ED285183
AUTHOR Liberman,Michael
CS210758
TITLE EgocentrismandtheProblemofCriticalThought.
PUBDATE Apr87
NOTE 13p.;PaperpresentedattheMeetingofthe ConferenceonCriticalThinking(NewportNews,VA, April9-12,1987).
PUBTYPE Viewpoints(120)--Speeches/ConferencePapers(150)
EDRSPRICE MF01/PC01PlusPostage.
DESCRIPTORS CollegeStudents;*CriticalReading;*Critical Thinking;DevelopmentalStages;*Egocentrism; FreshmanComposition;HigherEducation;Literary Devices;*LiteratureAppreciation;*PiagetianTheory; *ReaderResponse;SocialDevelopment;Student Attitudes;WritingProcesses
IDENTIFIERS *AudienceAwareness;Hawthorne(Nathaniel);Writing Attitudes;YoungGoodmanBrown
ABSTRACT
TheprotagonistofNathanielHawthorne'sshortstory "YoungGoodmanBrown"misinterpretsexperiencesthatbefallhim becausehecannotescapewhatJeanPiagetcalls"egocentrism"--lack ofawarenessofanythingoutsideone'simmediateexperience.Today's collegestudents,readingHawthorne,misinterpretthestory,since theytoomanifestacertaindegreeofegocentrism,indicatedbytheir writing.Inastudyof14students'freewritings,"I"wasusedwith greatfrequency;for12ofthestudents,itwasthemostfrequently usedword.WalterWeintraub,inananalysisofpsychopathology, consideredthefrequentuseof"I"anindicationof self-preoccupation.Fourwaystoreducethisegocentrismandto developstudents'criticallyperceptivereadingsofliteraturewould betoinstillinthem(1)anunderstandingofreadingatalevelmore complexthanthemostevident,(2)objectivityaboutreading,(3) recognitionthatironyisfrequentinfiction,and(4)toleranceof ambiguity.Theseguidelineswouldhelpreadersdevelopamoremature understandingofliterature,aswouldidentificationwiththe audienceinsteadofwiththeprotagonist.Limitedexposuretowritten languageandlackofextensivelanguageusepreventsstudentreaders fromunderstandinghowwritersmanipulatelanguage,andthusfrom arrivingataself-satisfyinginterpretationofliterature.Students mustlearntobesufficientlyegocentrictobelievethattheir opinionshavevalue,butobjectiveenoughtoescapefroma too-personalreadingofliteratureorworldview.(NKA)
by MichaelLiberman ProfessorofEnglish
EastStroudsburgUniversity
U.SDEPARTMENTOFEDUCATION
OfficeOEducations!ResearchandImprov*mnt EDUCATIONALRESOURCESINFORMATION CEN"ER(ERIC)
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NathanielHawthorne's"YoungGoodmanBrown"isamongthe shortstoriesmostfrequentlyanthologizedinintroductory literaturetextspublishedinthiscountry. Asischaracteristic ofHawthorne,theeasyreadingofthestoryisdeceptive,paradox abounds,andnointerpretationresolvestheabidingambiguities. Interestingly.theprotagonist'smisinterpretationofthemeaning ofhisexperiencesisstrikinglysimilarcothatofmystudents.
Ayoungman,GoodmanBrown.departsfromSalem, Massachusetts,oneeveningtospendthenightinthewoods, leaningbehindhiswife,Faith,towhomhehasbeenmarriedfor threemonths. Sheisunderstandablyconcernedabouthim,andhe urgeshertoshutherselfintheirhouseandgotobedearly.
Onceinthewoods,Brownmeets,almostcertainlyby arrangement,amanwhoisobviouslythe'devilincarnate. Fora whiletheytraveltogether. TheyencounterBrown'saged catechismteacher,andthedevilgivesherhisenchantedwalking sticktoaidheronherway.Aftersayingseveraltimesthathe willnotcontinue,Brownpartsfromthedevil. Whilealone, Brownhearshischurchministeranddeaconpasshimonhorseback ontheirwaytoameeting.
