BORDERSCAPE by Lucila Silva-Santisteban

BORDERSCAPE: WEAVING POLITICAL BOUNDARIES IN THE AMAZON THROUGH WATER PERFORMANCE

LUCILA SILVA-SANTISTEBAN MLA CANDIDATE 2017 Rhode Island School of Design

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Landscape Architecture Degree in the Department of Landscape Architecture of the Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, Rhode Island.

By Lucila Silva-Santisteban May 30, 2017

Approved by Masters Examination Committee:

Scheri Fultineer, Department Head, Landscape Architecture

Suzanne Mathew, Primary Thesis Advisor

Matt Donham, Secondary Thesis Advisor

To my Family for the love, To Lili for the support, To Scheri for the opportunity, and to Suzanne for the structure.

Contents

Overview Site Phase 1 | EXPLORATION Phase 2 | SUPERIMPOSITION Phase 3 | PUNCTURE Overall Assessment Bibliography

6 7 10 40 59 80 83

Overview This research project is about how to connect political bordering urban systems through the natural structure for a coherent occupation between the built environment, ecosystems and resources following the Landscape Architecture lens that can address different scale systems simultaneously to create a holistic approach between them. And the proposition of a new type of landscape of this threshold territory as its own kind. Specifically looking at the bordering cities in the heart of the Amazon Region in South America that fall between Colombia, Brazil and Peru.

Why the Amazon?

Not only because of the usual fascination, but because of the crucial importance it has in the Earth’s well being. Being one of the most ecological diverse places in the world: holding 1 in 10 of the world’s known species1, comprehending 40% of the South American continent 2 and holding 15% of the planet’s fresh water 3.

These type of landscapes have been left under the crystal-category-and-seal of “conservation”where a stance is needed by the rapid urbanization processes happening now which are accelerating each time more.

The Amazon region is composed of the watershed of the same name. This larger “water” system includes 9 countries with the Amazon River, the largest in the world, as the umbilical chord connecting and nurturing it.

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1 “Amazon.” WWF. World Wildlife Fund, n.d. Web. 23 Feb. 2017.

2 Buttler. “Facts about the Amazon Rainforest.” The Amazon Rainforest. Mongabay, n.d.

Web. 31 May 2016. <http://rainforests.mongabay.com/amazon/amazon-rainforest-facts.html>.

3 “Human Appropriation of the World’s Fresh Water Supply.” Human Appropriation of the World’s Fresh Water Supply. University of Michigan, 2006. Web. 31 May 2016.

Avenid

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Site

Calle

Avenid

Carrera 11

This border city is composed of 3 nationalities were political boundaries are overlooked by the people’s dynamics in it.

It is located in the heart of the Amazon Region and most central part of the Amazon River totally disconnected from the corresponding capital cities.

14

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Calle

10

Calle 8

9

Calle 7

Calle 6

12

a8 Carrer

Cobo

Carrera

Vásquez

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Avenida

Carrera

a7 Carrer

Calle 9

Calle 8

Calle 6

Perimet

ral Nort

so

rera

Carrera 11

Car

Ideal Afon 6

Rua Peri

n

Rua Peri

metral

Norte Um

Rua

Life is entirely weaved the use of the 2 majority languages (Spanish and Portuguese) plus the indigenous dialects is usual for the area as well as the 3 currencies: Pesos (COP), Sol (PEN) and Reais (BRP).

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Calle

The 3 cities: Leticia, Colombia (North); Tabatinga, Brazil (South) and Santa Rosa Island, Peru (West)

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María Rodr

Calle 14

Rua Santos Dumont Rua do Aterr o Rua Francisco

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Romario

Rua Sargento

nicacoes

Rua Jerus

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Rua Carneiro

Rua Coron

Rua

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Rua

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Rua Duarte

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nel Berg

Rua das comu

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Rua Caste Aires da Cunha

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Rua Dom

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Marzzia

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Do Arlind

Rua da Arruda

Rua Expedicioná

João VI

Rua Coro

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Rua Sargent

Rua da

Rua Joao

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Rua Duarte

Aires da Cunha

Rua Dom

lo Braco

ba Rua Ajurica

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Alves

Rua Dois

Av. da Amiza

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Lima

Fever

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Rua Duarte Coelho

Rua Sant

Gonçalo de

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Rua Fáb

Rua Tabati nel Berg

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onio Barbo

Caxias

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Duque de

ral Samp Rua Gene

Rua Santos Dumont

Rua Coro

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Rua Vinte Seis

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hal Rond

Osvaldo Cruz

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Rua Marec

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Rua Ant

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Rondon

Rua Muñiz

Rua Sant

Rua Mare

Rua

entes

Osvald o Cruz

de Aragão

Rua Men de Sá

Rua Marechal Mallet

Rua Tirad

Lucena

Rua Marechal

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Rua Fabio

Rua Muñiz

Bo

sc

Rua Diogo

Rua Marecha

Rua Vilagran Cabrita

Rondon

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Rua Marechal Mallet

Rua Prime

Rua da

Avenida da

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Tri-national city.

Border between Colombia, Brazil and Peru in the Amazon.

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Phase 1 EXPLORATION Investigation of the different layers and systems that make up the Border City

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Abstract In this first phase the investigation looked to adjust and revise the collected fieldwork and analysis done during Wintersession 2017 to feed into the new direction the investigation is taking. After having visited the place where the investigation is set and having done a preliminary analysis, issues that were intuited were reinforced as major components of this investigation. Being these: sanitation, water quality issues, lack of connectivity and lack of public space.

The main objectives of this phase are to: 1. Create a body of Contextual Information to introduce the place and its complexity in a larger scale.

2. Thoroughly understand the systems that make up the place (City Scale) through map analysis of the tangible and intangible components.

3. Introduce the driver component of the investigation: the Water.

The main research question for this phase: What are the systems of this place (urban and ecological) and how are they spatialized in the territory?

The systems that make up this landscape

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Methods

Many scales had to be addressed to understand the systems that make up this place. The city scale which involves the 3 cities (Leticia-COL, Tabatinga,-BRA and Santa Rosa-PE) that function as 1 urban center and the regional scale that helps understand the context and reason of this settlement’s location and activities.

During this phase there was an initial focus in the first part of the City scale systems which were thoroughly broken down for a better understanding of the dynamics of the city and their intrinsic relationships with the river and between the people. Then there was the exploration on how to visualize the regional relationships that are very much given by the physical context to reinforce the construct that this city and its closer urban settlements are in fact part of 1 region (The Amazon Region) and 1 identity.

