces thefiliationofBaudelairetoRimbaudtoApollinaire,praisingSurrealismasthe proponentofanewpoetryandrepresentationofmodernlife.However,itis
34 Trans.:“OldParisisnomore(forcitieschange/–alas!–morequicklythanamortal’sheart)” (Baudelaire, Flowers).
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importanttonotethatboththeSurrealistsandSituationistsdevelopedtheories andpracticesofwalkingdistinctfromthetraditionofthe flâneur.IfBaudelaireis takenasthemajorreferenceforpedestrianpoetics,hasthislimitedourviewof apotentiallywiderarrayofprecursorsandtheirinfluenceontheartisticavantgarde?Weshouldnotoverlookotherpredecessors—likeApollinaire’s LeFlâneur desdeuxrives (1918)andhisopeningpiecefor Alcools,“Zone”,tracingawalk throughParisfromsunrisetosundown—asformativesourcesintheelaboration ofSurrealistwalkinganditsafterlifeintheSI.
Conclusion
For theSurrealistsandtheSituationists,Parisisasourceforeventsandnarratives;walksthatputchanceandeverydaysitesonthemap. LePaysan deParis and Nadja aretheprimarysupportsforaSurrealisttheoryofwalking, storiesthatretracetheirencountersandmeanderingpathsacrossthecity.The ParisthatattractedtheLIandtheSImaynothavebeentheParisevokedinthe worksofAragonandBreton,whoseinfluenceisdownplayedinthecriticalwritingsofDebord.Butbyreworkingthisconceptanddeclaringthestreetsastheir fieldofactivity,theSituationistsextendtheSurrealistattitude,developingtheir revolutionaryintentionintoanexperimentalartinlifeitself.Transformingthe Surrealist“revolutionofthemind”intoatotalrevolutionofeverydaylife,theSI radicalizesSurrealism’stheoreticalposturesinamelancholiccritiqueofpost-war urbanismandconsumeristsocietyatlarge.TheSituationistrelationtoSurrealism istwo-sided:constructiveandnegative,sincetheyatonceappropriatetheSurrealistmodelanddemarcatethemselvesfromit.DepartingfromtheSurrealists’ automaticwandering,theideaofthe dérive supplantschanceandtheunconscious withreasonandconsciousvolition.InexcursionstothemiddleofParis,boulevardsandarcades;intheactofhastypassagethroughthecity;bothSurrealism andtheSIrenewthepositionfirstmanifestedinDada:theoddpleasureoftaking tothestreet.
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