Dystopia: A Natural History

Dystopia:ANatural History

AStudyofModernDespotism, ItsAntecedents,and ItsLiteraryDiffractions

GREGORYCLAEYS

1

RethinkingthePoliticalDystopia

TheGroupandtheCrowd

Wedonotbelieve,weareafraid.

(Eskimoshaman)1

[F]ear,mygoodfriends,fearistheverybasisandfoundationofmodernlife.Fear ofthemuchtoutedtechnologywhich,whileitraisesourstandardofliving, increasestheprobabilityofourviolentlydying.Fearofthesciencewhichtakes awaywithonehandevenmorethanwhatitsoprofuselygiveswiththeother. Fearofthedemonstrablyfatalinstitutionsforwhich,inoursuicidalloyalty,we arereadytokillanddie.FearoftheGreatMenwhomwehaveraised,bypopular acclaim,toapowerwhichtheyuse,inevitably,tomurderandenslaveus.Fearof theWarwedon’twantandyetdoeverythingwecantobringabout.

(AldousHuxley, ApeandEssence,1949)

Hellisotherpeople.

(Jean-PaulSartre, NoExit,1944)

INTRODUCTION:RETHINKINGDYSTOPIA

Theword ‘dystopia’ evokesdisturbingimages.Werecallancientmythsofthe Flood,thatuniversalinundationinducedbyDivinewrath,andoftheApocalypse ofJudgementDay.Weseelandscapesde finedbyruin,death,destruction.We seeswollencorpses,derelictbuildings,submergedmonuments,decayingcities, wastelands,therubbleofcollapsedcivilizations.Weseecataclysm,war,lawlessness,disorder,pain,andsuffering.Mountainsofuncollectedrubbishtowerover abandonedcars.Fliesbuzzoveranimalcarcases.Uselessbanknotes flutterinthe wind.Oursymbolsofspeciespowerstandstarklyuseless:decayisuniversal. Or:weseemilesofbarbedwirebrokenbyguardtowerstoppedwithmachine gunsandsearchlights;thedeathstripsandminefields;thesnarlingguarddogs;the eyesofthehauntedgauntfacesoftheskeletalhalf-deadstaringoutofdeepsockets aghastattheirill-deservedfate;corpsespileduplikelogs,grimacingskullsfrozenin thelastmomentofmadness.

1 QuotedinStephenWilson, TheMagicalUniverse:EverydayRitualandMagicinPre-Modern Europe (Hambledon,2000),p.xvi.

Or:grimstreetsdominatedbygiantportraitsoftheLeaderwitnesslengthy queuesforfoodofwearyill-cladworkersasrevolutionaryannouncementsofnorms exceededintheproductionplanblareoutfromathousandloudspeakers.

Or:aproliferationofmushroomcloudsindicateshumanity’sendthrough nuclearwar.

Or:roaringplanes flyoverheaddroppingbombswhichburstamongus,asmen ingasmasksstrideovermangledcorpsestostickbayonetsintousorincinerateus with flamethrowers.

Or:humansocietyresemblesanantheapinwhichmammothcitiesaredominatedbyvastteemingslumsandimmenseskyscraperswhichareseparatedbywalls fromelitecompoundsguardedbymenacingsecurityforces.

Nowtheblackandwhitenewsreelsgivewaytocolour:dystopia’sisblood-red. Violentexplosionsinterspersedbyscreamsofterrordeafenusandrocktheearth:this isthesoundofdystopia.Burning flesh,cordite,sweat,vomit,urine,excrement, rottinggarbage:thisisthestenchofdystopia.Butwhatreallyreeksisstarknaked barbarism:theperfumedscentsofcivilityarebutadistantmemory.Wehavereverted tosavagery,animality,monstrosity.Andthen,perhapsmercifully,theendcomes.

Visionsoftheapocalypseareatleastasoldas1000 BC,when,inNormanCohn’ s rendering,thetriumphofchaosoverorderdefinedtheEgyptian ‘Propheciesof Neferti’,whichforetoldofthecompletebreakdownofsociety.The ‘greatnolonger ruletheland’,the ‘slaveswillbeexalted’.Crime,robbery,andmurderarerampant. Thedesertencroaches.TheNileturnsblood-redbythecorpses floatinginit.2 The Greekterm, apokalypsis,unveilingoruncovering,indicatestherevelationofmankind’sdestiny.3 Manyvariationsonitcomedowntousthroughtheages.Once theywerethepreserveofmillennialistswhoheraldedthe finalpunishmentofsin andthedawningofanewDivineera.Nowsuchnightmarishscenariosoccupyan increasinglyprominentpositioninourvocabularyandourmentalworld,but withoutthehopefuloutcomepromisedbytheology.

Mostofwhatweassociatewith ‘dystopia’ isthusamodernphenomenon, weddedtosecularpessimism.ThewordisderivedfromtwoGreekwords, dus and topos,meaningadiseased,bad,faulty,orunfavourableplace.It firstprobably appearedinthemid-eighteenthcentury,butwasnotwidelyuseduntilthetwentieth. Ithassomeawkwardcousins,likeJeremyBentham’ s ‘cacotopia’ ,or ‘evilplace’.In commonparlance,thewordfunctionsastheoppositeof ‘utopia’,thebadplaceversus whatweimaginetobethegoodplace,thesecularversionofparadise.

Yetitisreadilyapparentthatsuchastarkjuxtapositionleavesmuchtobedesired. Utopianism,inLymanTowerSargent’swell-knowndescription,hasthree ‘faces’,the

2 NormanCohn, Cosmos,Chaos,andtheWorldtoCome:TheAncientRootsofApocalypticFaith (Yale UniversityPress,1993),pp.19–20;The ‘AdmonitionsofIpu-Wer’,asdescribedinRobertGnuse, ‘AncientNearEasternMillennialism’,inCatherineWessinger,ed., TheOxfordHandbookof Millennialism (OxfordUniversityPress,2011),pp.236–7.

3 Cohn, Cosmos,ChaosandtheWorldtoCome,p.163.

literary,communal,andideological.4 Butwedonotnormallyspeakofdystopianism, andwerecognizenodystopianideologiesassuch.Thenoun dystopia isoftenused synonymouslywithdystopianliterature.However,asRuthLevitaspointsout, ‘Dystopiasarenotnecessarily fictionalinform;neitherpredictionsofthenuclear winternorfearsoftheconsequencesofthedestructionoftherainforests,theholesin theozonelayer,thegreenhouseeffectandthepotentialmeltingofthepolaricecaps areprimarilythematerialof fiction.’5 Theadjective dystopian impliesfearfulfutures wherechaosandruinprevail.Sotherearenon-literary,empiricalusagesoftheterm. Mostcommonly,frombothliteraryandhistoricalviewpoints,dystopiais identifiedwiththe ‘failedutopia’ oftwentieth-centurytotalitarianism,treatedin PartII.6 Hereittypicallymeansaregimedefinedbyextremecoercion,inequality, imprisonment,andslavery.Oftenthisisdescribedassomeconceptofcollectivism runwild,thoughsomeincludeconformisttendenciesinliberalsocietieswhich encourageegalitarianrepressionandintolerance.7 Manyauthors,however,simply equate ‘totalitarianism’ with ‘dystopia’.Thus,toStevenRosefielde,Stalinismwas simplyan ‘infernaldystopia’,anddystopiaitself,particularly ‘thecommunist dystopia’,isdefinedas: ‘TheantithesisofUtopia.Ahellishstatebroughtabout byattemptstoconstructunrealizableidealsystems.’ 8

Thisindicatesthreemain,ifofteninterrelated,formsoftheconcept:thepolitical dystopia;theenvironmentaldystopia;and finally,thetechnologicaldystopia,where scienceandtechnologyultimatelythreatentodominateordestroyhumanity. Amongstthesetypes,itisthetotalitarianpoliticaldystopiawhichischiefly associatedwiththefailureofutopianaspirations,andwhichhasreceivedthe greatesthistoricalattention.Thiswillaccordinglybeourchiefconcerninthis book.TheothertwotypeswillcomeintosharperfocusinPartIII.