Mapping exercises as well as a modeling one tried to highlight the total integration of urban systems and ecological within the place.

In general the method used for this phase, that will continue throughout all 3, is the Projective Design Research. Where knowledge is created by alternating Deductive and Inductive methods which allows for accuracy and specificity at the same time. Being that Deductive strategies are characterized by being TOPDOWN where there is an intake of large groups of information to reach an specific goal and Inductive BOTTOM-UP, where there is the recognition of a particularity that drives the investigation.

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Introduction

1. Literature Review + Theoretical Framework Definition During the Fall semester of 2016 there was an initial phase which focused on creating the theoretical base as well as an initial research of the site. In this phase concepts were explored to help aid the discourse of the investigation such as: border, borderland, fringe, ecotone, ecozone, Eco-regions. Taking from the Ecology field, the Urban Planning, Architecture and Landscape Fields definitions to be set as starting points of this possible new definition: “borderscape”.

2. Site Visit (Wintersession 2017) 3. Collection of Information and Classification 4. Analysis of the information through Mapping exercises.

5. Synthesis of analysis information through visualization methods as mapping and modeling.

Colombia

Peru

The Amazon Basin

Brazil

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Phase 1 | CONTEXT Structure, Cover, Watershed, Connectivity

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16

17

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Phase 1 | CONTEXT The River’s History Brief historical summary of major events of the region.

The location for this research, the border between Colombia, Peru and Brazil, has been subject to major political spatial enforcement, meaning changes in occupation by different groups and agendas that have modified the landscape throughout time. This place has always been in the ‘eye of the storm’ of political struggle, making this an element inherent to its essence as a place.

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1713-1750

Utrecht Treaty + Madrid Treaty Tratado de Utrecht, Tratado de Madrid

Peace treaty between the Spanish and English Empires and definition of borders between the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas.

Tabatinga appears as a military post defending the territory.

Vice-royalties of the Americas

1494

Louisiana of New Spain (Audience of Cuba)

June 7

British Colonies

Viceroyalty of New Spain

Tordesillas Treaty Tratado de Tordesillas

Spanish and Portuguese Empire distribution of navigation and conquest zones.

Viceroyalty of New Granada

Viceroyalty of Brazil

Viceroyalty of Peru Viceroyalty of La Plata

Tordesillas treaty first known planisphere map 1502

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75° 0° Güepi

74°

72°

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Florida

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Santa María

Puerto Arica

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Río Yagua

Yaguas

3°

Francisco Orellana

IQUITOS

RÍO

Puerto Nariño

AM

AZ

Ma ra ñó n

ON

AS

Caballococha

LETICIA

4°

Tabatinga

Río

74°

2°

Remanso

Tarapacá

PERÚ

4°

Río Puré

Puerto Alfonso Barranquilla

Teniente Berggerie

San Antonio del Estrecho

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SE

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Leticia was ceded to Colombia in exchange of north western territories from the Putumayo river.

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Puerto Limón

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Salomon -Lozano Treaty signed (1922)

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Santa Mercedes

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COLOMBIA

Puerto Espinoza Angusilla

1°

70°

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Yarí

Puerto Colombia

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71°

0° Río

Soplín Vargas Río

73°

Puerto Leguízamo

73°

72°

71°

70°

1853-1922 Apaporis-Tabatinga (or Leticia) Limit

Shifting of political border delineation between Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. Time of warlike conflict due to rising economic interests created by recent independence from Spain and later the Amazon Rubber Boom.

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1879-1912,1942-1945 Amazon Rubber Boom

Product of the Industrial Revolution in Europe and the US, natural rubber became a highly coveted commodity. Crops in the Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon of Hevea brasilenis or Rubber Tree, attracted enormous wealth displayed in the largest urban center’s architecture. Italian marble structures and Eiffel buildings were erected in Manaus and Iquitos.

With this great economic development there was a need for labor force which was supplied by the unjust exploitation of indigenous peoples.

Fordlandia: Ford-Land Industrial town established by American entrepreneur Henry Ford in the Brazilian Amazon for the extraction of rubber.

Peruvian Amazon Company HQ

Protest in Iquitos-Peru to round up resistance against Colombia, in the search to recover Leticia

1933-1934

Iquitos

Manaus Leticia

Indigenous slaves from the Huitoto tribe enslaved by the Peruvian Amazon Company ran by the Arana Brothers.

Fordlandia

‘Casa Arana’ rubber collection center of the Peruvian Amazon Company center of major atrocities done to the indigenous population forced into labor as well as for “entertainment”.

Colombian Peruvian War: The Leticia Incident Rio de Janeiro Protocol - Salomon-Lozano Treaty Reaffirmation

After territorial resolutions were determined in paper they had not yet been implemented on land and were not welcomed by the population living there. Peruvian settlers of Leticia took over the city defending it against Colombian forces.

The agreement of 1922 determined that Leticia would be ceded to Colombia in exchange for NW territories from the Putumayo River, creating what is now known as the Amazonian Trapezoid.

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‘Teatro Amazonas’ Opera venue in Manaus, Brazil made with marble brought from Italy.

A street in Iquitos-Peru, the first city in Peru to have street lighting as well as electricity for household use in 1905, many years before the rest of the country.

Iquitos Railway

LOCALE OF MULTIPLE POLITICAL SHIFTS THROUGHOUT TIME AROUND THE AMAZON RIVER AS A CRITICAL RESOURCE OF THE REGION COLOMBIA KINGDOM OF SPAIN

KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

ECUADOR

B

COLOMBIA BRAZIL

A

PERU

PERU EMPIRE OF BRAZIL

1 ≠ 2 1494 -1750

BRAZIL

A ≠ B ≠C ≠D 1830

PERU

BRAZIL

C ≠D 1880

A ≠ B ≠C 1904

A + B +C 1922-NOW

C

AMAZON TRI-NATIONAL BORDER CITIES - Fluid border: of goods and people - Amazon River as a shared critical resource in people’s livelyhoods and connection - Shared economies and interdependence

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Phase 1 | SYSTEMS Scale: City The fringe urban settlementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s systems in detail. A city made up of 3 different political jurisdictions.

Leticia-Colombia , Tabatinga- Brazil and Santa Rosa-Peru

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Base map showing the existent system of the fringe settlement. The most important points of the city, centralities, are shown in yellow.

Green shows the open spaces and public spaces.

