Lokayata Vol. XIII, No.01 & 02 ( September 2022)

Lokāyata Journal of Positive Philosophy

(ISSN: 2249-8389)

Vol. XIII, No.01 & 02, September 2022

Chief-Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy is an online bi-annual interdisciplinary journal of the Center for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS). The name Lokāyata can be traced to Kautilya's Arthashastra, which refers to three ānvīkṣikīs (logical philosophies), Yoga, Samkhya and Lokāyata. Lokāyata here still refers to logical debate (disputatio, "criticism") in general and not to a materialist doctrine in particular. The objectives of the journal are to encourage new thinking on concepts and theoretical frameworks in the disciplines of humanities and social sciences to disseminate such new ideas and research papers (with strong emphasis on modern implications of philosophy) which have broad relevance in society in general and man’s life in particular. The Centre publishes two issues of the journal every year. Each regular issue of the journal contains full-length papers, discussions and comments, book reviews, information on new books and other relevant academic information. Each issue contains about 100 Pages. © Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies, Pehowa (Kurukshetra) Chief-Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Assistant Professor (Philosophy), Post Graduate Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh.

Editorial Advisory Board:

Dr. Ranjan Kumar Behera (St. Joseph University, Virgin Town, Ikishe Model Village, Dimapur, Nagaland).

Dr. Merina Islam (Department of Philosophy, Cachar College, Silchar, Assam).

Dr. Dinesh Chahal (Department of Education, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh).

Dr. Manoj Kumar (P.G. Department of Sociology, P.G.Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh).

Dr. Sudhir Baweja (University School of Open Learning,, Panjab University, Chandigarh).

Dr. K. Victor Babu (Institute of Education, Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia).

Dr. Jayadev Sahoo (Jr. Lecturer in Logic & Philosophy, GM Jr. College, Sambalpur, Odisha).

Dr. Rasmita Satapathy (Department of Philosophy, Ramnagar College, West Bengal.)

Dr.Pankoj Kanti Sarkar (Department of Philosophy, Debra Thana Sahid Kshudiram Smriti Mahavidyalaya, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal).

Mrs. Chetna Gupta (Department of Philosophy, SPM College, University of Delhi).

Dr. Kamal Krishan (Department of Hindi, P.G.Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh).

Declaration: The opinions expressed in the articles of this journal are those of the individual authors, and not necessary of those of CPPIS or the Chief-Editor.

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In this issue……………..

Sr. No. 1.

Title of the Paper & Author A Dialectical Understanding of Karmic Bondage (The Bhagavat Gita

Page No. 4

Perspective): Pramod Kumar Dash 2.

Secular Modernity and the Idea of the Indian Renaissance: Charu

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Thapliyal 3.

Sustaining Self for Mental Well Being through Indian Thought of

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Yoga : Mohit Vasdev & Dr. Meenu A. Gupta 4.

Two Faces of Solidarity; Rorty and Gadamer, An Analysis: Aquil

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Ahmad 5.

याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय के काव्म भें याष्ट्रीम बावना: डॉ प्रवीण ठाकुय

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7.

Reports of the Programmes

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8.

Contributors to this issue

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A Dialectical Understanding of Karmic Bondage (The Bhagavat Gita Perspective) Pramod Kumar Dash

I Introduction: Dialectical understanding is different from the understanding through factual description and mere logical analysis. It is also different from speculative assertions and linguistic analysis. Prof. A. K. Mohanty writes: Dialectical operation involves the total personality of man and arises out of the cognitive necessity to arrive at truth absolute, the conative necessity to find the ultimate good and the affective need to meet the most beauteous or sublime. In the progressive march of the dialectic of dialectical movement, the lower is transcended by overcoming the oppositions among warring cognitive perceptions, conative dispositions and affective predilectitions of human personality. Complete absence of dialectical stance might make one’s thesis degenerate into dogma.1 Dialectical understanding is the highly evolved consciousness that begins with logical analysis but ends with its application in the empirical life situations of an individual. It is not restricted to the understanding of the logical pairs of opposites such as ‗A and not-A‘ and ‗A or not- A‘ which lead to the logical consequences of contradiction and tautology respectively. On the other hand, dialectical understanding leads to the ethical paradigm of Self-transformation by the realization of the pairs of opposites which are experienced empirically in life. The Bhagavat Gita is a treatise of dialectical understanding of the ethical paradigm of Self-transformation. The cognitive, conative and affective aspects of human personality are to be transformed for attaining the ultimate goal of life (Purusartha), i.e., moksha (liberation). But liberation is not an abstraction from the practical life. The state of freedom is attainable only through the dialectical understanding of the pairs of opposites which are construed as true wisdom. Lack of dialectical understanding is bondage because man becomes misguided and deluded by the different one-sided perspectives. Bondage originates from ignorance and gets infected by its manifestation through action and emotion. Liberation is freedom from ignorance which is removed and transformed to perfection through dialectical understanding of the apparent opposites.

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The Bhagavat Gita begins with Visada Yoga and ends with Moksha Sanyasa Yoga. It begins with confusion, ignorance, disappointment, infatuation and delusion and ends with wisdom and liberation. From this it is evident that the Bhagavat Gita acknowledges both ignorance and wisdom, both bondage and liberation as the natural facts of life. The twist between Visada and Yoga is a dialectical twist which is not found in any literature of both west and east except the Bhagavat Gita.

Both Visada and Yoga appear to be opposite pairs, but it is justified in the Bhagavat Gita that wisdom starts from a rational inquisitive mind. The doors of learning get closed by a mind of complacence.

Man is a questioning being. Man is inquisitive by nature. Man is able to question the obvious and sometimes the authentic. This holy treatise believes in transformation. There is genuine transformation from the lower level of consciousness to the higher level of consciousness in every step of human existence. This transformation is possible through right knowledge or wisdom. The highest wisdom, the spiritual consciousness seems to fall under a self-delusion. This cause of delusion is conceived as the indescribable power called Maya. Maya is not perceptible except its manifestations. Maya has two distinct modes of expression, at two different layers of consciousness. Maya is the Veiling Power (Avarana Shakti) and the Projecting Power (Vikshepa Shakti). Maya conceals the reality and projects the unreal. The intellect being ignorant of its spiritual destiny struggles to fulfill itself, and then surges forward, seeking satisfaction amongst the finite sense-objects of the world. When the intellect discovers in itself a capacity to pierce through the dreary veil of ignorance, it comes to live its own Real Nature of Infinite Bliss. Each fleeting joy in the sense-world only sharpens its appetite for the Infinite Bliss. When one‘s intellect comes to a steady equipoise and is undisturbed by any of the experiences, then one is considered as having attained Yoga. There are hundreds of such empirical pairs of opposites in the Bhagavat Gita out of which we can exemplify very few like ‗Visad and Yoga‘, ‗Life and Death‘, ‗Manifest and Unmanifest‘, ‗Karma and Akarma‘, ‗Kama and Nishkama‘, ‗Karma Yoga and Karma Sanyasa‘, ‗Sadharana dharma and Svadharma‘, ‗Absolutism and Contextualism‘, ‗Determinism and Freewill‘, Jnana and Vijnana, ‗Attachment and Detachment‘, ‗Empirical vision and Transcendental vision‘, ‗Saguna bhakti and Nirguna bhakti‘, ‗Surrender and Freedom‘, etc..

In this paper we shall discuss two fundamental dialectical opposites, namely, ‗ignorance and knowledge‘ and ‗attachment and detachment‘ in order to explain the secret of karmic bondage. In common parlance, it is understood that karmic bondage is due to karma. In other words, karmic bondage is the consequence of performing karma, but in this paper, we shall discuss how karmic bondage has its origin in ignorance and attachment; and karma yoga is the consequence of our true knowledge and total devotion (Jnana and bhakti).

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II Ignorance – Knowledge Interface: Ignorance is the root cause of bondage. Hence knowledge is the root cause of liberation or freedom from bondage. We are informed by the texts that Arjuna apart from being a great warrior was also a wise person. But a question that very often arises: Why did Arjuna get himself trapped in the bondage of inactivity, indecision and ultimately find himself in the state of despair and distress? From this it is evident that even a wise person can also be trapped by bondage. Then how can we claim that ignorance is the root cause of bondage? The character of Ajuna is a symbolic example of a person who is worldly wise with all expertise and at the same time being deluded and frustrated in the real situation of life. This is what happens to a common ignorant person having no realization of the reality. The role of jnana is of paramount significance. The Indian philosophical literature underlines the fundamental distinction between empirical knowledge and non-empirical knowledge. In the Upanishads, knowledge has been classified as Para and Apara. The former refers to the knowledge of the ultimate reality and the latter refers to the body of empirical knowledge. In the Bhagavat Gita, we find a parallel distinction between Jnana and Vijnana. Here jnana refers to the conspectus of actual and possible knowledge of the phenomenal whereas vijnana is the highest knowledge. Empirical knowledge is not decried as false or misleading but is considered to be indispensible in so far as it enables one to gain the highest knowledge. The terms ‗knowledge‘ and ‗ignorance‘ are antithetical to each other but they are the two sides of the same coin in so far as the understanding of one reveals the nature of the other. If the highest knowledge is to be understood as knowledge of the Self, then it should be distinguished from the knowledge of the non-Self. Ignorance consists in mistaking not-Self to be the Self. Bondage becomes inevitable when the impermanent is mistaken as the permanent. In the Bhagavat Gita, one comes across the ontological dialectics of Purusottama and Ksetrajna, Aksara and Ksara. The term Ksetrajna is used to denote the ‗Self‘. Ksetra is referred to as the body-mind complex. It is constituted by the gunas of Prakriti, viz., Sattva, Rajas and Tamas.. It is something which is subject to birth, growth and decay. The conscious principle which makes this body-mind complex functional is the Ksetrajna or the knower of the field. Because of ignorance, one wrongly identifies the knower of the field (Ksetrajna) as the field (Ksetra) and that results in the duality of pleasure and pain. Because of ignorance, the Self imbibes the qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas and remains bound to the psycho-physical propensities, made up of the constituents of Prakrti from birth to birth. This explains the perennial bondage of the Self.