Wecanseefromtheoutset,however,thateachofthesetypesofdystopiamight beunderstoodasindependentlyalignedtoideasofutopiainsomeway,perhapsin earlierperiods,orasrunningparallelatanumberoflevels.Onemodernincarnationofthepoliticaldystopia,forinstance,mightbeconceivedasoriginatinginpart inthesameyear,1516,thatThomasMore’ s Utopia appeared,whenthe first ‘ghetto’ forJewswascreatedinVenice(thewordbeingderivedfromanarea wherewastewasstored).TheconquestoftheNewWorld advertedtoby

4 LymanTowerSargent, ‘TheThreeFacesofUtopianismRevisited’ , UtopianStudies,5(1994),1–37.

5 RuthLevitas, TheConceptofUtopia (SyracuseUniversityPress,1990),p.195.

6 ThusMichaelGeyer,forinstance,writesofthe ‘utopian’ and ‘dystopian’ dimensionsofNazi ideology(GeyerandSheilaFitzpatrick, BeyondTotalitarianism:StalinismandNazismCompared (CambridgeUniversityPress,2009),p.36),whileMauriceMeissnerwritesofthe ‘utopianand dystopianelements’ inMaoism: Marxism,MaoismandUtopianism (UniversityofWisconsinPress, 1982),pp.184–211,andcontrasts ‘Mao’sutopia’ to ‘Mao’sdystopia ’ (p.209).NormanM.Naimark writesofHitler’ s ‘racialdystopia’ (Stalin’sGenocides (PrincetonUniversityPress,2010),p.5).

7 AnearlyinstanceofthistrendisnotedinDavidRiesman’ s TheLonelyCrowd (YaleUniversity Press,1950).

8 StevenRose fielde, RedHolocaust (Routledge,2010),pp.14,246,257.Herethetermis specificallylinkedtotheideaofan ‘anti-utopia’,anddescribedas firstbeingdenominatedadystopia byJohnStuartMill(p.16).PolPot’sregimeisalsodescribedasa ‘dystopia’ (p.118),andhismethods, indeed,as ‘dystopicide’,meaning ‘theunpremeditated,butnonethelessculpableconsequenceof blindlytryingto “stormheaven”’ (p.119).

More simultaneouslyheldoutthepromiseofremakingonepartofhumanity whileenslavinganother.Orautopiaofopulenceandconsumptionmightbe understoodasgeneratingadystopiaofscarcityandenvironmentaldegradation.

Buttherelationbetweenutopiaanddystopiamaybemoreintimatestill. ModernreaderswhopeercloselyintoMore’sparadigmatictextdiscovermuch aboutwhichtobealarmed.LikethesnakeintheGardenofEden,dystopian elementsseemtolurkwithinUtopia.Thecountry,weareinformed,wasfounded bycivilizingitsbarbariansandthenarti ficiallyisolatingapeninsulabytransforming itintoafortifiedisland.9 Utopiaremainsanimperialpower.Whenoverpopulated itsendsoutcolonies,seizingtheuncultivatedlandofindigenouspeoples,and drivingout ‘anywhoresistthem’ 10 Well-paidmercenarieskeepenemiesatbay,the Utopians’ much-vauntedcontemptforgold,silver,andjewelsherestandingstarkly incontrastwiththegreatvaluetheirwealthhaswhenexpendedonslayingtheir enemies.Utopia’ speaceandplenitudenowseemtorestuponwar,empire,andthe ruthlesssuppressionofothers,orinotherwords,theirdystopia.

ThenthereisthevirtuoussocietyofUtopiaitself.Herewediscoverthatsuppressing vicerequiresextraordinaryregulationandsurveillance.InUtopiathereare nowinebars,nopubs,nowhorehouses.Therearenoopportunitiesforwickedness,no hidingplaces;thereisnoscopeforconspiringinsecret.Theyarealwaysunderthe observationoftheirfellowcitizensandhavenochoicebuteithertoworkashardasthe nextperson,orelseengageinrespectablepastimes.11

Wecannottraveloutsideourneighbourhoodwithoutpassports.Wemustwear thesameplainclothes.Wemustexchangeourhouseseverytenyears.Wecannot avoidlabour.Weallgotobedatthesametime(8p.m.),andnever,underpenalty ofslavery,withsomeoneelse’swifeorhusband.Wehavereligiousfreedom,butwe cannotdenythatthesouldieswiththebody,since ‘butforthefearofpunishment, theywouldhavenothingbutcontemptforthelawsandcustomsofsociety’ 12 In More’stime,formuchofthepopulation,giventheplentyandsecurityonoffer, suchrestraintswouldnothaveseemedoverlyunreasonable.Formodernreaders, however,Utopiaappearstorelyuponrelentlesstransparency,therepressionof variety,andthecurtailmentofprivacy.Utopiaprovidessecurity:butatwhatprice? Inbothitsexternalandinternalrelations,indeed,itseemsperilouslydystopian.

Suchaconclusionmightbefortifiedbyexaminingselectivelythetraditionwhich followsMoreonthesepoints.Thisoftenportrayssocietieswhere(inthewordsof theeighteenth-centuryFrenchcommunistÉtienne-GabrielMorelly), ‘itwouldbe almostimpossibleformantobedepraved,orwicked’ . 13 Thisisachievedboth throughinstitutionsandmores,whichunderpinthecommonlife.14 Thepassions

9 Itiscommonlydescribedasisolated, ‘alonelyislandsomewhereinthevastexpanseoftheocean’ (GerhardRitter, TheCorruptingInfluenceofPower (TowerBridgePublications,1952),p.70):the reverseisthecase.

10 ThomasMore, Utopia ,ed.DavidWootton(HackettPublishingCo.,1999),p.103.

11 Ibid.,p.108. 12 Ibid.,p.147.

13 QuotedinFrankManuel,ed., FrenchUtopias (SchockenBooks,1971),p.100.

14 InMorelly’scase,allpropertyasidefromthatrequiredfordailyneeds,pleasure,andworkwasto bepublic,andallcitizensweretobemaintainedandemployedbythepublic,contributingaccordingto theirstrength,talents,andage.

areregulatedandinequalitiesofwealthanddistinctionareminimized.Needs, vanity,andemulationarerestrained,oftenbyprizingequalityandholdingrichesin contempt.Thedesireforpublicpoweriscurbed.Marriageandsexualintercourse areoftencontrolled:inTommasoCampanella’ s TheCityoftheSun (1623),the first greatliteraryutopiaafterMore’s,relationsareforbiddentomenbeforetheageof twenty-oneandwomenbeforenineteen.Communalchild-rearingisnormal;for Campanellathiscommencesatagetwo.Greatersimplicityoflife, ‘livingaccording tonature ’,isoftenaresult:thedesireforsimplicityandpurityarecloselyrelated. Peoplebecomemorealikeinappearance,opinion,andoutlookthantheyoften havebeen.Unity,order,andhomogeneitythusprevailatthecostofindividuality anddiversity.Thismodel,asJ.C.Davisdemonstrates,dominatedearlymodern utopianism.15 Andutopianhomogeneityremainsafamiliarthemewellintothe twentiethcentury.

