People since always wonder and try to approach the future. Today, the future systems have already begun to reach the modern societies.
We live in a transitional era, which is marked by the rapid evolution of technology. Due to current global problems and future challenges, the reconstruction of the contemporary cities is essential.
The Smart City is presented as the leading version of the future city. More and more places around the world, use, function and progress according to the modern technologies, in order to be characterized as “smart”.
Nevertheless, a city that achieves to connect technology, development, resolution of the global problems and its general evolution with the people and the society, can be characterized as intelligent and functional in real terms.
The person himself is the one that faces the new Smart Cities and must have an active role in their configuration and evaluation.
In the current paper, examples of Smart Cities are examined and mainly they are analysed from their social repercussions and the necessary conditions for their functionality.
Below parts of my Research Thesis are presented, as an indicative publication, research and writing sample in English.
Introduction
The object of research is the configuration of future cities and more specifically of “Smart Cities” in different parts of the planet. The concept of “Smart City”, will be investigated as the predominant version of the future city, and will be accessed according to the introduction of new technologies to the function of the city and the everyday life of people. As well as it will be examined according to the social repercussions that it brings. The research will focus on the urban and digital infrastructure.
The first question to be answered by the current thesis, regards the definition of the future itself: When is the future? Initially, the positions of various futurists, architects and sociologists who have been occupied with the definition and the determination of the future, will be researched. Moreover, the different ways with which the human has envisioned the future, in the past, in different parts of the world, through bibliographical references, but also the way future is approached by people nowadays.
Furthermore, the description of the upcoming “smart city” will be attempted. Here, the challenges, the modern problems and in general issues that define the reshaping of the present cities, will be defined. The research is going to focus both on current, modern systems and on future systems which are now consulted, as well as the corresponding practices and expectations will be researched.
Then, the project will target on the study of the Infrastructure of the “smart city”, both material and digital. In this direction, specific Case Studies will be examined. The research is focused on the scale of the city and also approaches the way with which the new technologies are imported to it. The projects that a “smart city” undertakes or is going to eventually, are distinguished according to whether they are tangible or intangible, for the citizens, and according to how much the technology impacts on them.
To the material infrastructure belong the interventions in the urban environment of the current city, that is to say whether these that concern the relation between the urban and the natural environment, or those that relate to urban structures, the networks. To digital infrastructure correspondingly, belong the interventions which relate to services, applications and systems of a city.
Particularly, at first, as it concerns the Material Infrastructure, the new Transportation Networks (Smart Transportation) and the Environment Infrastructure (Smart Energy). As it regards to the Transportation Networks of Smart Cities, the research is going to focus on legislations and practices for the use of the means of transportation and the construction of new vehicles, applications and systems which through technology affect the modern mode of transport.
Correspondingly, for the Environment Infrastructure, new infrastructure of energy will be examined, the use of waste and water management for the function of Smart Cities, with respect to the environment. Specific examples of cities will be analyzed, such as: Barcelona (Spain), Amsterdam (Netherlands), Birmingham and London (England), Singapore, Masdar City (Abu Dhabi), Trikala (Greece) etc.
In a similar way, the Digital Infrastructure will be researched, in which initially, the Governance of the Smart Cities and the management of their economy, are included (Smart Governance- Smart Economy).
Accordingly, the Digital Infrastructure will be examined, from the aspect of the citizens, in relation to the direct impact of Smart City Policy on their daily lives, as well as to the demands which they create about their preparation and education (Smart Living- Smart People). Indicative cases of cities that they will be described are: London (England), Barcelona (Spain), Amsterdam (Netherlands), Paris (France), New York (U.S.A.), Singapore etc.
The goal of this research is to substantiate a critical approach of the Smart City of the future, but also to determine the new roles that the architects and generally the citizens, will be called upon to take over, through these challenges.
Chapters […]
0.3.