Knowledge consists not only in distinguishing the self from the not-self, but also in having the vision that the Ksetrajna in different Ksetras is one and the same. This refers to the transcendent nature of the Ksetrajna and points to the qualitative monism of the Bhagavat Gita.

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Mind defines a man. As is the mind, so is the individual. If the mind is disturbed, the individual is disturbed. If the mind is good, the individual is good. This mind is constituted of two distinct sides – one facing the world of stimuli that reach it from the objects of the world, and the other facing the ‗within‘. The outer mind facing the objects of the world is called the objective mind (in Sanskrit – Manas), and the inner mind is called the subjective mind (in Sanskrit – buddhi). That individual is whole and healthy in whom the objective and subjective aspects of mind work in unison. In the moments of doubt or confusion, the objective mind readily comes under the disciplining influence of the subjective mind. But unfortunately, the majority of human beings have minds that are split. This split between the subjective and the objective aspects of our mind is mainly created by the layer of egoistic desires in the individual. As the desires in us, so are our thoughts. At every moment, the texture and quality of our thoughts are directly conditioned and controlled by our desires. Thoughts in an individual, expressed in the outer world-of-objects, become his actions. Actions are nothing other than the agent‘s thoughts projected and expressed in the world. Thus, in this chain of ignorance, constituted of desires, thoughts and actions, each one of us is caught and bound. Naturally, therefore, if the Supreme can be defined as ‗the experience beyond ignorance‘, it must necessarily be true that the real Self is realized in the state of desirelessness or in the condition of thoughtlessness or in the life of actionlessness. By mere renunciation of action, no one attains perfection. Running away from life is not at all the way to reach the highest goal. The attainment of the highest goal lies in a process of continuous self-transformation.

The Bhagavat Gita observes: na karmaṇamanārambhānnaiskarmyaṁ puruṣó śnute, na ca sannyasanādeva siddhi samadhigachhati 2 Not by non-performance of actions does man reach ‗actionlessness‘; nor by mere renunciation does he attain ‗Perfection‘. 3

Every action does not result in bondage.. It is only the unintelligent activities that thicken the impressions in the mind and build an impenetrable wall between the ego and the unlimited Divine Spark in us that actually bind. All activities other than the yajna-activities bring about vasana-bondage and the individual‘s Self-transformation is arrested. Yajna-activities are performed for lokasangraha based on the ideal of Nishkamakarma.

The Bhagavat Gita observes: yajñāthārtkarmaṇó nyatra lokó yaṁ karmabandhanaḥ, tadarthaṁ karma kaunteya muktasaṅgaḥ samācara.4

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The world is bound by actions other than those performed ‗for the sake of sacrifice‘; do thou, therefore, O son of Kunti, perform action for that sake (for Yajna) alone, free from all attachments.5

III Attachment – Detachment Interface: The Bhagavat Gita enumerates that the ethical discipline is necessary for the highest knowledge. The discipline consists in controlling the senses. If the senses are not restrained, they run after the pleasurable and the obsession with the pleasurable results in the malfunctioning of understanding. When the faculty of intellect (buddhi) is impaired, one fails to distinguish between the desirable and the undesirable, the pleasurable and the preferable, the relative and the absolute. Then ultimately one is ruined by delusion.

The Bhagavat Gita observes: Krodhād bhavat saṁmohaḥ saṁmohāt smṛtivibhramaḥ Smṛtibhramśād buddhināśo buddhināśāt praṇaśyati. 6 From anger comes delusion; from delusion ‗loss of memory; from loss of memory the destruction of discrimination; from destruction of discrimination, he perishes.7

The doctrine of purusathas spells out the schemata of four fundamental values which the individual has to imbibe in letter and spirit. Dharma, artha, kama and moksa constitute the four integral components of the value schemata. These four values are moulded with the life of an individual so intimately that every occasion in life facilitates one‘s journey to the cherished goal. Bereft of dharma, pursuit of kama degenerates into passion. Bereft of dharma, artha degenerates into acquisitiveness and greed. Without dharma, ‗kama‘ becomes ‗vasana‘ and ‗artha‘ becomes ‗anartha‘. Hence, dharma is the only imperative to guard both kama and artha (the empirical values) so that one can attain the trans-empirical value, the highest value of life, moksha. Kama or desire is accepted as one of the value paradigms (purusathas) and at the same time it is considered as the root cause of suffering. Kama is also understood in the sense of attachment. The Bhagavat Gita does not disqualify attachment all together because without attachment no work is possible. Our attachment should be genuine and backed by proper reason. Our attachment should be pursued through the sense of detachment. It is observed in the opening verse of 8

Isopanisad, ―Tena tyaktena bhunjhita‖ which suggests that one should be attached to the world with the sense of detachment. The Bhagavat Gita identifies Arjuna‘s improper attachment to grief (visada) which is not expected from a wise person like Arjuna.

The Bhagavat Gita observes: aśocyānanvasocaśtvaṁ prajñāvādāṁśca bhāṣase, gatāsunagatāsuṁśca nānuśocanti paṇḍitāḥ. 8 ―You have grieved for those that should not be grieved for; yet, you speak words of wisdom. The wise grieve neither for the living nor for the dead.‖ 9

The concept of dharma and svadharma are vital for understanding karmic bondage, freedom, responsibility and the state of perfection. Dharma forms the nucleus of social order and makes us reflect on the notion of svadharma and paradharma in the Bhagavat Gitā. Performance of svadharma is unqualified and unconditional. Act one must, but the action to be morally viable, must be according to one‘s svadharma. The duty has to be performed irrespective of consequences. Very often, moral justification of an action is given in terms of the immediate consequences or immediate expediency.

Svadharma is determined by svabhava which signifies the proneness of the individual to do certain type of things. Niskāmakarma shows the method of transforming ordinary karma into the case of Akarma and indirectly prevents one from doing Vikrama. When one is established in the state of Niskāmakarma, it ultimately takes one to the state of naiskarmya. Niskāma is cognized as a qualified kāma installed with five fundamental attributes. Firstly, kāma should be free from the sense of agency (kartābhava). Secondly, kāma should be free from attachment for the results or consequences, favourable or unfavourable. Thirdly, kāma should be inclined for the collective well-being (lokasangraha). Fourthly, kāma should be executed by free will or rational will. And finally, kāma should be guided by the principle of righteousness (dharma).

The ego arises when we are ignorant and forgetful of our spiritual nature. When this ignorance is ended, there is the experience of the infinite bliss of the All-Full-Consciousness. When desires are absent, the thought breeding ends. When thoughts are dried up, actions which are the parade of thoughts, are no more. This state is called actionlessness – Naishkarmya Siddhi. An intellect that is attached to sensuous things of the world outside knows no peace within itself. In the case of Arjuna, his tall talks of detachment and renunciation were false urges of escapism. His sanyasa arose out of the attachment for his kith and kin, while true sanyasa must arise out of detachment. Mind is the seat of all

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vanities of agency, like ‗I am the doer‘, ‗I am the enjoyer‘, ‗I am the knower‘, ‗I am my mind‘, ‗I am my intellect‘, and so on. These are all instances of egocentric attachment.

The Bhagavat Gita observes: Asaktabuddhiḥ sarvatra jitātmā vigataspṛhaḥ, Naiṣkamryasiddhiṁ paramāṁ sannyāsenādhigachhanti.10

He whose intellect is unattached everywhere, who has subdued his self, from whom desire has flied, he, through renunciation, attains the Supreme state of freedom from action. 11

IV Conclusion: The Synthesis The Bhagavat Gita enunciates a new principle of social action through the ethical paradigm of Svadharma. In the coexistence of dialectical opposites of ethical paradigms, there lies the secret of self-transformation. One should have transcendental visualization beyond the empirical dialectical differences. Spirituality does not advocate escapism. It espouses a scientific approach to social transformation. But for this there must be established a nucleus of transformation in the life of an individual. One should have transcendental visualization beyond the empirical dialectical differences. This visualization leads to the state of liberation.

Liberation is the state of ultimate perfection, bliss, beatitude and harmony. A Nishkamakarmi must have an implicit vision of reality. In the state of liberation, action, knowledge and devotion find their consummation. The liberated one is one who is the real knower (jnani), an ideal agent (nishkamakarmi) and a true devotee (bhakta). A true and diligent man can discover and recognize in himself that even in physical inaction there can be an intense mental and intellectual activity, and he can also recognize that he, even in the most intense activities, himself as an observer of it, is reveling in ‗inactivity‘ (akarma). Such an individual has thereby reached a state of great equanimity. Such an individual can stand constantly apart from himself and observe the activity in inactivity and complete inactivity even in the highest activity. Such a karmayogi is called Atma Yukta.

The philosophy of the Bhagavat Gita does reconcile the apparent anomalies between the claims of determinism and free-will. A Nishkamakarmi who has merged his will in the will of God, has no will of his own and acts only for lokasangraha. When he attains this state, all his actions are bound to be righteous. They become the very paradigm of morality. The yogi or the liberated one is one whose actions, having been promoted by the will of God, do necessarily go 10

to preserve and promote the cosmic order and when construed from the social perspective, they are directed unto lokasangraha. But in order to attain this highest form of disembodied freedom, one must be qualified to attain the state of Jivanamukti. Jivanamukti is the state of freedom while living an embodied life. The Bhagavat Gita has given much importance on Jivanamukti as it is the highest form of self-transformation. The self transforms from ignorance to knowledge and from bondage to liberation gradually through spiritual sadhana or through the practice of Yoga. In the state of jivanamukti, the dialectical opposition between life and death becomes insignificant because one becomes completely identified with one‘s svadharma. In jivanamukti, there is neither death-consciousness nor life-attachment. This is also not a state of inactivity. This is a state where one becomes really qualified to do and enjoy one‘s Svadharma.

