Daniel and Revelation

OpenTheology2024;10:20220242

BohdanKuryliak*,IhorKuryliak

DanielandRevelation:Blasphemyinthe CosmicConflict

https://doi.org/10.1515/opth-2022-0242 receivedNovember20,2023;acceptedDecember18,2023

Abstract: StudiesofblasphemyinthebookofRevelationareusuallydiscussedinisolationfromthebookof Daniel,whichprovidesanincompletepictureofthistopic.Thisarticleinvestigatesthemeaningofblasphemy inthebooksofDanielandRevelation.Wearguethattheseapocalypticbooksoftendescribetheactionsofthe forcesofevilintheCosmicConflictasblasphemy.Thehumandimensionofblasphemyisexpressedinthe actionsofkingsandpeople(Dan.1-6;Rev.2:9;16:9,11;21),whiletheeschatologicaldimensionofblasphemyis expressedintheactionsoftheAntichrist(Dan.7-12;Rev.13:1,5,6;17:3).WearguethatthebookofRevelation repeatsandfurthersthethemeofblasphemyarticulatedinthebookofDaniel.

Keywords: blasphemy,cosmicconflict,Antichrist,bookofDaniel,bookofRevelation

1Introduction

Thecosmicconflictbetweengoodandevil1 isoneoftheless-exploredBiblicalthemes/topics.2 Thebookof Danieldepictsthisspiritualstrugglegoingonbehindthescenesoftheearthlykingdoms(Dan.10).3 The historicalpart(Dan.1–6)tracestheconfrontationbetweenYahwehandtheBabyloniangods(Dan.1:2;2,3, 5,6).Daniel3andDan.6showtheconflictbetweentheJewsandthekingsofempires.Inthepropheticpart (Dan.7–12),theanti-Godforcebehindwhichstandsthefallencherub(Is.14:12–14;Ezek.28:12–19)wageswar againstGodandHisfollowers.InthelastbookoftheNewTestament,thethemeofcosmicconflictplaysakey role.4 RichardA.Sabuinadmitsthat “ThebookofRevelationisrichinwarmotif.”5 Thefrequentuseofthe militaryterminology πόλεμος and πολεμέω confirmsthisandindicatestheauthor’sdesiretorevealeschatologicalpropheciesinthecontextofacosmicconflict.6 JohnwritesaboutthewarbetweenMichael/Jesusand

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1 Therearedifferenttermsforthetranscendentall-encompassingstrugglebetweengoodandevil:cosmicconflict,greatcontroversy,anddivinewar.Inthisstudy,wewillusetheterm “cosmicconflict.”

2 ForthethemeofthestrugglebetweengoodandevilintheBible,seePeckham, TheodicyofLove;Pfandl, TheGreatControversy.

3 Doukhan, SecretsofDaniel,163,166.

4 Rice, Revelation;Collins, CombatMyth;Grabiner, Revelation’sHymns;Grabiner, “TheCosmicConflict,” 38–56;Frey, “Apocalyptic Dualism,” 271–94;Tonstad, SavingGod’sReputation

5 Sabuin, “TheAlpha-Omega,” 85.

6 Ibid.,SabuingivesstatisticsontheuseofthesewordsinthebookofRevelation: “Oftheeighteenoccurrencesoftheword polemos ‘war,battle,strife,conflict’ intheNewTestament,nineareinRevelation(9:7,9;11:7;12:7,17;13:7;16:14;19:19;20:8).The cognateverbpolemeō ‘wage,war, fight’ occurssixtimesinRevelation(2:16;12:7[2×];13:4;17:14;19:11)outoftentimesintheNew Testament.”

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*Correspondingauthor:BohdanKuryliak, TheFacultyofTheology,UniversityofZurich,Zürich,Switzerland, e-mail:bohdan.kuryliak@uzh.ch

IhorKuryliak: TheFacultyofTheology,UniversityofZurich,Zürich,Switzerland

OpenAccess.©2024theauthor(s),publishedbyDeGruyter. ThisworkislicensedundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution4.0 InternationalLicense.

thedevil/Satan,betweengoodangelsanddemons(Rev.12:7–9).7 ThebookofRevelationcontainsmany contrastsbetweengoodandevil:inparticular,thetruechurch(Rev.12)versusthefalseone(Rev.17:18); NewJerusalem(Rev.21)versusBabylon(Rev.17:18);HolyTrinity(Rev.1:4,5)versusFalseTrinity(Rev.12–13). Satanusesdifferentwaysto fighttheLord.Johnpresentsthedevilasonewho,throughpoliticalsystemsand people,deceivesandpersecutes(Rev.2:10;12–14).8 BoththebookofDanielandthebookofRevelationpresent theseactsasblasphemy.9

Scholarshavestudiedvariousaspectsofthetopicofblasphemy.10 InthecontextofthebookofRevelation, therearealsoseparatestudies.11 PaulHenryYeatesusesnarrativeandpreteristhermeneuticsandexamines theblasphemyofthebeastfromtheseainthecontextofthecosmologyofRomanimperialideology.He definestheinhabitantsofheaven(Rev.13:6)as “martyredsaints,”12 andinterpretsblasphemyagainstthe saintsasclaimsbyRomanpowertoruleoverheaven.RichardA.Sabuinhascoveredthetopicofblasphemyin thecontextofthegreatcontroversyandtheconceptofthesanctuary.HedefinesblasphemyastakingGod’s placeandtakingHisprerogative.13 Theauthorinterpretsblasphemyinthecontextofworship,thethroneof Christ,theDecalogue,andthefourthcommandment – theSabbath.

ItshouldbenotedthatstudiesofblasphemyinthebookofRevelationareusuallydiscussedseparately fromthebookofDaniel.Thiscreatesanincompletepictureofthistopicandsomeofthemeaningofthe biblicaltextislost.However,weemphasizethefactthatmanypassagesinthebookofRevelationarerelatedto thetextsinthebookofDaniel.14 TheOldTestamentbackgroundhelpstobetterunderstandJohn’sideas. Therefore,theabsenceofastudyofblasphemyinthebookofRevelationinconnectionwiththebookofDaniel makesitnecessarytostudythistopic.Thefollowingquestionsremainopen:Howisthethemeofblasphemy dealtwithinthetwobiblicalapocalypticbooks?Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferences?WhatisJohn’s contributionandhowdidhemanagetodevelopthistopic?Howdoesthetopicofblasphemy fitintotheoverall contextofthecosmicconflict?Accordingly,thepurposeofthisarticleistodefinethemeaningofblasphemyin thecosmicconflictagainstGodinthebookofDanielandRevelation.Therealizationofthisgoalinvolvesthe solutionofthefollowingtasks:a)highlightthemeaningofblasphemyintheOldandNewTestaments;b) analyzethemeaningofthetermsdenotingblasphemyinthebookofDanielandRevelation;c)characterizethe differentmeaningsofblasphemyinthebiblicalapocalypticbooks;d) findcontinuityanddevelopmentofthe themeofblasphemy;ande)establishtheplaceofblasphemyinthecosmicconflictagainstGod.

2TheMeaningofBlasphemyintheOldTestament

WhenexaminingblasphemyintheOldTestament,anumberofdifficultiesarise.First,thereisnospecial Hebrewtermforblasphemy.15 Second,theJews,speakingofblasphemy,triedtoavoidverbatimtransmission

7 vanHouwelingen, “TheAirCombat;” Abir, TheCosmicConflict.

8 ForSataninthebookofRevelation,seeBrown, “TheDevilintheDetails,” 214;Gulaker, Satan,theHeavenlyAdversaryofMan.

9 ThebookofRevelationusesanoun βλασφημία (Rev.2:9;13:1,5,6;17:3)andverb βλασφημέω (Rev.13:6;16:9,11,21).Althoughthese wordsarenotusedinthebookofDaniel(exceptonceinDan.3:96LXX),thethemeofblasphemyisclearlytracedandtransferredto otherterms(Dan.7:8,22,25;8:10–12;11:31–36).

10 ForthestudyofthelawofblasphemyinLeviticus,seeBenarroch, “SonofanIsraeliteWoman;” Novak, “TheLawofBlasphemy;” Vroom, “RecastingMispâtîm.” Forastudyofthetopicofblasphemyinhistoricalretrospect,seeNash, Blasphemyinthe ChristianWorld.