Walking radius show the scale of the city that in an approximate calculation can be crossed from side to side in 1 hour in either North to South or East to West.

Base map

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Centralities

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Urban Morphology and Green Spaces

Model explorations done in the Fall 16â&#x20AC;&#x2122; semester showing the 4 different types of conditions.

1. The Social 2. The Environmental 3. The Political 4. The New

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In this model explorations the objective was to interpret the existing systems of the different conditions of the site.

Overlapping the conditions: 1. The first one is composed by the environment and the social fluxes in the city according to centralities (natural gathering places) mapped before. This is a fluid and flexible system defined by needs and the understanding of the place. This is an underlaying condition which defines the sense of place of this landscape.

2. The second one consists of the artificial urban fabric that has two functions constrain the environmental and social systems and at the same time being the container of it.

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Phase 1 | BASIC INFORMATION Leticia - Colombia

Population: 32,450 people Predominant Economic Activity: Tourism and Trade Municipal Economic Activities: Commerce between adjacent cities Agricultural Production of Rice, Banana, Cassava, Corn.

Aquaculture Wood production

Tabatinga - Brazil

Population: 59,684 people Predominant Economic Activity: Military Activity Municipality Economic Activity: Commerce between adjacent cities Agriculture Production of Nuts, Cacao, Natural Rubber, Avocado, Guaranรก, Banana, Coffee Wood production

Santa Rosa - Peru

Population: 2,500 people Predominant Economic Activity: Fishing Municipality Economic Activity: Commerce between adjacent cities Tourism 30

Phase 1 | WATER STRUCTURE Scale: City How water moves within the territory an initial approximation.

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The water structure of the settlement.

Water quality and conveyance is an issue in the 3 settlements. The Amazon river, contradictory to any belief, is not in optimal conditions to be used for consumption in this area. Although there is no heavy industries around the problem, lies in the deficient water treatment plants.

People are forced to create wells to extract potable water.

Water Resource Yahuarcocha Lakes Leticia, COL

Aven ida Vá squez

Cobo

Water Treatment Plant Leticia, COL

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Carrera 11

Calle

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The hydrological structure of the settlement surpasses any political boundary but it presents problems when in interaction with the urban fabric. Where flooding occurs since the urban fabric has been imposed in some cases (Leticia) disregarding this system.

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Avenida

Carrera

Carrera

Majority of streams in the urban center have been channelized disrupting the natural system

Calle 9

ra

10

María Viei

Calle

ra 8

Calle

Water Collection Santa Rosa, PER

Calle

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María Rod

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Rua Per

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Norte Um

Rua

Rua da

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Rua San

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Rua

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Rua Duart

Rua An

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ont

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Rua Cor

Rua

Rua Castelo

Braco

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Patria

on chal Rond Rua Mare

eiro de Maio

g

nha

Rua Dom

Rua Prim

Duque de

eral Sam Rua Gen

Rua Tabatinga

Rua Ajuric

Rua Alm irante Tam andaré

Rua Santos Dumont

ade

Rua Marecha

Aires

nt Rua Santos Dumo Rua do Ater ro

Lucena

onel Ber

tes

en Tirad

Rua Fabio

Rua Vinte Seis ont

Rua Duarte Coelho

et

Osvaldo Cruz

tos Dum

Rua Cor

Rua Mar echal Mall

Rua

dentes

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Rua San

Rua Men de Sá

Rua Marechal Mallet

Rua Tira

Osvald o Cru

iz de Aragão

al Rondon

o

Av. da Amiz

Rondon

sc

Rua Muñ

Rua Marech

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Rua Marechal Mallet

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Rua Do

Rua Jeru

salem

Rua Sarge

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Caxias

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Avenida da Amiz

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João VI

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Water Treatment Plant Tabatinga, BRA Water Resource Amazon River Tabatinga, BRA 1500 ft

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0

1500 ft

3000 ft

6000 ft

FLOODING AREAS

WATER STRUCTURE NATURAL + ARTIFICIAL COLLECTING POINTS

ia

Marzz

2

PERIPHERY OF THE URBAN SETTLEMENT TABATINGA-BRA

1 LETICIA AIRPORT COL

BORDER COL-BRA

TABATINGA AIRPORT COL

CITY

LETICIA COLONIAL DOWNTON

VEGETATION COVER

AIRSTRIP

COLLECTING AREA CORRESPONDING TO STREAM STRUCTURE

COLLECTING AREA CORRESPONDING TO STREAM STRUCTURE

LETICIA AIRPORT COL

CITY LIMIT BORDER COL-BRA

SECTION 1

TABATINGA AIRPORT COL

LOWEST INCOME TYPE HOUSING

LETICIA COLONIAL DOWNTON

AIRSTRIP

STREAM STREAM

SECTION 2

WATER STRUCTURE COLLECTION POINTS + TOPOGRAPHY

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Phase 1 | SITE PHOTOGRAPHS Selected images

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Santander Park_Leticia, Colombia Main Square

Port Leticia, Colombia 35

Border Milestone in the City Colombia-Brazil-Peru

Returning to Leticia to Tourist Dock near Main Marketplace Amazon River

Main Road Santa Rosa, Peru

Arriving to Santa Rosa Loading Bay

View from Santa Rosa to the NE Santa Rosa, Peru 36

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Amizadeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Friendship) Avenue Tabatinga

Boardwalk to main road Santa Rosa, Peru

View of the Amazon River from ‘La Comara’ Tabatinga, Brazil

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Findings + Conclusions

This phase allowed the collection of all the necessary information of the place as well as the essence of it.

There were preconceptions before the investigation was initiated based on the initial research done in a distanced way, about how the territory worked.

Some were confirmed and there were others that emerged.

The confirmed hypothesis included the social fluxes of the people that don’t respond to any political boundary. The interdependence of these 3 settlements was also confirmed evidenced not only through visualization processes but during the site visit in commerce and interactions. These intangible relationships do not respond to political jurisdictions.

Throughout a media research approach and during the site visit, the issues first proposed as focuses of the investigation were also confirmed. Deficient water quality, waste management, lack of public spaces and connectivity were evident.

Things that emerged were the specific localization of the centralities in the territory as well as the connecting channels that together structure this place.

A very important finding or later reflection, is that people in this urban center will not want to give up the character of it. Meaning this urban settlement can be located in the heart of the Amazon Region where the vocation is conservation, but it plays a role as a human centrality in a geopolitical sense.