This is possible, as suggested by the Bhagavat Gita, by the synthesis of jnana, karma and bhakti.

Action without knowledge ceases to be an ideal action and knowledge without action remains a mere abstraction. Similarly, knowledge without devotion creates vanity and action without devotion gets tainted with ego-sense. Karma marga, jnana marga and bhakti marga are the three different ways for the attainment of the highest state The synthesis of jnana, karma and bhakti has been explained in the expressions like ―Samatvaṁ yoga ucyate‖12, ―Yogaḥ karmasu Kauśalaṁ‖13 and ―Sarbadharmanparityajya māmekam śaraṇaṁ vraja‖14. . The Bhagavat Gita suggests that karma, jnana and bhakti constitute an integral part of human consciousness and the synthesis of all three faculties bring self-transformation.

References: 1. Mohanty, Aditya Kumar, Philosophy: Why? What? How?, Elite Publications, Bhubaneswar, 2009. p. 364.

2. Ch. III – 04, BG 3. Chinmayananda, Swami, The Holy Geeta, Chapter III – 4, , Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, Mumbai, 2016. p.197.

4. Ch. III – 09, BG 5. Ibid., p. 204.

6. Ch. II – 63, BG 7. Ibid., p.167.

8. Ch. II - 11, BG 9. Ibid., p.71.

10. Ch. XVIII - 49, BG 11. Ibid., p.1207 12. Ch. II - 18, BG 11

13. Ch. II – 50, BG 14. Ch. XVIII – 66, BG

Bibliography: 1. Aurobindo, Sri,―Essays on the Gita‖, (First series), Sri Aurobindo Ashram, 2. Anirvan Buddhiyoga of the Gita and Other Essays, Biblia Impex Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1983.

3. Aurobindo, The Bhagavatgita, Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1970 4. Bahm, A.J., “The Bhagavad Gita”,Somaiya Publications Pvt.Ltd., Bombay, 1970.

5. Chinmayananda, Swami, The Holy Gita, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, Mumbai, 2016.

6. Das, Nilakantha, “SrimadBhagvad Gita”, (In Odia), SathiPrakasana ,Cuttack, New Edition 2005.

7. “Essays on the Gita”, (Second series), Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondichery, Ninth Impression, 1989 8. Gokhale, S.D., “Srimad-Bhagavad Gita”,Gokhale, Inchgeri, India, 1969.

9. Gandhi, M.K., “Gandhi The Bhagavat Gita”, Orient Paperbacks, Delhi, reprint-2003 10. Mohanty, Aditya Kumar, Philosophy: How? What? Why?, Elite Publications, Bhubaneswar, 11. Nayak, G. C., ―Madhyamika Sunyata – A Reappraisal‖, New Delhi, Indian Philosophical Research, 2001.

12. Ray, Hrudananda, ―Dialectic‖, Cuttack, Santosh Publications, 1998 13. Sarkar, Anil Kumar, ―Dynamics Facets of Indian Thought‖ (Vol -1), NewDelhi, Manohar Publications, 1980.

14. Sarlemijn, Andries, “Hegel’s Dialectic‖, Holand, Boston, USA, D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1971.

15. Sharma, Dhirendra, ―The Negative Dialectics: A Study of the Negative Dialecticism in Indian Philosophy‖, New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1974.

16. Shaha, S. M., “The Dialectic of Knowledge and Reality in Indian Philosophy‖, Delhi, Eastern Book Linkers, 1987.

17. “The Message of the Gita”, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1946.

18. Translated By Bhattacharya, Kamaleswar, “The Dialectical Method of Nagarjuna”, Delhi, Edited By E. H. Johnston and Arnold Kunst, Motilal Banarsidass, 1978.

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Secular Modernity and the Idea of the Indian Renaissance Charu Thapliyal

Abstract ‗Secular modernity‘ is used by Bhushan and Garfield to analyse how Indian Philosophy written in English under the Colonial Rule, and after, has contributed to Indian Philosophy as practiced today.

This paper aim to broadly look at how the idea of secular modernity is applicable to India and Indian philosophy in particular, both secular and modern being categories borrowed from the West. It attempts to question along these terms whether a Renaissance even happened in the Indian philosophical context because of the colonial intervention and consequent practice of Indian philosophy in English, or not.

Keywords - Indian philosophy, contemporary Indian philosophy, secular, modern, Indian Philosophy in English

Introduction The Indian colonial period is marked by an intense transformation of the Indian psyche towards fundamental religious values. This transformation can be seen most prominently in the way philosophy is done today versus how it was done in the Vedic time.

Bhushan and Garfield wrote the paper ―Pandits and Professors : The Renaissance of Secular India‖ broadly to analyse how Indian Philosophy written in English under the Colonial Rule and after has contributed to Indian Philosophy as practiced today, not only within India but in the entire world. Prior to the advent of the British in India philosophy was an activity restricted to the maths and it was the pandits who practiced it, passing it down from generation to generation through the guru-shishya lineage. This was also how various philosophical systems came to be and how different philosophers identified with the philosophy of their guru and followed in that tradition. This situation changed when the English education system was introduced to India by the British, bringing philosophy away from the temples and into the classrooms. The authors identify with the thought that claims that it was the introduction of western education in India which brought philosophy as it is being practiced today to the academic sphere. Specifically, they argued how this kind of Indian philosophy in English has given to India what they term the ―gift of the secular‖ (Bhushan, Garfield,2011)

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In this paper I aim to broadly look at how the idea of secular modernity is applicable to India and Indian philosophy in particular, both secular and modern being categories borrowed from the West. I do not aim to put any value judgments on either but merely wish to start a discussion, thereby giving space for further considerations on the same.

I The word renaissance comes from the latin root ‗nasci‘ which means to be born. Renaissance started out in Europe as a cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and the modern period where arts, sciences and modern machinery started to flourish dispelling outdated models of thinking built on religious fundamentalism. The word has since been adapted to suit different cultures throughout the world whenever there has been a marked shift in the perspective of a society regarding its own culture and the adoption of new ways of looking at the old by it. The term is used in the paper ‗Pandits and Professors‘ to indicate a new birth of philosophy which occurred in India due to the introduction of the English language in academia. Western modes of thinking applied by western orientalists to Indian philosophy secularized it. This signified the new birth of Indian philosophy as it is seen and practiced today.

However, was it a rebirth which was actually happening or a gradual homogenisation of the indigenous culture which has been glorified to suit western tastes? The authors talk of a rediscovery which happened, cobwebs and dust that had settled on Indian culture and history were removed with the help of an English lens.

If we talk of the ―rebirth‖ of a secular India that would signify that India was secular in its origin and the imposition of something else made it non-secular which consequently led to the rising of a secular India from the ashes, much like a phoenix. However, if rebirth was spoken of in the sense that a new way of doing Indian philosophy was being created in the secular space, neither fully Indian nor fully western but nevertheless being done in English, then that remains to be diagnosed.

Naravane writes in reference to H.C.E. Zacharis‘s Renascent India : ―There are books ostensibly dealing with the ‗renaissance‘ in modern India, in which-incredible though it may sound- there is not a single reference to any philosopher or to any important intellectual movement‖.(Naravane,1964) One of the pioneering figures of modern Indian history has been Aurobindo who has spoken and written extensively about the Indian renaissance, and whether a renaissance actually even happened in India. He insisted that the answer to the question depended on what one meant by the term renaissance and also what the future holds since he was speaking from a perspective when India was still in the thick of things. ―It is when a greater light prevails and becomes general that we shall be able to speak, not only in prospect but in fact, of the renaissance of India‖, he said.(Aurobindo,1918) 14

It is worth questioning how this Renaissance which occurred during the colonial times is faring now that the Indian self-consciousness has reached its puberty.

II According to the authors, post the mutiny of 1857 there was a rediscovery of India by the creation of a national identity which was rooted in Vedic culture but looking towards the international stage.

Different narratives were adopted by people to provide an origin story for the development of this newfound Indian self-consciousness. Key players here were Coomaraswamy (geographical and cultural narrative), Aurobindo (spiritual narrative) and Nehru (historical narrative).

The authors argue how the fusion of Indian and Western Philosophy has served its purpose by legitimizing Indian Philosophy as an enquiry of global concern, by segregating Indian philosophy from the traditional maths and taking the discussion to a secular space and by providing an ideological dimension to the development of this Indian national identity.

Since ―secular‖ was a western term only introduced to the Indian political sphere by the arrival of the British it leaves me with a question about how there could have been a ‗rebirth‘ of a secular India and how this category imposed by the western world played a part in forming the National Identity that Indians have, by an informal consensus, chosen to adopt and enact since then.

It is in this secularization of Indian philosophy by the use of the English language that much of context was lost. Western orientalists have received their own share of flak for being the forerunners in this regard. However, their contribution to the field cannot be outrightly denied or condemned as they were doing their best in their context with the means they had to produce the results they thought were the need of the hour. Krishna Mallick sheds light on this when he writes: ―It is true that it is difficult to relate eastern and western cultural values.