Material Infrastructure
The operation of “Smart Cities” is based on the reconstruction of existing infrastructure or on the creation of new, in combination with the wide use of technology. At this point, the “material” infrastructure will be examined, in other words infrastructure that despite the fact that they use technological means as we will see below, are directly related with material provision of a society
(networks, vehicles, energy, waste, water etc.) For this reason, Mobility Infrastructure (Smart Mobility) and Environment Infrastructure (Smart Environment) will be investigated in the first place.
0.3.1. Mobility Infrastructure- Networks
The transport network of a city, in general, is a main pillar for its operation. Especially, as “Smart Cities” are concerned, with the progress of technology, the transport systems are developing into “smart” systems. In particular, the evolution of metropolitan areas, has as a result the change of the way of life and the mobility practices1
The citizens of a “Smart City” now, are called upon to choose for numerous reasons, a different means of transport, fact that creates a complexity in the transport network. Moreover, this connects also with other sectors such as technology, environment or energy. Therefore, based on this complexity, from 2009 the term “Urban Mobility”2 has been established: a strategic plan for satisfying the transportation needs of the people as well as enhancing their quality of life. The action of “Smart Cities”, depends on this plan, regarding the mobility sector. Below, we will examine how this “Urban Mobility” is developing and forming, to specific examples of “Smart Cities”, which are notable for their mobility systems. In order for this to happen, “Urban Mobility” can be divided to certain, characteristic axis, that is to say the different ways of transport that citizens of the current city choose, as well as the technology systems that affect it.
In the same context, one of the main goals that a “Smart City” sets, is the respect towards the environment. Thus, a new term emerges, as far as the configuration of Smart Cities is concerned: “Sustainable Transportation”. In that sense of sustainability, the transportation system of a Smart City, should connect the human and social capital, as well as its infrastructure, in order to achieve a sustainable development and a better living for the residents3.
1 Arroub A., Zahi B., “A Literature Review on Smart Cities: Paradigms, Opportunities and Open Problems”, (University of Casablanca, Morocco, 2016)
2 Arroub A., Zahi B., “A Literature Review on Smart Cities: Paradigms, Opportunities and Open Problems”, (University of Casablanca, Morocco, 2016)
3 Bamwesigye D., “Analysis of Sustainable Transport for Smart Cities”, (Department of Forest and Wood Products Economics and Policy, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, 2019)
0.3.2. Environment Infrastructure
A basic aspiration of “Smart City”, inextricably linked to the mobility problem, is the conservation and protection of the environment. “Smart Cities” specifically, pursue sustainability. This term, defines the procedures that people do in order to maintain the changes into a balanced environment, where the exploitation of the resources, the direction of the investments, the orientation of the technology development and the institutional transformations, are in harmony with the objective of ensuring their needs and ambitions4. The examples of “Smart Sustainable Cities”, which are to be analyzed, promise a sustainable, clean and viable environment, as the pressures and the risks caused by urbanization, industrialization and consumption are multiplying.
The sectors which aim to evolve and that with their management could face the modern environmental challenges, can be divided to: Οι
able sources and energy consumption, waste management, water management and circulation.
0.4. Digital Infrastructure
As already understood from previous chapters, the action and implementation of “Smart Cities” are based on the one hand, on the widespread use of technology and on the other on the creation of a single network which connects various sectors of the public life of the current “Smart City”. At this point, it is time to refer to the Internet of Things (IoT) network, which is an important part of the necessary infrastructure of an Intelligent City5
So, what is the Internet of Things and how does it participate in the digital infrastructure of a “Smart City”?