11 SeeYeates, “BlasphemingHeaven”;Sabuin, “BlasphemyagainsttheSanctuary;” Sabuin, “TheHeavenlySanctuaryunder Attack.”

12 Yeates, “BlasphemingHeaven,” 35.

13 Sabuin, “BlasphemyagainsttheSanctuary,” 11.

14 FortheconnectionbetweenthebookofDanielandthebookofRevelation,seeBeale, TheBookofRevelation;Beale, TheUseof Daniel;Beale, John’sUseoftheOldTestament;Beale, “TheInfluenceofDaniel;” Beale, “TheDanielicBackground;” Moyise, TheOld Testament;Moyise, “TheOldTestament;” Moyise, “TheLanguageoftheOldTestament;” Allen, “ScripturalAllusions.”

15 However,thereareseveralHebrewwordsthatareusedinthecontextofGod’scurse.Theywillbediscussedbelow.

oftheproclamationofthecurseofGodandthereforewouldusedifferenteuphemisms.16 However,thetheme ofblasphemyispresentintheHebrewBibleandcanbeseeninseveralstories.17 Forexample,itcanbefound inbiblicallaws,wheretwoverbsareused:קלל “curse,revile” andנקב “slanderthename.”18 Thepassage,Exod. 22:27,19 speaks: “Youshallnotrevile[ קלל ]God,norcurse[ ארר ]arulerofyourpeople.”20 Therearetwophrases inthistext,the firstofwhichusestheverbקלל paralleltotheverbארר inthesecondphrase,themainmeaning ofwhichis “curse.”21 Thus,wecansaythatwearetalkingaboutanattitudebothtoGodandtoleaders,which canbemanifestedthroughthewordsofacurse.Theverbקלל oftenintheHebrewBiblemeans “makelight, small” (1Sam.6:5)or “beslight,swift,trifling” (Gen.16:4,5;1Sam.2:30).ThecontextofExod.22allowsthese meaningstobeappliedtoExod.22:27,andsoitcallsnottoneglect,despise,scorn,ormakeGod “little,” which canoftenbeexpressedthroughwords.Sincethetwophrasesarerelated,thecurseoftheleaderalsoimplies disrespectforGod.JohnI.Durhamwritesthat “tocursealeaderistoattemptthenegationofablessingof Yahweh,thusanactofdisrespectforthedivineauthoritybywhichthecovenantcametobe.”22

Anotherpassage(Lev.24:10–23)containsthestoryofamanwhosemotherwasanIsraeliteandwhose fatherwasanEgyptian.HefoughtanotherIsraeliinthecampandduringthebattle “blasphemed[ נקב ]the Name,andcursed[ קלל ]” (Lev.24:11).TheIsraelitesheldthemanaccusedofblasphemyincustodyuntilthe Lord,throughMoses,orderedhimtobetakenoutsidethecampandstonedtodeath.Inthisstory,theverbנקב togetherwithקלל conveystheideaofIsrael’sdisdainforGod.23 JohnE.Hartleywrites “Itmaybeconcluded thattheuseofנקב with השׁם , ‘theName,’ meansthatthishalf-breeddistinctlyspoketherevealednameofGod andthattheadditionofקלל meansthathespokeitinadisparagingmanner.”24 ChristopherJ.H.Wright, commentingonLev.24:11–23,statesthattoblasphemeandcursetheLordamongthepeopleofIsraelwasto denyHisauthorityandrejectHislaw.25 Therefore,wecanconcludethatblasphemyintheOldTestamentwas manifestedthroughinsolentactionsanddisparagingwordstowardGod.

3TheMeaningofBlasphemyintheNewTestament

BlasphemyintheNewTestamenthasthreeaspects.26 Theterm βλασφημία andrelatedwordsoccur56timesin theNewTestament.27 Thistermmaymean “tospeakagainstsomeoneinsuchawayastoharmorinjurehisor

16 Hartley, Leviticus,408.Asanexample,HartleycitesthestoryofJob’swifeadvisinghimtocurse( ברך ,literally “bless”)Godand die(Job.2:9).

17 Rooker, Leviticus,296,believesthat “intheOldTestamentblasphemycanresultfroma flagrantact(Num15:30),aninsulting remark(Isa37:6),orfromcursingGod(1Sam2:17;Neh9:18).”

18 Westbrook, “PunishmentsandCrimes,” AYBD5:549.

19 Alltranslationsareourownunlessotherwisenoted.MasoretictextfollowstheBHS,GreektextfollowstheNA28andRahlfsHanhart.

20 Sometheologiansdonotbelievethatblasphemyorcursingisaprobleminthistext(e.g.,Brichto, TheProblemof “Curse”).The authorsofthisarticlebelievetheopposite.

21 Therearediscussionswhetherthesewordscanbeconsideredsynonymsinthistext.Formoreonthis,seeScharbert, “‘Fluchen’ Und ‘Segnen’ imAltenTestament,” 5–14.

22 Durham, Exodus,329.

23 Weingreen, “TheCaseoftheBlasphemer,” 120,believestheculpritusedGod’snameinunholyanddisparagingwords.

24 Hartley, Leviticus,409.

25 Wright, “Leviticus,” 151.

26 InClassicsandAncientGreek,thenoun βλασφημία meant “profane or impiousspeech,expressionofabadomen(insacrifices) ∥ slander,defamation,calumny|imputation,charge(notinneg.sense)|reproach,rebuke ∥ blasphemy,imprecation,curse;” the verb βλασφημέω meant “1) act. toutterprofanewords, thatoughtnottobesaidduringasacrifice ∥ tobad-mouth,havebad intentions – toslanders.o.intheworstpossibleway| – todiscreditordefame ∥ later tospeakimpiously,blaspheme – againsts.o.or sthg.2) pass.tobesubjectedtomaliciouscriticism;” theadjective βλάσφημος meant “thatuttersimpious or ill-omenedwords, slanderous ∥ defamatory, ofspeech ∥ blasphemous,impious,profane| subst.blasphemer,blasphemous ∥ impiously,withcursing or blasphemy,” Montanari, TheBrillDictionaryofAncientGreek,390.

27 Noun βλασφημία – 18times(Matt.12:31 – twotimes;15:19;26:65;Mark3:28;7:22;14:64;Luke5:21;John10:33;Eph.4:31;Col.3:8;1 Tim.6:4;Jude9;Rev.2:9;13:1,5,6;17:3);verb βλασφημέω – 34times(Matt.9:3;26:65;27:39;Mark2:7;3:28,29;15:29;Luke12:10;22:65;

herreputation(occurringinrelationtopersonsaswellastodivinebeings) –‘torevile,todefame,to blaspheme,reviling.’”28 Forexample,unbelievershadanegativeattitudetowardChristians,towhomthe ApostlePeterwrites,and “theymalign” them(1Pet.4:4).TheycreatedabadimageofthedisciplesofJesusand underminedtheirreputation.

Thesecondaspectofthemeaningofblasphemyistheappropriationofdivineprerogatives.Inparticular, whenJesus “saidtotheparalytic, ‘Son,yoursinsareforgiven’” (Mark2:5),someofthescribestookitasblasphemy, sincetheybelievedthatitwastherightofGodalonetoforgivesins(Mark2:7,8).29 Accordingly,apersonwho encroachesontheuniqueaspectsofGod’sworkcommitsblasphemy.30 ThewordsofJesus “IandtheFatherare one” (John10:30)werealsoregardedasblasphemy,andtheJews “wereagainreadytostoneHim.”31 Evangelist Johnwrites “TheJewsansweredhim, ‘Itisnotforagoodworkthatwearegoingtostoneyoubutforblasphemy, becauseyou,beingaman,makeyourselfGod’” (John10:33).ThistextshowsthatinNewTestamenttimes,Jews understoodblasphemyasaclaimtoaspecialrelationshipwithGodandanencroachmentondivinestatus.32

ThethirdaspectofthemeaningofblasphemyisthepersecutionofthefollowersofJesusChrist.33 This definitioncanbeseenintheconfessionoftheApostlePaul,whostates “formerlyIwasablasphemer, persecutor,andinsolentopponent” (1Tim.1:13).HisbrutalpersecutionofChristians(Acts8:3;9:1)actually hurttheirLeader(Acts9:4). “Jesus’ self-identificationwithhispeople”34 testifiesthatanyviolentactionagainst thepeopleoftheLordisaformofblasphemy.