Radhakrishnan himself was aware of the fact. But I think that Radhakrishnan is one of the first philosophers who proposed such a meeting of the East and the West in systematic philosophical form. That itself is the greatest contribution of Rashakrishnan to philosophy. Now it is our, the present generations‘ task to find out the correct methods that are workable.‖(Mallick,1995) The orientalists were like Columbus going out into the great unknown. They came across unchartered territory and gave it to the world as Indian philosophy, which later proved to not be the case so much.

But in doing so the act itself opened up a whole new world for further intellectual explorers to engage with.

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III Secular being analysed we now move on to the category of modern. Academia itself is rife with various debates about what exactly consists the modern and how is the problem of modernity legitimised when looked at in retrospect. Issues like humanism, consciousness, rationality, subjectivity, national identity, the western canon of great texts, gender, or even being in itself are being put under the radar now. In our age ‗modern‘ really means western. What are considered as the great achievements of European Modernity are being second-guessed. Many authors now argue how the issue of modernity is political.

Debates on modernization are considered to be in essence debates on westernisation. The desirability of the implications of modernity have thus become questionable.

Modernity itself is being questioned as being a repetition of Christian or even Platonic themes. Pippin goes further to argue that ―many modern authors were well aware of the similarity between their own views and traditional Christian ones. They were not unknowingly secularizing, but explicitly borrowing for their own purposes, often with quite unchristian ends in mind‖. (Pippin,1991) Modern was a social and political category adopted by Indian society more than a philosophical movement in the Indian thought tradition. In secularizing Indian Philosophy, were western orientalists unknowingly giving a hidden religious christian flavour to Indian philosophy? And in that sense, is the Indian Philosophy practiced in English really Indian Philosophy, as Daya Krishna puts it? Now that we are on the other side of the modern veil we have the means and scope available to analyze these issues and see whether any improvement can be done or whether the damage is irreparable.

The article concludes by talking about Secular Modernity and how it simultaneously allowed a space for private practice of religion as well as a secular public dialogue that allowed India to be rooted in its religious tradition but still transcend to a modern stage. The adoption of the term secular modernity was one that arose out of a requirement to unite the nation under a common umbrella.

Was the thing being practiced in the maths religious Indian philosophy in the first place? Vedic and upanishadic scriptures were being taught which are not religious texts as has been lately stressed on by scholars of Classical Indian Philosophy. One of the major reasons why it was termed religious philosophy was because it was being practiced by Indian religious personnel. The content being secular in itself, was Indian Philosophy mislabelled as religious because of the people who were studying it?

In fact, P.T.Raju speaks outrightly against secular modernity when he says that : ―It is this very concept of secular modernity which deadened Indian philosophy. The guru-shishya tradition of India emphasised on disciples taking academic, spiritual refuge under a particular guru or mentor and ideas were developed in the school of thought that 16

the guru propounded. In the West there was a tendency to give a new name to his system and to distinguish it from that of his teachers.‖(Raju,1985) For Mohanty, the philosophy of India has been studied from three different angles, as religious thought, as a way of life and the values of life that it supports. He says that in all three we miss the proper Indian Philosophy and the reader gets the impression that India had no intellectual and academic philosophy, only religious texts. He says ―if Indian philosophy is not a proper philosophy then applying the same reason the whole of Greek, Hellenistic and medieval philosophy has to be omitted from the history of western philosophy.‖(Mohanty,2001) There is an academic side to all philosophical work.

If that indeed is the case then how instrumental was this gift of the secular which the British gave Indian Philosophy? Was it already secular in its own right but not in the way the western conception of secular is? In India secular is taken with a positive connotation, it means an equal regard to all religions. In the West, secular is taken with a negative connotation and means taking a perspective which disregards religious backgrounds. Given these basic differences in the outlook towards the word secular how justified is calling Indian Philosophy secular? And is this secularity something that is desirable or even appreciable in the Indian historical context?

Conclusion Thus we have questioned so far, given its beginnings in Europe, how appropriate is the use of the term ―Renaissance‖ in the Indian historical context in terms of philosophical thought. I then attempted to see through a dissection of the western categories of ―secular‖ and ―modern‖ whether a renaissance in Indian thought really happened during the colonial period as well as how justified is the idea of secular modernity in this case which Garfield talks of. I do not claim to have provided definite answers to these queries of mine but merely a provocation for researchers to dwell more on these issues and dig out that which has probably been lost in translation.

Bibliography: Garfield, J. and Bhushan, N. (2011). "Pandits and Professors : The Renaissance of Secular India." In Indian Philosophy in English : from renaissance to independence, by Jay L. Garfield and Nalini Bhushan, 1-18. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ghosh, A. (1918). "The Renaissance in India." In Indian Philosophy in English : from renaissance to independence, by Jay Garfield and Nalini Bhushan, 37-67. New York: Oxford University Press.

Mallick, K. (1995). "Radhakrishnan's Contributions to Philosophy." In New Essays in the Philosophy of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, by S. S. Rama rao Pappu. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.

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Mohanty, J. N. (2001). Explorations in Philosophy. Oxford University Press.

Naravane, V. S. (1964). Background and Characteristics of Modern Indian Thought. Asia Publishing House.

Pippin, R. B. (1991). Modernism as a Philosophical Problem. Basil Blackwell.

Raju, P. T. (1985). Structural Depths of Indian Thought. South Asian Publishers.

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Sustaining Self for Mental Well Being through Indian Thought of Yoga Mohit Vasdev & Meenu A. Gupta Abstract This paper is an attempt to explore the mind problem, mind-nerves relation and restoration of the natural balance of mind-body-soul triad. This helps us to achieve our Being which is meant to be in harmony. The mind problem with all of us varies only in degree, is wavering by nature, disturbing and dis-easing our physiology too and thus starts the endless vicious circle. The paper looks into how four distinct functions of the human personality- thinking, feeling, willing and intuiting must become active at their highest levels to develop a balanced personality.

What really is a Mind Problem: When nervous breakdown happens, the mind lacks hope and ironically that is the foremost force required to heal any disorder. Now, let‘s see how this breakdown gets manifested in the form of various weaknesses, pains, fears and forebodings. It gets noticed in the patient‘s disinclination to exertion, his getting easily elated or depressed, he is strangely somnolent, irritable wakeful.

The victims of nervous breakdown are the ones who are the best and delicate types, not strong and stable spiritually. Emotions are lively and there is a craving for sympathy. This analysis of human mind and its afflictions have parallel in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras where Sutra 1.30 tell us about nine chitta-vikshepah or Antarayah (or these causing distractions are the obstacles) and in Sutra 1.31 which explains external manifestations of internal obstacles: dukha daurmansya angamejayatva, shvasaprashvasa as saha-bhuvah (or companions).

Life Processes and Parallels: The following triads are parallel life processes that are being lived and they form formulaic fundamentals to understand the disturbances and disorders of any order – physical or mental: stimulus

sensory receptors

Attention

CNS (brain), learning memory and other psychological processes

perception

The process towards manifestation – knowing, feeling and willing – is a matter of the nervous system.

There is no psychosis (mind: thoughts, feelings, decisions) without its corresponding neurosis. Now, Nervous system which have nerve cells which produce nervous energy (Prana or Vata in ayurveda) which gets dissipated into the formation of sensations /action/reactions, the modes or expression 19

through memory, reasoning, knowing (Gyana), feeling (Iccha), willing (kriya) which is parallel outcome of chit/mind thoughts

feelings

decision triad.

Therefore, sound mind= sound body, noblest thoughts

strong will, noblest emotions

great

achievements. This alignment means no double faces/ hypocrisy, placid, no friction. Now when this nervous energy exhausts and is not replenished, it leads to exhaustion or enfeeblement

malady/

neurasthenia (cerebral or spinal) which can be perceived through vasomotor sympathetic systems: Irritable weakness, loss of vigor, disturbed sleep, inaptitude to work, muscular weakness, vague pains.

Why is it so grave? Why Grave? It is grave as appearances of the patients are otherwise which results in others conclusion of patient‘s trouble ―illusory or imagined things.‖ The poor patients trouble goes unnoticed or mistaken to be pretension. There is difficulty in treating owing to misreading of recommendations and deception. The appearances are over joyful at times; ‗over‘ needs to be pondered.

Barometer for repose: There is a lack of repose which is an innate trait of human beings and this lack of repose is perceived in twitching, flushing and unnatural movement of eyes. And with this lack of repose, the patient withdraws from the outer-world, turns inward and this introspection becomes the cause of the depression. If we gauge this patient on the barometer for repose which means clear head, warm heart, thick skin and this type of people just have a warm heart out of three.

Symptoms: The physical symptoms are pain in the head, the back to the neck and the lower part of the spine becomes weak which leads to twitching, jerking. The patient feels sleepy with weariness but finds it difficult to sleep.

Now, the lack of repose or restlessness leads to the loss of memory. Owing to the fleeting nature of mind in restlessness there is a lack of concentration which in turn is due to lack of will or mind control.

The impressions that are formed are either vague or lack clarity and are confusing. These are difficult to retain in memory and the person becomes timid, loses confidence, indecisive and harbour indefinable fear. There is a clear mind -body coordination in both healthy as well as diseased people.

As seen above, these kinds of people have dissipation more than the production and hence they are not able to conserve the energy produced and the principle of production-conservation- dissipation gets imbalanced. When there is a lack of self- control the emotions of the person are carried away in joy and fear and the energy gets wasted. The energy escapes through emotions; therefore, it is important to control emotions through will. Bad Emotions affect tissues and blood. This can be controlled by

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pratipaksh bhawna (PYS 2.33) which will be explained later which in simple words means inhibition of expression which means death of emotion.

A clear mind when conserves energy leads to impressions which are details, continuous line of thought association. To get the mind-body coordination back to normalcy the Indian philosophy and practitioners have found the solution in psycho synthesis. The dislocated phases of the mind are recollected and reorganized, and the unified mind is then directed to the realisation of the divine qualities of the sub-conscious.

