religions
Article
CollectiveandSubstantial:HumanDignity beyondIndividualism
JustinConwayCitation: Conway,Justin.2024. CollectiveandSubstantial:Human DignitybeyondIndividualism. Religions 15:639.https://doi.org/ 10.3390/rel15060639
AcademicEditor:SimonMaryAsese A.Aihiokhai
Received:11March2024
Revised:21May2024
Accepted:21May2024
Published:23May2024
Copyright: ©2024bytheauthor. LicenseeMDPI,Basel,Switzerland. Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticle distributedunderthetermsand conditionsoftheCreativeCommons Attribution(CCBY)license(https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/).
TheologyDepartment,BostonCollege,ChestnutHill,MA02467,USA;conwayju@bc.edu
Abstract: ThispaperusesPopeFrancis’s FratelliTutti todeveloptraditionalCatholicdepictions ofhumandignityinboththeoryandpractice.Blacksociopoliticalthoughtandsocialmovement organizingarebroughtintoconversationwiththeologiesandphilosophiesthatreflectonwhatgives lifeintegrity.Ipositthatthesubstantialist(ontological)interpretationofhumandignitylogically extendsfromindividualstocollectives.Further,IsuggestreligiousleadersintheUnitedStates shouldemphasizethiscollectiveformofsubstantialismalongsidetherelational(Trinitarian)and functional(creative)interpretationsofhumandignity,thusidentifyingcollectivesasthematizing divinelikenessandseparatingthenotionofhumandignityfromindividualism.
Keywords: humandignity;individualism; FratelliTutti;Blacknaturallaw;collectivity
PopeFrancis’s FratelliTutti (FT)extendsaninvitationtodialoguewithallpeopleof goodwillaboutthemeaningandscopeoffraternallove,regardlessofreligiouscommitment. ThispaperrespondstoFrancis’sofferandtheneedforCatholictheologytoengageBlack socialandpoliticalthoughtthroughaninterdisciplinaryexaminationofhumandignity, oneofthemostimportanttheologicalconceptsforbuildingaconsistentethicoflife. IntheseminarsIhavetakenexaminingraceandracismtheologically,mostreadings anddiscussionspertainedtoliberationtheologies.Theleadingperspectivescenteron Christiancritiquesofunjustsocialstructures—undoubtedlyanimportantprojectthat shouldcontinueevolving.Butwhiletheseintersectionalliberationistmovementsfurther developthepreferentialoptionformarginalizedpopulations,makingtheologiesthat addresstheoriesaboutraceandracisminseparablefromliberationistdiscoursesrelegates theirusetotheappliedratherthanthefundamental.
Thedistinctionbetweenappliedandfundamentaltheologyrequiressomeexplanation. Fundamentaldoesnotmeanmoreimportantorsignificant,butrathermorefoundational. Asanapplieddiscourse,liberationtheologiescanbedistinguishedfromthefoundational conceptstheydrawfromandbuildupon,suchashumandignity,naturallaw,andgrace. Problemsarisewhenfundamentaltheologicalconceptsgounchallengedbycriticalrace studies,whichriskscenteringhistoricallydominantperspectivesabouthumannatureand salvationwithoutsufficientlyincorporatingotherworldviewsandexperiences.Suchisthe casewheninsightsaboutraceandracism,whileoftenappearingintheologiesofliberation, arenotincludedinotherdoctrinaldiscourses.
In FT,Francisstrivestofosteraculturebeyond“vagueideals”andreferstotheact ofvaluingsomethinginspeechwithoutaccompanyingpracticeasthesinofdoublespeak (Francis2020,Nos.109–10).Aconsistentethicoflifedemandsmatchingidealswith behaviors,andareligionthatfailstoliveaccordingtoitsbeliefinthedignityofallpeople renderstheconceptofdignityitselfmeaningless.Hence,Francisclaimsthatequalitywill onlybeachievedbyconsciouslyandcarefullycultivatingassociation,notbyabstractly proclaimingthat“allmenandwomenareequal”(Francis2020,No.104).Throughout FT, whileremainingdeferentialtotheinnatedignityofindividuals,Francisworksfromasocial visionofdignitywhichaccountsforwaysinwhichtheimageofGodisbothrelationally andfunctionallyactive.Iwillarguethatemphasizinghumandignityasconstitutively
relationalandperformativeremainspressing,asdoestheneedforextendingconceptions ofinnatedignitytocollectives.
Recognizingtheinnatedignityofcollectivescouldhavewidesocialandlegalimplications.Apublicreorientationofdignityascollectiveandaction-drivenshouldmovethe culturalmoralimaginationtoconnectgroupdisparitiestohumanrightsfailuresjustas easilyasitconnectsindividualviolationsofdignitytohumanrightsfailures.Theneed forsuchareimaginingispressing.EddieGlaude,ascholarofBlackstudiesandreligion, attributesthediscrepanciesbetweenWhiteandBlackAmericatocollectivemoralfailings, referringtothe“apathyorwillfulignorance”ofUSAmericanstowardthesufferingof Blackpeopleasthe“valuegap”(Glaude2017,p.29).1 Thevaluegapexplainswhyracial prejudiceagainstpeopleofcolorfactorsintonearlyeverysocioeconomicdisparity.Despite wide-rangingtheologicalprotestations,BlackAmericansarestillnottreatedwithequaldignitytoWhiteAmericans.Sharingsimilarconcerns,Franciswrites,“Itfrequentlybecomes clearthat,inpractice,humanrightsarenotequalforall,”anobservationthatprompts himtoask,“Whatdoesthistellusabouttheequalityofrightsgroundedininnatehuman dignity?”(Francis2020,No.22).Inadditiontorecognizingandrespectingtherightsof dignifiedindividuals,wemustdevelopandcomplementthesubstantialistinterpretation ofhumandignitywithinCatholicthoughttoaccountforcollectives.