"PERMISSIONTOREPRODUCETHIS MATERIALHASBEENGRANTE:DBY
MichaelLiberman
Bewilderedandhorrifiedbystrangecelestialeffectsabove andsoundsallaroundhim,Brownplungesonward.Hebelieves thathehearshiswife'svoice. Then,flutteringdownthrough theair,oneofFaith'spinkribbonscatchesonabranchinfront ofhim.
"MyFaithisgone!"Browncries,andindespairherusheson untilhereachesaclearinginwhichablackmassistaking place. AllthepeopleofSalemareinattendance,allthosewhom B.-ownhadheretoforethoughttobepureandunsullied. Aghast, Brawlstandsbeforethealtaratwhichthedevilispreparingto welcomehimintothatcompanyofthedamned. Browndiscovershis wife,Faith,besidehim. Atthelastinstantbeforetheir admissionintothecompanyofevil,Brownshouts,"Faith! Faith!...LookuptoHeavenandresisttheWickedOne!"
Brownfindshimselfaloneintheclearing,andheslowly makeshiswaybacktoSalem. Oncethere,hepassesthosewhomhe sawthenightbefore. Theygreethim,butheshrinksfromthem.
GoodmanBrownevenpassesFaithwithoutawordassheskipsout tomeethim,herpinkribbonsinplace,
Thenarratorasks,"HadGoodmanBrownfallenasleepinthe forest,andonlydreamedawilddreamofawitch-meeting?"
Thebriefremainderofthestory--oneparagraph--chronicles theconsequencesofthatnigntontherestofB,-own'slengthy life. Itisalifeofsadness,distrust,desperation,resentment towardsandsenseofsuperiorityoverhisfellowtownspeople.so muchso,thatathisdeath,wearetold,"the,carvednohopeful verseuponhistombstone;forhisdyinghourwasgloom."
Mystudentsfeel,withBrown,thatBrownhasdiscoveredthe essentialevilinalltheothersofSalem,hiswifeincluded,and thathealoneremainspure.Hawthorne'sstorymakesclearthat Brownisunableduringhislifetogobeyondhisblanket condemnationofthepeopleofSalem. Mystudentsintheir analysisofthestoryaresimilarlylimited. NeitherGoodman BrownnormystudentscanescapewhatJeanPiagetterms egocentrism.thelackofawarenessofanythingoutsideone's immediateexperience.(Pulaski232)
Virtuallyabsoluteininfants,physicalegocentrism diminishesaschildrenmovethroughthepreoperationaland operationalstageofdevelopmentandbecomecapableofoperating physicallyintheworld,aprocesslargelycompletebytheageof eightornine. Afterthat,atabouttwelveyearsofage, accordingtoPiaget,achildbeginstoacquiretheabilityto performformaloperations,involvinglogicalpropositionsand hypotheticalreasoning.(Pulaski234)Yettheabilitytooperate onaformalleveldoesnotmeanthatachild,orevenalate adolescentoradult,hasmovedawayfromanegocentrismwhichis almostavarietyofsolipsism.
Piagetfeltthattheadolescentsuffersfrom"arelative failuretodistinguishbetweenhisownpointofviewasan individualcalledupontoorganizealifeprogramandthepoint ofviewofthegroupwhichhewishestoreform."(Gruberand Voneche439-440)Formanythisconfusionpersistsinto adulthood. Piagetsaid:
Manyadultsarestillegocentricintheirway ofthinking. Suchpeopleinterposebetween themselvesandrealityanimaginaryor mysticalworld,andtheyreduceeverythingto thisindividualpointofview.Unadaptedto ordinaryconditions,theyseemimmersedinan innerlifethatisallthemoreintense. Doesthismakethemmoreconsciousof themselves? Doesegocentrismpointtheway totruerintrospection? Onthecontrary,it caneasilybeseenthatthereisawayof livinginoneselfthatdevelopsagreat wealthofinexpressiblefeelings,ofpersonal imagesandschemas,whileatthesametimeit impoverishesanalysisandconsciousnessof self.(GruberandVoneche95)
Thisegocentrismislikelytobemorepronouncedinsome areasthaninothers. Inparticular,itmaypersistinreading andwriting. Piagetindicatedthategocentrismtendsto disappearbeforetwoyearsofagefromindividuals'physical activity.(Pulaski24)Inspeech,accordingtoLevVygotsky, individualstendtointernalizetheirspeech--swallowit--aspart oftheirdevelopingskillinspeaking.(Vygotsky17) People learntoreadandwritemuchlaterandunderfarmorea-tificial conditions. Theyareformallyeducatedinreadingandwriting, andtheyreadandwriterelativelyinfrequently. Their
egocentrismpersistsintheseactivities,perhapslinkedtotheir lackofskillandattendantawkwardnessanddiscomfortinthese areas.