Giventheseconsiderations,itisnotunreasonabletotakeasourstartingpoint herethehypothesisthatutopiaanddystopiaevidentlysharemoreincommonthan isoftensupposed.Indeed,theymightbetwins,theprogenyofthesameparents. Insofarasthisprovestobethecase,mylinkageofbothherewillbeuncomfortably closeforsomereaders.Yetweshouldnotmistakethisargumentfortheassertion that all utopiasare,ortendtoproduce,dystopias.Thosewhodefendthispropositionwill findthattheirassociationhereisnotnearlycloseenough.Forwehave onlytoacknowledgetheexistenceofthousandsofsuccessfulintentionalcommunitiesinwhichacooperativeethospredominatesandwhereharmonywithout coercionistheruletosetasidesuchanassertion.Heretheindividual’ ssubmersion inthegroupisconsensual(thoughthisconceptisnotunproblematic).Itresultsnot inenslavementbutvoluntarysubmissiontogroupnorms.Harmonyisachieved without,intheMilliansense,harmingothers.16

Readerswhoseinterestischie flyliterarymaynotinanycasesharethese anxieties.Theywillrightlyassumethatthemostcommonuseof ‘dystopia ’ is synonymouswiththe ‘dystopiannovel ’,whichportraysanextremelynegativeor evil fictionalstateusuallydominatedbyfear.HereGeorgeOrwell ’sgreatwork, NineteenEighty-Four ,remainsparadigmatic.ThisistreatedinPartIII.But Orwell ’spresencecanbedetectedthroughoutthisbook.Oneofhischiefmessages,thevalueofadialoguebetweenhistoryandliterature,iscentraltomyeffort heretosynthesizetheliteraryandhistoricalapproachestotheconcept.PartIalso takesupanothercentralOrwelliantheme,thethreattoindividualsposedby groups,indemonstratingthecentralitytodystopiaofapproachesdrawnfrom grouppsychology,sociology,andthehistoryofreligion.Thesearepresentedhere withabriefoverviewoftheprehistoryofthemoderndystopia.

Toplacegroupsatthecentreofouranalysisassuchistorecognizetheproximityof sometypesofutopiatosometypesofdystopia.Bothutopiaanddystopiaconceive

15 J.C.Davis, UtopiaandtheIdealSociety:AStudyofEnglishUtopianWriting1516–1700 (CambridgeUniversityPress,1981).

16 OnMill’sdefinitionofharmseemy MillandPaternalism (CambridgeUniversityPress,2013).

ofidealharmoniousgroupswhichprivilegecloseconnectionsbetweenindividuals andtheunityandinterdependencetheyexhibit.Akeyquestionhereishow inclusiveorexclusivethisexchangeofbenefitsis.Typically,thecollectivistdystopia assumestwomainforms:theinternal,wherecoercionpervadestheprivilegedmain group;andtheexternal,wherecoerciondefinestherelationshiptooutsidersasa meansofupholdingthemaingroup,whoare,however,freeofmostoftherepression inflicteduponoutsiders.Stalinism,wewillsee,typifiesthe firsttype,andMore’ s Utopiathesecond.Inbothcases,however,equalityandplentyareenjoyedbysome groupsattheexpenseofothers.

Thecrucialquestionhereishowmanyareinvolvedoneachside.Themore universalthesystemofbenefits,themoreutopianthesociety.Aglibobservermight positthatautopiawasasocietysurroundedbyawalldesignedtokeepothersout, andadystopiaoneintendedtokeepitsinhabitantsin.Yetitisanabuseoflanguage toproposethatsocietieswhere51percentofthepopulationliveaprivilegedlifeby oppressingtheother49percentare ‘dystopias’.Mostsocieties,onthebasisof genderalone,letalonetheaccumulationofproperty,wouldhavetobecalled dystopianasaconsequence.Manymajoritiesarewillingtosacrificeminoritiesfor theirownwell-being.Butwecancertainlyseethecasefortreatingsomedystopias asutopiasoftheequalfewbasedupontheoppressionofthemany.

Anotherwayofapproachingthisquestionistoprivilegethehumanrelationships atwork.Howwellpeoplegetalongisakeymarkeroftheiranxietyorsenseofwellbeing.Wemaybeateasewithoneanotherinamarkedlyhierarchicalsociety, secureinourplacesifprosperityandtoleranceprevail.Alternatively,wemaybe anxious,paranoid,andfearfulinanegalitariansocietywherenonconformityis suppressed.Sowemightportraytheutopia/dystopiarelationshipintermsofa spectrumofanxiety,withrelativepeace,friendship,andtheabsenceoffearatone end,matchedbyanxiety,paranoia,andalienationontheother.

Yetitisnotimpossiblethattheseextremesstillsharecommonfeatures.Both utopiasanddystopiasnormally,thoughnotuniversally,exhibitacollectivistethos. Peoplesacrificetheirindividualinteresttothecommongood.Socialsolidarity trumpsselfishindividualism.Intheutopiancasethis ‘enhancedsociability’,asitis termedhere,isvoluntaryandfreelyengagedin. 17 Itisregardedasanacceptable pricetopayforavoidingunrestandextremeinequality.Indystopia,however,these bondsmoreoftenappearaswhatLeszekKołakowskicalls ‘compulsorysolidarity’ . Heretheyarecoerced,andevencontingentupontheenslavementofothers.18 This coercionfundamentallyerodesallthatistrulyvaluableinsolidarity.Andyet,to confusemattersfurther,bothtypesalsointermingleinvariouscomplexways.

Atitsbleakest,then,thecollectivistdystopiausuallyexhibitsanextremeethosof sociabilitycentringonaferventdevotiontothecommongood,whichis,inreality, despoticratherthanconsensual.Instrivingconstantlytorendereachsuf ficiently self-sacrificing,thisdespotismgeneratesafearwhichpenetratesdeepintothe

17 Seemy ‘NewsfromSomewhere:EnhancedSociabilityandtheCompositeDefinitionofUtopia andDystopia’ , History,98(2013),145–73.

18 LeszekKołakowski. TheDeathofUtopiaReconsidered (CambridgeUniversityPress,1983),p.237.

individualpersonality,andwhichdominateseverydaylife,sometimesfordecades orlonger.Itisexacerbatedbyperceivedfailurestoachievethenormsofselfsacrifice.Theseprocesses,inturn,areoftenlinkedwithdystopia’sobsessionwith enemies,anditsdeterminationtoeliminatethem,oratleastneutralizetheirthreat, whilesimultaneouslycreatingthemanewasameansofjustifyingthepowerofthe regime.This,atleast,isthehypothesiswithwhichwecancommence.