1.TheologicalHumanism
WilliamSchweikerandDavidKlemm’sscholarshipontheologicalhumanismprobes questionsaroundtheintegrityoflifeinaninterreligiousway(KlemmandSchweiker2008, p.21).Theyargue,“tooreadily humanistswithinorganizedreligions(Christianhumanists,etc.)undervalueimportanteffortsoutsidetheirowntraditionstounderstandthe commonshapeofthehumandriveformeaning,value,andtruth”(KlemmandSchweiker 2008,p.20).Atheologicalhumanistadoptsacriticalposturetowardtheirownreligious communityandwillinglyteststhedepthsoftheirconvictionsthroughcomparisonwith others.Becausetheologicalhumanistsunderstandtheresourcesoftheirownreligious traditionstobedistinctivebutnotuniquewaysofbeingreligiousandhuman,theyare comfortableofferinguptheirtraditionsforcritiquefromotherworldviewsthat“seek integralexistence”(KlemmandSchweiker2008,p.21).
SchweikerandKlemm’sapproachtotheologicalhumanismmatchesFrancis’sposture in FT,inwhichhewrites,“AlthoughIhavewrittenitfromtheChristianconvictionsthat inspireandsustainme,Ihavesoughttomakethisreflectionaninvitationtodialogue amongallpeopleofgoodwill”(Francis2020,No.6).ThisstancealignswithFrancis’s consistentwarningsagainstindividualism.Ideologythrivesinenvironmentsthatmitigate diversity,workingtodisconnectcontemporarythoughtfromhistories,ancestors,and elderstogounchallengedbythewisdomthatcomesfromsuchwide-rangingcommunities (Francis2020,No.13).ForFrancis,disengagingfromtraditionsanddisassociatingfrom communalrelationshipspermitsaformofcolonization,astheabandonmentofhistories andbeliefsdrivesmoralinconsistency.Withouthistoricalconsciousness,thewordsused todescribevalues—suchasjustice,unity,anddignity—becomeemptyandmeaningless (Francis2020,No.14).Againstindividualism,theologicalhumanismconsidersglobal diversityanassetforsoundreasoning,sharingFrancis’sappealthatwe“thinkofourselves moreandmoreasasinglefamilydwellinginacommonhome”(Francis2020,No.17).
Usingthismethod,Catholicteachingonhumandignity,drivenbyinterpretationsof whatitmeanstobemadeinGod’simage,canbebroughtintodiscussionwiththeological humanisticreflectionsonlife’smeaningthroughhumanandsocialexistence.Thus,the imageofGoddiscoursewelcomesinterdisciplinaryfeedback.Explicitlyacknowledging theinternalcomplexitiesofvariousreligioustraditionsdemonstratesthehumilityof theologicalhumanismasanapproach.UsingChristianityasanexample,withahistory shapedbyancientSemitic,Greek,andRomaninfluences,theologicalhumanistsseeaneed tochallengeChristianclaimsfromhistoricallyneglectedsources.Doingsoexpandsand clarifiesatraditionseekingtruth.Religiousclaimsareprobedinternallyandexternally
toclarifynormsandelucidatemoralaims.ItiswithSchweikerandKlemm’stheological humanisminmindthatIuseBlacksociopoliticalthoughtandsocialmovementorganizing tostrengthenCatholicteachingonhumandignity.
2.CatholicConceptionsofHumanDignity
WithintheCatholictradition,theconceptmostinfluentialforarticulatingthemoral statusofanindividualisthatofhumandignity.StemmingfromtheLatin dignitas,dignity connoteswhatEnglishspeakerscall“worth”(Burrow2002,p.230).Incontrasttothe ancientwarriorculturesthatsawdignityasmeritedandreflectiveofstatus,theCatholic traditiondefinesdignityasconstitutive,perthestoryofhumankindbeingmadeinGod’s image(Genesis1:26).Notonlyiseachperson’sdignitypossessedirrespectiveofpersonal capacityorsocialutility,butbecauseGodcreatedallofhumanityinsuchaway,dignitycan neverbelost(Weaver2020,p.33).ForChristians,theologicallydescribinghumandignity hingesoninterpretingthemeaningofbeingmadewithadivinelikeness.
DavidHollenbachnamesthreeinterpretationsasthemostprominent—substantialist, relational,andfunctional.AsubstantialistinterpretationviewseachindividualaspossessingasacrednessanalogoustothatofGod.Itisoftenbasedonthreecommonandnatural humancharacteristicsthatconfermoralintegrity:thehumanintellect,whichtranscends thematerialuniverseandsharesindivinewisdom;thehumanconscience,whichsearches forandadherestomoraltruth;andhumanliberty,theexcellenceofwhichdemandsour freely-chosenactionstobedirectedbyknowledgeofthetruegood(VaticanCouncilII1965, Nos.15–17;cf. Hollenbach2014,p.253).Fromtheseontologicalhumancharacteristics, humanbeingscangraspandpursuefundamentalmoraltruths,demonstratingadivine likenessaccordingtowhichallhumanbeingsshouldbeconsideredsacred.Thissubstantialistinterpretationdiffersfromtherelationalandfunctionalinterpretations,bothofwhich findsupportinCatholicthought(Hollenbach2014,p.253).
Thesecond-mentionedinterpretationviewshumandignityasconstitutivelyrelational byreflectingontheTrinitariannatureandunitiveimageofGod.Thesocialnatureofthe personresemblesGod’sinherentrelationality.Humanbeingscannotbecomevirtuousin isolationfromothersbutratherneedsociallifetorealizetheirdignity(Hollenbach2014, pp.253–54).AstheSecondVaticanCouncilstated,“Goddidnotcreatethehumanbeingas asolitary Forbyhisinnermostnature,thehumanbeingisasocialbeing,andunlesshe relateshimselftoothers,hecanneitherlivenordevelophispotential”(VaticanCouncilII 1965,No.12).AsFrancisconsistentlyremindsthroughouthisencyclicalonfraternallove, dignityandfraternityareinextricablefromeachother.Humandignityisrealizedthrough bondsofsocialfriendshipandcollaboration.