Thedegreeofegocentrisminstudentsatthelevel Iam discussing--firstorsecondyearofcollege,eighteenornineteen yearsofage--isindicatedtoscmedegreeintheirwriting. In VerbalBehavior:AdaptationandPsycho2athology,Walter Weintraub,M.D.,e).aminedthelanguageusedinfreespeechby varioustestgroups. ForWeintraubfreespeechinvolved recordingtenminutesofspontaneous,non-directedspeechof individualsandthenanalyzingitforvariousfeatures,among themthefrequencyofusoftheword"I." Accord?ngto Weintraub,veryfrequentuseof"I"mayindicate "self-preoccupation."(Weintraub26)Self-preoccupationand egocentrismaresynonymous.
Inchildrenbetweentheagesoffiveandseven,uptothe ageatwhichVygotskysaysthategocentricspeechdisappears, Weintraubfoundthatthefrequencyof"I"perthousandwordsof freespeechwasabout85. Inindividualsbetweentheagesof18 and45theratehaddroppedtoabout47"I's"perthousandwords. (Weintraub57
Weintraubdiscussestherelationshipoffreespeechtofree writing,notingthatinalimitedtestofmedicalstudents(14of them)askedtoproduceboth,thefrequencyof"I"waslowerin thewriting(40.6/1000)thaninthespeech(47.6/1000)anditdid notdifferradicallyfromtheratioofothersinthatagegroup. (Weintraub143-144)
AstudyIhaveundertakenof14students'freewritings writteninthecourseofasemestershowsfardifferent results. WhileWeintraubhadhissubjectswriteonlyonce,longenoughto produce1000words,mystudentswroteasoftenasthirteen times (rangingfromsev-*ntothirteen)fortenminutesatatime. The numberofwordsproducedbythestudentsrangesfrom 1129to 3061. Thefrequencyof"I"rangesfromalowof41.6per1000 wordstoahighof108.4. Themeanforthegroupwas73.4per 1000words,notmuchlowerthanthatofWeintraub's fivetoseven yearolds. Fortwelveofmystudents,"I"wasthewordusedmost frequently. Inthereewritingsofthestudentusing"I"least often,itwasthird;ofthestudentusingitsecondleast, itwas second;ofthestudentusingitthirdleast,ittiedwith another asthemostoftenusedword.
IfWeintraub'sinterpretationoftheimplicationof the frequentuseof"I"isvalid,thenitshighincidence inthe freewv-itingofunderclasscollegestudentsmayvery wellbe evidenceofegocentrism. Thismayaccountfortheiralmost universalinabilitytogobEycIdthesuperficialinastorylike "YoungGoodmanBrown." Suchegocentrismwouldstymiecritical thought.
Ifmyconjecturesarevalid,developingcritically perceptiereadingsofliteratureinstudentsmust involve reducingtheiregocentrism. How? Letmesuggestfourthingswe mustdevelopinourstudents,vvithoutundertaking theriskand laborofindicatinghowtheyaretobeachieved. That of course,istherealchallenge. First,theneedtounderstand -6-
theirreadingatalevelmorecomplexthanthemostevident. Second,objectivityabouttheirreading.Third,therecognition thatironyisfrequent,perhapsubiquitous '..fiction,andthey mustdevelopaneye,orear,forit. Finally,atolerance,even embrace,ofambiguity.