Reasons or Causes: Before exploring the therapy let‘s explore quickly the reasons and responses to the empirical world. It can be hereditary but a disciplined mind can reverse and nullify the danger of becoming a victim. Then sadly but importantly our modern education has to be reflected upon as the modern school teaching methodology emphasis on cramming without any actual thinking. Again the modern lifestyle is full of daily stress and strain - in family, at school, cut sleep hours, childhood fears, frights and shock.

The causes for lack of self-control or the Weakness of mind are: 1. Self-Consciousness - which leads to a lack of mental grip.

2. Lack of Voice control – the voice is the hole in the pocket of a man‘s nervous resources.

3. Sense of Inferiority.

4. Fear- make the mind itself a place of unrest instead of a house of quiet.

5. Excessive modesty- it is easily possible to know ourselves so little as to underestimate ourselves.

6.

Lack of control over our facial expressions.

Curative treatment /Treatment without medication: Nerve strain are of three types: 1) Intellectual strain, which can be restored by rest, fresh air, and rational physical treatment, which includes sound sleep, are usually sufficient to restore the mind‘s elasticity and strength. 2) Moral strain like ambition, necessity and failure. Here is not so much the brain toil involved in the pursuit of ambition that spells disaster, but the heavy demands made upon the emotional life. Here moral and cultural values are of consideration because bridges between inner and outer worlds. 3) social strain where rediscovering pleasure, relaxation and arts can come to rescue.

The cure of such a mental disturbance should be found in going back to nature, opposed to the constructed -isms and –ologies of the medical world. This paper is attempting to put together the 21

alternative that the patients should be helped to follow which will help getting himself-back in a holistic way without any side-effects or repercussions for whatever consequences of this treatment would be, it would be towards a healthy life and a better world.

As stated earlier the patient should practice Pratipaksh bhawna which means opposite emotion. To exemplify when one gets annoyed, one should keep smiling. This will lead to death of bad emotion and the balanced personality will be restored (PYS 2.33). Lack of repose leads to blocking of currents and thus nervous derangement. It can be balanced back by counter/vent out by cultivating habits of friendliness, compassion, complacency and indifference towards happiness, misery, virtue and vice (respectively) the mind becomes pure and poise. (PYS 1.33) Then again, as hinted earlier, going back to nature can bring the person back to his true nature or self.

Nature, sound/music, colour scheme (bright), rest (other than sleep, not idleness) are some of the therapeutic techniques for the same. Mild fatigue is healthy and can be induced by a short walk in nature.

HOBBIES: A hobby has been defined as a pursuit one follows with zeal and enthusiasm. When an agreeably employed mind escapes from itself and renders positive fatigue. According to their taste and inclination, hobbies, such as reading, drawing, music, gardening etc. can be chosen. They tend to ease and quiet the nervous system. Relaxation techniques: Then rest is not idleness or inducing sleep but the complacency even in wakeful hours. And fatigue is in fact needed for sleep. Relaxation should be illuminating. Let ourselves go deep respiration (Yogic Breathing), muscle relaxed by means of YogaNidra and deep yogic breathings, rest interval or the pause. Amusement - mental and emotional as it makes life pleasant.

Sleep: Which is fundamentally the builder and repairer of the nervous system. The conditions, however, under which sleep supervenes are comparatively well known. They are the following: fatigue, diminished blood pressure on the brain, and a cessation of mental activity.

The Moral Control (or psycho-synthesis) will give purity, sincerity, honesty, uprightness; thus, restoring and maintaining the nervous system (repose or hope). Lessening strain is loosening strain which leads to cheerfulness giving mental joy which will affect our physical system by providing good gut and thus life full of vigour and the cycle completes with less strain. Lancet Report states that ―mental influences affect the system; and a joyous spirit not only relieves pain but increases the momentum of life in the body.‖ (Man and the Nerves Page.121)

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Regaining control of mind: The above curative treatment will help in the mental control of the patients. To achieve the state of harmony Patanjali gives the three fundamental processes: 1. The process of Nirodha Parinama (Stoppage) or the process of Nivritti. (PYS 3.9) 2. The process of Samadhi Parinama (concentration) or the process of purified Pravritti. (PYS 3.11) 3. The process of Ekagrata Parinama (success as to singleness of purpose) or the process of harmonizing Pravritti with Nivritti. (PYS 3.12) The effect and object of this harmonizing process is to realize the happiness of divine union as well as to get rid of afflictions that arise from ignorance, egotism, passion, hatred and attachment. (PYS 2.2) Therefore, it can be said that the personality itself is a mind under the guidance of that mysterious entity we call the ―self‖. As mentioned earlier about the process of Inhibition which is chitta-nirodha and it helps in the economy of energy. Further we know that there are actions carried out without intervention of the brain known as reflex actions but we can restrain them partially by the action of the will/modified by determined yogic control. This helps in preserving and repairing the nervous system and hence in not only regaining control of mind but going beyond in the world of supreme powers. For this experience of supreme control or super consciousness or even for the success in our endeavours we need to develop the following: Developing concentration requires development of the powers of sight and hearing. We can increase our such powers only when we acquire attention which can ony be utmost when we involve ourselves in our action based on the interest. But there are practices in the Indian system of yoga like trataka, shambhavi mudra, nasa-drishti, naad etc., which can help in the development of concentration. Here also the life process of knowing -feeling- willing works in the triad of attention- interest/cause-effect.

There are some popular mental ability and memory power retention exercises that are practised; many of the games in the mobile are also based on these: 1. Notice features of faces and then write them.

2. Listen to noises of clock 3. Remember articles in a room.

Here, the focus on accuracy precedes speed. These can be mastered well with the mantra of ―Listen with the mind. There‘s life in a look‖. The things can be associated with the ideas, thoughts, arguments to be deposited in the memory; this technique is also known as mnemonics. Patanjali says by practicing Pranayama the fitness of the mind for concentration is secured. (PYS 2.53) 23

The Will is conditioned by vigorous and sustained thought and healthy and sustained emotion.

Patanjali in his Yoga sutras also stresses on Abhyasa i.e. practice and Vairagya i.e. detachment. (PYS 1.12) Mind exhibits itself in three ways, feeling+thought+will and sometimes one predominates sometimes other. The greatest thing, in each of us, is neither thought nor emotion, not even action, which is applied will-power, but the ―Self,‖ the ―I‖. It is this which is the sovereign power, and which, through all the years of our conscious being, is the fundamental element in each human life.

Words(affirmation) are living things. They shape and direct our subconscious life. When word sinks down it germinates like a seed and throws upon thoughts and images which makes/mars our happiness.

Therein lies the importance and the need for Subhashitam/chanting/mantra recitation. This will enrich subconscious life, save us from moods and fits of depression. Again, our Work, Interests and hobbies occupy troubled mind in healthy way, replenishes it along by keeping worry, care and anxiety away, gives a little room for brooding, trains him in discipline and pleasure. Sense of right to rest, work proves to be a moral tonic as Work is activity for an end whereas Play is activity as an end. Interests tend to ease and quiet the nervous system. Hobbies - reading, indoor, gardening, collecting specimens, nature eventually, and successfully reasserting herself.

Music – Emotion, thought, and action, are related to each other. Hence it is possible to appeal to the emotions, by means of music, as to influence for good not only the mind, but the whole man. Music is the outward expression of tone, pitch and harmony which are found, more or less, in the world of nature. It provides that inward poise and calm without which life is vain. It has a stimulating effect upon the body which helps in the healthy flow of blood which ensures better development of respiratory organs and better process of digestion. As we have already looked into the triad of Vaak--> prana--> manah, music as a means of relaxation eases unnatural bottled up tension. The irritation/passions/heaped up impressions find a suitable expression in music. Here it is important to mention that one should listen to music not too much attention but to give oneself up to it, allowing both feeling and thought to be played upon in a natural and unrestrained manner. Accelerating the circulation of the blood, the cerebral pressure is reduced and the nervous excitement is allayed. This is also known as Raagchikitsa as Staccato is for agitated mind and adagio for the smooth one; there is a healing power of rhythm and tone, rousing and inspiration. Pitch/tone is directly proportional to sensations as for gloom and depression we have allegro.

Self-Education or Atma Anusandhan - we can conclude that self -education is of the utmost importance as without the centre or self-discipline there can be no circumference. Self-control regulates mental faculties and results in the much needed psycho-synthesis. All the betterment comes from selfcontrol and it is to be practiced in all directions - bodily, mental, moral and especially emotional. Our whole mental outlook is determined by our subconscious selves -Steady, patient, daily ordering of our 24

thought life, excessive mental faculties, developing will power, brain testing, training and exercising.

Mind is made for order and efficiency and peace. But it cannot put itself in order. We ourselves must do that; we must take initiative, working along common sense and psychological lines. And psychosynthesis is a life-long process.

References: 1. Loosmore, W. Charles. (1922), Nerves and The Man. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, W. 2. Loosmore, W. Charles. (1921), The Gain of Personality. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, W. 3. Prasada, Rama. (2010), Patanjali Yoga Sutras. New Delhi: Munshiram Monohar Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 4. Brunton, Paul (1994). The Spiritual Crisis of Man. New Delhi: B.I. Publication Pvt. Ltd. 5. Rele, V.G. (1959). Bhagavad Gita. Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala sons & co.

6. Brahmeshananda, Swami. (2012). Health Medicine and Religion. Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math.