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One of the key findings is the driver of the investigation which is the element of water. ‘Water’ as in the hydrological system and as the set of landscape strategies that have to with this. Such as first, the rediscovering of that structure in the city then the punctual interventions that would lead to remediation, waste management treatment, water quality improvement, among others.

Becoming this the strategy of weaving the conditions of the territory that has the ability to surpass almost all of them, political included and create a cohesive occupancy.

In the next phase of the investigation, the main objective will be to spatially define the system that makes up these relationships, such as the centralities and connectors, overlaid upon the ‘water’ structure to find interstitial places where future interventions might be located.

These points of intersection will be done by material explorations in concept models as well as drawings, to understand the relationships of the systems in these moments.

Assessment

One of the major adjustments that has to be done is the filtering of information and finding to focus on the matter that the investigation is heading which has to do with the ‘water’.

The amount of work done has proven sufficient as a base but now needs further breakdown to be useful. Meaning that after the focus is determined the will be a selecting of key elements from the body of work already done.

Another reflection of this first phase has to do with creating more vertical research that is not only focused on mapping and zooming in to understand the “section” layers of the place.

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Phase 2 SUPERIMPOSITION Water as the construct of the BORDER-landscape

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Abstract During Phase 2 of the process the main objective was to determine the interstitial and overlapping moments as strategic points that structure the Ecotone/Border Landscape that will be superimposed by the localization of specific areas that present deficiencies. This contrasted with the base of the water dynamics from the prior phase, to be used as a lens, in order to understand how the different type of systems function and identify where and how they are failing.

The way the water system moves through the landscape with how the urban fabric exists, revealed a larger issue: a contradiction between both systems. The lack of synchronization, which was perceived at the beginning, was evidenced in one of the current issue the urban center goes through. Flooding, although a natural phenomena that occurs periodically in the area, is a major issue for both the people, their lively-hoods and the environmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health since the urban settlement rejects and imposes on the natural structure.

It is important to mention that currently, due to Global Warming effects, flooding has become more and more present as an issue in inner-continental urban settlements close to a river structure throughout the world affecting many key productive areas of many countries. (El NiĂąo Phenomenon 2017 in Peru, Colombia) And in contrast, another issue is the lack of Potable Water for the population ironically in a place that is located where 15% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fresh water is held and where there is an approximate of 2mm/hr of Rainfall. This is a result of a deficient infrastructure due to its location in the legislative periphery.

Area Considered for Study: 18 Square Km (7 Square Miles) 41

Introduction

Methods

In Phase 2 the focus was to identify the overlapping of the crucial moments of what constitutes the border condition (the human relationships within the landscape) with the mapped issue of flooding. For at the end have a set of initial strategies that recognize the dynamics of the landscape and use it as a leverage to solve issues related to the people and the environment.

The method of exploration was focused on 3 stages: 1. Visualizing the Issue 2. Understanding the Existent 3. Overlapping of Systems 4. Proposing Initial Strategies

This was done by first understanding how the territory works currently showing how the systems intertwine in a smaller scale and in a system view, throughout mapping and modeling. Specifically showing where the water system (streams) intercept the urban fabric. Then, mapping the flooding zones from journalistic accounts being the limited geographical information available to be then overlapped.

The last step consisted on quantifying and visualizing initial strategies for the leverage of these issues, mainly rainfall, as advantages. Also exploring ways of managing flooding in urban areas that can be easily adapted to the context.

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Phase 2 | VISUALIZING THE ISSUE

EXISTING STRUCTURE STREAMS + TOPOGRAPHY + GRID 43

FLOODING AFFECTED STREETS + AREAS 44

Phase 2 | VISUALIZING THE ISSUE

WATER’S BEHAVIOR IN THE LANDSCAPE: STORM WATER + RIVER’S GROWING THE PROBLEM

WHY IS THIS A PROBLEM?

The urban fabric of the settlement is not adapted to the natural water system flow, rainfall and the seasonal growing of the river making the natural phenomena of flooding affect people’s way of life and the environment.

Flooding of this Tri-national city, caused by heavy daily rainfall and seasonal growing of the river affects the 3 cities’ population’s safety, livelihoods, health-sanitation and pollution related issues in equal manner surpassing nationalities.

HOW MUCH DOES IT RAIN IN THE ECOTONE? Daily Average Rainfall of the Area: 1.83 mm/hour ~ 2mm/hr Source: https://www.worldweatheronline.com/leticia-weather/amazonas/co.aspx?day=0&tp=1

Area Included: 18 km sq [Leticia: 7.4km sq] [Tabatinga: 9.4km sq] [Santa Rosa: 1.2 km sq] Rainfall Water per Hour: 36,000,000 Liters/hr Source: https://water.usgs.gov/edu/activity-howmuchrain-meters.php

*AVERAGE RAINY DAYS IN THE ECOTONE AREA: 291 DAYS

HOW MUCH DOES IT RAIN IN OTHER PLACES? Manila, Philippines: 0.33 mm/hour 207 Rainy Days

http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical_climate&ThisCCode=PHL

Seattle, WA: 1.34 mm/hour [211 Rainy Days] New Orleans, LA: 0.27 mm/hour [56 Rainy Days] http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical_climate&ThisCCode=PHL

*Measured Rainfall Area *94,634 people

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THE LIQUID BORDER: HOW CAN WATER BECOME A LEVERAGE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT + PEOPLE HOW MUCH WATER DOES A PERSON NEED PER DAY? 70 Liters - in an Emergency 100 Liters - To fulfill all necessities http://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/water/

HOW MUCH WATER DOES THE AVERAGE COLOMBIAN, PERUVIAN AND BRAZILIAN USE PER DAY? COLOMBIAN: 500 Liters/day

http://revistas.udistrital.edu.co/ojs/index.php/tecges/article/view/4379/6601

PERUVIAN: 250 Liters/day

http://rpp.pe/lima/actualidad/peru-consume-250-litros-por-persona-casi-50-mas-que-madrid-noticia-751470

CONSUMED WATER IN THE AREA: 28’390,200 LITERS/DAY

BRAZILIAN: 160 Liters/day

http://redeglobo.globo.com/globoecologia/noticia/2013/05/brasileiro-consome-159-litros-por-dia.html

*AVERAGE: 300 LITERS/DAY

TOTAL RAINFALL WATER: 36’000,000 LITERS/HOUR TOTAL WATER NEEDED: 28’390,200 LITERS/DAY THE AMOUNT OF RAINFALL OF A DAY IN THE AREA CAN SUPPLY, WITH A LARGE BREADTH, THE DAILY WATER NEED FOR THE POPULATION. 46

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Phase 2 | UNDERSTANDING THE EXISTENT OVERLAPPING B/N THE BORDERâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S SYSTEM AND THE FLOODING AREAS

BORDER SYSTEM: FOCAL POINTS + CONNECTORS THAT CREATE THE RELATIONSHIPS

FLOODING AREAS + STREETS

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Zones of possible analysis according to their different characteristics.