Regardingtheneedreadersmustfeelinordertoconetoa matureunderstandingofliterature,wecanagainturntoPiaget. Piagetobservedthatchildrendevelopmentallywhentheir equilibrium,theirworldview,15disrupted.(GruberandVoneche 820-831) Somethingintheirworldisoutoforder,andtheyneed toadjusttothisperceivedchange.Forexample,childrenunder theageofsevenusuallycannotunderstandthatwhenaballof clayisrolledoutintoacigarshapetheamountofclayinthe objectremainsthesame.(Pulaski31-31) Childrenmustrecognize thisconcept,theconservationofmatter,andthenadapttoit. (Pulaski9-12)
Accompanyingtheleapinunderstandingisthefeelingof needtomakethatleap.Stimulatingindividualstofeelthat needisamajordifficultyinareasinvolvinghigherorder reasoning. Probablythemajorityofindividualsfeellittleor nonePHtocometotermswithliterature,orformal logic,or ethics,oradvancedmathematics,forexample. Their arguments--"Whatistheuseofthis?", Willthisservemeinmy dailylifeorhelpmetogetajob?"--oftenseemunanswerable, buttheteachermustfindresponses.
Next,ininterpretingliteraturestudentsmustbeencouraged tomoveawayfromsubjectivitytowardsobjectivity. Piagetsaid, "...itiseasytoseehowmuchmoreeasilythechildisledto satisfyhisdesiresandtojudgefromhisownpersonalpointof viewthantoenterintothatofotherstoarriveatanobjective view."(GruberandVoneche28)
Onepossiblemethodofachievingobjectivityisby emphasizingtheaspectofaudience.Muchhasbeenwrittenabout audienceinliterarycriticismandcommunicationtheory, primarilyexamininghowawriterorspeakermayidentifyand appraltoaudiences. Inthisinstance,theaimshouldbeto persuadestudentstoseethemselvesastheaudience.
In"YoungGoodmanBrown," forexample,isitcrediblethat Hawthornewrotethestorysothatitsreadersshouldcometoa veryeasyandsimplisticexplication? Whatabouttheeditorsof theanthologywhoincludedthestoryandtheteacherwhorequires thatstudentsreadit? Aretheysimplyinsistingon overcomplicatingthestoryorhavetheychosenobscureand difficultworksoutofsheerspite? ByconsLiT.uslyseeing themselvesasaudiences,studentsmaywellachievethe objectivitythatpermitsthemtoacceptthatHawthorne'sstoryis notsimpleandeditorsandteacherdonotchooseitoutof perversity.
Theunsophisticatedreaderhasatendencytoidentifywith theprotagonist. (Oftenthisactresultsinthereader incorrectlyidentifyingtheprotagonist. InMelville's"Bartleby theScrivener"readersoftenassumeBartlebyistheprotagonist,
nottheunnamednarrator;andinConrad'sHeartofDarkness readerstendtoseeKurtz,notthenarrator,Marlow,as protagonist. Thesetwoworks,popularselectionsbyteachersof literature,engenderindifferenceorhostilityinstudentswho mayresentwhattheyviewasbeingfooledintomakingincorrect choices.) Thisidentificationwiththeprotagonistmayhelpus understandwhystudentssounci-f..ticallyacceptBrown'sviewof hisexperience. ButifthestudentsattempttoseeBrownfrom thepointofviewoftheothercharactersinthestory--hiswife ortheothertownspeople(eventhenarrator)--theiropinionmay changemarkedly. Theevidence.ofBrown'spervasiveegocentrim, hisfailuretogrowup,shouldgraduallybecomeapparent.
Afterachievingameasureofobjectivity,thereadermay stillbeunabletoreachaself-satisfyinginterpretationofa workofliterature. Muchofthisdif-icultyseemstoderivefrom problemswithlanguage--limitedexposuretowrittenlanguageand lackofextensiveuseofitpreventsunderstandinghowitis manipulated.'Studentwritingisvirtuallydevoidoffigurative language,yetsuchlanguage--particularlythetropes:awordor expressionusedinadifferentsensefromthatwhichproperly belongstoit,forgivinglifeoremphasistoanidea--is indispensabletoliteratureandoffersuskeystounlockthe doorstothesignificanceofwhatweread.