Thefunctionalinterpretationofhumandignityfocusesonthegenerativepowerof humanbeingsthroughreflectionontheimageofGodasCreator.JustasGodcreates, sustains,andgovernscreation,humanbeingsembodya“creative,sustaining,andgoverningroleintheworld”(Hollenbach2014,p.255).Humansarebothcreatedandmade tocreate.Similarly,DoleneFozardWeaverexplainstheCatholicChurch’sconceptionof humandignityasanormativeideal(Weaver2020,p.35).Inthisview,totheextentthat humanbeingsarenotgenerativeintheworld,theyrejecthumandignity.Thefunctional interpretationconnectsdignitytoresponsibilityandaction.
LikenesstoGodisdiscernedthroughalltheseinterpretationstogether,recognizing thathumansareasintegrallysocialastheyareindividual.Neitherpersonalfreedomnor inherentworthisrespectedwithoutjustlyandlovinglycaringforothersandcreation. Humandignityonlyflourishesinsocietiesthatcollaboratetopositivelyimpacttheworld. InWeaver’sdiscussionofhumandignityasanormativeideal,shepointstohowthe CatechismoftheCatholicChurch assertsthatdignity“isfulfilledin[one’s]vocationtodivine beatitude”(No.1700;cf. Weaver2020,p.35; CatholicChurch2003).Assomethingthat reachescompletionthroughhumanaction,dignityis,atleastpartly,markedbypotentiality. Grantingthatdignityissubstantialandpermanent,italsomatures.
Expressinghumandignityintermsofindividualpersonhoodoftenlimitstheimaginationtoindividualdignitywithoutgivingrespecttohumandignityascommunal.Asit iscurrentlyarticulated,whenthesubstantialistinterpretationbecomesparadigmaticfor humandignitydiscourse,Catholiccommunitiesrunintotheproblemofindividualismthat Francisconsistentlychallenges.Similarly,in CaritasinVeritate,afterPopeBenedictdescribes charityasthecreativeandredemptivelovereceivedfromGodandgiventoothers,he pointstotheimportanceofdevelopingand“promotingthedignityofpersonsandpeoples” (BenedictXVI2009,No.73).Furtherphilosophical,theological,andpracticalengagement willshowthatthesubstantialistinterpretationofhumandignitylogicallyextendsfrom individualstocollectives,whodifferently,butnoless,reflectthedivineimage.
Attendingtotheconceptofpersonhooddirectly,thephilosopherMartinAjeiinvestigatesitsindividualityandcommunality.Ontheonehand,theindividualityviewpresumes themoralstatusofahumanbeingasconferringcertainrights.Fromthesepresuppositions, manyphilosophersinterrogatewhatcapacitiesorpropertiesmerittheestablishmentof individualrights,mainlytherighttopreserveone’slife.Althoughsuggestionsarevast— e.g.,consciousness,rationality,originality,andsoforth—Ajeifocusesonhowalldescribe individualtraits.Fromthisindividualisticperspective,one’sprivilegedcapacitiessetthem apartfromothercreatures.Thecommunitarianperspective,ontheotherhand,stressesthe contentofourindividualcapacitiesascollectivelyfurnished.Whatisthoughtabout,what autonomyentails,andwhatmoralityprescribesareallrelational.Forpersonhoodtofully describewhatmakesushuman,itmustincludecommunality.Humansarebothindividual andcommunalbynature,eachrelyingontheother(Ajei2018,p.102).Ajeiadvancesa viewofsocietyfoundationaltotraditionalAfricansocialism,whichthefirstPresidentof Senegal,LéopoldSenghor,describesas“ratheracommunionofsoulsthananaggregateof individuals”(Senghor1964,p.49).
Whilethecoexistingrelationalandfunctionalinterpretationshavebroadenedthe discussionofhumandignitybeyondnaturalcapacities,thesubstantialistinterpretationcan bebetterarticulatedsuchthatthoseaspectslikeningindividualstoGodareextendedto themoralcharacteristicsofvariouspeoplescollectively.Collectiveshaveagreatercapacity fortranscendence,moraltruth,andfreedomthanindividuals,asmindscommunicate wisdom,peopleholdeachotheraccountable,andmobilityandpowerincreaseingroups. Butjustasdignifiedcharacteristicsincrease,collectivesposeagreaterriskoffallinginto materialism,moraldecay,andcaptivitythanindividuals,demonstratingtheneedtostress themoralresponsibilitiesofdignitywhileacknowledgingthepossibility,ifnotprobability, oftheirrejection.Suchextremesonlyfurthertheneedforarticulatingthedivineresonances substantiatingcollectiveexpression.Francisdevelopstheconversationoncollectiveidentity bynarratinghowsocietyandcultureaugmentlife.QuotingalyricfromViniciusdeMoraes, Francissayslifeitselfis“theartofencounter”(Francis2020,No.215),andwhileculture requireswork,itcanbesuchthat,appropriatingaphrasefromThomasAquinas(Summa ContraGentiles,C.10),“thewholeisgreaterthanthepart”,inwhichdifferencesenricha “variegatedunity”(Francis2020,No.215).2 Furtherreferringtocultureasboth“awayof life”and“astyleoflife”,Francisdescribestheformandqualityofcultureasalivingand spiritedphenomenon(Francis2020,No.216).