7. Brahmeshananda, Swami. (2014). Yoga in Day-to-Day Life. Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math.

8. Asrani, U.A. (1977). Yoga Unveiled Part I. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

9. Asrani, U.A. (1993). Yoga Unveiled Part II. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

10. Upadhaya, Baldev. (2001). Bhartiya Darshan. Varanasi: Sharda Mandir.

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Two Faces of Solidarity; Rorty and Gadamer, An Analysis Aquil Ahmad

Introduction: Rorty advocates Solidarity as an inter-subjective agreement. This appears fit well with his understanding of philosophy as conversation for one can arrive at an inter-subjective agreement only after members of a community have interacted and conversed with each about what is best to believe.

Rorty argues, If one reinterprets objectivity as inter-subjectivity or as solidarity then one will drop the question of how to get in touch with ''mind-independent and language-independent reality."

Gadamer‘s conception of solidarity has to do with historically contingent manifestation of bonds that reflects a civic life together of reciprocal co-perception. These bonds go beyond conscious recognition of observable similarities and differences and emerge from encounters among those who are, and remain, in important ways other to each other. We will make this case through an analysis of Gadamer‘s phenomenology of friendship and the crucial role of otherness in his accounts of both understanding and friendship. It is suggested that Gadamer‘s political thought gives us a way of conceptualizing solidarity and otherness without making the other same or leaving the other completely other.

This paper will attempt to compare and analyze the idea of Solidarity of Richard Rorty and HansGeorg Gadamer.

Keywords: Gadamer, Rorty, Solidarity, Inter-subjective, Friendship, Recognition

Rorty on Solidarity: Gadamer‘s approach to solidarity bears some resemblance to that of Richard Rorty, and a brief comparison is instructive. Rorty rejects a conception of solidarity based on a ―recognition of one another‘s common humanity.‖1 Rorty claims, universal notion like this are, weak and unconvincing, and they are generally not strong enough to prevent cruelty or motivate charity.

Instead, our attachment to and concern for others are strongest when they are seen ―as ‗one of us,‘ where ‗us‘ means something smaller and more local than the human race.‖2 Rorty regards this parochialism as undeniable but not regrettable. In fact, this is precisely the approach to solidarity that he defends, one in which ―feelings of solidarity are necessarily a matter of which similarities and dissimilarities strike us as salient.‖3 Solidarity on these terms has to do with historically contingent identifications: recognition that in this context and at this moment, certain others are part of ―us‖ by 26

virtue of some shared marker or markers. Our solidarity with others rests on the fact that we identify with them.

Solidarity as identification is seen most clearly in cases of shared national origin, ethnicity, race, or religion, where clear identifiers mark ―us‖ off from ―others.‖ In characterizing his own approach as ―ethnocentric,‖ Rorty provocatively calls these solidarities to mind, knowing that they can also be fertile ground for nationalism, racism, and religious bigotry; including violence and injustice to those not part of us.

However, the version of ethnocentrism Rorty defends is more inclusive than this: ―To be ethnocentric is to divide the human race into people to whom one must justify one‘s beliefs and the others. The first group -- one‘s ethnos—comprises those who share enough of one‘s beliefs to make fruitful conversation possible.‖4

In other words, the solidarities that divide up the world may, and often do, involve traditional differences like national origin, ethnicity, race, or religion, but they need not be limited to these. In fact, part of Rorty‘s project is to convince that these are less important than similarities ―with respect to pain and humiliation.‖ In his view, solidarity ought to be based on an understanding that others suffer in the way that we do, an understanding we can encourage through detailed descriptions of particular pains and humiliations.5 According to Rorty, then, we need to actively create a broader sense of solidarity rather than merely recognize those that already exist.6 Rorty‘s project is explicitly normative, and although it eschews universal foundations, it has what we might call a universal impulse, in the sense that its orientation is toward an ever expanding community based on the recognition that we suffer similarly.

Gadamer on Solidarity: Gadamer shares Rorty‘s belief that solidarities are historically contingent, not antecedently universal, but he does not view the achievement of solidarity in the same terms. Gadamer thinks that solidarities need to be disclosed though not invented. This difference stems, from the fact that Gadamer‘s conception of solidarity does not rest on identification in the way that Rorty‘s does. For Gadamer, solidarities bind members of political communities together in various ways, but these bonds are not, or not necessarily, the result of a recognition that others are like ―us.‖ For Gadamer solidarity is connected with practice, which, he describes as ―conducting oneself and acting in solidarity.‖7 Briefly, Gadamer understands practice as a way of life that involves using reason to make choices about what is good. In making these choices, we draw on shared norms, convictions, 27

and practices, or, as he puts it in Truth and Method, on a sensus communis into which we are thrown and which we accept and revise even as we make our choices.8 We might say that in general terms ―solidarity‖ is the concept Gadamer employs to highlight the fact that these norms and convictions fundamentally bind us to each other in certain common enterprises. When making choices about what is good and right, one does not merely draw on these shared norms and convictions to determine what is right and good for one. Rather, solidarity has to do with the fact that in making such choices, we are inevitably choosing what is right and good for us—what is good for us in certain respects as a town, a community, a state, or a polity. Because the process of choosing not only draws on but simultaneously transforms these norms and convictions, such choices are made, in some sense, on our collective behalf rather than merely one‘s own behalf.

Gadamer‘s conception of solidarity might seem indistinguishable from concern for the public good, or from an effort to subsume one‘s private interests in favor of public or shared interests.

However, this is not what Gadamer has in mind; solidarity is more, or different, than mere public mindedness. Representing solidarity as a concern for the public good or as a search for mutual interests casts it in terms that depend too heavily on the conscious intentions of individuals. Public mindedness requires self-consciousness on the part of citizens—an ability to step outside themselves, as it were, and distinguish their own interests from the public interest and chooses the latter, or perhaps sees how they are intertwined. It requires, in short, that citizens make their own interests and the interests of others present before them as objects of knowledge.

Gadamer‘s conception of solidarity differs from this, in part because his hermeneutical approach denies this picture of knowledge. He criticizes the primacy of self-consciousness in modern thought, along with its restricted understanding of knowledge as making something present as an object of one‘s consciousness.9 Instead, he emphasizes our situatedness in history, tradition, and language, which means that our conscious understandings represent merely those things that have been brought to the foreground of thought at a particular moment. Thus, they constitute only a part of that which we know.

Given this, it is not surprising that Gadamer does not conceptualize solidarity in terms of shared political interests. On his terms, this is a too limited way of thinking about the complex nature of our shared political life. While we are capable of making some of our interests objects of consciousness at a given moment and determining which ones might be shared by others, doing so would at the same time miss other significant ways that we are bound to each other. In other words, Gadamer would not want to reduce solidarity to consciously shared interests because this reduction fails to capture the richness and complexity of the shared life underlying a political community.

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Conclusion: This is why Gadamer would disagree with Rorty‘s identification conception of solidarity. Even though Rorty wants to broadly construe the markers that define ―us,‖ his conception of solidarity remains tied to a recognition of salient similarities (and differences)—that is, on somehow making conscious the fact that we share certain characteristics. For Rorty solidarity is the consequence of identification; it proceeds from knowledge that those included in the ―us‖ have something in common. This is what allows Rorty to advocate the creation of new, broader forms of solidarity. In contrast in Gadamer‘s terms, we cannot create solidarities because they are not the consequence of a consciousness of similarities. Instead, the relationship is reversed: solidarities underlie political communities, and democratic politics can and ought to help disclose them, bringing them to awareness.

References: 1. Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 189-91 2. Rorty, Contingency, 191.

3. Rorty, Contingency, 192.4.

4. Richard Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 30.

5. Rorty, Contingency, 192.

6. Rorty, Contingency, 196.

7. Hans-Georg Gadamer, ―What Is Practice? The Conditions of Social Reason‖ (1976), in Reason in the Age of Science, trans. Frederick G. Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,1981), 87.

8.

Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, 2nd rev. ed., ed. Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall (New York: Continuum, 1995), 20-22.

9. Hans-Georg Gadamer, ―Praise of Theory‖ (1980), in Praise of Theory: Speeches and Essays, trans. Chris Dawson (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), 28ff

29

याभधायी ससॊह ददनकय के काव्म भें याष्ट्रीम बावना डॉ प्रवीण ठाकुय

जीवन बय अऩनी यचनाओॊ भें जन-जागयण के सरए हुॊकाय की गजजना बयने वारे याष्ट्रकवव याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय न केवर दहॊदी ादहत्म के बॊडाय को ववववध ववधाओॊ द्वाया बयने का प्रमा कयते यहे अवऩतु मग ु -चेतना के भख ु य प्रणेता फनकय अऩनी कववताओॊ के भाध्मभ यहे हैं। वास्तव भें याभधायी स हॊ के काव्म दर्जन भें

े याष्ट्र प्रेभ का दीऩक जराते

ाभाजजक औय याष्ट्र तत्व का फीजवप्ऩन एक

ाथ

हुआ। उन्होने कबी बी वऩष्ट्टीऩेर्न की ऩयॊ ऩया को ग्रहण नहीॊ ककमा। अऩने क्ाॊततकायी स्वबाव के कायण तत्कारीन यकाय (अॉग्रेजी यकाय) की नजयों भें हभेर्ा खटकते यहे हैं। याष्ट्रीम कववता की जो ऩयम्ऩया बायतेन्द ु हयीर्चॊद्र हुई है ।

दहन्दी के

े प्रायम्ब हुई थी उ की ऩरयणतत भहाकवव याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय की कववताओॊ भें

ुववख्मात कवव याभाधायी स हॊ ददनकय का जन्भ 23 स तॊफय 1908 ई. भें स भरयमा, ज़िरा

भुॊगेय (बफहाय) भें एक भें यवव स हॊ तथा भनरूऩ दे वी के घय भें हुआ। याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय एक ओजस्वी याष्ट्रबजतत े ओतप्रोत कवव के रूऩ भें ऩहचाने जाते यहे हैं। उनकी कववताओॊ भें छामावादी मुग का प्रबाव होने के कायण श्ग ॊ र ाय य