4BlasphemyintheBooksofDanielandRevelation

ThestudiesofblasphemyinthebookofDanielcanbedividedintotwoparts:1)blasphemyinthehistorical part(Dan.1–6)and2)blasphemyinthepropheticpart(Dan.7–12).InthebookofRevelation,thenoun βλασφημία occurs fivetimes(Rev.2:9;13:1,5,6;17:3),andtheverb βλασφημέω occursfourtimes(Rev.13:6; 16:9,11,21).ThethemeofblasphemyinthelastbookoftheNewTestamentcanbedividedintotwoaspects:1) blasphemycommittedbypeople(Rev.2:9;16:9,11;21)and2)blasphemycommittedbytheAntichrist(Rev.13:1, 5,6;17:3).ThisdivisioncorrespondstothetwopartsofthebookofDaniel.35 Accordingly,inthe firstpart,we willconsiderthehumandimensionofblasphemy,andinthesecondpart,theeschatologicalone.

4.1BlasphemyofthePeople

Thethemeofblasphemyinthehistoricalpart(Dan.1–6)is firstraisedinDan.3(Figure1).Itisinthischapter thattheverb βλασφημέω isused,whichoccursonlyonceinthebookofDaniel(Dan.3:96LXXOldGreek). Insteadoftheverb βλασφημέω,theTheodotinusesthenoun βλασφημία (Dan.3:96LXXTheodotion).36

23:39;John10:36;Acts13:45;18:6;19:37;26:11;Rom.2:24;3:8;14:16;1Cor.10:30;1Tim.1:20;6:1;Titus2:5;3:2;Jas.2:7;1Pet.4:4;2Pet. 2:2,10,12;Jude8,10;Rev.13:6;16:9,11,21);adjective βλάσφημος – fourtimes(Acts6:11;1Tim.1:13;2Tim.3:2;2Pet.2:11).

28 LouwandNida, Greek-EnglishLexiconoftheNewTestament,433.

29 Hägerland, JesusandtheForgivenessofSins,40,notes “ThescribeswhoarepresentaccuseJesusofblasphemy,sincehe infringesonGod’sownprerogativetoforgivesins.” ForthedivineprerogativestoforgivesinsinearlyJudaism,seeJohansson, “WhoCanForgiveSinsbutGodAlone?”

30 InthecaseofJesus,thiswasanunfoundedaccusation,becauseHe,beingequalwithGod,hastherighttoforgivesins.

31 Rodriguez, AndrewsBibleCommentary(NewTestament),1442.

32 LouwandNida, Greek-EnglishLexiconoftheNewTestament,433,assert “AnysuchstatementwasregardedbytheJewsof biblicaltimesasbeingharmfulandinjurioustothenatureofGod.”

33 Kitteletal., TheologicalDictionaryoftheNewTestament,107.

34 Bruce, TheActsoftheApostles,235.

35 Ofcourse,someaspectsoftheAntichrist’sblasphemyarealsoofhumannature,butthe figureoftheAntichristoccupiesa separateandspecialplaceandisacollectiveimageofreligiousandpoliticalpower.Therefore,hecanbeseparatedfromother people.

36 AlsotranslatedintheVulgateasblasphemy(blasphemiam).

Figure1: Decreeprohibitingblasphemy.

Theverb βλασφημέω (noun βλασφημία inLXXTh)isusedinadecreeissuedbyKingNebuchadnezzar afterthemiraculousrescueofthreeJewishyouthsfroma fieryfurnace.Thedecreesaysthatnoone,under painofpunishment,hastherighttoblasphemeagainsttheGodofShadrach,Meshach,andAbednego.The phrase ὁς ἀνβλασφημήσῃ εἰςτὸνκύριοντὸνθεὸν (LXX,OldGreek)canliterallybetranslatedas “blasphemous to or for God,” andthephrase ἡ ἀνεἰπῃ βλασφημίανκατὰ τοῦ θεοῦ as “sayblasphemyagainstGod” (LXXTh).

Thearamaicword שׁ,a37 whichistranslatedasblasphemyintheLXX,hasthemeaning “quietness,ease,” (Ps.30:6)and “neglect,remissness” (Ezra4:22;6:9).ShalomM.PaulwritesthattheQere שׁלוּ ָ֙ “iswellattestedand isusedintheAramaicTargumstotranslateHeb. שׁ, ‘toneglect,forget’ (e.g.,Ps.9:13;Job8:13;39:15)and שׁ ,שׁ , ‘toerr,makeamistake’ (e.g.,Lev.4:2;5:18;Job6:24;12:16).”38 Italsoappearsin “Neo-andLateBabyloniantexts,bothasaverb, šelû IV, ‘tobenegligent,’ andasanoun šilûtu, šilіtu, ‘negligence.’”39 InPaul’s opinion,thismeaningdoesnot fitwellwiththebookofDaniel,andheassociatesitwiththeAkkadianword šillatu,whichmeans “blasphemy” andispartoftheAkkadiansetoftermsforsinfullanguage.40 Thus,Paul concludesthatthephrase אמרשׁ shouldbetranslatedas “tospeakblasphemy.”41 ItisimportanttonoticethatDan.6:5,likeDan.3:29,42 alsousesthenoun שׁלוּ ָ֙ ,a43 whichismostoften translated “error” (ESV,KJV,andASV)or “negligence” (NET).Daniel’senemiescould find “nogroundfor complaintoranyfault,becausehewasfaithful,andnoerror( שׁלוּ ָ֙ )orfaultwasfoundinhim” (ESV).Paulstates “thecorrectmeaningwouldbethattheywereunableto findany ‘improperspeech’ or ‘corruption’ against Daniel.Thetwowordswouldthenconstituteamerism – inbothspeechanddeedDanielremainedfaithfulto theking.”44 ButasJ.PaulTannerwrites, “yethemaybeoverlyreliantondrawingtheparalleltoAkk. šillatu ”45 Regardlessofwhattheword שׁ meansinDan.3:29, “negligence” or “blasphemy,” thephrase אמרשׁ conveys theideaofcontemptandcarelessness.Tannerconcludes “Insummary, šāluh/šālû probablymeanssomething like ‘maliciousstatement,’ closelyrelatedtotheclassicalmeaningof βλασφημία (blasphēmia).”46 Inaddition,inDan.3,blasphemycanbeseeninthewordsandactionsofKingNebuchadnezzarhimself. Theveryideaofsettingupagoldenidolandmakingeveryoneworshipitisblasphemousinitselfsinceit challengestheGodofIsrael,who,accordingtothepreceptsoftheDecalogue,istheOnewhoisworthyof worship.Inthepreviouschapter(Dan.2),GodrevealedthefuturetoNebuchadnezzarthroughanimageof variousmetals(Dan.2:28–36),whichsymbolizeddifferentempires.Thegoldenheadoftheimagesymbolized theBabyloniankingdom(Dan.2:37,38),afterwhich,accordingtotheprophecy,othersweretocome(Dan. 2:39).ButtheBabylonianking,settingupanimagemadeentirelyofgold,decidestoopposeGod’splanand establishhisownkingdomforever.Tannerwrites “Thathemadeitallofgoldsuggeststhatthiswasan egotisticalattempttoglorifyhimself,wherebyhetookhisGod-givenauthorityandturnedtoexaltinghimself

37 Ketivis שׁ להְָ ,andQereis שׁלוּ ָ֙

38 Paul, “Daniel3:29,” 291.

39 Ibid.

40 Ibid.,292.

41 Ibid.,293.

42 QereinMT.

43 FoundalsoinEzra4:22and6:9withmeaning “negligence.”

44 Paul, “Daniel3:29,” 294.

45 Tanner, Daniel,257.

46 Ibid.

(insultingtheGodwhohadgivenhimauthorityandwhowastoultimatelyestablishhisownkingdom).”47 In otherwords,NebuchadnezzarputshimselfintheplaceofGodandtakesonHisprerogatives.