Therecognitionofonetrope,irony,ismandatoryifc.ne wishestounderstandandthusappreciateliterature. Irony itselfinvolves"therealitydifferentfromthemasking appearance,"andinverbalirony"theactualintentisexpressed
inwordswhichcarrytheoppositemeaning."AsHolmansaysinA HandbooktoLiterature,"Theabilitytorecognizeironyisoneof thesuresttestsofintelligenceandsophistication."(236) That beingso,andliteraturebeingrepletewithirony.successfully criticalreadersmustbeabletodetectit.
Inasensealltropes.includingirony,canbeconsidered varietiesofallusion,allusionbeingareferencetosomething thereader-isexpectedtoknow. AsAHandbooktoLiterature aptlyputsit:"Theeffectivenessofallusiondependsonthere beingacommonbodyofknowledgesharedbywriterandreader." (12)
In"YoungGoodmanBrown"themanwhomwecometorecognize asthedevilsayswhenheandBrownmeet,"Youarelate,Goodman Brown....TheclockoftheOldSouthwasstrikingas Icame throughBoston;andthatisfullfifteenminutesagone." The allusiontoBosLon'sThirdChurch,establishedin1669,is frequentlyfootnotedintexts,asisthechurch'simportanceasa
landmarkofreligiousfreedom. Butbeyondthatinsignificance tothestoryisthatthechurchisinBoston,GoodmanBrownand hiscompanionarejustoutsideSalem,adistanceofsome15 miles,andnohumanmeansoftransportationcouldhaveconveyed Brown'scompanionthatdistancein15minutes.
Asatypeofallusion,ironyinaworkofliteraturecanbe recognizedbythereaderonlywhenthereaderhasabodyof knowledgeextensiveenoughthatitsubstantiallycoincideswith theknowledgedisplayedbythewriter.Thisrequiresinthe readermaturityandobjectivity,along-feltneedtoacquirea -10-
broadrangeofinformation,loveofthetextureoflanguage-in short,intelligenceandsophistication.Thetask,then,isto catalyzeandsustainthesereactionsinthelivesofstudents.
Finally,studentreadersmustbecapableofdiscerningano acceptingambiguity. Theabilitytoseeironyinliteratureisa majorstep.forliteraryironyisnotsimplymeaningtheopposite ofwhatissaid. Rather,whatismeantcanliesomewherebetween thelanguageusedanditssemanticoppositeoritcznbea mixtureof oth. Neitheranentireworkofnon-didactic literaturenoranypartofitcanbesummarizedbyamoralora thesissentence.
Thematterofambiguityextendstoth problemof egocentrismitself,forinurgingthatstudentsbeledordriven tc.wardsobjectivityIhaveoversimplifiedthesituation.
Studentsmustbeegocentricinordertobelievethattheyand theiropinionshavevalue. Atthesametimetheymustbe objectiveinanattempttoescapefromatoopersonalreadingof literatureorviewoftheworld. Weneedtoseeknot E.balance ofegocentrismandobjectivitybutawaveringbetweenthetwo,a stateofpermanentdisequilibrium.
YoungGoodmanBrownneverachievedthatcondition. His storyisoneofincompleteinitiationintotheproblemsand complexitiesofadulthoodandtheknowledgeoftheexistenceof goodandevil. GoodmanBrownfailstocompletehisinitiation becausehecannotacceptthathumanbeingsareatoncebothgood andevil. Inthissignificantarea,atleast,Brownisincapable ofcriticalthought.
Wemuststrivetoinsurethathereourstudentsand Young GoodmanBrownpartcompany.
WorksCited
Gruber,HowardE.,andJ.JacquesVoneche,eds.TheEssential Piaget.NewYork:BasicBooks,1977.
Hawthorne,Nathaniel."YoungGoodmanBrown." Literature.Ed. JamesH.PickeringandJeffreyD.Hoeper.Seconded. New York:Macmillan,1986.
Holman,C.Hugh.AHandbooktoLiterature.Fourthed. Indianapolis:Bobbs-Merrill,1980.
Pulaski,MaryAnnSpencer.UnderstandingPiaget. NewYork:Harper andRow,1980.
Vygotsky,Lev.ThoughtandLanguage.Cambridge, Mass.:M.I.T. Press,1962.
Weintraub,Walter,M.D.VerbalBehavior:Adagtation and Psychopathology.NewYork:Springer,1981.