के ववववध रूऩ दे खने को सभरते हैं। ददनकय के वऩता कक ान

थे औय ददनकय दो वर्ज के थे, जफ उनका दे हाव ान हो गमा। ऩरयणाभत: ददनकय औय उनके बाई-फहनों का ऩारन-ऩोर्ण उनकी ववधवा भाता जी ने ही ककमा। ददनकय का फचऩन औय कैर्ोमज दे हात भें फीता, जहाॉ दयू तक पैरे खेतों की हरयमारी, फाॊ ों के झुयभुट, आभों के फगीचे औय काॊ इ

ौंदमज का प्रबाव याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय के फारऩन ऩय इ

कठोय प्रबाव बी इन्हें प्रबाववत नहीॊ कय प्राथसभक सर्क्षा गाॉव के ववद्मारम बावना का ववका े 1932 भें इततहा

तयह

े ऩड़ा कक वास्तववकता का

का। प्रायॊ सबक सर्क्षा दे ववाणी

े प्राप्त की। इ ी ववद्मारम

के ऩेड़ थे। प्रकरतत के

ॊस्करत

े प्रायॊ ब हुई तथा े इनके भजस्तष्ट्क भें याष्ट्रीमता की

होने रगा गमा था। वर्ज 1928 भें भैदरक के फाद ददनकय ने ऩटना ववश्वववद्मारम भें फी. ए. ऑन ज ककमा। ऩटना ववश्वववद्मारम

े फी. ए. ऑन ज कयने के फाद

अगरे ही वर्ज एक स्कूर भें मह प्रधानाध्माऩक तनमुतत हुए, ऩय 1934 भें बफहाय यकाय के अधीन इन्होंने फ-यजजस्राय के ऩद ऩय चमतनत हो गए। नौ वर्ों तक ददनकय जी इ ऩद ऩय यहे औय उनका भच ू ा कामजकार बफहाय के दे हातों भें व्मतीत हुआ तथा जीवन का जो ऩीडड़त रूऩ उन्होंने फचऩन े दे खा था, उ ी का वास्तववक रूऩ उनके भन भें फैठ गमा। कपय जो जनन ू उनभें ऩैदा हुआ ये णुका, हुॊकाय, यसवॊती औय द्वॊद्वगीत उ ी का ही ऩरयणाभ है । ये णुका औय हुॊकाय की कुछ यचनाएॉ जै े ही प्रकासर्त हुई उ े ववदे र्ी ल्तनत की नीॊव दहरना र्रू ु हो गई औय अॉग्रेजी प्रर्ा कों को भझने भें मह दे य नहीॊ रगी कक उन्होने एक क्ाॊततकायी ववचायधाया वारे इॊ ान को अऩने तॊत्र का अॊग फनामा है

औय ऩरयणाभ मह हुआ कक ददनकय जी की नौकयी के ववरुद्ध फाइर तैमाय होने रगी, फाय-फाय चेतावतनमाॉ सभरा कयतीॊ। चाय वर्ज भें फाई फाय उनका तफादरा ककमा गमा। 1947 भें दे र् स्वाधीन हुआ औय वह बफहाय ववश्वववद्मारम भें दहन्दी के प्राध्माऩक व ववबागाध्मक्ष तनमुतत होकय भु़िफ़्फफयऩुय चरे आए। 1952 भें जफ बायत की प्रथभ ॊ द का तनभाजण हुआ, तो उन्हें याज्म बा का दस्म चन ु ा 30

गमा औय वह ददल्री आ गए। ददनकय 12 वर्ज तक

ॊ द- दस्म यहे , फाद भें उन्हें

न 1964

े

1965 ई. तक बागरऩयु ववश्वववद्मारम का कुरऩतत तनमत ु त ककमा गमा। रेककन अगरे ही वर्ज बायत यकाय ने उन्हें 1965

े 1971 ई. तक अऩना दहन्दी

राहकाय तनमुतत ककमा औय वह कपय ददल्री

रौट आए। ददनकय के प्रथभ तीन काव्म- ॊग्रह प्रभख ु हैं– ‘ये णुका’ (1935 ई.), ‘हुॊकाय’ (1938 ई.) औय

‘यसवन्ती’ (1939 ई.)। उतत यचनाएॉ आऩके आयजम्बक आत्भ भॊथन के मुग की यचनाएॉ हैं। इनभें ददनकय का कवव अऩने व्मजततऩयक, ऩयस्ऩय

ौन्दमाजन्वेर्ी भन औय

ॊघर्ज का तटस्थ द्रष्ट्टा नहीॊ, दोनों के फीच

ाभाजजक चेतना

े कोई याह तनकारने की चेष्ट्टा भें

के रूऩ भें सभरता है । ‘ये णुका’ करतत भें अतीत के गौयव के प्रतत कवव का ऩरयरक्षक्षत होता है , वहीॊ

े उत्तभ फुवद्ध के

ाथ ही वतजभान ऩरयवेर् की नीय ता

ॊरग्न

ाधक

हज आदय औय आकर्जण

े त्रस्त भन की वेदना का ऩरयचम बी

सभरता है । हुॊकाय, भें कवव अतीत के गौयव-गान की अऩेक्षा वतजभान दै त्म के प्रतत आक्ोर् प्रदर्जन की ओय अधधक उन्भुख जान ऩड़ता है । यसवन्ती, भें कवव की ककन्तु मह अन्धेये भें ध्मेम

ौन्दमाजन्वेर्ी वजर त्त काव्मभमी हो जाती है

ौन्दमज का अन्वेर्ण नहीॊ, उजरेऩन भें धचय-ऩरयधचत

है । साभधेनी (1947 ई.), भें ददनकय की

ौन्दमज की आयाधना

ाभाजजक चेतना स्वदे र् औय ऩरयधचत ऩरयवेर् की ऩरयधध

फढ़कय ववश्व वेदना का अनुबव कयती जान ऩड़ती है । कवव के स्वय का ओज नमे वेग

े

े नमे सर्खय

तक ऩहुॉच जाता है । इन भुततक काव्म ॊग्रहों के अततरयतत ददनकय ने अनेक प्रफन्ध काव्मों की यचना बी की है , जजनभें ‘कुरुऺेत्र’ (1946 ई.), ‘यश्मभयथी’ (1952 ई.) तथा ‘उववशी’ (1961 ई.) प्रभुख हैं।

‘कुरुक्षेत्र’ भें भहाबायत के र्ाजन्त ऩवज के भूर कथानक का ढाॉचा रेकय ददनकय ने मुद्ध औय र्ाजन्त के ववर्द, गम्बीय औय भहत्त्वऩूणज ववर्म ऩय अऩने ववचाय बीष्ट्भ औय मुधधष्ट्ठय के प्रस्तुत ककमे हैं। ददनकय के काव्म भें ववचाय तत्व इ

तयह उबयकय

ॊराऩ के रूऩ भें

ाभने ऩहरे कबी नहीॊ आमा था।

‘कुरुऺेत्र’ के फाद उनके नवीनतभ काव्म ‘उववशी’ भें कपय हभें ववचाय तत्व की प्रधानता सभरती है ।

ाह ऩूवक ज गाॊधीवादी अदहॊ ा की आरोचना कयने वारे ‘कुरुक्षेत्र’ का दहन्दी जगत भें उऩमुतत आदय

हुआ। ‘उवजर्ी’ जज े कवव ने स्वमॊ ‘काभाध्माम’ की उऩाधध प्रदान की है – ’ददनकय’ की कववता को एक नमे सर्खय ऩय ऩहुॉचा ददमा है । बरे ही वोच्च सर्खय न हो, ददनकय के करततत्त्व की धगरयश्ेणी का एक

वजथा नवीन सर्खय तो है ही। वर्ज 1955 भें ‘नीरकुसुभ’ ददनकय के काव्म भें एक भोड़ फनकय

आमा। महाॉ वह काव्मात्भक प्रमोगर्ीरता के प्रतत आस्थावान है । स्वमॊ प्रमोगर्ीर कववमों ने इ े स्वमॊ को आत्भ ात ककमा। ऩरयणाभस्वरूऩ नवीन काव्मधाया इच्छा तो स्ऩष्ट्ट हो जाती है , ऩय उ का करततत्व

े

यचना

म्फन्ध स्थावऩत कयने की कवव की

ाथ दे ता प्रतीत नहीॊ होता है । अबी तक उनका काव्म

आवेर् का काव्म था, नीरकुसुभ ने तनमॊत्रण औय गहयाइमों भें ऩैठ फनाने की प्रवजर त्त ने दस्तक दी।

छह वर्ज फाद उवजर्ी प्रकासर्त हुई, दहन्दी ादहत्म ॊ ाय भें एक ओय उ की कटु आरोचना औय द ू यी ओय भुततकॊठ े प्रर्ॊ ा हुई। धीये -धीये जस्थतत ाभान्म हुई इ काव्म-नाटक को ददनकय की ‘कववप्रततबा का चभत्काय’ भाना गमा। कवव ने इ वैददक सभथक के भाध्मभ े दे व एवॊ भानव, स्वगजरोक एवॊ ऩथ् र वीरोक, अप् या एवॊ रक्ष्भी तथा काभ एवॊ अध्मात्भ के

आऩकी काव्मात्भक यचनाओॊ भें मदद बूर्ण के काव्म के वीयय

ॊफॊधों का अद्भत ु ववश्रेर्ण ककमा है ।

का स्वाद है तो भैधथरीर्यण गुप्त के

भान रोगों की व्मथा-दद ु ज र्ा ऩय सरखनेवारा औय दारुण ववराऩ कयने वारा एक याष्ट्रकवव बी है । याष्ट्र