Also,whenthreeJewishyouthswerebroughtbeforeNebuchadnezzar,hethreatenedtothrowthemintoa fieryfurnaceiftheydidnotworshipthegoldenidolandsaid “Andwhoisthegodwhowilldeliveryououtof myhands?” (Dan.3:15).ThisphraseissimilartotheblasphemousstatementsoftheAssyrianking48 andreflects theconceitofNebuchadnezzar.HedeniesthewillandauthorityoftheHeavenlyGodrevealedtohiminthe previouschapter.RobertA.Andersonstates “fortheauthorandhispeopletheblasphemyofsuchanassertion isnotsomuchtheshallownessofitshumanboastfulnessasthebankruptcyofitstheology.Nebuchadnezzar’s boldclaimenshroudsthefragilityofpolytheism,whichpitsonegodagainstanother.”49

ThenextinstanceofblasphemyinthehistoricalpartofthebookofDanielcanbeseeninthestoryof BelshazzarinDan.5.TheBabyloniankingdecidestobringtotheidolatrousfeastthevesselsfromthetempleof GodinJerusalem,whichNebuchadnezzarhadbroughtearlier(Dan.1:2).Thisbecomesablasphemousact, leadingtothedirectinterventionofGodandthesubsequentdeathoftheking.CarolA.Newsomwritesthat, unlikeNebuchadnezzarandDarius, “onlyBelshazzarispresentedasactivelyblasphemousintreatingthe vesselsfromtheJerusalemtemplewithdisrespectandpressingthemintoserviceforpraisingothergods.”50 AccordingtoJohnGoldingay, “fromself-indulgenceissuedsacrilegeandblasphemy.”51 Belshazzar’sblasphemywastheresultofaconstantandconsciousdisregardfortheGodofIsrael,whichwasactiveinthe lifeofNebuchadnezzar(Dan.5:22).52 Insteadofhumblinghimself,Belshazzarhas “liftedupyourselfagainst theLordofheaven” ( ועלמרא שׁ מיאהתרוממת ,Dan.5:23).HeusedthevesselsofthehouseofGodtodrinkwine fromthemandglorifyidols.WinfriedVogelarguesthatsincetempleitemswereessentialsymbolsofthe sanctuaryministry,thiswasausurpationofGod’sprerogativestograntsalvationtomanandtoexecuteGod’s judgment.53

Interestingly,theverbרום “behigh,exalted,rise,” isalsousedinDan.8:11andDan.11:36todescribethe exaltationofthelittlehornandthekingofthenorth.ZdravkoStefanovicstates “wecanseeinthiskingatype oftheanti-Godpowerthatisintroducedinthevisionarychaptersofthebook… Hisattitudeforeshadowsthe littlehorn’shostileactivitiestowardGod,histemple,andhisfaithfulpeople.”54 Stefanovicpresentsseven parallelsbetweenBelshazzarandthelittlehornfromDan.7andinthesixthshowsthat “bothspokeandacted blasphemously(5:23;7:25;8:11).”55 LikeBelshazzaronthatfatefulnightwhenBabylonwascaptured,sothe littlehornexaltsidolsabovethetrueGod,defilesthesanctuaryandtheministryinit,andmanifestshostility towardthepeopleofGod.56 Thus,theblasphemyofBelshazzarbecomesatypeofblasphemyoftheAntichrist. InDan.6,thereisthelastcaseofblasphemydescribedinthehistoricalpart.Thisstoryparallelsthestory inDan.3andalsocontainsmiraculoussalvation(inthiscaseDaniel).57 WecansaythatDan.6depictsthe oppositionoftwoLaws – God’sLawandhumanlaw.58 Whenthesatrapscouldnot findanyerrorinDaniel’s deeds,theysaid “Weshallnot findanygroundforcomplaintagainstthisDanielunlesswe finditinconnection withthelawofhisGod” (Dan.6:5).Inthisstory,theAramaicword “law,” corresponds “totheHebrewTorah andshouldbetakeninabroadsense,denotingone’sreligiouslifethatincludesadailywalkwithGod.”59 The cunningrulersinduceKingDariustoissueadecreeaccordingtowhicheveryonewho “makespetitiontoany

47 Ibid.,224.

48 Isa.36:19–20;37:11–12(2Kgs.18:33–35;19:12–13).

49 Anderson, SignsandWonders,34.

50 NewsomandBreed, Daniel,158.

51 Goldingay, Daniel,113.

52 Anderson, SignsandWonders,60.

53 Vogel, “CulticMotifs.”

54 Stefanovic, Daniel,204.

55 Ibid.

56 Ibid.

57 Baldwin, Daniel,126.

58 Stefanovic, Daniel,214,writes “Inthisstory,Daniel’sPersiancolleagues,opposedtohispromotion,plantotraphimby deliberatelycreatingaconflictbetweentwounchangeablelaws,onehumanandtheotherdivine.”

59 Stefanovic, Daniel,210.

godormanforthirtydays,excepttoyou,Oking,shallbecastintothedenoflions” (Dan.6:7).Thus,they presentDanielwithadifficultchoicewherehemustchoosetowhichlawtobemorefaithful.Followingthe decreeofDarius,DanielwouldhaveviolatedatleastthreecommandmentsoftheDecalogue – the first(forbids recognizinganyothergodexceptYahweh),thesecond(forbidsmakingimagesandidolstoservethem),and thefourth(pointstotheCreatorastheonlyobjectofworship).Violationofthesethreecommandmentsis idolatry.Byissuingadecree,thekingcommittedblasphemy – hetooktheplaceofGod.

Forthe firsttime,theblasphemyofpeopleinthebookofRevelationoccursinthesecondchapter.Jesus addressesthechurchinSmyrnaandsaysthefollowingwords: “Iknowyourtribulationandyourpoverty(but youarerich)andtheslander(βλασφημία)ofthosewhosaythattheyareJewsandarenot,butareasynagogue ofSatan” (Rev.2:9).ThetexttestifiesthattheChristianswholivedinSmyrnaexperiencedseriousdifficultiesin relationtootherinhabitantsofthecity,especiallywiththeJews.TheearlyChristianswereoftentheobjectof hatredandabusefromtheJews,whoalliedthemselveswiththeRomanauthorities.60

CraigKoesternotes “TheJewishcommunityatSmyrnawaswell-established.”61 Sincethecultofworshipof theemperorwasstronglydevelopedinthecity,theJewsunderminedthereputationofChristiansbeforethe Romanauthoritiesandspreadslander.62 GregoryBealesuggests “ThespecificaccusationsofJewsbefore governmentauthoritieswereprobablythatChristianswereupsettingthepeaceofthestatusquo,werenot aJewishsect,andrefusedtopayhomagetoCaesarasLord.”63 TheactionsoftheJewsledtopersecutionand suffering.64 That’swhy “ForJohn,thosewhodenounceChristianstherebydenouncetheGodtowhomthey bearwitness,sohecallsit blasphēmia.”65

ItisworthnotingthatthenameSatanmeans “accuser,” andheiscalled “theaccuserofourbrothers… who accusesthemdayandnightbeforeourGod” (Rev.12:10).66 ItisnocoincidencethatJohncallstheJews “a synagogueofSatan,” since “TheseJewishcentersbecame,literally, ‘synagoguesoftheaccuser.’”67 Rev.2:9 comparedwithRev.12:10indicatesthatthesetextscombinethethemeofthewarthatthedevilstartedin heaven(Rev.12:7).InRev.2:9,thiswarhasahumandimensionandismanifestedthroughtheblasphemy/ denunciationoftheJewsagainsttheChristians.Satan,actingthroughthepretendedservantsofGod,causes sufferingtobelievers,whichinturniswagingwaragainstJesusChristhimself,whoidentifiesHimselfwithHis people.

Thefollowingverses,whichdescribetheblasphemyofpeople,areinRev.16.Johnwritesabouttheseven bowlsofGod’swraththatwillbedirectedagainstthesinnersofalltheearthbeforetheSecondComingof Jesus.Theyare “God’sjudgmentsunmixedwithmercy.”68 PeopleblasphemeGodduringthreeplagues:bowlof thefourthangel –“theycursed(βλασφημέω)thenameofGod” (Rev.16:9);bowlofthe fifthangel –“People gnawedtheirtonguesinanguishandcursed(βλασφημέω)theGodofheaven” (Rev.16:10–11);bowlofthe seventhangel –“theycursed(βλασφημέω)Godfortheplagueofthehail” (Rev.16:21).Inthiscase,blasphemyis ahatefulcurseagainstGod.Althoughthepunishmentsareverystrong,theydonotleadtoconversionbut ratherhardentheheartsofsinnersevenmore.69 RankoStefanovicstates, “Thecontextshowsthattheseven lastplaguesareGod’s finalresponsetothepurposeofend-timeBabylontodestroyGod’sfaithfulpeople.”70 ItshouldbenotedthatthesevenplaguesofGod’swratharepresentedinthecontextofthewarbetween Godandthedevil.Inparticular,duringthesixthbowlofthe “demonicspirits,performingsigns… goabroadto

60 Acts13:45,50;14:2–7,19;17:5–9,13;18:5,6,12;21:27.

61 Koester, Revelation,273.AlsoseeLohmeyer, DieOffenbarungDesJohannes,24.

62 Koester, Revelation,274,clams “Here,theprimarysenseof blasphēmia isdenunciationofChristiansbeforeGreco-Roman authorities.”