Inthetwentiethcentury,suchaconditionofuniversalizedfearwascertainly intensifiedbytheimmensedestructivenessofoverlyrapidmodernization,orso severalprominentexamplesinPartII theUSSR,China,Cambodia suggest. Butasapsychologicalstate,dystopiamayalsobeconceivedtobehumanity’sstarting point.Wemayviewourselvesasamentallyfragilespeciestoday.Butmanyofushave farlesstofearthanourancestors.Thisbookissubtitled ‘anaturalhistory’ inpart becauseitisoftenconcernedwiththeemotionalsubstrataofbehaviour,andhowthe relationshipbetweenafewkeyemotionsandthetypesofsocietyweliveinevolves.It suggeststhatwecollectivelyprogressfromnaturaltosociallycompoundedformsof fear.At firstallthenaturalworldispopulatedbythreateninggods,monstrousbeings, andmalevolentspirits;henceourattentioninChapter2tomonsters,theprimordial symbolsofevilbothwithoutandwithin.Manyofthesegraduallydisappear.Others arereinvented,orrediscoveredasinnermonstrosity,orreplacedinlatermodernityby fearofthescienceandtechnologywehavecreated,oftherecreationofourselvesin theimageofourmachines,andoftheireventualdominationoverus.Butthefear remainsconstant,if fluctuating,evenifitsobjectsvary.

Anthropologyisthusalogicalstartingpointhere.Our ‘natural’,originalpsychic stateisoneofconstantmentalanxiety.Amateriallydefinedworldisbroadly predictable.Amagicaloneisfraughtwithcontingency.Atourperilwefailtorespect andpropitiatethepowerswhichlieinforests,dells,andsprings,ortosafeguardfrom evilspirits,byblessings,amulets,andsacrifices,ourseed,crops,animals,andhouses. InErnestCrawley’swords, ‘inthethoughtofmanypeoplesman’swholeenvironmentismoreorlessfulloftheagenciesorinfluencesofevil’ 19 ToLucienLévy-Bruhl, ‘primitives ’ attributecausationtotheoperationofunseenpowers. 20 Plants,trees, stones,animalsareallconceivedas ‘ enduedwithmysticattributes ’ andlinkedbya singlespiritualprinciple.Thedifferentiationbetweenhumansandanimalsisslight, andmanyanimalsareassumedtotakehumanform,andviceversa.Animism,the beliefinspiritbeings,ispervasiveintheearlystagesofhumanity. ‘Primitives’ havenosenseofthe ‘miraculous ’ orthe ‘impossible ’.Illnesses,death,andinjuries arenever ‘natural ’,andareoftenblamedonwitchcraft,oronthedispleasureof thedead,whoareusuallyconceivedasstilllivinginetherealform(astheyalsoare inMore’sUtopia).

19 ErnestCrawley, TheMysticRose:AStudyofPrimitiveMarriageandofPrimitiveThoughtinIts BearingonMarriage (Watts&Co.,1932),p.14.

20 Thosewhosementalworldisdominatedbymagicalassumptionswouldbemoresuitable,forthis wouldincludeEuropeansandother ‘civilized ’ peoplesuntilquiterecently.

Dystopia:ANaturalHistory

Afarwiderrangeofbehaviour,BronisławMalinowskiinsists,isthusregardedas ‘sacred’ and ‘hedgedroundwithprohibitionsandspecialrulesofbehaviour’ thanin latermodernity.Alloflife’ sgreatevents birth,adolescence,marriage,death are ritualizedinitiations(intoandoutofgroups).Eating,worshipping,marriage, menstruation,sexualintercourse,pregnancy,childbirth,illness,cultivatingfood, dying,andbeingburiedhaveusuallybeensurroundedbyrestrictionsandritualsof manykinds.21 Somuchofdailylifeisritualizedthat ‘ thesocial’ and ‘thereligious’ becomevirtuallyidentical.Thus,the ‘ savage perpetuallylivesinaworldof mysticismandritualism’ . 22

Herethepoweroffaith,thewishtokeepallthisgluedtogether,or ‘ clean’ ,not taintedbyevil,representsanimmenseemotionalinvestment.Ourlifeisfrequently structuredaroundandalwayscontingentonit,forwecannotbearchaos.Weare persistentlychallengedbythreatsofdeath,injury,illness,andaffliction.Witch doctorsareparticularsourcesofterrorinmostearlysocieties.23 Anxietyaboutthe purificationrequiredtoavoidorfreeoneselffrommagicspellsisever-present.24 ManyoftheDayaksofBorneo,forinstance,appeartolive ‘inperpetualdreadof whatwecallfate’,believingthemselvestobe ‘constantlysubjectedtomalevolent influences ’.Mostritesareanattempttoneutralizethem.25 Theknowledgethatone hasinadvertentlyviolatedtaboohaskilledmany asifstruckdeadonthespot.26 Thisisnotahappyexistence.Entiresocietiesmaythusserveasdystopianprototypesofparanoiaandaggression.TheunfortunateDobuIslandpeopleofNew GuineadescribedbyRuthBenedict,poorandwithfewnaturalresources,area studyinrelentless,ill-temperedhostility.Singularintheirobsessiveparanoia,fear ofwitchcraft,andalmostcompletelackoftrustforoneanother,theyare(orwere) almostuniformly ‘lawlessandtreacherous’.Recentconvertsfromcannibalism, theiraversiontolaughteris,orwas,notable.27

OtherPrototypesofDystopia:MilitarizedSocieties,Slavery, Despotism,Prisons,andDiseasedSpaces

Besidesthemoremalevolenttypesofearlysociety, fiveothermodelspertinentto themoderncollectivistpoliticaldystopiameritmention.The firstarehighly militarizedorwar-centredsocieties,likeancientSparta.Accordingtoitsfamous

21 Freud’sgreatconcernherewasintheproximityoftabooprohibitionsandneurosis: Totemand Taboo:SomePointsofAgreementbetweentheMentalLivesofSavagesandNeurotics (Routledge&Kegan Paul,1960),p.26.

22 BronisławMalinowski, Magic,ScienceandReligionandOtherEssays (FreePress,1948),pp.1,7.

23 LucienLévy-Bruhl, HowNativesThink (GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1926),pp.65,263–301; LucienLévy-Bruhl, The ‘Soul’ ofthePrimitive (GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1928),pp.232–60,254.

24 LucienLévy-Bruhl, PrimitivesandtheSupernatural (GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1936),pp.5,20–1, 227–65;Lévy-Bruhl, The ‘Soul’ ofthePrimitive ,pp.15–58.

25 Lévy-Bruhl, PrimitivesandtheSupernatural,p.21.

26 AsFreudinstances: TotemandTaboo,p.21.

27 RuthBenedict, PatternsofCulture (1934;Routledge&KeganPaul,1952),pp.94–124,here94, 120.Forarevisedassessment,seeSusanneKuehling, Dobu:EthicsofExchangeonaMassimIsland, PapuaNewGuinea (UniversityofHawaiiPress,2005).

founder,Lycurgus,Sparta’scitizenswerenominallyequal,diningtogether,disdainingtradeandluxury,goldandsilver(likeUtopia’sinhabitants),andusingonly ironmoney.Theirraisond’êtrewasconquest,theearliestformoforganizedsadism. AccordingtoPlutarch, ‘Alltheireducationwasdirectedtowardpromptobedience toauthority,stoutenduranceofhardship,andvictoryordeathinbattle.’28 Feeble infantswereabandonedtodieonthehillsides.Childrenwereraisedincommon. Youngmalesweregivenonlyonecloakayeartowear,sleptonbedsofrushes,and weretaughttostealfood.Theywerealsosubjectedtoannualritualpublicbeatings, andwereforbiddentopractiseinferiortrades,cultivationbeinglefttotheirslaves, thehelots.Foreignerswerebannedfromthecountry.Thenumbersinvolvedhere wereremarkablysmall,perhaps9,000citizenswithanarmyof6,000inLycurgus’ time.29 ThetimeframeofSparta’sgreatness(fifth–thirdcentury BC)wasrelatively brief.ButSpartanequalityprovidedavitalprecedentforPlato,More,Harrington, Rousseau,Robespierre,andmanyotherlaterwriters.