3.SpotlightingRace
AsJamesKeenanargues,ratherthanbeingoneissueamongothers,racismisso pervasivethatitdefinestheAmericansocialstructure(Keenan2021,p.74).Interpreting theimageofGodisonlyoneofmanywaystothinkaboutwhatgiveslifeintegrity.Black studiesscholars,writers,andpoliticalorganizersconfigurehumandignitydifferentlythan traditionalCatholicinterpretations,commonlybeginningwiththeconceptofnegation. Byunderstandingwhattakesawaylife’sintegrity,onebetterappreciateswhatgiveslife integrity.The“wordlessusher”imagefromIsabelWilkerson’s, Caste:TheOriginsofOur Discontents,underscoreshowracismcontinuallyobstructsourcollectiveabilitytorecognize, empower,resource,andaccreditmarginalizedgroups,therebydenyingthemtheirdignity:
Aswegoaboutourdailylives,casteisthewordlessusherinadarkenedtheater,flashlightcastdownintheaisles,guidingustoourassignedseatsfora performance.Thehierarchyofcasteisnotaboutfeelingsormorality.Itisabout power—whichgroupshaveitandwhichdonot.Itisaboutresources—which casteisseenasworthyofthemandwhicharenot,whogetstoacquireand controlthemandwhodoesnot.Itisaboutrespect,authority,andassumptionsof competence—whoisaccordedtheseandwhoisnot.(Wilkerson2020,pp.17–18)
Thewordlessusher,apersonificationofracismandcaste,divertsattentionaway fromthosesufferingintheshadowsand,asKeenancomments,elicitstheimportance ofrevertingattentiontothosetheprivilegedaresociallyconditionedtoignore(Keenan 2021,p.74).ItresemblesaparablefamiliartoChristians—thatoftheGoodSamaritan,a storyofsomeoneassaultedandleftabandonedontheroadside. FT drawsheavilyonthe ParableoftheGoodSamaritan,usingittoraisequestionsaboutsocialposition,inequality, andresponsibility.MorethaninstructingalltobeliketheSamaritaninthestory,Francis usestheparabletorevealacommonhumanpropensitytomistreatthosewhosuffer.He writes,“Weareconstantlytemptedtoignoreothers,especiallytheweak”,and“Wehave becomeaccustomedtolookingtheotherway,passingby,ignoringsituationsuntilthey affectusdirectly”(Francis2020,No.64).Worseyet,witnessingsuffering“disturbsus” and“makesusuneasy”,notoutofcompassionbutbecausewedonotwanttobebothered bytheproblemsofothers(Francis2020,No.65).Theseinclinationsaresymptomsofa sicksociety,onethat,likeWilkerson’smetaphor,“seeksprosperitybutturnsitsbackon suffering”(Francis2020,No.65).Glaude’sdescriptionofWhiteAmericaasapatheticto Blacksufferingresonates.
Theglobaltheologicalsocietyshouldfeelcomplicit.BryanMassingalewritesoften abouthowtheBlackbodyhasnotonlybeendisregardedbuterasedfromCatholicethics, posingthequestion,“WhatwouldCatholictheologicalethicslooklikeifittookthe‘Black Experience’seriouslyasadialoguepartner?”(Massingale2011,p.116).Bynomeans rhetorical,Massingale’squestioninvitesengagement.ImaniPerrypositsthatthoroughly examiningracebringsgrowthintwodirections—themorebeautifulandthemoreterrible, inspiredbyJamesBaldwin’s“ATalktoTeachers”,inwhichhestates,“Americanhistoryis longer,larger,morevarious,morebeautiful,andmoreterriblethananythinganyonehas eversaidaboutit”(Baldwin1963; Perry2011).Whilebeingchallengedbythemanyoverlookedevilsofthepast,oneiscomfortedbybeautifulexpressionsofresistanceandlove alongtheway.InsightsfromVincentLloyd,ImaniPerry,andPopeFrancistogetherdemonstratethenecessityofusingcollectivestoclarifyanddeveloptraditionalandcommonplace usesoftheimageofGodinCatholictheologicalethics.
3.1.BlackNaturalLawandBlackDignity
VincentLloydarguesinBlackNaturalLawthatBlackstudiesoughttoreclaimits traditionofmakingnormativeclaims.Beyonddescriptivework,suchasnarratingBlack historyandculture,LloydproposestheBlacknaturallawtraditionasameansforBlack studiestoreclaimnormativity,addressingwhatoughttobedoneandhow,whatcomprises ajustworld,andnamingtheobligationsforlivinginandcontributingtosuchaworld (Lloyd2016,p.xiii).TheBlacknaturallawtheoristsLloyddrawsfrom—FrederickDouglass, AnnaJuliaCooper,W.E.B.DuBois,andMartinLutherKingJr.—eachreflectnormatively fromhumannature.Lloydargues,“Becauseoftheoppressionfacedbyblacks,itis especiallyobvioustoblacksthatworldlydescriptionsofhumannatureneversufficeand thatcharacteristicallyhumancapacitiesoughttobeexercised,notrepressed”(Lloyd2016, p.xiii).Blacknaturallaw,whilebeingdistinctivelyBlack,arisesfromexperiencesrather thanfactsaboutBlackness.Havingone’shumanitydeniedprovokesstruggleagainstall rationalizationsofdisparatetreatmentbasedonappealstonature.
WithoutsuggestingallBlackexperiencesarethesame,Lloydelevatescommonlyheld insightsfromthesefourthinkersabouthumannature,arguingthatthehumanconditionis essentiallyindefinable.Humancapacitiesdiscernhumannaturebutcannotfullycomprise
theessenceofhumannaturebecause“justasGodexceedsallworldlydescriptions,the imageofGodinhumanityexceedsallworldlydescriptions”(Lloyd2016,p.xi).Human nature,therefore,whileessentiallyrationalandmoral,transcendsthenumerouscapacities thatrecognizeandrespondtoitstranscendence.