63 Beale, TheBookofRevelation,590.

64 Karrer, Johannesoffenbarung,299,admits “Theirabuseimposesadoublereligiousandsocialdishonoronthem.”

65 Koester, Revelation,275.

66 Roloff, DieOffenbarungdesJohannes,130.

67 Nichol, TheSeventh-DayAdventistBibleCommentary,746.

68 Stefanovic, RevelationofJesusChrist,442.

69 Giesen, DieOffenbarungdesJohannes,353,comparesthesepeopletoapharaohwhohardenedhisheart.Cf.Maier, Die OffenbarungdesJohannes, 220.

70 Stefanovic, RevelationofJesusChrist,442–3.

thekingsofthewholeworld,toassemblethemforbattleonthegreatdayofGodtheAlmighty… Andthey assembledthemattheplacethatinHebrewiscalledArmageddon” (Rev.16:14).Johnshowsthatthedevilwill trytoconsolidateallhisforcesagainstthechurchandGodinordertowinthisbattle.However,thewar againstthepeopleofGodendswithacompletedefeatforsinners.Satanicforcesplannedtodestroythe faithfulremnant,butGodintervenedinthebattleandthelawlessarehelplessbeforethecataclysms.The enemiesofChristiansblasphemetheLord,andtheirstubbornunwillingnesstorepentconfirmsthejusticeof God’sjudgment.71

4.2BlasphemyoftheAntichrist

Blasphemyinthepropheticpart(Dan.7–12)isfoundintheactionsofthelittlehorn(Dan.7,8)andthekingof thenorth(Dan.11)(Figure2).72

Figure2: BlasphemyoftheAntichrist.

Thepassage,Dan.7:8,saysthelittlehornhad “amouthspeakinggreatthings” ( ופםממללרברבן ).Inboththe LXXOldGreekandtheLXXTheodotion,thisphraseistranslatedinthesameway,as

. Interestingly,Rev.13:5containsanidenticalphrase – thebeastfromthesea,whichhasblasphemousnames (Rev.13:1) “wasgivenamouthutteringhaughtyandblasphemouswords” (στόμαλαλοῦνμεγάλακαὶ βλασφημίας).AnalysisofthecharacteristicsofthelittlehorninDan.7andthebeastfromtheseainRev. 13showsthatthisisthesamereligious-politicalpower.73 WhenDanielasksaboutthelittlehorn,theangelgoes intomoredetailaboutitsactivities: “HeshallspeakwordsagainsttheMostHigh( ומליןלצדעליאימלל ),andshall wearoutthesaintsoftheMostHigh,andshallthinktochangethetimesandthelaw;andtheyshallbegiven intohishandforatime,times,andhalfatime” (Dan.7:25).Thephrase

(Dan.7:25)inLXXOG translatedas

intheparalleltextinRev.13:6(

.ThisindicatesthattheauthorofthebookofRevelationunderstoodtheactionsofthelittlehornin thebookofDanielasblasphemy.Dan.7:8,25parallelswithDan.8:11,24,25,and11:36,whichdescribethe struggleofthelittlehornandthekingofthenorthagainstGodandHispeople;thesetextscompleteand confirmthisunderstanding.

71 Lohse, DieOffenbarungDesJohannes,92.

72 ParallelsbetweenDan.7,8,and11indicatethatthelittlehornandthekingofthenorth(atleastinDan.11:31–39)arethesame power.Shea, “UnityofDaniel,” 165–255;Probstle, “TruthandTerror,” 614;Mueller, WhenProphecyRepeatsItself.

73 Stefanovic, RevelationofJesusChrist,405.ScholarsalsolinkAntichristtothemanofsin(2Thess.2),Morris, Revelation,160–1.

InthebookofRevelation,theAntichristhassevenheads,onwhichare “blasphemousnames(ὀνόμα[τα] βλασφημίας)” (Rev.13:1).74 ThistexthasaparallelwithRev.17,whereJohnsees “ascarletbeastthatwasfullof blasphemousnames(ὀνόματαβλασφημίας)” (Rev.17:3).Thephrase “blasphemousnames” (Rev.13:1)canbe interpretedtomeanthey “representtheblasphemoustitles.”75 Itshouldalsobenotedthattheword ὀνόμα in theBiblemeanscharacter,sothephrasecancharacterizetheessenceandnatureofthebeastfromthesea.The pluralityoftheword ὀνόματα emphasizesthegreatscaleandcolossalityoftheAntichrist’sblasphemy.The sameideaisconveyedbythephrase “full(γέμω)ofblasphemousnames” (Rev.17:3).Theword “γέμω” means “tobefullofsomesubstanceorobjects –‘tobefullof,tocontain.’”76 Johnnotesthatthispowerisriddledwith blasphemywhichisitsessentialessence.TheunbridleddesiretoopposeGodandtakeHisplaceconsumedthe beastcompletely.PaigePattersonclaims, “TheconceptofblasphemyismorethanfailuretobelieveinGodand endorsehisprogramsandways;itisactiverepugnanceandopenoppositiontotheCreatorGod.”77

AccordingtoDan.7:8,thelittlehornspoke “greatthings” ( רברבן ).Theword “much,many,great” indicatesboththescaleoftheactivityofthelittlehornandthedirectionandmagnitudeoftheobjectof thestruggleofGodhimself.Dan.7:25complementsandindicatesthatthelittlehorn “shallspeakwordsagainst theMostHigh” ( ומליןלצדעליאימלל ).AccordingtoStefanovic,thephrase “greatthings” isusedin “anegative senseandindicatingprideandarrogance.”78 Inhisopinion, “theHebrewequivalentexpressionisusedin Psalm12:3todescribeproudwordscomingfroma flatteringtongue.”79 Tannerwritesaboutthelittlehornthat “hisboastingwillevenextendtoclaimsofdivinity,sothathedemandstheworshipofmankind.”80 As2Thess 2:4shows,antichrist “opposesandexaltshimselfagainsteveryso-calledgodorobjectofworship,sothathe takeshisseatinthetempleofGod,proclaiminghimselftobeGod.” Curiously,Dan.7:8describesthelittlehorn ashavinghumaneyesandamouth.Thispointstothehumannatureofthisblasphemouspower,whichis “a counterfeitofthe ‘onelikeahumanbeing’ whoisintroducedinverse13below.”81 ThebookofRevelation confirmsanddevelopsthethemeofcounterfeitingandtheAntichrist’sattempttoimitateChrist.82 Itisalso importanttonotethatthelittlehornspeakingoutagainstGodwithproudandupliftedeyes “continuesamotif foundinIsa.10:12and37:23concerningSennacheribofAssyria.”83 Thus,theblasphemyofthelittlehorn manifestsitselfinanattempttoelevateoneselftothelevelofGod,echoingthedefinitionofblasphemyinthe NewTestament(John10:33).

Since,asDan.7andRev.13say,theultimategoalofblasphemyisGodhimself, “everythingdirectly associatedwithGodisaffected.”84 ThisincludesthekingdomandauthorityofGodand “onelikeasonof man” (Dan.7:13,14,22,26,27;8:11,25;cf.Rev.12:10;13:2),God’speople(Dan.7:21,25;8:10,24;cf.Rev.12:13–17; 13:7),God’sLaw(Dan.7:25;cf.Rev.12:17;14:12),andGod’stemple(Dan.8:11,12;cf.Rev.13:6).85

74 Therearediscrepanciesinthenumberoftheword ὀνόμα:the firstversionof ὀνόμα (singular)issupportedbythefollowing manuscripts: V47 ℵ CP1006.1841.2329 W A gigvgmss syph co;PrimBea;thesecondvariant ὀνόματα (plural)issupportedbythe followingmanuscripts:A046.051.1611.1854.2053.2344.2351 W K arvgsyh,Alandetal., Nestle-AlandGreekNewTestament,763.We agreewithAune, Revelation6–16,716,whostates “Theoriginalityof ὀνόματα isstronglysuggestedbytheparallelinRev17:3.”

75 Nichol, TheSeventh-DayAdventistBibleCommentary,817.

76 LouwandNida, Greek-EnglishLexiconoftheNewTestament,597.Theterm “γέμω” isalsousedinRev.4wherethefourliving creaturesarefull(γέμω)eyesinfrontandbehindandallaroundandwithin(Rev.4:6,8).

77 Patterson, Revelation,594.

78 Stefanovic, Daniel,254.

79 Ibid.

80 Tanner, Daniel,413–4.AsSabuin, “TheHeavenlySanctuaryunderAttack,” 252–7,pointsout,theblasphemousactsofthebeast fromtheseainRev.13occurinthecontextofworship.