Internet of Things (IoT), constitutes a system from interconnected “computing
4 HEC Global Learning Centre, “What is Sustainability”, Μay 2018, 7 Sept., 2019, www.globalfootprints.org
5 Maglaris B., “Intelligent Cities & Regions within the Framework of the National Research & Innovation Strategy for Intelligent Specialization”, September 2018, accessed 1 Sept., 2019, Smart.cities.ellak. gr, https://smartcities.ellak.gr/2018/09/05/i-effiis-polis-perioches-sto-plesio-tis-ethnikis-stratigikiserevnas-kenotomias-gia-effii-exidikefsi/
devices, mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals or people” with the ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
Practically, as its name suggests, “takes” all the things and connects them to Internet. In other words, being an evolution of today’s Internet, even as do with the devices that the majority of the people possess nowadays (smartphones, tablets, laptops), IoT connects and even larger variety of objects into a single network. In this way, various natural devices, vehicles, buildings and other objects interconnect with software, sensors6, activation controllers ελεγκτές7 and network connection, fact that allows the collection and interchange of data. The real question is how this Internet of Things is utilized by “Smart Cities” and how it contributes to better urban governance and management, to sustainable development of economy and politics, using the appropriate procedures8.
At this point, it needs to be clarified that the Internet of Things, is directly linked to the Material Infrastructure of “Smart Cities”- especially with the Transport and Environment9- and many of the above-mentioned examples already use it. The surveillance devices of the vehicles, the “smart” bus stations with Wi-Fi, the automatic traffic lights, the “smart” street lighting and simultaneously the “smart” bins, the energy distribution and the consumption meters (electricity, water, waste), are some of the characteristic examples of Internet of Things, while it has been analyzed in previous chapters, these “smart” meters, are carried out with the help of technology and more specifically of sensors.
In this point of the current analysis, with the intrusion and the operation of the Internet of Things, we will focus on other sectors of a “Smart City”, such as the Smart Economy and Smart Governance, Smart People and Smart Living10, sec-
6 Maglaris B., “Intelligent Cities & Regions within the Framework of the National Research & Innovation Strategy for Intelligent Specialization”, Σεπτέμβριος 2018, accessed 1 Sept., 2019, Smart.cities. ellak.gr, https://smartcities.ellak.gr/2018/09/05/i-effiis-polis-perioches-sto-plesio-tis-ethnikis-stratigikiserevnas-kenotomias-gia-effii-exidikefsi/
7 Maglaris B., “Intelligent Cities & Regions within the Framework of the National Research & Innovation Strategy for Intelligent Specialization”, Σεπτέμβριος 2018, accessed 1 Sept., 2019, Smart.cities. ellak.gr, https://smartcities.ellak.gr/2018/09/05/i-effiis-polis-perioches-sto-plesio-tis-ethnikis-stratigikiserevnas-kenotomias-gia-effii-exidikefsi/
8 Babu T., Swathi P., “Internet of Things (IoT) & Big Data Analytics for Smart Cities-A Case Study” in Computing Communications and Data Engineering Series, (2018), Papers.ssrn.com
9 Batty M., Axhausen K., Giannotti F. Pozdnoukhov A., Bazzani A., Wachowicz M., Ouzounis G., Portugali Y., “Smart cities of the future” in The European Physical Journal, Special Topics 214,(2012): 481–518, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256305153_Smart_cities_of_the_future
10 Batty M., Axhausen K., Giannotti F. Pozdnoukhov A., Bazzani A., Wachowicz M., Ouzounis G., Portugali Y., “Smart cities of the future” in The European Physical Journal, Special Topics 214,(2012): 481–518,
tors more connected to the digital infrastructure and data of a city.
0.4.1. Smart governance and Economy
In the context of Internet of Things, the devices connected to it, include sensors with a view to the collection of data from the environment of the “Smart City” as well as the management of data and the reaction to them. The Internet of Things, is actually an entity, which assists the territorial government, and collects the responsibilities and resources, that allow the executive- coordinating role in the issue of the “Smart City”, but also the appropriate scale of implementation so that there are measurable and tangible results11
0.4.2. Application for the daily lifestyle of people- Smart Living
Having as a background the Internet of Things, the analysis of how these applications have a direct relation with the daily lifestyle of people and the essential confrontation of their daily issues, is deemed necessary. Therefore, it is vital to check the direct capabilities from the aspect of the citizens, to these systems, as far as personal security, health and other everyday life strands of different social groups are concerned. It is also important to check the conditions that arise for the use of these systems.