Becauseanaccountofhumannatureasessentiallyindefinablegroundsnormative claimswithintheBlacknaturallawtradition,anyattemptstoexhaustivelydefinehuman naturegoagainstBlacknaturallaw,asdosocialconventionsthatattempttosuppressor constrainthecapacitiesthatmakehumantranscendencepossible.Limitingtheabilityto recognizeandrespondtohumantranscendenceimpedesappreciationforwhatisessentially human,leadingtothemisrecognitionofhumannatureassimplyfiniteandmaterial.Hence, Lloydcontends,theBlacknaturallawtraditionofferstheclearestanalysisofthehuman conditiontodate,revealing“apointoftranscendencethatmarksourcommonhumanity” (Lloyd2016,p.xiv).
MuchastheSecondVaticanCouncilviewedlocalcommunitiesasdevelopersofsocial teaching,Blacknaturallawaffirmstheconstructiveinfluencesofcommunityparticipation andexamineshowsocialmovementorganizingilluminatesnaturallawreasoning.Insight stemsfromexaminingstrategicpoliticalresponsestothediscriminatorylegalandsocial contextsunderwhichsocialmovementsgarnermomentum,interrogatingpracticaland contextualmatterstobetterunderstandwhatisnaturalandunnatural.Startingfromexperiencesofdignitydenied,Blacknaturallawteacheseveryoneabouttheirsharedhumanity. Oppressionandmarginalizationprovideanenhancedabilitytodistinguishbetween whatisnaturalandwhatisconventional,insofarassufferingbegetsopportunitiesfor reflectiononthegapbetweenone’sknowledgeoftheirowndignityandone’sexperience ofhavingtheirdignityrejectedbysociety.Suchaprivilegedepistemicpositionextends tothosewhoenterthechaosofothers,grantingthemthesameopportunitiestoreflect onwhatcausessufferingandhowtobringaboutpeace.3 Becausetragedy,understood asunnecessarysuffering,stimulatesthoughtaboutthenatureandcontextofsuffering, regularlyencounteringtragedyprovidesfrequentconsiderationofwhatisbeingviolated whensufferingoccurs—whatencroachesuponthehumansoul’s“divinespark”(Lloyd 2016,p.68).Asaresult,theinviolablesubstancefoundationaltohumannatureanddignity becomesincreasinglyclearer.
AsGodisnotfullydescribable,thetaskofinterpretingtheimageofGodtosupport theoriesofhumandignityremainsperpetuallyincomplete.Becausethedivinitywithin humannatureliesbeyonddescription,Blacknaturallawbringsreason,emotion,and imaginationtogethertoindefinitelystrivetowardsanultimatelyineffablemystery,evoking sensibilitiesaboutandcommitmentstohumansanctityratherthandefiningabilitiesthat meritdignifiedtreatment.Ittherebyenhancesportrayalsofandobligationstoinviolable worthbeyondcircumstancesandcapacities(Lloyd2016,p.158).
Finally,Blacknaturallawfocusesonpoliticalandsocialmovementorganizingtobetter perceiveandimplementnaturallaw.Itmainlyaimstorectifydistortedperceptionsofright andwrongintheworldthroughpoliticalandphilosophicalcritiquesofideology,defined asthewisdomoftheworld.Becausesocialmovementorganizingisacommonlypracticed methodforcollectiveideologycritique,Blacknaturallawvaluessocialmovementsas waystobetterunderstandthehumancondition.Itcouldbecharacterized,then,byits persistentchallengestoideologiesofpower,orthoseworldviewsthatdisguisehowstatus quopolicybenefitstherichandpowerful.Blacknaturallawtheoristsappealtoahigherset ofprinciples,sometimesreligiouslyexpressiveandothertimesnot,torevealhowideology concealseliteinterestsanduncoverstheharmhiddenbyculturalidiomsandtropes(Lloyd 2016,p.153).
Lloyd’sdevelopmentofBlacknaturallawtheorydemonstratesthathowoneaddresses questionsaboutdignitymattersasmuchaswhatoneclaimsaboutdignity.Following Lloyd’sviewthatnaturallawbecomesincreasinglyclearerasonechallengestragicconditions,hismostrecentbook,BlackDignity,linkstheprimaldesiretoescapeconditions ofdominationtotranscendentaldesire(Lloyd2022,p.xii).Ratherthanenjoyingastatus
conferred,Blackdignityclaimsastatusdenied.Byemployingtheconceptofnegation, preciseandforcefulclaimsaboutwhatdignityisnotcanbemade.Butspeakingpositively aboutdignitycannotbeasexact.Itrequiresaestheticandimaginativedescriptionsabout wheredignitymightbefound,whichisofteninunsystematicandfleetingperformances ofcommunitiesstrugglingagainstdomination(Lloyd2022,pp.5–6),withdomination definedas“thecapacityofonetoarbitrarilyexerciseherwillonanother”(Lloyd2022, p.10).Itisassertedinactionschallengingunequaldifferencesinpower—actionsthatmight bepolitical,artistic,religious,ornoncompliantinform(Lloyd2022,p.8).Fortheological ethicistsandreligiouspractitionerswhowanttofurthertheBlacknaturallawtradition, embeddingaffecttheory,ideologycritique,andperformancestudiesinnarrativesabout justicewillbringforththebalanceofemotion,reason,andimaginationneededtoevoke naturallawandprotecthumandignity.