81 Stefanovic, Daniel,254.Theauthorsofthisarticlebelievethat “onelikeasonofman” (Dan.7:13)isJesusChrist.Seemore Tanner, Daniel,438–43.

82 Thepassage,Rev.12–13representsthefalsetrinity:thedragon,thebeastfromthesea,andthebeastfromtheearth.Thebeast fromthesea,whichisthesamepowerasthelittlehornofDan.7,imitatesJesusChrist.Collins, Daniel,108,writes “Thispatternof death,absence,andreturnisamirrorimageorparodyofthedeath,exaltation,andsecondcomingofChrist.” Cf.Aune, Revelation 1–5,lxxxvii;Stefanovic, RevelationofJesusChrist,376–9.

83 Sprinkle, Daniel,179.SeemoreLester, DanielEvokesIsaiah

84 Sabuin, “BlasphemyagainsttheSanctuary,” 11.

85 Ibid.,11.

KingdomofGodandpower. ThebookofDanielispermeatedwiththethemeofGod’skingdomandauthority. ThisisespeciallyillustratedinDan.2andDan.7,wherebothNebuchadnezzar’sdreamandDaniel’svision culminatedintheestablishmentofGod’seternalkingdom.Asshownabove,Dan.3describesNebuchadnezzar’s blasphemyinrejectingGod’sauthority,usurpingGod’sprerogatives,andtryingtomakehiskingdometernal,as opposedtoGod’skingdom.SomethingsimilarhappensinthepropheticpartofthebookofDaniel – thelittlehorn triestocounteracttheestablishmentofGod’skingdom(Dan.7:26,27).Daniel8–12showsthatbehindtheearthly kingdomsandwars,thereisaglobalcosmicspiritualconflictbetweentheforcesofgoodandevil.86 AsStefanovic writes,Dan.8 “isbestunderstoodifrelatedtoIsaiah14,Ezekiel28,andRevelation12.”87 BothIsaiahandEzekiel, describingearthlykings,gointothepastandpointtoaheavenlyangelwhochallengedGod’sauthorityand wantedtotakeGod’sthrone(Is.14:12–14;Ezek.28:12–19).88 TheprophetIsaiahdescribestheaudaciousintentions ofthisangel: “yousaidinyourheart, ‘Iwillascendtoheaven;abovethestarsofGodIwillsetmythroneonhigh; Iwillsitonthemountofassemblyinthefarreachesofthenorth;Iwillascendabovetheheightsoftheclouds;I willmakemyselfliketheMostHigh.’” (Isa.14:13,14).SimilarterminologyisfoundinDan.8:10–12.89 Thisindicates thatbehindthelittlehorn,thereisalsotheveryspiritualhostileforcethatis fightingagainstGodhimself.

InthebookofRevelation,Johnalsodescribesthisspiritualbattle(Rev.12:7–10)andpointsoutthattothe beastfromthesea “thedragongavehispowerandhisthroneandgreatauthority” (Rev.13:2).90 Thisis reminiscentofChristreceivingauthorityfromtheFather(Rev.3:21;Rev.4,5;cf.Matt.28:18).AsSabuinwrites, “theseabeastreceivingthepower,throne,andauthorityfromthedragonseemstoexactlyimitateChrist receivingthepower,throne,andauthorityfromGodtheFather.”91 Theworshipofthebeastfromtheseais relatedtothethronemotifandisopposedtothecalltoworshipGodinRev.14:7.92 LaszloGalluszbelievesthat “thus,theissueofthelegitimatepossessionoftherulingauthorityisbroughttothecenterofattention,further indicatedbythecontrastbetweentherivalthronesof13.2and14.3.”93 SoboththebookofDanielandthebook ofRevelationdepictaspiritualcosmicconflictinwhichthedevilchallengedGod’sauthorityanddesiredto takeGod’sthrone.94 Inthisstruggle,Satanusesthepowersoftheearthto fightagainsttheauthorityofGodand Hiskingdom,andheclaimstobeworshiped.95 Theseactionsareinherentlyblasphemous,astheyinfringeon divineprerogativesandcontradictthefundamentalprinciplethatonlyGodisworthyofworship(Matt.4:10).

86 ThiscanbeseenespeciallyclearlyinDan.10.SeemoreStevens, “Daniel10.”

87 Stefanovic, Daniel,305.

88 Formoredetails,seeDavidson, “Ezekiel28:11–19,” 57–69.

89 Stefanovic, Daniel,305–8.

90 ForthethronemotifinRevelation,seeGallusz, TheThroneMotif

91 Sabuin, “TheHeavenlySanctuaryunderAttack,” 254.

92 Gallusz, TheThroneMotif,216.

93 Ibid.

94 TheDevilintheNewTestamentisnamed “theprinceofthisworld” (John12:31;14:30;16:11)and “thegodofthisworld” (2Cor.4:4).

95 AlthoughtheverseofRev.12:7-9saysthedevilwascastoutofheaven,asGallusz, TheThroneMotif,215,says “heisstillina positiontoconferhispowerandheactivelyexecuteshisschemesthroughhisagents.”

Figure3: BlasphemyagainstGod’speople.

God’speople.ThebookofDanielandRevelationshowthatoneaspectofblasphemyisthepersecutionof thePeopleofGod(Figure3).Dan.7:21saysthatthelittlehorn “madewarwiththesaintsandprevailedover them” (

).Theverbעבד means “todo,act,make,” andthenounקרב –“battle,war” (phrase עבדהקרב literallymeans “madewar”).Theverbיכל means “tobeable,toprevail,” which indicatesthesuccessofthelittlehorninthiswar.InLXXthisphraseistranslatedas

(OG)and

” (Th).Dan.7:25addsthatthelittlehorn “shallwearoutthesaintsoftheMostHigh

).Theverbבלה usuallymeans “becomeoldandwornout” (Deut.8:4;Gen.18:12)and,accordingtoCollins, indicates “someformofhostileactionoraggravation.”96 Also,Dan.8andDan.11depictthepersecutionofthe saintsbythelittlehornandthekingofthenorth(Dan.8:10,24;11:33–35).

InRev.13:7,we findvirtuallyidenticalwords –“

Anyonewhodoesnotwanttoworshiptheimageofthebeastfromtheseawillbeindangerofbeing killed(Rev.13:15).Revelation12clearlyshowsthatthedevil,inhisstruggleagainstGod,afterhefailed todestroyChrist,directedallhisfuryagainstthepeopleofGod(Rev.12:13–17).Thus,inpersecutingthe childrenoftheLord,heisactingagainstGodhimself,which,accordingtotheNewTestamentdefinition,is blasphemy.

God’sLaw.ThelittlehornopposingGod “shallthinktochangethetimesandthelaw” ( ויסברלה שׁ ניהזמניןודת ) (Dan.7:25).Theverbסבר hasthemeaning “tothink,intend,” andtheverb שׁ means “tochange.” Thelittlehorn willthinktochangeזמניןודת .Thenounזמן isusedinthepluralandoccurselsewhereinthebookofDanielwith meaningssuchas “a fixedtime” (Dan.7:12,22), “periodofgrace,respite” (Dan.2:16), “moment” (Dan.3:8;4:33;cf. Ezr.5:3),and “time,turn” (Dan.2:21;6:11,14;cf.Neh.9:28).Theword isusedinthesingularandhassuch meaningsas “decreeofking” (Dan.2:13,2:15;cf.Ezr.7:26), “unchangeablelawofMedesandPersians” (Dan.6:9, 6:13,6:16)and “lawofGod” (Dan.6:6;cf.Ezr.7:12,7:14,7:21,7:26).AccordingtoCollins,Dan.7:25referstoa violationofthecultcalendar,suchasthebanoncelebratingtheSabbathandotherreligiousJewishholidays.97 AccordingtotheinterpretationofJürgen-ChristianLebram,thisisachangefromthesolar calendar(365days)to thelunarcalendar(360days).98 WhileNewsombelievesthatthe “mostplausibleinterpretationistosituatethe phraseinrelationtothebook’spreoccupationwiththedivinepowertodeterminetimes(2:21,44–45;4:16–17,23, 25,31–32,34[13–14,20,22,28–29,31]).”99 ThelittlehornchallengestheauthorityoftheAlmightytodeterminewho shouldexercisesovereignty.100 AccordingtoGoldingay,thechangeoftimes “denotesthetakingofdecisions regardinghowhumanhistoryunfoldsandinparticularhowoneregimefollowsanother.”101