Zone 1 - Consolidated urban downtown.

Zone 2 - Border Zone 3 - Waterfront

Overlapping of the centralities of the border system city with the flooding issue.

Highest points coincide with the most developed places of the city.

Also, issues of flooding correspond to underground stream structure where city has been built upon.

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Phase 2 | UNDERSTANDING THE EXISTENT

MAIN SQUARE PARK SANTANDER LETICIA-COL

Zone 1 - Urban Context Main Square Leticia-Colombia This area is one of the most important places in the urban center in general (the 3 cities) which is affected when flooding occurs because of large volumes of precipitation.

ZONE 1 - PARK SANTANDER

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BORDER

Zone 2 - The Border Commercial Area - Port of Leticia - Thermoelectric Plant - Housing Zone for both Leticia and Brazil This zone compromises a tension between 3 systems the urban fabric, the hydrological structure and the flooding problematic issue.

ZONE 2 - THE BORDER

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Phase 2 | UNDERSTANDING THE EXISTENT

MARKETPLACE TABATINGA, BR

Zone 3 - Waterfront Marketplace Tabatinga - Brazil The zone is the heart of the commercial and trade area for the Brazilian side and is also a liability when flooding, both by the river and precipitation happen. The market place was strategically located near to the Amazon river for easy access of loading goods.

ZONE 3 - WATERFRONT + COMMERCIAL CENTER

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Phase 2 | STRATEGIES ZONE 1 - PARK SANTANDER STORM WATER MANAGEMENT STREETSCAPE DESIGN System of collection and diversion of water to be filtered and conveyed for household use.

Constrains: Street Profile Dimension 60-70 Ft.

existent

road

to household

tank

tank 45’

15’

BIOSWALE IMPLEMENTATION

15’

existent

PERMEABLE PAVING + DIVERTION OF WATER

10’

15’

30’

10’

10’

to household tank

tank +0.5’ 0’ -0.5’

RAIN GARDEN COLLECTORS

-3’ -5’

Low Impact + applicable - time

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Phase 2 | STRATEGIES ZONE 2 - THE BORDER FLOODABLE PUBLIC SPACE + INTERNATIONAL REGULATION Creation of buffer zone for the stream making it a public space that can collect water and divert excess to the river. Also creating a regulated international space.

Constrains: People will not want to relocate, Presence of Thermoelectric Plant, Bureaucratic Inefficiency.

389 Ft

106 Ft

185 Ft

border Brazil Colombia

Partial Relocation

ZONE 2_FLOODABLE PUBLIC SPACE

680 Ft

EXISTING CONDITION Floodable Public Space border Permeable Ground Artificial Rain Collectors

PROPOSED CONDITION

High Impact - applicable + time 54

ZONE 3 - WATERFRONT + COMMERCIAL CENTER PERMEABLE PUBLIC WATERFRONT SPACE Creation of buffer zone for the stream making it a public space that can collect water and divert excess to the river. Also creating a regulated international space.

Constrains: People will not want to relocate, Place is highly consolidated as key part of that side of the city.

100 Ft

46 Ft

100 Ft

463 Ft

Partial Relocation

707 Ft

EXISTING CONDITION

100 Ft

46 Ft

100 Ft

463 Ft

Wharf/Lookout

PROPOSED CONDITION

Medium Impact ~ applicable ~ time 55

Findings + Conclusions Phase 2 was a phase to experiment in a large scale a system approach solution.

In some ways it is a collection of the detailed research done to be then be presented in a greater perspective.

When overlapping the two kinds of systems (the border condition system with the issue system) the main expectation anticipated was for the areas affected by the issue also be centralities. This was somewhat confirmed since it does follow this pattern which is something logical since the imposition of the urban fabric disregards the natural systems.

One of the greatest finding of the research was that of realizing how a deficiency can become an asset shared by the three international cities. This started when the mapping of the issue (flooding) was being done where a question emerged seeing how this was a problem of an urban scale: how much water is the city receiving from precipitation? Insomuch that it is one of the wetter locations in the world.

This lead for further investigation about how much water is consumed by the population currently and contrasting it with the standard of how much a person needs to live with to get a dimension of the quantity.

This resulted in the quantification of the need which is something that can be worked with and can be relied upon. For the next phase this is something that will be brought and visualized in an easier way to be easily understood.

It is important to mention that in Latin America river’s and affluents, as well as rainfall, has not been regulated to such detail as in the US where there are some examples of maximum water consumption levels legislation. Such as the Colorado River Compact which does address the amount of water a state can deplete from the shared river.

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In South America river ways have two roles: to some extent they define political borders between countries and they have been made up of many affluents coming from different countries creating a legislative/bureaucratic issue to be regulated. As a clear example the Amazon River is shared between 9 countries but the water basin volume is shared as well as protected from any intervention from any of the member countries without prior knowledge from the Amazon Treaty Organization. Though, internal affluents can be managed according to the country’s jurisdiction like in the case of Brazil that possess many energy producing dams. But in general the jurisdiction of water volume of a stream that crosses many political boundaries is not regulated.

Having collected key factual information makes the next phase’s objective to focus on the possibilities of a new vision which is grounded in real information regarding a valuable resource.

Assessment Phaseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 2 method was very clear and helpful to achieve the level wanted for Phase 3. This was a method made in junction with the advisor which helped a lot in structuring the work following the overall intention.

The findings made in this phase were valuable and revealing as such the method was effective.

Although there was a lot of progress done, the amount of work envisioned was not achieved due to technical issues with resources outside the researchâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reach. Also because of time-organizational issues when some of the work was underestimated time wise. Major adjustments had to be done to synthesize due the lack of time left, such as substitution of representation methods in drawings.

Things that could be improved would be the time management of work that is possible to be produced vs. desired. Also taking in account external influences that can affect the work produced.

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Phase 3 PUNCTURE

Landscape as Infrastructure: Visions of Storm-water and Flood management

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Abstract During this phase the development of the work produced was focused on creating visions of a system (the 4th condition/the new) as the weaving mechanism between the different networks and systems.