Asecondprototypeforthecollectivistdystopiaisslavery.Likewar,slaveryhas beenubiquitousthroughouthistory.TheancientChinese,Indians,Babylonians, Assyrians,Persians,Egyptians,Greeks(c.15–40percentofthepopulation),Romans (30–40percentintheearlyChristianera),andNordicandTeutonicpeoplesallhad largeslavepopulations.MillionsofslaveswerecreatedintheSpanish,Portuguese, Dutch,FrenchandBritishconquestofthe ‘NewWorld’,andalmostasquicklykilled off.(IntheSpanishAmericas,forexample,asmanyashalftheslavesworkingthe Potosísilverminesdiedduringanaverageweek’swork.)30 Perhaps20million Africans asmuchasa fifthofthecontinent’spopulation wereseizedtocultivate thesouthernAmericanSpanishandPortugueseandnorthernAmericanBritish colonies,andthentheUnitedStatespriortotheCivilWar(whenaboutone-third oftheSouth’spopulationwereslaves).EastAfricawasanotheractiveslavingregion. Inthelatenineteenthcentury,theimmenseAfricanCongo,whereasmanyas 10millionmayhavedied,washeldasaprivaterubber-plantationslave fiefdomby theBelgianKing,Leopold.Here,extremebrutality,beating,andseveringhandsas punishmentwerecommon,aswasthetakingofhostagestosecurerubbersupplies. NaziGermanyandtheUSSRunderStalin,aswellasseveralothermodernregimes, canbedescribedasslavestates,evenasconsciouslyreintroducingtheprinciple.31 ‘Stateslavery’ hasthusbeenseenas ‘oneofthecharacteristicfeaturesof20th-century totalitarianism’ . 32

Thirdly,politicaldespotisms,alamentablycommonformofregime,arekey antecedentsfortotalitariandictatorship.Theirgoverningprincipleisusuallydescribedasfearorterror.33 Aristotle firstproposedthejuxtapositionofregimesbased

28 Plutarch, Moralia (15vols,WilliamHeinemann,1968),vol.3,p.237.

29 W.G.Forrest, AHistoryofSparta950–152BC (Hutchinson,1968),p.45.

30 SheldonWatts, EpidemicsandHistory:Disease,PowerandImperialism (YaleUniversityPress, 1997),p.91.

31 EugeneVictorWalter, TerrorandResistance:AStudyofPoliticalViolence (OxfordUniversity Press,1969),p.5.

32 JulesMonnerot, SociologyofCommunism (GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1953),p.13.

33 SeeCoreyRobin, Fear:TheHistoryofaPoliticalIdea (OxfordUniversityPress,2004),pp.27–160.

onfriendshiptothoserootedinfearandestrangementwhichwewilladopthere. Herecognizedthat, ‘ intyrannythereislittleornofriendship’,andthatdespotism involvedinvertingfriendshipandadopting ‘everymeansformakingeverysubject asmuchastrangeraspossibletoeveryother’ 34 Intheearlymodernperiod, Machiavelliadvisedprincesthatitwasbettertobefearedthanloved.Hobbes describedtheuseoffearasaninstrumentofcontrolaswellasofsocialbonding. Healsoviewedthestateofnature hereanotherdystopianmodel asoneof ‘continualfearanddangerofviolentdeath’,whichvindicatedthenecessityof despotismtokeepthepeace.35 Bodinbelievedthethreat ofviolenceunderlaythe masses ’ subserviencetotheprivileged.36 Montesquieuwasthe firstprominent eighteenth-centurytheoristtodefineterrorastherulingprincipleofdespotism.37 In thelaternineteenthcentury,HerbertSpencerwouldconcludethatfearoftheliving wastherootofallpoliticalcontrol,andfearofthedeadofallreligiouscontrol.38 Classicaldespotismwastheruleofasingletyrant.Theprototypeofmodern despotism,wewillseeinChapter3,camewhen,underthe ‘Terror’ ofRobespierre andSaint-Justin1793–4,theword ‘ terror ’ cametobeunderstoodasembodyinga legitimateinstrumentofthedefenceofthegeneralwillorpopularsovereignty,of themanyratherthanthefew.Theterrorof ‘thepeople’ camequicklytobeseenas moreall-encompassingandpsychologicallydemandingthanthatofthesingle autocrat.Butitisalsomuchmorejustifiable,resistancetothevastmajorityseeming moreperverse,unreasonable,andinsultingthanresistancetoatyrant.Manywould thusassociate ‘popular’ terrorwithtotalitarianism.Butasoftformofananalogous pressuretoconformseemedalsotoemergenaturallyindemocracies.Alexisde Tocquevillein DemocracyinAmerica (1836–40)thussawthemassofindividualsin ademocracyassuccumbingtoa ‘tyrannyofthemajority ’ inmattersofopinionin particular.39 JohnStuartMillagreedthat, ‘eveninwhatpeopledoforpleasure, conformityisthe firstthingthoughtof;theylikeincrowds’ . 40 Hereitwasnotthe threatofpunishmentbythestatebutratheraconstantbutmoderateanxiety,mostly respectingthedisapprovingopinionsofothers,whichprovidedasocialrudder.The extremeandmoderateformsoffearthusoscillateacrossthemodernperiod.More recently,weseemtobeswingingbackintheformerdirection;JoannaBourkeclaims thatfearhasbecome ‘theemotionthroughwhichpubliclifeisadministered’ . 41 The languageofthe ‘WaronTerror’ constantlybringsthismessagehometous.

34 Aristotle, NicomacheanEthics,1161b;RobertConquest, ReflectionsonaRavagedCentury (John Murray,1999),p.82.

35 ThomasHobbes, Leviathan (1651),pt1,chs10,13.

36 ArnoJ.Mayer, TheFuries:ViolenceandTerrorintheFrenchandRussianRevolutions (Princeton UniversityPress,2000),p.99.

37 BarondeMontesquieu, TheSpiritoftheLaws (HafnerPublishingCo.,1949),p.81.

38 HerbertSpencer, PrinciplesofSociology (3vols,D.Appleton&Co.,1905),vol.1,p.437.

39 AlexisdeTocqueville, DemocracyinAmerica (2vols,Longmans,Green&Co.,1875),vol.1, pp.262–5.

40 JohnStuartMill, OnLiberty (1859;3rdedn,Longman,Green,Longman,Roberts&Green, 1864),p.110.

41 JoannaBourke, Fear:ACulturalHistory (Virago,2005),p.x.

Fourthly,prisonsoftenfeatureinthepopularassociationofdystopiawith torture,forcedlabour,andthedeathcamp.Auschwitzisitsmostsingularembodiment.Theghettoisitsantechamber.BritishcampsinSouthAfricaduringtheBoer WarandGermancampsinSouth-WestAfricaduringtheHereroextermination markthebirthoftheseincarcerationsystems.Butwithinsocieties,armies,military academies,andsomeschoolsandreligiousbodiesarerunalongsimilarlines.In ErvingGoffman’sphrase,prisonsandmentalasylums,whichoftenresembleone another,are ‘totalinstitutions’ whoseinmatesleada ‘formallyadministered’ life. Uniformity,depersonalization,groupdiscipline,andthesublimationorlossof identityusuallydefinesuchorganizations.Their ‘totalizing’ characterisindicated bythebarrierswhichpreventdepartureandintercoursewiththeoutsideworld,and thenearlycompletesurveillanceofthepopulation,whoselivesarewhollystructuredbytheirgovernors.42