Asmentionedabove,thebookofDanielshowstheoppositionbetweentwolaws – thelawofGodandthe lawofman(Dan.6).BothDan.3andDan.6showtheloyaltyoftheJewstoGod’sLaw(the firstcommandments ofthedecalogue).ThepersecutionsufferedbytheJewishyouthspreparesthereaderfortheupcomingevents depictedinthepropheticpart(7–12),wherethelittlehornwillpersecuteGod’speopleandattackGod’sLaw. ThepassageRev.13,wherethebeastfromtheseapersecutesthechildrenofGod,isalsointhecontextofGod’s commandments.102 Thedragonpersecutingthewoman “wentoff tomakewarontherestofheroffspring,on thosewhokeepthecommandmentsofGodandholdtothetestimonyofJesus” (Rev.12:17).Thesewords parallelRev.14:12whereitsays “Hereisacallfortheenduranceofthesaints,thosewhokeepthecommandmentsofGodandtheirfaithinJesus.” Theattempttogetalltheinhabitantsoftheearthtoworshiptheimage ofthebeast(Rev.13:15)isinthecontextofworshipandisreminiscentofthestoriesinDan.3and6.103 But,as there,soinRev.12–14,God’speopleremainfaithfultoGod’scommandments.Itisimportanttonotethatinthe wordsofthe firstangel’smessage, “andworshiphimwhomadeheavenandearth,theseaandthespringsof

96 Collins, Daniel,322.

97 Ibid.

98 Lebram, DasBuchDaniel,91–2.ThisinterpretationiscriticizedbyDavies.SeeDavies, Daniel

99 NewsomandBreed, Daniel,241.

100 Ibid.

101 Goldingay, Daniel,181.

102 SeemoreShea, “TheControversyOvertheCommandments.”

103 Paulien, “RevisitingtheSabbath,” 182,statesthat “worshipisclearlythecentralissueinthe finalcrisisofearth’shistory.”

water” (Rev.14:7),onecanseeanallusiontothefourthcommandmentofthedecalogue,directlyrelatedto worship.104 JohnPaulienstates, “AtthedecisivecenterpointofRevelation’sdescriptionofthe finalcrisisisa directallusiontoExod20.AttentiontotheSabbathcommandis,therefore,theidealresponsetoGod’s finalcall toworship,theidealresponsetothebeast’sseven-foldcalltoworshiptheUnholyTrinity.”105 Sincethebookof RevelationcomplementsthebookofDanielandhelpstobetterunderstandit,itisreasonabletoconcludethat Dan.7:25speaksoftheattackofthelittlehornonthecommandmentsofthedecalogue,includingtheSabbath. Thefourthcommandmentistheonlycommandmentinthedecaloguethatisrelatedtotime,andthisis consistentwithDan.7:25wherethelittlehorn “shallthinktochangethetimesandthelaw.”106 Itisimportant tonotethatScriptureportraysGodastheonlyLawgiver(Jas.4:12).Therefore,whenthelittlehornattacks God’slawandtriestochangeit,itputsitselfaboveGodandthuscommitsblasphemy.Thisinterpretationcan becomplementedbytheNewsominterpretation(presentedabove),accordingtowhichthelittlehornhas assumedGod’sprerogativetodeterminethetimes,alsoofblasphemy.

God’stemple. TheblasphemyoftheAntichristisalsoshownintheattackonGod’ssanctuary(Figure4). ThetempleanditsserviceplayanimportantroleinthebookofDaniel.107 Init,we findseveralreferencesto theearthlytemple:1)NebuchadnezzartakesawaysomeofthevesselsfromthetempleofGodinJerusalem (Dan.1:2);2)Belshazzarlaterbringsthesevesselstoafeastanddefilesthem(Dan.5:1–2);3)Daniel,inhis prayertoGod,rememberstheJerusalemtempleanditsdesolation(Dan.9:16–17);4)Theprophecyofthe70 weekspointstoanotherdestructionofthetempleinthemessianicera(Dan.9:26);5)Apossiblereasonfor

104 Paulien, “RevisitingtheSabbath,” 183–5,providesverbal,thematic,andstructuralparallelstosupportthisconnection.After presentingtheseparallels,Paulienconcludes, “Thisseriesofverbalandthematicconnectionsbetweenthematerialinthispartof RevelationandpassagesrelatedtothetencommandmentsindicatesthatamajorstructuralparalleltothispartofRevelationisthe tencommandments,particularlythe firstportionrelatingtohumanity’srelationshipwithGod.Thisstructuralevidenceoffers overwhelmingsupportforthelikelihoodthatthesignificantverbalparallelbetweenRev14:7andExod20:11wasintentionalonthe partoftheauthorofRevelation.” Cf.Frey, “SabbathTheology,” 127–37;Lichtenwalter, “TheSeventh-daySabbath.”

105 Paulien, “RevisitingtheSabbath,” 183.

106 Stefanovic, Daniel,277,writes, “ThesettimesregulatedbyGod’slawarealsounderattack.Thatincludestheobservanceofthe SabbathdaythatiscommandedintheDecalogue(Exod.20:8-11;Deut.5:12-15).”

107 Mora, “TheHeavenlySanctuary,” 91–105;Goswell, “TheTempleTheme.”

Figure4: BlasphemyagainstGod’ssanctuary.

Daniel’sfastistheproblemswiththedifficultiesofresumingtheearthlytempleinJerusalembytheJewswho returnedfromcaptivity(Dan.10:1–3).108 Inaddition,inthebookofDaniel,therearereferencestotheHeavenly Temple,againstwhichthestruggleofthelittlehornisdirected.109 AlthoughDan.7doesnotdirectlymention thesanctuary,asCarlosEliasMorastates, “themotifoftheheavenlycouncilthatmeetsforjudgmentisclearly connectedwiththesanctuary(Dan.7:9–13;8:13–14;Isa.6:1–8;Joel3:6–16;Ezek.10:1–12;Zech.3)” 110

Thepassage,Dan.8:11,istalkingaboutthelittlehorn: “Itbecamegreat,evenasgreatasthePrinceofthe host.Andtheregularburntofferingwastakenawayfromhim,andtheplaceofhissanctuarywasoverthrown.” The firstphraseindicatesthatthelittlehornistryingtobecomepowerfulagainst “thePrinceofthe host” ( שׂ רהצבא ).ThisPrinceiscloselyassociatedwiththesanctuaryanditsministry.AccordingtoStefanovic’s interpretation, שׂ רהצבא referstoJesusChrist.112 Thepassage,Rev.13,confirmsthisinterpretationbydepicting theAntichristasthebeastfromtheseaimitatingChrist.Thelittlehorn,wagingwaragainstGod,carriesaway תמיד fromthePrinceofthehost.Thiswordisdirectlyrelatedtothesanctuary,asitdenotesvariousaspectsof theconstantandregularservicethatwasperformedthere.113

ThenextphraseinDan.8:11addstothedescriptionoftheactionsofthelittlehorn: “theplaceofhis sanctuarywasoverthrown” ( שׁ לךמכוןמקד שׁו ).Theverb שׁ isusedhereina hophal formintheperfect thirdmasculinesingularandwouldbebettertranslatedinthiscontextas “wasoverthrown” or “wasthrown down.”114 Thepassage,Dan.8:1,saysthattheobjectthat “wasthrowndown” isמכון (“theplace” or “foundation”).ThiswordisusedtodenotetheplaceofGod’sdwelling,asintheheavenlysanctuary(Ex.15:17;1Kgs. 8:39,43,49;2Chr.6:30,33,39;Ps.33:14)andinearthlythings(1Kgs8:13).Itisinthetemplethattheplaceof God’sthroneislocated,thebasisofwhichis “righteousnessandjustice” (Ps.89:14).Fromthere,Hegovernsthe universe(Ps.103:19),executesjudgment(Dan.7:9–10),andenablessinnerstoreceiveforgivenessandsalvation (1Kgs.8:39,41,43,49).AccordingtoGerhardF.Hasel,thelittlehorn’sactionsareattemptingtorenderthe ministryintheheavenlysanctuaryineffective.115

ThebookofRevelationalsodepictstheattackoftheAntichristontheheavenlysanctuary.Thepassage, Rev.13:6,says, “ItopeneditsmouthtoutterblasphemiesagainstGod,blaspheminghisnameandhisdwelling (

),thatis,thosewhodwellinheaven(

ῦντας).” TheGreektext usestheword σκηνή (atent,tabernacle),whichprimarilyreferstoGod’stemple,bothearthly(Ex.27:21;29:4; Lev.1:1;Num.1:1)andheavenly(Heb.8:2;9:11).Thus,itbecomesclearthattheAntichristusurpsthepriestly ministryofChristandencroachesonthedivineprerogativesofgoverningtheuniverseandbestowing

108 Mora, “TheHeavenlySanctuary,” 93–5.AboutthepossiblereasonforfastinDan.10,seeStefanovic, Daniel,376–7.

109 Mora, “TheHeavenlySanctuary,” 98,statesthat “inDaniel8:10-12,thelittlehornverticallyattacksthehostofheaven,the princeofthehost,andthe tamid.Inthecontextofthisverticalattack,itbecomesclearthatthearenaofthevisionisnottheearth butheavenandthesanctuaryinviewisnottheearthlybuttheheavenly.” Forthefactthatwearereallytalkingaboutaheavenly sanctuary,seeHasel, “The ‘LittleHorn,’ theHeavenlySanctuary,” 378–462;Shea, “SpatialDimensions,” 497–526.