The main conceptual strategy of this network: Landscape as Infrastructure.

Landscape Architecture as the missing link between the systems making water perform as the commons linking the people, the territory and the environment.

The Weaving System (The 4th Condition) Created of the crossing of the undeveloped spaces of the city and the flooding + centralities analysis.

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Introduction

Methods

Phase 3 is the proposition phase of the research project where projective design strategies are implemented as a form of study of the issue.

The main issue, reiterated before, was the inconsistencies between the urban fabric and the environment network.

The methods in this phase varied in scale from the urban to the local chosen area they were done simultaneously taking from each scale to the other not following a linear process.

1. Definition of the objective of the proposal : CATCH - FILTER - DIRECT - HOLD 2. Understanding the Existent in the Local Scale: The relationship of the building with the streetscape. Here the main exercise was to model reality to understand the architecture and the public space deficiencies of the space. This was done by drawing exercises and mapping.

3. Existent Typology Modeling of a generalization of the building types trying to be very close to reality to capture the characteristic sense of place.

4. Conceptual design strategy explored: PUNCTURE 5. Connecting the pedestrian/local proposal to the larger system.

6. Proposed vision creation.

There are 2 contradicting issues in the area: Lack of Potable Water and Flooding.

In this struggle to accommodate people and build a city, major phenomena was overlooked, these 3 cities face a great potable water shortage because of the lacking infrastructure that exists but is in a deplorable state. And most depend on individual wells that connect directly to the aquifer giving a shortterm solution.

Flooding, as a result of global warming effects, something customary of the tropics to some extent, has become problematic since the urban fabric is not a flexible element that can adapt to the hydrological dynamics of the site as fast and as ideal as it could.

There are 2 Forces that cause the Flooding issue: 1. The Seasonal Growing of the River during the Summer months (December April) Where there is the preconception that the river behaves respecting the city boundaries, when in reality it expands and contracts affecting the urban fabric.

2. The Heavy tropical Rainfall Where again we have the idea that rain just stops when it hits the ground, when it follows its own process of infiltration.

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Phase 3 THE WATER SYSTEMS Currently the 3 settlements that sit in this area have gone through major political spatial shift since their establishments in the past until now, where the main asset is the Amazon River being the most important resource for their livelihoods and connection.

The River is a critical resource of economical, trade, cultural and ecological importance shared between the different nationalities.

THE AMAZON WATERSHED

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The Amazon River corresponds to a larger ecological system which possess its own dynamics on the land affecting these settlementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s state. The River not only as its own element but as the system it represents: the watershed, the precipitation behaviors, the vegetation, etc.

And how these hydro-dynamics interconnect the territory, making water the underpinning element between systems.

THE LOCAL WATERSHED

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Phase 3 THE TWO FORCES

GROWING OF THE RIVER 64

TROPICAL RAINFALL

The Placeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Streetscape.

Standing Water issues, emergent public space as a response of the climate, density.

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Phase 3 OVERLAPPING THE SUPERIMPOSED SYSTEMS

The conditions or systems of the site overlayed once again as the base for the proposal.

66

The undeveloped areas as the base of the weaving network (the new condition).

Phase 3 LANDSCAPE AS INFRASTRUCTURE

THE WEAVING SYSTEM BETWEEN THE EXISTENT SYSTEMS

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Phase 3 AREA OF INTERVENTION

BORDER

The area to focus on possess a mixture of different conditions that make it very appropriate to be used as test site.

The overlapping conditions included were: - Flooding Issue - Existent Hydrological Structure - Consolidated part of the city - Closeness to the border It is important to mention that the area chosen shows that the flooding issue is caused by the existent hydrological structure as well as topographical which would explain the reason of constant flooding.

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Phase 3 OBJECTIVE OF THE SYSTEM

CATCH - FILTER - DIRECT - HOLD

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Phase 3 DESIGN CONCEPT STRATEGY

PUNCTURE

Disruption of the built system to allow for ecological processes to happen in conjunction with the human activity.

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Undeveloped spaces become water collectors (sponges) in time of flooding preventing the city of flooding.

ZONAL PROPOSAL

Public Space Deficiency Solution: Spaces between buildings become gathering spots for the community.

Alternative circulation between the new undeveloped areas to be potentially used and the urban fabric, catering to the pedestrian which is the predominant mode of transportation.

Visible stream

Water circulation channel with filtering system based on a low-tech system of gravels and vegetation. This connects to the individual household system.

Overlayed impervious type sidewalk for efficient accessibility.

Access points for buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s services 60 Ft

0

60 Ft

120 Ft

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NATURALIZING THE URBAN GROUND

The intervention is composed of 3 elements or parts: 1. Naturalizing the urban ground by restoring it to its permeable characteristics as well as the filtering system for water.

2. Undeveloped spaces (lots) as designed sponges for flooding control.

3. Water flow circulation for the filtering processes and aeration.

UNDEVELOPED SPACES AS SPONGES

WATER FLOW CIRCULATION

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Phase 3 IMPLEMENTATION VISION

73

The expansion and contraction of the design responds to the different types of zoning and buildings. Where the contraction creates a more limited access appropriate for private use and the expansion as the possibility for public engagement.

74

GRAVELS

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

HOUSEHOLD FILTER

FILTRATION SYSTEM

75

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Findings + Conclusions During this last phase the main finding in terms of the project were many such as the potential of the undeveloped spaces or lots found. These spaces vary in nature since they might be owned or they might be remnants of the city. The city possess this type of undeveloped land because of the lack of attraction as an urban center in comparison with other cities. Since the only ways to access it are by plane or river, services and products have difficulty reaching these points.

Also, the economic opportunities for the population which can become very specialized are very narrow based on tourism, military or scientific research.

Another finding and conclusion was the importance of the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s character and vocation. And how this is crucial to fully implement a successful project of any kind. What was found with this project was the underlying importance of the hydrological structure which creates a link to people without looking that much into cultural aspects that can expand the method of operation instead of synthesizing it.

One important finding was the reinforcement that Landscape should be taken as Infrastructure that gives coherence to the built environment, not as an postaccessory to accommodate deficiencies.

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Assessment The most important reflection of this phaseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s developments was the need to create more explorations about the design phase. Both in design by exploring different methods as well as the materiality. Where there could be more detail to the design in itself for later evaluation.