0.4.3. Preparation of the people for the “Smart City”- Smart People
With a view to the correct use and in general the utilization of these technology systems, the substantial people’s learning, is essential in order for them not only to use them correctly but also to know –as best as possible- their capabilities. Besides applications which are already been mentioned and aim to the transmission of information for the “Smart City”, the substantial education of the people is vital and at the same time the training of stakeholders for a position in them. Barcelona is one of the few examples that applies this technical education. Through the program Digital Manufacturing Associations12 which provides the necessary technologies (laboratories, 3D tools, computers, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256305153_Smart_cities_of_the_future
11 Maglaris B., “Intelligent Cities & Regions within the Framework of the National Research & Innovation Strategy for Intelligent Specialization”, September 2018, accessed 1 Sept., 2019, Smart.cities.ellak. gr, https://smartcities.ellak.gr/2018/09/05/i-effiis-polis-perioches-sto-plesio-tis-ethnikis-stratigikiserevnas-kenotomias-gia-effii-exidikefsi/
12 Vives A., SMART CITY Barcelona The Catalan Quest to Improve Future Urban Living, (Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 2018), Libgen.io
network access) it connects the humans with the digital reality, and it promises the digital education to all levels of society (adults, children, elderly). In this way, Barcelona citizens, can participate to the configuration of the “Smart City” with the creation of their ideas and solutions and the production of their products. Furthermore, it provides opportunities only to students, fact that it does not seem to include all the social groups, that is to say the expertise to workers in various fields or learning in the elderly about new living conditions. Moreover, as Antonio Vives reveals, the ideas are not always coming from the participants, while “the knowledge is there and is shared through Internet13”. The interns, absorb, judge and produce them. Therefore, this promising education is in dispute and it does not seem to happen essentially for the people, but instead there is an exploitation of human resources to carry out the projects of “Smart Cities”.
When someone who is theoretically aware, express a negative opinion, is a symptom. Symptom in this case of prejudice. It is true that Smart Cities can be a commitment without content if the purposes of the political innovation are not well defined14 “. Indeed, there are fairly or not several prejudiced views or better concerns and doubts about “Smart Cities”. From their aspect, the “Smart Cities” should define well their goals, to try friendly practices, to examine all the aspects of an issue and more importantly to have the human, as the key of action.
But also the person himself, the citizen of the current “Smart City”, should understand that the future of the “Smart Cities” is already here, and this is why, he should study it in the most essential way possible, to know his rights, to express his objections and to have an active participation in the new developments. People nowadays, not only do not know what the next years reserve but also they have no idea what exactly the current systems are doing, as they take them uncritically for granted: devices into cars, sensors to the environment, Internet of Things, applications that collect data. In fact, often, “the public is sensitive to the glamour of technology15”, as it already happens. Who
13 Vives A., SMART CITY Barcelona The Catalan Quest to Improve Future Urban Living, (Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 2018), Libgen.io
14 Vives A., SMART CITY Barcelona The Catalan Quest to Improve Future Urban Living, (Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 2018), Libgen.io
15 Bridle J., “How Britain Exported Next-Generation Surveillance”, December 2013, accessed 19 Aug., 2019, Medium.com, https://medium.com/matter/how-britain-exported-next-generation-surveillance-d15b5801b79e
would not want the latest ultra- modern mobile phone, tablet or car? Who has really been interested in the collection of data through the Internet? James Bridle, mentions specifically, the right of the person to understand16 : “But the burden is upon us, not them”, meaning the algorithms which are now taking over societies. And continues: “The lack of understanding- the feeling of getting lost and week towards the world, leads to fear, apathy and anger[...] The right to understand, then, would be a useful addition to what to expect for us today. A demand for a better education -not only technological, but to all the aspects of critical thought, together with the condition that the complex and influential technologies in our lives, they must take into account their objects, design them in transparency and work actively to make them understandable and measurable17”. Indeed, from the citizens’ of a “Smart City” point of view, not only the technical expertise, but also the critical and combinational ability, are necessary in order to solve problems of technological, ethical, political and social character that affect them. With this equipment, we can oppose or adjust to the “Smart Cities” and to the new technological view, which has started to influence our world generally. Otherwise, not to leave “the illegality of technology to a non-technical public18”, as James Bridle defines, but to become a public with knowledge, action, that does not take any development for granted, disputing Aldous Huxley, in his rather prophetic book of Brave New World: “Most human beings have an almost endless ability to take things for granted19.”