3.2.ImaniPerryandPopeFrancis
JustasFrancisdescribedcultureasalivingphenomenonin FT,Perrydoesthesame withbothraceandracism.Incontrasttothecommonportrayalofraceasstaticandimmutable,Perryportraysitsdynamismandsuggestsitbeapproachedphenomenologically as“somethingthathappens,ratherthansomethingthatis”(Perry2011,p.24).Theexperienceofracedependsoncontexts—suchasidentifiabilityandhistoricalandgeographical locations—revealingitsinherentactivityasaproductionofpoliticsandsocialarrangements.Racecontinuallysubjectsitselftomovementasitssurroundingschange(Perry 2011,pp.23–24);likewisewithracialinequality.Ratherthansimplytheramificationsof pastdiscrimination,racialinequalityexistsasacontinuallyemergingandmalleablesocial practice.Thesocialconstructionsandreconstructionsofraceandracialinequalitypointto raceasnotonlycreatedbutalsoliving(Perry2011,p.31).Asalifeform,raceexpresses itselfthroughcertainculturalassociations,suchthat“language,dress,style,andregional affect‘associatedwith’racialgroups”giveracemeaning(Perry2011,p.26).
Understandingraceasactiveandembeddedwithmeaningclarifiesthedepthofthe sinofracism,whichshouldaccountforanythingthatrejectsorsuppressessuchexpressions ofbelongingandidentity.Beyondtheclassicaldefinitionofracismasbeliefintheinferiority ofaparticulargroup,racismshouldbedefinedasanyactivepracticethatcontinuesor furthersracialinequalities.Francisviewsmarginalizationsimilarly,referringtotheactive phenomenonofsocialandeconomicexclusionascausingavarietyofinequality-related problemsandstatingthatpolicymakersshouldmakeendingactivepracticesofsocial exclusiontheirforemostlegislativepriority(Francis2020,No.188).
Further,whenFrancisnamespoliticalloveasthe telos ofthecommonlife,heshows howcollectives,likeindividuals,arecalledtodivinebeatitude,resonantwithinterpretationsofdignityasperformance-basedandseekinganormativeideal.Humandignity, therefore,servesasanumbrellatermimbuedwithmoralimplicationsforbothindividuals andcollectives,eachpursuingdifferentbutrelatedvocations.Likeindividualdignity, collectivedignitycallsforjustandlovingaction.Itiswhengroupscometogethertopursue fraternalloveandsocialfriendship,Francisargues,thattheyenter“thefieldofcharityat itsmostvast”(Francis2020,No.180).4
Deconstructing“old-fashionedracism”mattersbecauseoursocietyandchurchneed toaddresswhyracialinequalitycontinuesamongpeoplewhoprofessabeliefinitsopposite(Perry2011,p.19).Insteadofdecryinghypocrisy,revisitinghowwesociallyand ecclesiasticallydefineandrespondtoracismmustevolvealongsidethepracticesofracial inequalitythatpersist.5 Ifracialinequalityisonlyviewedintermsofresidualimpacts,ensconcedstructures,andunconsciousbiases,theagencyofbothindividualsandcollectives toaddressandrectifyracialinequalitywouldbedestroyed,andtheresponsibilitytoclose thevaluegapwouldbeabsolved.
Racismanddiscriminationhavegrownsuchthattheymustnowbeexaminedbeyond theframeofintentionality.Justasracialinequalitycannotbeexcusedbywayofdeterminism,neithercancomplicitybemeasuredbyintendedharm.Howelsedoesonereconcile
thedichotomybetweenthevalueofracialequalityandthestill-presentracialdisparitiesin nearlyeverysocialandinstitutionalsetting?Onlyapost-intentional,non-deterministic analysisofracialinequalityasanongoingpracticewillgiveinsightintosocietiesandcommunitiesthatcontinuetoactagainsttheirbeliefsinracialequality(Perry2011,pp.20–21). Asthingsstand,“racialequality”isanotherexampleofdoublespeak.AChurchconcerned withdevelopingaconsistentethicoflifemustidentifyandcorrectforhowracismlives andgrows.
3.3.BlackLivesMatter
InlinewithBlacknaturallawtheory,analyzingthenarrativesandclaimsofsocial movementscanhelpidentifyandcombattheprogressofracism.Therecurringinstancesof policeandvigilanteviolenceagainstBlackpeopleintheUnitedStatesprominentlydisplay asymptomofsocialexclusion.WhilemanyBlack-Americancommunitieshavenever trustedthepolice,WhiteAmericansroutinelyregardthemasallies(Jones2020).Bryan Massingaledescribedhowthesedifferingrelationshipsplayoutconcretely.On25May2020, inNewYorkCity’sCentralPark,ChristianCooper,aBlackbirdwatcher,toldAmyCooper, aWhitedogwalker,tomindthesignsrequiringdogstobeleashed.Inresponse,shesaid shewouldcallthepoliceand“tellthemthatthere’sanAfricanAmericanmanthreatening mylife”(Massingale2020).Shethendidjustthat.AfterlistingseveralassumptionsAmy Coopermusthavemadebeforemakinghernow-infamouscall,Massingalecontendsthat allresteduponthenotion“thatwhitepeoplematter,orshouldmatter,morethanpeopleof color”(Massingale2020).6
SimilarpresumptionsofBlackinferioritysparkedtheBlackLivesMattermovementin 2012.AfterGeorgeZimmermanwasacquittedofmurderchargesforkillingTrayvonMartin, anunarmedBlackteenager,activistAliciaGarzawroteonFacebook,“btwstopsayingthat wearenotsurprised.That’sadamnshameinitself.Icontinuetobesurprisedathowlittle Blacklivesmatter.AndIwillcontinuethat.stopgivinguponblacklife.blackpeople,I willNEVERgiveuponus.NEVER”(CullorsandBandele2018,p.180).Garza’sfriend, PatrisseCullors,respondedwiththehashtag#BlackLivesMattertopubliclycommunicate asimplemessage:“Thatourlivesmeansomething”(CullorsandBandele2018,p.180). Cullors’needtoaffirmthedignityofBlacklifearosefrompracticallifeexperiencesthat deniedwhatsheknewaboutherselfandherBlackness—thateachissacred.