MichelFoucaultsuggestedthattheenlargementofsuchidealstocomprisethe nation-stateincreasinglyresemblingaprisonandaimingatuniversalbehavioural reformcoincideswiththeemergenceofa ‘politicalutopia’ ofsupervisionand punishment.HisanalysisfocuseduponJeremyBentham’sPanopticonproposals, thoughBentham’sNationalCharityCompanyscheme,whichwouldhaveinvolved draconiantreatmentofhalfamillionpoor,washarsher.Foucaultwritesoftheearly nineteenth-centuryemergenceofthe ‘Utopiaofauniversallyandpubliclypunitive societyinwhichceaselesslyactivepenalmechanismswouldfunctionwithoutdelay, mediationoruncertainty;onelaw,doublyidealbecauseperfectinitscalculations andengravenonthemindsofeachcitizenwouldstop,attheirveryorigin,all practicesofillegality.’43 TheresemblanceofsuchasystemofcontroltoUtopiais clearlymorethanmerelysuperficial.Itssuccessisboundupwiththedevelopment ofthemodernstate,theideaofsovereignty,themutationofideasof lèse-majesté into lèsepeuple,andtheextensionandmagnificationofbothindividualand collectiveguilt.Yettheprisonisofcoursenotthedeathcamp.Punishment precedesreform,andisnotmerelyintendedasthepreludetomurder.Tortureis incidentalratherthanprogrammatic.Theprisonmayimplywhatwewillhereterm carcerotopia,ortheprisonstate.Butitusuallyfallswellshortofachievingit.

Fifthly,therigidostracismofdiseasedpopulationsfromhealthyoffersanother dystopianprototype.Leperswereamongstthe firstsoconfined.InancientEgypt, someeightythousandweredetainedin ‘Avaris’,theCityofMud.44 European regulationsstipulatingtheclothingtobewornbylepers,andremovingtheir propertyandrights,datefromasearlyas1000.Sometimeslepersweresubjected toaceremonyinwhichtheirheadsweresprinkledwithearthtosignifythatthey weredeadtotheworld.Theyweretheneitherisolatedordrivenintothewild. From c.1090tothemid-fourteenthcentury,sucheffortsfocusedinEuropeonthe

42 ErvingGoffman, Asylums:EssaysontheSocialSituationofMentalPatientsandOtherInmates (Doubleday&Co.,1961),p.xiii.

43 MichelFoucault, DisciplineandPunish:TheBirthofthePrison (PenguinBooks,1979),pp.174,273.

44 PercyBurgess, BornofThoseYears:AnAutobiography (J.M.Dent,1952),p.32.

‘GreatHunt’ forlepers.Itthenshifted,aswewillseeinChapter2,toJews,heretics, andwitches.45

Thesecategoriesoftheexcludedwerethusinterwovenandoverlapping.Monks andpriestscondemnedforsorceryweremadetowearapeakedJew’shatorayellow Jew’sbadgeinsomelocationstocementtheassociation.46 Theexcludedwerealso subjecttoakeybut fluctuatingsociobiologicaldiscourseon ‘disease ’.In1321,for instance,leperswererumouredtobepoisoningwellsinleaguewithJews,and aimingtokillallChristians.47 Jewswerealsooftenassociatedwithplague.48 Bythe fifteenthcentury,Jewshadalsobecomewidelyassociatedwithwitchcraft.However,resentmentoftheircommercialsuccessandwealthwasoftenafactortoo.

Fearofgroupsweseeasthreateningwaverswith fluctuationsinmajority sentimentacrosstime.Ahistoryofcollectiveanxietyisasubsetofmankind’ s emotionalhistory.If ‘collectiveneurosis’,inMichaelBarkun’sestimation,istoo strongatermtodefineaconstantstate, ‘agesofanxiety’ nonethelessclearlyexist whenstressandparanoiacometotheboil.49 Dystopiaisthusintimatelyinterwovenwithdiscoursesabout ‘crisis’ .Inthemedievalandearlymoderneras,worries aboutplague, fire,witches,war,andheresytendtopredominate.Thenthereare apparentlytwocyclesofdeeperfear—‘apparently’ becausethegreaterdocumentationavailableskewstheevidence.The firstcoincideswiththeReformation,the erosionoffeudalism,theemergenceofthenation-state,prolongedwarfare,and growinginequalityandurbanization.50 Thebreakdownofthemedievalorderfrom c.1400to1650witnessedthedeclineoftheChurch’ sauthorityandfeudal hierarchy.Thedriftofpopulationfromcountrysidetocitiescoincidedwithvarious epidemicsandcropfailures.Theseunderpinnedmuchofthesubstantialunrestof thisperiod,includingthewitch-huntingmania.Fromthefourteenththroughto theeighteenthcenturies,ithasbeenasserted, ‘ fearwasall-pervasiveandomnipresentwithinsociety’ ,withEuropeansexperiencing ‘ unprecedentedlevelsof anxietyandpessimism’ . 51 (Muchoftheworldwas,ofcourse,beingconqueredby Europeansinthisperiod,producingasubstantialexportmarketforthisanxiety.)

Intheearlynineteenthcentury,theMalthusianspectreofoverpopulationthen cametohauntdebatesaboutsocialprogress.Increasinglysharpanxietiesabout internationaleconomiccompetitionwereshapedbythenewlanguageofpolitical

45 Watts, EpidemicsandHistory ,p.49.

46 JoshuaTrachtenberg, TheDevilandtheJews:TheMedievalConceptionoftheJewandItsRelation toModernAntisemitism (YaleUniversityPress,1943),p.67.In1215,theFourthLateralCouncil orderedJewsandMuslimstoweardistinctiveclothing.Prostituteswereforcedtoweararedcord,anda fewyearslaterrepentanthereticsweremadetoweartwoyellowcrosses.Someaccusedofwitchcraft boresimilarsymbols.

47 RobertMichael, HolyHatred:Christianity,Antisemitism,andtheHolocaust (PalgraveMacmillan, 2006),p.79.

48 SusanSontag, IllnessasMetaphor (PenguinBooks,1987),p.74.

49 MichaelBarkun, DisasterandtheMillennium (YaleUniversityPress,1974),p.147.

50 TheconnectionbetweenutopianismandtheoriginsofnationalismisexploredinPhillip E.Wegner, ImaginaryCommunities:Utopia,theNation,andtheSpatialHistoriesofModernity (UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2002),pp.45–61.