Conclusions
According to what has been analyzed, the current research does not aim to give one unambiguous answer to the question if the “smart” city of the future, in its entirety, is effective or not. On the contrary, through a thorough list of information and speculation, we try to evaluate the social consequences from specific elements which constitute a “Smart City”, and most importantly to examine the requirements contained in for its futured configuration.
Starting from the definition of the future, we come to the conclusion that despite
16 Bridle J., “The right to understand” in Human rights for the 21st century: by Margaret Atwood, Reni Eddo-Lodge, Dave Eggers and more, accessed 1 Sept., 2019, Guardian.com, https://www.theguardian. com/books/2018/dec/08/universal-declaration-human-rights-turns-70
17 Bridle J., “The right to understand” in Human rights for the 21st century: by Margaret Atwood, Reni Eddo-Lodge, Dave Eggers and more, accessed 1 Sept., 2019, Guardian.com, https://www.theguardian. com/books/2018/dec/08/universal-declaration-human-rights-turns-70
18 Bridle J., “The New Aesthetic and its Politics”, June 2013, accessed 1 Sept., 2019, Booktwo.org, http://booktwo.org/notebook/new-aesthetic-politics/
19 Huxley A., Brave New World, Chatto & Windus, United Kingdom, 1932
the fact that we refer to the next 25 years, the future of a city, is already here, has already started to happen and influence it. Through different approaches for the future, over time, we understand that people have always desired to predict it and also had always had a critical attitude, positive or negative, towards the future which brings the technology. Particularly, in many examples mentioned, the ignorance or the awareness of the people, about the social repercussions of technology and even the concern and speculation towards a “technocratic” society that is to be created, is indicated. Through our research though, we do not make predictions, but instead through current applications and studies for future suggested systems, we analyze the future city, as a result of the technology evolution.
We are going through a transitional era, where issues of social, political, economic and environmental character, dominate. In a period of an undeniable global crisis, both economic and moral, these problems need to be addressed, by governments and people capable to configurate the current cities, according to the modern challenges. The so-called future city is the one that not only addresses to these challenges, but also at the simultaneously, maintains a successful economy and governance, a sustainable development and operates in the best possible way and with equal opportunities for its citizens. “Smart City” comes to meet exactly these goals of “Future City”, with the help of the implementation of the computer technology.
“Smart City” therefore, is about a predominant version of the future city, that promises to achieve the above, by creating infrastructure which is based on a technological network that connects people and entities, into a sustainable ecosystem and citizens prepared for the new data. In other words, “Smart City” is committed to the above, by using six basic fields of action: Smart Economy, Smart People, Smart Governance, Smart Mobility, Smart Environment, Smart Living, which are all analyzed thoroughly at the Case Studies of the project.
By examining therefore, the sectors and the infrastructures of a “Smart City”, a main question that we are called upon to answer, is if the so-called “Smart City”, provides essential solutions for the above and addresses the objectives set. The answer is, of course, ambiguous.
By initially studying already installed or proposed material infrastructure, that
is to say projects relevant to the constructed or natural environment of a city, we understand that indeed through technological, “smart” meters, transportation or environment issues, could be faced transiently.
The transport infrastructure, as we have seen in examples, they regard to the creation of new technology advanced vehicles and to applications that facilitate the mobility and navigation of people. Surely, it seems that these systems and applications, address to issues such as traffic congestion, the widespread use of the car, the emissions of pollutants, a better connection of vehicles with the city. However, it seems that they are not consistent with other subjects of public life. First and foremost, they do not connect with older, current infrastructure of a city. “Smart City” initially aimed at the reconstruction of infrastructures and at the adjustment of the cities to the new technologies. On the contrary, in the field of transport, it appears to abolish the motor vehicles, without creating the conditions for their use or recycling. Similarly, “Smart City” was committed to reducing energy consumption, but instead, it creates anew an electric car and public transit system, which is characterized by huge energy demands.