110 Mora, “TheHeavenlySanctuary,” 96.Davidson, ASongfortheSanctuary,516,statesthatthecourtsceneinDan.7:9-14takes placeintheheavenlysanctuaryandconcludes: “Daniel7clearlyteachestherealityofanend-time,pre-advent,cosmicinvestigative judgmentoccurringinthethroneroomoftheuniverse,theheavenlysanctuary.Thisjudgmentisthenaturalculminationof variouspartialdivineinvestigativejudgments(covenantlawsuits)throughouthistory.Itistheclimaticjudgment,theantitypical YomKippurorDayofAtonement.”

112 Stefanovic, Daniel,307–8,says: “TheevidencefromtheBibleleadstotheconclusionthatthePrinceofthehostinDaniel8isthe LeaderofGod’sarmiesthatfoughttogetheragainstthepretendertoGod’sthrone Inthisstudy,heisunderstoodtobeJesus Christ.” SeealsoPfandl, Daniel,116.Montgomery, ACriticalandExegeticalCommentary,335,andTanner, Daniel,492,althoughnot directlyreferringtoJesusChrist,alsoarguethatthereferenceistoGodhimself.

113 Forexample,thewearingofthehighpriest’sornaments(Exod.28:29–30,38),thecontinuallamp(Exod.27:20;Lev.24:2-4),a regularincenseoffering(Exod.30:8),theregularbreadofthePresenceontable(Exod.25:30;Lev.24:8;Num.4:7;cf.2Chr.2:3),the continuallyburning fireonthealtar(Lev.6:6),andtheregularburnt/grainofferings(Lev.6:13;Num.4:16).Formoreonthemeaning ofתמיד ,seeDavidson, ASongFortheSanctuary,279–81.

114 Forargumentsinfavorofsuchatranslation,seeHasel, “The ‘LittleHorn,’ theHeavenlySanctuary,” 410–2.

115 Hasel, “The ‘LittleHorn,’ theHeavenlySanctuary,” 415,argues: “Thecosmicdimensionoftheoverthrowingoftheheavenly foundationofthesanctuarycommunicatestherealityoftheattempttonullifyChrist’sheavenlyministrythroughtheestablishmentofarivalmediatorialsystem.”

salvationonpeople.SinceonlyJesusistheHighPriest(Heb.2:17;4:14–16;7:26–28;8:1–2)whohastherightto performthehighpriestlyoffice,theactofthelittlehornisblasphemy.

5Conclusion

Therearetwosidestothecosmicconflict – thesideofgoodandthesideofevil.Inthisconflict,blasphemy standsasoneoftheantagonisticactionsdirectedatgoodness.AnalysisanddefinitionofblasphemyintheOld andNewTestamentsshowthatithasdifferentmeaningsanddimensions.IntheOldTestament,blasphemy meanscursing,slandering,neglect,contempt,anddisdainagainstleadersrepresentingtheLordandGod.In theNewTestament,blasphemyhasthreeaspects:1)Slander,underminingone’sreputation;2)Usurpationof divineprerogatives;3)Persecution.Summarizingallaspectsofblasphemy,itcanbearguedthatitmeansa hostileactdirectedagainstbelieversand/oragainstGod.Blasphemyisoftenexpressedinwords,butitalso manifestsitselfinactions.Bycommittingblasphemy,thepersontakesthesideofevilinthecosmicconflict. ThisisclearlyseeninthebookofDanielandthebookofRevelation.

OneofthemanythemesthatunitethebookofDanielandthebookofRevelationisblasphemy,whichisan integralaspectoftheevilcharacters’ actions.Thehumandimensionofblasphemyisexpressedintheactions ofkingsandpeople(Dan.1–6;Rev.2:9;16:9,11;21),whiletheeschatologicaldimensionofblasphemyis expressedintheactionsoftheAntichrist(Dan.7–12;Rev.13:1,5,6;17:3).Inthehistoricalpartofthebook ofDaniel,blasphemyreferstothestruggleagainstthepeopleofGod,whoareinextricablylinkedwiththe Lord.NebuchadnezzarboldlyrejectsGod’splanforthehistoryofthekingdomsandtriestoforcethreeJewish youthstobowdowntoagoldenimageunderthepainofdeath.Also,theBabylonianrulershadaplantokill Daniel.Inaddition,NebuchadnezzarandBelshazzarencroachedontheuniqueprerogativesofGod. Therefore,thewickedactionsofthekingsandgovernmentservantsofBabylonwereinfactblasphemy.In thebookofRevelation,thislineofblasphemycontinuesintheactionsoftheJewswhoslanderedtheChristians inSmyrna.Johnconnectsthemwiththeslanderbythedevil,whoplaysakeyroleinthecosmicconflict againstJesusChrist.EventhemostterriblepunishmentsofGodwillnotleadsinnerstorepentance,butthey will fightagainstHimtothelast,proclaimingblasphemy.

Thevariousmeaningsofblasphemyacquireaspecialmanifestationintheactivityofaneschatological figure – theAntichrist.HereisaspecialconnectionbetweenthebookofDanielandthebookofRevelation.In thebookofDaniel,theAntichristisrepresentedinsuchsymbolsasthelittlehornandthekingofthenorth.In thebookofRevelation,JohnreferencesthetextsofthebookofDaniel;however,herepresentstheAntichrist withthehelpofothersymbols – thebeastfromtheseaandtheharlot.Althoughthesymbolsaredifferent,the vocabularyandactionsoftheevilforcesareverysimilar.Intwobooks,theAntichristuseshismouthto blasphemetheLordandexalthimselfaboveallelse.BlasphemyofthemouthisaconsciousattackagainstGod. BothinthebookofDanielandinthebookofRevelation,blasphemyisdirectedagainsteverythingconnected withtheLord:1)God’skingdomandauthority;2)God’speople;3)God’slaw;and4)God’stemple.Thedevil, alongwithevilangels,challengedthesovereigntyofGodandencroachedonHisthrone.Inthebattlefor powerandauthorityintheuniverse,theantichrist’sblasphemyaimstounderminetheauthorityofGodasthe supremeKing,changetheprinciplesofHisgovernment,andkillHisrepresentativesonearth.

TheparallelsbetweenthetwobookspointtotheheredityanddeepeningofOldTestamentideas. However,therearealsocertaindifferences.AlthoughthebookofDanielcontainstheideaofevilspiritual forcesandallusionstothefallencherub,thereisnodirectreferencetothedevil.InthebookofRevelation, Johnrevealstheessenceofthecosmicconflictmuchmoreclearly,andtheOldTestamentmotiveforspiritual warfaretakesonveryclearcontours.Inaddition,intheNewTestamentera,Johnmorestronglyemphasizes theanti-Messianiccontextofthecosmicstruggle.TheblasphemyoftheantichristisanattackonJesusChrist himselfandanimitationofHisactions.Thus,theanalysiscarriedoutshowsthatthebookofRevelationisa kindofreceptionofthebookofDaniel,continuingsomethemes.Inbothbooks,blasphemyispartoftheactive actionsofevilforcesincosmicconflictagainstGodandHispeople.

Acknowledgments: WearegratefultoJörgFrey,KonradSchmid,andtheanonymousreviewersfortheir helpandcomments.WearegratefultotheDepartmentofTheologyoftheUniversityofZurichforproviding fundsforthepublicationofthisarticle.AversionofthisarticlewaspresentedattheAdventistSocietyfor ReligiousStudiesAnnualMeetings, “CosmicConflict:Out-of-dateorUp-to-date?” inSanAntonio,Texas,on November17,2023.

Fundinginformation: APChasbeencoveredbytheDepartmentofTheologyoftheUniversityofZurich, Switzerland.

Conflictofinterest: Authorsstatenoconflictofinterest.

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