TerrenceJohnsonarguesthatthevalueclaimsbehindBlackLivesMatterexemplify “AfricanAmericanmoralhumanism”(Johnson2020,p.253).Despitethemovement’s organizers,OpalTometi,PatrisseCullors,andAliciaGarza,havingneverthemselvesused thatterm,JohnsonsituatesthemovementtheystartedwithinawidertimearcofBlack religiousactivism.WhileBlackLivesMatterdoesnotlinkitshumandignityclaimsto religiousbeliefs,humanisticphilosophiessimilartothoseusedinthe1960smovement forcivilrightsintheUSSouthdrivethemovementtoday.BlackLivesMatterframes itsmoralhumanismthrough“thetensionbetweenblackbodiesandpoliticalliberalism” asopposedtoinvokingtheimageofGod,andtheirconceptionsofdignityresultfrom reflectionuponconcreteandperceptiblerealitiesofhumanitydeniedinsteadofanabstract theologicalimage(Johnson2020,pp.253–54).Reflectiononspecificmaterialconditionsand relationshipsprovidesanavenuewithinpoliticalthoughtandactivismtorevisitCatholic conceptionsofhumandignity.
Theologicalundercurrentspropelsocialmovementsforward,anduncoveringthese undercurrentsgivesinsightintothewaysvariouscommunitiesunderstandhumannature. StudyingBlackLivesMattertheologicallyexploreswhatrightsanddignityclaimssupport itspoliticalmessaging,disclosinghowthisgroupunderstandsthehumancondition.AccordingtoJohnson,theBlackLivesMattermovementshiftstheconversationaboutdignity inthreeways:
First,itdetangleshumandignityfromtheprivatesphereofindividualmorality;second,themovementreclaimsthecategorywithoutdrapingitindeeply religiousorAfro-Christianmotifsandmetaphorsthatlocatehumandignityas
anextensionof imagoDei;third,humandignityisreconfiguredintoapoliticoaestheticcategory.(Johnson2020,p.258)
TheologicallyexploringpoliticalorganizationbringstolightFrancis’sreminder,resemblingLloyd’sdescriptionofBlackdignity,thatprofessingallasequalmeansnothing withoutcorrespondingaction(Francis2020,No.110).MorethanwhattheChurchtheorizes abouthumandignity,howthosebeliefsareaffirmedandpracticeddemandsanalysis andscrutiny.Failuretorecognizecollectiveexpressionsofmoralintegritydiminishesthe languageofdignitytoanemptymoralpronouncement.Whileverballyacknowledging individualdignitymayassuageconsciences,Franciswarnsthatwithoutexhaustingall measurestoprotectthemoralstatusofmarginalizedgroups,onefallsintoa“declarationist nominalism”thatdisrespectsthemagnitudeofwhatisatstake(Francis2020,No.188). Althoughheaimsthisremarkatpoliticians,thepoliticalnatureofallprofessionsallowshis messagetoreverberatewidely.Beyondideology,livedexpressionsofhumandignitythat disruptpracticesofinjusticemustbeexploredastheologicallyandmorallyinstructive.Examiningthediversenegotiationofcommongoodsinthecontextofprofessedvaluesbrings forthaconsistentethicthatmovestowardfulfillmentasthoughtandactioncometogether.
4.ReprioritizingCatholicEmphasesofHumanDignity
TheCatholicChurchassignsitsethiciststhedualresponsibilityofactingasboththe community’sandthemagisterium’smediators,believingrevelationtobedeliveredtoboth theologiansandthebroaderChurch(Auterio2018,p.63).Moreover,as FT invitesdialogue amongallpeopleofgoodwill,Francisstepsintothepapalencyclicaltraditiontoinclude non-Catholics,originatingwithPopeJohnXXIII’s PaceminTerris (1963),andthenaturallaw traditionthatbelievesfundamentalmoralprinciplestobegraspablebyreasonedreflection onhumannature,religiouscommitmentnotwithstanding.Hence,non-Christianreligious andpoliticalcommunitiesreflectingonthemoralintegrityoflifeshouldbeengagedby Catholicethicistswhoseek,as GaudiumetSpes makesclear,tointerpretthesignsofthe timesinlightoftheGospel(VaticanCouncilII1965,No.4).BecauseCatholictradition holdsthatlocalcommunitiesbothgiveandreceivesocialteaching,theologicalethicists mustincorporateanapproachthatfocusesonlocalcontexts.Thetaskofdouble-mediation, however,alsorequirestheologianstoremainfaithfultothemagisterium,strikingabalance betweenthelocalandtheuniversalthatpreservesacohesivemessage.
WithinthelocalcontextoftheUnitedStates,humandignitycannotbeexpressed withoutmentionofcollectives,racism,oraction.Grantingthatethicalemphaseswilldiffer inotherpartsoftheglobalChurch,thepracticesofracialinequalityandsocialexclusion definingtheUS-Americansocialstructuredemandcorrespondingactsofresistance.The continuedhistoryofracialdominationintheUnitedStatesrequiresrecurrentengagement withBlackthoughtandexperiencesinbothinterpretingmoralbehaviorsandforming moralnorms.Sincepracticesofracialinequalityobscurerightjudgment,Blackthought helpsexposewhattheperniciousactivityofracismconceals.
Thathumandignitybecontextuallytaughtacrosstheworldissupportedbyaletter PopePaulVIwrotetoCardinalMauriceRoyregardinghowChristiansshouldreactto injusticesasbothindividualsandmembersoftheirlocalchurches.Inhisletter,PaulVI straightforwardlyasserted,“Inthefaceofsuchwidelyvaryingsituationsitisdifficultfor ustoutteraunifiedmessageandtoputforwardasolutionwhichhasuniversalvalidity. Suchisnotourambition,norisitourmission”(PaulVI1971,No.4).Theteachingof humandignityshouldnotbeuniversal.Irecommendthreemeasurestolimitthenebulous andabstractarticulationsofhumandignitythatarecurrentlymostprominentinthe UnitedStates.