51 PennyRobertsandWilliamG.Naphy, ‘Introduction’,inNaphyandRoberts,eds., FearinEarly ModernSociety (ManchesterUniversityPress,1997),p.1.

economyanditsproductivistemphasisonutility,output,andefficiency.Fromthe 1870s,SocialDarwinismredefinedthislanguageofcompetitionbysuggestingthe inevitabilityofthe ‘ survivalofthe fittest ’,anidealwhichwouldsuffuseboth twentieth-centuryfascismandcommunism.Nationalismandimperialrivalry helpedtointensifythesefeelingsofantagonism.The firstofthese,inparticular, formedanewtypeoflarge-groupidentitytohelpcompensatefortheunsettling processofmodernizationandbreakdownoftraditionalorder.Alliedwithtwonewly mintedconcepts,raceandclass,theseprovidedthepotentialfordeepantagonism. Urbanizationandrapidtechnicalinnovationalsoprovedveryunsettling.WorldWar Ithendemonstratedthat,justasscienceandtechnologyprovidedhumanity’ sgreatest triumphs,itscollectiveangstironicallyalsoreachedacrescendo.

HolyTerror:ReligionandtheUsesofGuilt

Ifthehistoryoffeartellsussomethingabouthowdystopiafunctions,thatofguiltis equallyimportantasacomponentinanynaturalhistoryofthepainfulemotions. ToSørenKierkegaard,theprototypeofWestern ‘dread’ wastheChristiandoctrine ofOriginalSin.52 Tobelievers,itdescribesaninescapableconditionwhichisthe inheritedfateofallhumanity:thislifeisbutapainfulpreparationforthebetter worldtocome.Tonon-believersandPelagians(Christianswhodenytheconcept) itismerelyametaphorforexplainingevil.

Sexuality,ofcourse,loomslargeinthestoryofWesternguilt,andremains entangledwithit,throughthewitchpersecutioncrazeinparticularrightthrough thetotalitarianepoch.Although,intheChristiancreationmyth,eatingthefruitof theTreeofKnowledgeprovidedthepretextforAdamandEve’sexpulsionfrom Paradise,itwassexualdesirewhichcamesubsequentlytobeseenasthegreat obstacletosalvation.Eitherway,sexwaslinkedtodisobeyingGodandseenas detractingfromourdevotiontohim anassociationwewillrevisitinStalinism. ThiswasearliestexpressedmostforcefullybyAugustine(354–430),whorenounced hisownyouthfullibertinismwithavengeancewhichstillechoesdowntheages. ThebattleforcompletesexualrenunciationinChristianitycommencedasearlyas AD 40–50,andwasinsomeinstanceslinkedtomillenarianpreparation.53 The resultwasacultofpuritythatexaltedvirginity,mostnotablyintheideaofthe virginbirthofChristandthecultoftheVirginMary.Lustcametobeseenasa loathsomeexpressionofhumanweakness,andtheveryepitomeofsin.Inmen,the ‘loss’ ofsemencametobeseenasdegenerative,evenindicatingthediminutionof one ’ssoul.Luther,amongstothers,wouldvindicatemaritalintercourseasan essentiallyharmlesssin.ButmostChristianswhoequatedsinwithlustweredriven towardsacontemptforthebodyandanabidingfearofdesireassuch.54

52 S.Kierkegaard, TheConceptofDread (PrincetonUniversityPress,1957),pp.23–46.

53 PeterBrown, TheBodyandSociety:Men,WomenandSexualRenunciationinEarlyChristianity (Faber&Faber,1989),pp.33–40.

54 JeanDelumeau, SinandFear:TheEmergenceofaWesternGuiltCulture13th–18thCenturies (St. Martin’sPress,1990),p.1.BossuetbelievedthatJesusneverlaughed(p.296).

Sodesirewasrestrainedasfaraspossible.Theneedtoprocreatewashemmedin byrestrictions.Thetimesandwayswerehighlyregulated.IntercoursewasprohibitedentirelyonChristianfeastdays,whenitwasprobablymostlikelytooccur. Therewere273oftheseintheseventhcentury,reducedto140inthesixteenth. (Somethirtydaysayearwerecompleteholidays,besidesSundays.)Thepositions permittedwerelimited,someauthorsinsistingthatonlyonewassinless.The fifteenth-centurywriterOsimodeemedevenmaritalintercoursesinfulunlessno pleasurewasinvolved.TheChurchdecreedthatsomeclothingberetainedfor decorum’ssake,andthatintercoursetakeplaceonlyatnight.Variouspenalties wereimposedforviolatingtheserules.Intercourseinvolvingaforbiddenposition attractedtendays’ penanceonbreadandwater,withfourdays ’ penanceimposed forhavingsexonaSunday,withtheadvicetothosewhodidsothattheirchildren wouldbelepersandepileptics.55 Forthosewhofailedthistest,atwelfth-century monkimaginedaladderofironinHell,whichwas365cubitshighandhadtobe ascendedanddescendedcontinuously.56 Misogynywasdoubtlessbothcauseand consequencehere.Menwereencouragedtohatewomenforinflamingtheirown sinfuldesires.Womenwerecloakedwithshamebytheverydefinitionoftheir genderandEve’soriginalactofdisobedience.

Fromthethirteenthcenturytothepresent,then,thenaturalhistoryofguilt exhibitsagradualaugmentationofthefearofdeathandanintensificationofguilt. Anxietyfromwithoutwasprovidedbytheplague,Turks,Jews,heretics,witches, andthelike.Butthiswasincreasinglysupplementedbyself-inflictedideological, andessentiallymasochistic,terrorfromwithin.Now,asJeanDelumeauputsit,in addition ‘tothe “fear”,the “dread”,the “ terror ” andthe “fright” occasionedby externalperilsofallkinds(naturalorhuman),Westerncivilisationwasafflictedby twosupplementaryandequallyoppressivecausesofalarm:the “horror” ofsinand the “obsession” ofdamnation’.Smallwonderthatscenesoftortureproliferatedin medievalpaintingthroughoutthisperiod.LedbytheiconographyoftheCrucifixionitself,theywereembellishedbythemanyvarietiesofpainfulmartyrdomof thesaintssographicallyportrayedanddescribed.57

Thediscussionsofarindicatesthat,whileretainingmanynaturalfears,we progressivelyadoptotherswhicharesociallyformulated.Thisappearstobeat leastpartiallyafunctionoftheincreasingpredominanceofgroupsinourlives.Like allanimals,weareindividuallysensitivetothreatsinourenvironment.When individualsfeel enmasse,theyexpressthesefearsdifferently,andthenumbers involvedusuallymagnifyandintensifytheirfeelings.Anearlyobserver,Charles Mackay,describedthisintermsofa ‘moralepidemic’ 58 Todayitissometimes

55 JeffreyRichards, Sex,DissidenceandDamnation:MinorityGroupsintheMiddleAges (Routledge, 1991),pp.29–30;Brown, TheBodyandSociety,p.439.