In the same context consequently, we comprehend that the environment infrastructure continues. Whereas the respect to the environment that some technology systems provide for better energy, water or waste management; cannot be disputed, we refer to new, costly systems, which have not been fully examined as to their requirements: cost, production, life expectancy, maintenance… The cost raises issues about the invasion of companies to the system applications of “Smart Cities”, conducing to an even more technocratic city character. Additionally, concerns are raised regarding to people’s accessibility to these systems, in a sense that there is the danger for all social levels to not be able to afford them, intensifying social injustice, detracting what a “Smart City” initially promised.
The most important speculation, however, both for the mobility infrastructure and environmental, lies in their relation with the people. Systems that function with zero human intervention, for example the autonomous cars or systems that the only human intervention is of economic nature, like the pricing for energy or waste consumption. While technology should be the means which helps the operation of a society’s infrastructure, has ended up being a means of imposition, which makes people simply passive users. The human thought
and mentality that is essentially responsible of problems of this nature, is violated and “smart” systems dominate against “smart” people.
In addition, by analyzing the digital infrastructure of a “Smart City”, we come to the second major concern of this paper. The digital infrastructure, specifically, regard to governance, economy, design, health and everyday life issues. We refer to Open Data platforms, that collect data from all the sectors of public life and process them for a better organisation of entities and governments. Moreover, control applications of people’s daily lives, for reduction of crime, confrontation of health issues, facilitation of shopping and other daily activities. In the same context with the material infrastructure, some applications do indeed help to the proper society functioning, for example to better supervision of criminality or more timely intervention by the competent bodies. However, on a second level, these applications and systems, are based on the continuous surveillance of the people and on the constant collection and processing of their data. Thus, a monitoring environment, lacking trust between people and governments is created. At the altar of better operation and organisation of the city, personal freedom and privacy are sacrificed, and the person is becoming once again a passive user or technological means, without active, essential participation.
We furthermore conclude, that despite the initial commitments, the basic conditions for preparation and knowledge provision of people for the new technology systems, do not exist. Ta research centers which offer technical expertise, are not enough. Not only the information is needed, but also the substantive and critical thought, in order for each person to be able to inhabit a “Smart City” and evaluate it daily. “Smart City” gives mainly the illusion of participation to people: “people learn their city passively- user friendly means the choice of menu, not its creation” 20. “Smart City” is presented, as Rem Koolhaas mentions, as a simplified, easy city and treats people like children, feeding them beautiful icons or public, urban life and creating “control bubbles” 21 .
Hence, contrary to the initial commitments of a “Smart City”, we comprehend that instead of connecting people with entities, the politics with the city, in re-
20 Scott R., “Without Architects, Smart Cities Just Aren’t Smart”, April 2013, accessed 25 Sept., 2019, Archdaily.com, https://www.archdaily.com/353281/without-architects-smart-cities-just-aren-t-smart
21 Koolhaas R., “ Rem Koolhaas Asks: Are Smart Cities Condemned to Be Stupid?”, December 2014, accessed 25 Sept., 2019, Archdaily.com, https://www.archdaily.com/576480/rem-koolhaas-asks-aresmart-cities-condemned-to-be-stupid?ad_medium=widget&ad_name=recommendation
ality they just superficially communicate and consequently, they become distant. For this reason, the designer can play a significant role to the construction of infrastructure, material or digital, which can essentially be integrated into the needs of a city and be designed for the human. Moreover, the architect can configurate the already existing infrastructure, according to technology, controlling the impact of technological means in the city, contributing to the gradual adaptation of a city to “Smart”. If architects, designers and generally people of a potential or current “Smart” city, obtain competency, in combination with critical ability and active citizenship, then we can approach an essentially “Smart” future.