First,inadditiontotheory,USCatholicethicistsmustengageinandanalyzesocial movementsaspracticalcritiquesofideology.Second,becausetheologicallyinterpreting themeaningofmadeinGod’simageremainsimportant,thesubstantialistinterpretationof humandignitymustincludecollectives,andtherelationalandfunctionalinterpretations connectingdignitytosolidarity,collaboration,andperformancemeritgreateremphasis.
Third,politicalandaestheticpracticesmustbestudiedforinsightintothehumancondition. Thesemodestproposalsshouldincreasemindfulnessabouthowdignityflourishesin collectivesand,with FT,helpseparatehumandignityfromthemisleadingnotionofmoral individualism.
JustasGenesis1:26isinterpretedvariously,sotooaretheoriesabouthumandignity. BuildinguponCatholicfoundationstoensurethathumandignityremainsinfluentialfor marginalizedgroups,howoneaddressesdignitymattersasmuchaswhatonesaysabout it.Blackstudiesscholarsandpoliticalactivistsconsistentlycommunicatetheoffensiveness oftellingpeoplewhohavebeendeniedsocialworththattheyareworthyintheabstract. Withoutanactivecommitmentagainstracialpowerdifferences,attestationsofequaldignity reverberateasnothingmorethanhallowpronouncements.Dignity-invokingstatuswithout dignity-obligingperformancerenderstheconceptfutile.
Whenindividualscometogetherbynatureofacommonidentityinformedbyhistoricalmistreatmentandmarginalization,whetherthatbearoundsharedinterestsorgoals, theyshouldbetreatedasendsthemselves,notsimplyasmeans.Theyshouldbeseenas inherentlydignified,notsimplyasassociating.Thegratuitousgiftofhumancreativity allowscollectives,likeindividuals,tocooperatewithGod’sgracebyorganizingforthe commongood,andtotheextentthatcollectivesbringpassionandstyletomovementsfor justice,theyphysicallyexpressdivineloveandimagination.
Humandignitycannotcontinueasatheologicalabstraction.Emphasizingtheimage ofGodasrelationalandfunctionalattunesChristiantheologytotheproblemofthevalue gap.ForaChurchconcernedaboutaligningitselfwiththepoorandoppressed,thathuman dignityelicitsjustandlovingactionaddressesthecommunalresponsibilitytorectify practicesofsocialexclusion,andidentifyingcollectivesassubstantiallydignifiedregards variegatedandvirtuouswholesassacred.Farfromreducingtheeschatontohistoryand politics,perceivingthedivinityofcollectivesexpandsawarenessoftheholinessinour midst,furtherencouragingbehaviorreflectiveofourproximitytoGod.
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Notes
1 “TheGreatBlackDepression”isanotherphrasecoinedbyGlaudethatcharacterizesthedisproportionateimpactthe2008 AmericanrecessionhadonBlackAmericans.Usingtheonlineplatform Medium,Glaudewrote:“Therealityisthatbyevery statisticalmeasure(employment,wealth,etc.),blackAmericahasexperiencedandisexperiencingadepression.”See:GlaudeJr., Eddie,“TheGreatBlackDepression”, Medium.com,15January2016.Availableonline: https://medium.com/thsppl/the-greatblack-depression-cd0118ab5e5c (accessed20May2024).
2 SeeViniciusdeMoraes, SambadaBenção,fromtherecording UmencontronoAubonGourmet,RiodeJaneiro(2August1962).
3 JamesF.Keenan,SJ,describedmercyas“thewillingnesstoenterintothechaosofanother”(Keenan2008,p.9).
4 SeealsoPiusXI, AddresstotheItalianCatholicFederationofUniversityStudents (18December1927): L’OsservatoreRomano,23 December1927,p.3.
5 AsPerryputsitin MoralBeautifulandMoreTerrible (Perry2011,p.19):“Asanethicalmatter,ifweimplythatthepracticeof inequalityisnothingmorethanacontemporarymanifestationofold-fashionedracism,thenweruntheriskofaccusingmillions ofAmericansofdeliberatehypocrisy,ratherthandevelopingopportunitiestorevisithowwedefineandrespondtoracism”.
6 Theassumptions Massingale (2020)includesarethefollowing:“thatherlieswouldbemorecrediblethanhistruth;thatshe wouldhavethepresumptionofinnocence;thathe,theblackman,wouldhaveapresumptionofguilt;thatthepolicewouldback herup;thatherracewouldbeanadvantage,thatshewouldbebelievedbecausesheiswhite;thathisracewouldbeaburden, evenaninsurmountableone;thattheworldshouldworkforherandagainsthim;thatshehadtheupperhandinthissituation; thatshecouldexploitdeeplyingrainedwhitefearsofblackmen;thatshecouldusethesedeeplyingrainedwhitefearstokeepa blackmaninhisplace;thatifheprotestedhisinnocenceagainsther,hewouldbeseenas‘playingtheracecard’;thatnoone wouldaccuseherof‘playingtheracecard,’becausenooneaccuseswhitepeopleofplayingtheracecardwhenusingracetotheir advantage;thatheknewthatanyconfrontationwiththepolicewouldnotgowellforhim;thattheframeof‘blackrapist’versus ‘whitedamselindistress’wouldbeclearlyunderstoodbyeveryone:thepolice,thepressandthepublic;thattheracialformation
ofwhitepeoplewouldworkinherfavor;thatherknowledgeofhowwhitepeopleviewtheworld,andespeciallyblackmen, wouldhelpher;thatablackmanhadnorighttotellherwhattodo;thatthepoliceofficerswouldagree;thatevenifthepolice madenoarrest,thatalotofwhitepeoplewouldtakehersideandbelieveheranyway;thatChristianCoopercouldandwould understandalloftheabove”.
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