Also, it would have been helpful to recognize with more exactness the moments to shift scale to keep developing the project. Since this project evidences that the constant scale shift is needed for a thorough understanding of the place as well as the design solution.

One last complement for this phase would have been the constructing of a plan of implementation thinking it from the Planning (Top-Down) side to the Community for this to become more tangible and valid as a tool to unite nations.

There were a lot of enigmas in the research project that were not answered due to lack of time and focus. These were such as: the geological structure (soil structure) of the site that could have helped in the definition of the type of water collection system; cultural indigenous precedents in methods of water collection as well and a stronger vision of the productive alternative the proposal might have.

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79

Overall Assessment

80

Final Conclusions This research project has been successful enough into creating the preamble for a more specialized and technical exploration. It has shown the theoretical potential as a physical realization of international relations in a very specific case which is this one, in the Amazon.

There is a lot of work to be done and calibrated but the process has opened new ways of approaching an issue that has been taken on by other disciplines that unlike Landscape cannot handle multiple scales, temporality and system thinking design.

With this first attempt to denominate these types of in-between landscapes (BORDERSCAPE) as their own not only shifts the conversation from consolidated cities but it starts to shift it in a more serious light to the developing world cities where there are a whole lot of factors that affect decision making based on economical resources.

The more detailed spatialization of the proposal from the last phase is shown as a provocative vision with the aim to be challenged and modified to fit a suitable option. That falls into the details of the place.

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Final Assessment The themes and topics of this thesis existed before the process begun where what was needed was a clear structure on how to develop the outcomes. This was a process of continued calibration from the beginning to end, thinking about the scope of the research as well as the capacity to produce.

The tools to define the process, such as the schedule and weekly agendas helped clarify the direction of the thesis to a more focused one.

One reflection about the outcomes was the difficulty of enlarging the scale to achieve a more attainable scale such as the pedestrian. The importance of the mapping exercises was very necessary but it would have been more successful to invest a lot more in the final outcome since the larger scale was somewhat resolved. This could have been done with more intensity in the 3-dimensional plane (physical model) since the relationships between materials in a model can mimic concepts of construct.

The difficulty to enlarge the scale lies on the ‘where’ to begin and ‘how’ without having a larger scale road map. But this exercise of going between both helped nurture one another.

But apart from this, it was necessary to create the larger scale work to really posses the vision of the larger system which is not perceivable in the pedestrian scale that was evidenced in the site visit.

Another representation tool that helped clarify the direction of the thesis was the constant diagramming of relationships to explain concepts and intentions.

This synthesis method is crucial when handling system thinking approaches.

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Bibliography References: Ian L. McHarg. Design with Nature. USA: John Wiley and Sons. 1992 Jill Desimini & Charles Waldheim. Cartographic Grounds. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. 2016 Edited by Philipp Misselwitz and Tim Rieniets. City of collision : Jerusalem and the principles of conflict urbanism. Basel ; Boston : Birkhäuser, 2006.

Precedents for Visualization: - Dredge Research Collaborative. http://dredgeresearchcollaborative.org/ “The Dredge Research Collaborative is an independent 501c3 nonprofit organization which investigates human sediment handling practices, through publications, an event series, and various other projects. Our mission is to advance public knowledge about sediment management; to provide platforms for trans-disciplinary conversation about sediment management; and to participate in envisioning and realizing preferred sedimentary futures.”

- Lateral Office. (Several Projects) “Is an experimental design practice that operates at the intersection of architecture, landscape, and urbanism. The studio describes its practice process as a commitment to “design as a research vehicle to pose and respond to complex, urgent questions in the built environment,” engaging in the “wider context and climate of a project– social, ecological, or political.” LATERAL OFFICE is committed to an architecture that responds directly to the demands of the 21st century - and the subsequent new typologies made possible by an architecture that brazenly confronts today. Recent work and research focuses on powerful design relationships between public realm, infrastructure, and the environment.”

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Historical References (Timeline) Bellis, Mary. “Charles Goodyear & The History of Rubber.” ThoughtCo. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

“Historia Medieval De Reyno De Granada.” Historia Medieval Del Reyno De Navarra. Fundacion Lebrel Blanco, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

Kingdom of Spain. “Tratado De Madrid.” Tratado De Madrid. 13 De Enero De 1750. Kingdom of Spain, 13 Jan. 1750. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

Laamericaespanyola. “Las Leyes De Indias.” La América Española. Wordpress, 22 Dec. 2016. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

Reino De España. RecopilacioÌ n De Leyes De Los Reinos De Las Indias Mandadas a Imprimir Y Publicar Por La Magestad Catolica Del Rey Don Carlos II: Nuestro Senor. Madrid: Boix, 1841. Print.

“Rubber.” Rubber. New World Encyclopedia, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

“Tratado De Tordesillas.” Planisferio Cantino. Biblioteca Estense Universitaria, 21 May 2017. Web. 23 Apr. 2017.

Search terms: Amazon River Rubber Boom Indies Laws Apaporis-Tabatinga Kingdom of Spain and Portugal New World

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1.Conceptual-Theoretical Framework: ‘BORDERSCAPES’: Understanding what compromises a borderland, border and the new concept of ‘borderscape’.

Brambilla, Chiara, and Holger Pötzsch. “iBorder, Borderscapes, Bordering: A Conversation – Chiara Brambilla and Holger Pötzsch.” Society and Space, 05 Mar. 2015. Web. 30 May 2016. <https://societyandspace.com/material/article-extras/iborder-borderscapes-bordering-a-conversation-chiara-brambilla-and-holgerpotzsch/>.

Brambilla, Chiara. “Exploring the Critical Potential of the Borderscapes Concept.” Geopolitics 20.1 (2014): 14-34. Web. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/ 10.1080/14650045.2014.884561>.

Brambilla, Chiara, Jussi Laine, James Wesley Scott, and Gianluca Bocchi. Borderscaping: Imaginations and Practices of Border Making. N.p.: Routledge, n.d.

Print.

Buoli, Alice. “Borderscaping: Design Patterns and Practices On/across Borderlands.” Territorio 72 (2015): 85-94. Research Gate. Web. <https://www. researchgate.net/publication/277614383_Borderscaping_Design_patterns_and_practices_onacross_borderlands>.

“Definition of Borderland and Border.” Art & Architecture Thesaurus Full Record Display (Getty Research). Getty Research, n.d. Web. 30 May 2016. <http:// www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=border&logic=AND¬e=&english=N&prev_page=1&subjectid=300387143>.