56 ArturoGraf, TheStoryoftheDevil (Macmillan&Co.,1931),p.184.

57 Delumeau, SinandFear,pp.3,215,27,242.

58 CharlesMackay, MemoirsofExtraordinaryPopularDelusions (3vols,RichardBentley,1841), vol.1,p.v.

referredtoasmasspsychogenicillness.Thismayrevealitselfasgrouppanicwhen threatsbecomeundulysevere,eventothemimickingofphysicalconvulsions.59 Astateofmasshypnotismorsuggestionisevenmorecommon.Heretheconcept tendsusuallytobeappliedtoindividuals,aspsychology.Associalorgroup psychology,conceptslike ‘masspsychoneurosis’ (ErnestJones)or ‘sociogenic illness’ mightapply.60 Thethrustoftheideaisthatpeoplescangomad,justlike individuals,atleasttemporarily,butareevenhardertodiagnoseandcure,and,of course,torestrain.

Somemay,however,gainfromsuchcollectivederangement.Ineverysocial contextpowerrelationscomeintoplay.Soherethesocialconstructionsofgroup fearscanbe,inthewordsofDavidAltheide,relativelyeasily ‘manipulatedbythose whoseektobenefit ’ . 61 Thisisparticularlythecasewhereenemiesexistorare created.Defining ‘ ourenemy ’,astheNazijuristCarlSchmittnotablyasserted,isa centralpartofpoliticallife.Thestateassuchisaunitbondedbythehostilityofone grouptoothers.Whatiscrucial,however,isnottheenemybuttheideaofthe enemy,theconcoctionofwhatinspireshatred.62 Politicalfearhasbeendefinedas ‘ a people’sfeltapprehensionofsomeharmtotheircollectivewell-being’,typically,in ourtimes,fromterrorism,crime,moraldecay,nuclearwar,orenvironmental catastrophe.63 Itsmanipulationisverywellestablished.AnatoliRybakovputs intoStalin’smindtheideathat ‘Hatredoftheenemyisthemostpowerfulidea becauseitcreatesanatmosphereofgeneralfear.’64 ItwassaidofHitler(a teetotaller)thathatredwas ‘likewine ... Itintoxicatedhim.’65 Societiesatwar naturallygeneratehate; ‘Ifyoudon'thateenough,you’regoingtobebeaten’ ,wrotean observeroftheviciousPacificwarin1945.66

Realenemieswilldowellenoughhere.Jews,Muslims,blacks,women,foreignershaveallplayedtherole.Butthebestenemy,wewillsee,isthe(mostly) imaginaryenemy.67 Here,hatred,functioningtounitethegroup,canbemore easilymanipulated.Wieldedproperly,however,anysuchhatredcanbetherapeutic andcleansing.Itcanprovideintensebondsoffellowfeeling,asmanystudiesof combatfraternityaffirm.Indystopia,suchhatredcentresupongroupantagonism ofthetypewehavebrieflyintroduced.Yethatredoftheotherisinterwovenwith

59 Hysteriaisusuallystudiedonlyasanindividualderangement.See,e.g.,IlzaVeith, Hysteria:The HistoryofaDisease (UniversityofChicagoPress,1965).ElaineShowalterdefinesitas ‘amimetic disorder’ which ‘mimicsculturallypermissibleexpressionsofdistress’ (Hystories:HystericalEpidemics andModernCulture (Picador,1977),p.15).

60 E.g.,JudithPintarandStevenJayLynn, Hypnosis:ABriefHistory (Wiley-Blackwell,2008); ErnestJones, OntheNightmare (TheHogarthPress,1931),p.164;Showalter, Hystories,p.23.

61 QuotedinFrankFuredi, ‘TowardsaSociologyofFear’,inKateHebblethwaiteandElizabeth McCarthy,eds., Fear:EssaysontheMeaningandExperienceofFear (FourCourtsPress,2007),p.21.

62 CarlSchmitt, TheConceptofthePolitical (UniversityofChicagoPress,1996),pp.26ff.

63 Robin, Fear,p.2. 64 AnatoliRybakov, Fear (Hutchinson,1993),p.512.

65 QuotedinRobertS.RobinsandJerroldM.Post, PoliticalParanoia:ThePsychopoliticsofHatred (YaleUniversityPress,1997),p.281.

66 OsmarWhite, GreenArmour (GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1945),p.287.Allitalicsinquotationsare intheoriginal,unlessotherwisenoted.

67 IrenäusEibl-Eibesfeldt, LoveandHate;OntheNaturalHistoryofBasicBehaviourPatterns (Methuen&Co.,1971),pp.101,161.

loveofthegroup,aswesawhatredofcarnaldesirewaslinkedtothesupposedneed todevoteoneselfwhollytoGod.Thisfeelingbecomesmostacutewhenweddedto paranoia.Whatistermedpersecutoryparanoiaofteninvolves ‘adeepdistrustof othersandastrongtendencytodenytheirownhostilityandprojectitontoothers’ Inpoliticsitisa ‘constantfeature’ whichmaybeexpressedintermsofgrandiosity, hostility,fearofthelossofautonomy,projection,anddelusionalthinking.68 Itmay occurwhenafrightenedgroupofpeopleexaggeratesthesizeandstrengthofits enemies.Theythusdisplacetheiranxietiesontoanothergroup(e.g.Jewsor witches)whichembodiestheirfears.Politicalparanoiahasbeendescribedas characteristicofthelatetwentiethcentury.Butasaresponsetocrisesitexistsin manyearlierforms.

GROUPPSYCHOLOGYANDDYSTOPIA

TheGroupGoesWild:TheCrowd

Collectivefearslikehatredareusuallyexpressed,experienced,anddefinedby groups.Thesearerarelymereassemblagesofindividuals.Theyusuallyhavealife, anidentity,anorganicandevenaspiritualexistenceoftheirown.Theyalsohave theirownpsychology.Theiregosoftenneedmassaging.Theyarebydefinition narcissistic,fondofself-preening,andreadilypreyto flattery.

Nonetheless,groupsalsovarygreatly.Peopleassembleformanypurposes, amongstthemwork,playandcelebration,ritualworship,andpoliticalaffirmation. ‘Group’ isarelativelyneutraltermthatdescribessuchoftenharmlessassociations whichsatisfyourroutinedemandsforsociability,reassurance,andsustenance.

‘Mass’ , ‘crowd’,and ‘mob’ aremoreemotiveterms.Theyimplythemoreinvidious aspectsofcollectiveassociationandidentity:fury,violenceorlawlessness,irrationality,extremeemotionality,oruncontrolledmovement,apronenesstodelusion,anda pronouncedsusceptibilitytomanipulationbycharismaticleaders.Intheseforms theyplayacentralroleinthisbook:thecrowdisoneancestorofthecollectivist politicaldystopia.Thissectionwillthusconsiderthemainnineteenth-and twentieth-centurytheoriesofthecrowd,focusingonGustaveLeBon,Sigmund Freud,andNorbertElias,aswellassomesociologicalapproaches.Wewillattemptto differentiateherebetweenhowgroupsfunctiongenerally,howparticularlyintolerant anddestructivegroupsarise,andhowthementalityofthemasshasbeenconceived todifferfromthatofindividuals.Wemustthentrytomeasurehowclosethegroup istothecrowdinprinciple,andwhatthisimpliesforanydefinitionofdystopia.

LeBon’sCrowd:TheSavageReturns Wewillseethattheperiodofthe ‘Terror’ (1793–4)duringtheFrenchRevolution isusuallyregardedashavingestablishedoneparadigmofmoderndespotism.The theoryofthecrowdaspoliticalactor,whichemergedaftertheFrenchRevolution,

68 RobinsandPost, PoliticalParanoia,pp.5,12,41.