Dell’Agnese, Elena, and Anne-Laure Amilhat-Szary. Borderscapes: From Border Landscapes to Border Aesthetics. S.l.: S.n., 2015. Print.

Rajaram, Prem Kumar., and Carl Grundy-Warr. Borderscapes: Hidden Geographies and Politics at Territory’s Edge. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota, 2007. Print.

Sotiriou, Steven. “Borderscape: (re)defining the Customs.” Borderscape: (re)defining the Customs. University of Witwatersrand, 26 Nov. 2011. Web. 30 May 2016. <http://hdl.handle.net/10539/10658>.

Turner, Nancy J. “Art & Architecture Thesaurus Full Record Display (Getty Research).” Art & Architecture Thesaurus Full Record Display (Getty Research). Human Ecology, n.d. Web. 31 May 2016. <http://www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=border&logic=AND¬e=&english=N&prev_ page=1&subjectid=300387143>.

Viljoen, H. “Crossing Borders, Dissolving Boundaries. Cross/Cultures: Readings in Post/Colonial Literatures and Cultures in English 157.” Tydskrif Vir Letterkunde Tyd Let 51.1 (2014): 178. Web. 85

2. Contemporary Relevant Articles of the Subject Matter: ARCHITIZER. “Can Architects Do For Borders What They’ve Done For Embassies?” CityLab. N.p., 20 June 2013. Web. 30 May 2016. <http://www.citylab.com/ design/2013/06/can-architects-do-borders-what-theyve-done-embassies/5976/>.

THE DATA TEAM. “More Neighbours Make More Fences.” The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 07 Jan. 2016. Web. 30 May 2016. <http://www. economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2016/01/daily-chart-5>.

Henley, Jon. “Walls: An Illusion of Security from Berlin to the West Bank.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 19 Nov. 2013. Web. 30 May 2016. <http:// www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/nov/19/walls-barrier-belfast-west-b-ank>.

Swiatek, Lukasz. “Theorizing Borders through Analyses of Power Relationships.” Regions and Cohesions 4.3 (2014): n. pag. Web. Taylor, Adam. “Map: Europe Is Building More Fences to Keep People out.” Washington Post. The Washington Post, 28 Oct. 2015. Web. 30 May 2016. <https:// www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/08/28/map-the-walls-europe-is-building-to-keep-people-out/>.

Vadjunec, Jacqueline M., Marianne Schmink, and Alyson L. Greiner. “New Amazonian Geographies: Emerging Identities and Landscapes.” Journal of Cultural Geography 28.1 (2011): 1-20. Taylor & Francis Online. Web. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08873631.2011.548477>.

Vergel-Tovar, Erik. Ciudades Gemelas En Fronteras Amazónicas: Estudio De Caso Leticia Y Tabatinga. Bogotá: CUADERNOS DE VIVIENDA Y URBANISMO. Vol. 1, No. 2, 2008: 348 - 393, 7 May 2008. PDF. 3. Contextual information and Support Resources: Dunning, John B., Brent J. Danielson, and H. Ronald Pulliam. “Ecological Processes That Affect Populations in Complex Landscapes.” Ecological Processes That Affect Populations in Complex Landscapes 65.1 (1992): 169-75. JStor. Oikos. Web. 30 May 2016. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/3544901>.

Fisher, Max. “40 More Maps That Explain the World.” Washington Post. The Washington Post, 13 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 May 2016. <https://www.washingtonpost. com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/01/13/40-more-maps-that-explain-the-world/>.

Kim, Dongsei. “The Demilitarized Zone: Redrawing the 151 Mile Border between North and South Korea.” Howard T. Fisher Prize in GIS (2012): n. pag. Harvard Graduate School of Design. Web. 30 May 2016. <https://cga-download.hmdc.harvard.edu/publish_web/Annual_Spring_Workshops/2012_Africa/posters/Kim_ Dongsei.pdf>.

Meyer, Elizabeth. “The Expanded Field of Landscape Architecture.” Ecological Design and Planning (1997): 167-87. Print.

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Secretariat, Permanent. “The Strategic Agenda for ACTO.” AMAZONIAN STRATEGIC COOPERATION AGENDA (2011): n. pag. Http://otca.info/portal/ apresentacao.php?p=agd. ACTO. Web. Schwägerl, Christian. “Along Scar from Iron Curtain, A Green Belt Rises in Germany.” By Christian Schwägerl: Yale Environment 360. Yale Environment 360, 04 Apr. 2011. Web. 30 May 2016. <http://e360.yale.edu/feature/along_scar_from_iron_curtain_a_green_belt_rises_in_germany/2390/>.

Smith, Adrian, and Andy Stirling. “The Politics of Social-ecological Resilience and Sustainable Socio-technical Transitions.” Ecology and Society: The Politics of Social-ecological Resilience and Sustainable Socio-technical Transitions. Science & Technology Policy Research, University of Sussex, n.d. Web. 30 May 2016. <http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss1/art11/>.

4. Border Integration Colombia. Ministerio De Relaciones Exteriores. Comisiones Binacionales De Vecindad. Vol. 5. Santafé De Bogotá: Tercer Mundo Editores, 1994.

Linares, Rosalba. “Zona De Integración Fronteriza (ZIF) Y Su Dimensión Territorial En La Frontera Táchira (Venezuela) - Norte De Santander (Colombia).” Redalyc. org. Aldea Mundo, Nov. 2005. Web. 07 Feb. 2014.

EPYPSA EPYPSA. Plan Maestro De Integración Y Desarrollo Fronterizo Binacional En Argentina Y Bolivia. Tech. EPYPSA, n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2014. <http://www.epypsa. com/entrada117.html>.

Convenio Andrés Bello. A Integración Y El Desarrollo Social Fronterizo. 1st ed. Vol. 3. Bogota: Convenio Andrés Bello, 2006-2007. Print.

García De La Torre, Clara Ines. Fronteras : Territorios Y Metáforas. 1st ed. Medellin: Hombre Nuevo Editores, 2002.

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Search Terms: Natural Structure 1. Ecosystem 2. Eco-Region 3. Co-Habitation

4.

Anthropologic Biomes 5. Ecozone

6.

Freshwater Ecoregion Edges + Borders 1. Border 2. Borderscapes

3.

Biosphere Reserves 4. Borderland

5.

Permeable + Impermeable Social Component 4. Development 5. Social-ecological resilience 6. Endogenous Development 7. Urbanization

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