कवव याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय मर्स्वी बायतीम ऩॊयऩया के ए े अनभोर यत्न

यहे हैं, जजन्होंने अऩनी 31

कारजमी यचनाओॊ के भाध्मभ

े दे र् तनभाजण औय स्वतॊत्रता के

ॊघॊर्ज भें स्वमॊ को ऩयू ी तयह

भवऩजत

कय ददमा था। ‘करभ आज उनकी जम फोर’ जै ी प्रेयणादामक कववता के प्रणेता ददनकय जजतने ओज, र्ौमज, वीय औय याष्ट्रवाद के कवव हैं , उ कवव है । ददनकय ने अऩनी यचनाओॊ भें

से हरयनाभ’ तक के काव्म

े कहीॊ ज़्मादा

ॊवेदना,

ुकुभायता, प्रेभ औय

ॊवेदनाओॊ का भासभजक वणजन ककमा है । ‘प्रणबॊग’

फय भें इ की अनुबतू त की जा

ौंदमज के

े रेकय ‘हाये

कती है । कवव की रेखनी भें मदद अऩाय

हर्ज है तो ऩीड़ा बी है , खर् ु ी है तो वेदना बी है , तनयार्ा है तो आर्ा की उम्भीद बी है । व्मवस्था के प्रतत क्षुब्धता है तो एक नई

वेया की उम्भीद बी है । हतार्ा है तो उ

अऩनी यचना ‘कुरुक्षेत्र’ भें कवव ने

ुॊदय ऩॊजततमों भें कुछ इ

े उफयने की ताकत बी है ।

प्रकाय असबव्मजतत दी है :

ऺभा शोबती उस बुजॊग को, श्जसके ऩास गयर हो;

उसको क्मा जो दन्तहीन, ववषहीन, ववनीत, सयर हो। ददनकय जी भें याष्ट्रप्रेभ, दे र् के प्रतत अनयु ाग फारऩन ज्ञान ने उन्हें उऩतनवेर्वाद औय

े ही तयॊ धगत था। इततहा

औय

ादहत्म के

ाभॊतवाद के गठफॊधन के ववरुद्ध खड़ा होने ऩय भ़िफयू कय ददमा।

उनके उग्र ववचायों भें अगय याष्ट्रीम चेतना

ॊऩन्न कवव का रूऩ उबय कय

ाभने आमा तो उ भे

तत्कारीन ऩरयवेर् औय ऩष्ट्र ठबसू भ का फहुत फड़ा मोगदान यहा है । स्वतॊत्रता आॊदोरन के दौयान ज्मादातय कवव गाॉधी औय भात ज के ववचायों के ॊघर्ज भें तल्रीन थे। ददनकय बी इ े अछूते नहीॊ यहे । एक ओय गाॉधी जी की अदहॊ क नीतत औय क्ाॊततकायी कामजयत थे। अदहॊ क ददनकय ने अऩनी इ ककमा है :

त्माग्रह तो द ू यी ओय चन्द्रर्ेखय आजाद औय बगत स हॊ के

त्माग्रह की याजनीतत

े मुवाओॊ की आस्था दहरने रगी थी।

भानस क जस्थतत को ‘दहभारम’ कववता भें कापी

ुॊदय ढॊ ग

े इ

प्रकाय वर्णजत

“ये , योक मुधधश्ष्ट्ठय को न महाॉ, जाने दे उनको स्वगव धीय; ऩय, फपया हभें गाण्डीव गदा, रौटा दे अजुन व बीभ वीय।”

दहभारम

े

ददनकय

की जो उऩतनवेर्वाद ववयोधी उग्र याष्ट्रीम काव्म धाया चरी उ की ऩरयणतत

‘हुॊकाय’, ‘कुरुऺेत्र’ औय ‘ऩयशुयाभ की प्रतीऺा’ भें दे खने को सभरी है । कववता का स्वरूऩ फदरता यहा है । स्वतॊत्रता

भम के

ाथ- ाथ ददनकय की

े ऩहरे याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय जी एक कवव के रूऩ भें

आ़िादी के सरए अरख जगाते यहे औय आ़िादी के उऩयाॊत आभजन की आवा़ि फन गए। आ़िादी

े

ऩहरे बी बायत की जनता ददनकय के ददर ऩय याज कयती थी औय आ़िादी के उऩयाॊत बी मह स रस रा जायी यहा। तबी तो जज

ददनकय की वीय य

भें डूफी कववताओॊ के फगावती तेवय दे खकय

अॉगये ़ि बी घफयाते थे, वहीॊ ददनकय आ़िादी के फाद दे र् की आवा़ि फन गए औय कपय दे र् के याष्ट्रकवव के रूऩ भें प्रख्मात हो गए। याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय वर्ज 1952 ॊ द

दस्म बी यहे औय ददल्री की

च्चाई

े 1963 तक याज्म बा के

े रुफरु होते यहे । ददल्री के ववरा ऩूणज जीवन औय गाॉवों

की फदहारी ऩय उन्होंने 1954 भें ‘बायत का मह ये शभी नगय’ कववता सरखी। उन्होने ददल्री की ववरास ता का धचत्रण इ

प्रकाय ककमा है :

32

“ददल्री पूरों भें फसी, ओस-कण से बीगी, ददल्री सुहाग है , सुषभा है , यॊ गीनी है ।

प्रेसभका-कॊठ भें ऩडी भारती की भारा, ददल्री सऩनों की सेज भधुय यस-बीनी है ।।“ याष्ट्रीम, है ।

ाभाजजक औय क्ाॊततकायी ववचायों के

ौंदमजफोधात्भक आनॊद एक ऐ े

जो एक प्रकाय

ाथ- ाथ ददनकय के काव्म भें

ौंदमजफोध बी अरौककक

ॊतोर् की जस्थतत है , जज का कोई बी तनजश्चत रक्ष्म नहीॊ होता,

े तटस्थ औय प्रमोजनहीन होता है ।

ज ने कहा था- ‘भैं सबी ुप्रस द्ध दार्जतनक एभ न

चीजों के बीतय हरचर भचा दॊ ग ू ा, फकॊतु ऩऺ भैं फकसी का बी नहीॊ रूॊगा।’ ददनकय जी की कववता के फाये भें ठीक मही फात नहीॊ कही जा

कती है । ऩक्ष वह रेती है , व्मजतत की स्वाधीनता , ऩीडड़त औय

दसरत जनता का, वह ववयोध भें खड़ी होती है , अत्माचाय , र्ोर्ण के, ववदे र्ी गुराभी औय ऩूॊजीवाद के।

रेककन एकाधधक फाय आऩ कववता की, फतौय करा, स्वतॊत्र बूसभका ऩय जोय दे ते बी ऩाए जाते हैं।

‘स्वप्न औय सत्म’ नाभक उनकी कववता को ऩढ़ने दामये

े भारूभ होता है कक वे स्थर ू उऩमोधगतावाद के

े फाहय तनकरकय कववता का आनॊद उठाने की वकारत कयते हैं :

तफीमत चाहती है , फात कुछ तुभको सुनाऊॉ, भगय, तुभ कौन हो ऩॊश्क्त भेयी ऩढ़ यहे हो?

करा के ऩायखी हो? चाॉदनी के चाहने वारे?

हवा की साॉस भें जो ददव है , उसको सभझते हो? आगे की कुछ औय ऩॊजततमाॉ भॊथन की दृजष्ट्ट

े उऩमुतत प्रतीत होती हैं :

फुराते हैं इशायों से कबी वे स्वप्न तुभको बी, हभाये हाथ से दो इॊच जो आगे फने यहते?

वे इ

तथ्म को स्वीकाय कयते हैं- “सभम की सहानुबूतत का प्रवाह सववहाया की ओय है औय इस धाया

के ववऩयीत तैयना कुछ कुछ अप्राकृततक-सा रगता है । फपय बी उनकी दृढ़ भान्मता है फक मदद कवव को , जानफूझकय .......... आॊदोरन, कानून औय सॊघों के द्वाया फकसी वाद ववशेष की उऩासना के सरए राचाय फकमा जाए तो मह उसके साथ औय सभग्र सादहत्म के साथ सयासय अन्माम है ।“ ददनकय जी के काव्म की ववका

मात्रा को अगय ध्मान

े अवरोकन कयें तो ऩाएॉगे कक 1937 भें

प्रगततवादी आॊदोरन के र्ुरू होने के कापी ऩहरे ही वे उन

ॊगदठत रूऩ

े

ाभाजजक आदर्ों के प्रतत आकर्जण व्मतत

कय यहे थे, जजनकी वकारत भात व ज ादी मा प्रगततवादी कयते थे। ‘कववता की ऩुकाय’ भें मह ऩक्षधयता फहुत स्ऩष्ट्ट है :

ववद्मुत छोड दीऩ सानूॊगी, भहर छोड तण ृ -प्रवेश,

तुभ गाॉवों के फनो सबखायी, भैं सबखारयणी का रॉ ू वेश।

33

‘हाये को हरयनाभ’ कववता तक आते-आते ददनकय जी

स्वय अत्मॊत ऩरयऩतव, प्रौढ़ हो चक ु ा था।

इ ीसरए वे ‘सॊतुसरत सभाज’ नाभक कववता भें सरख ऩाते हैं :

दतु नमा केवर उन्हीॊ को न ऩूजे, श्जन्होंने जीत हाससर की है । वह जया हभददी से दे खे, ।

श्जन्होंने श्जॊदगी की फाजी हायी हो। ददनकय जी के इ ी अ परता के प्रतत बी

हानुबूतत

इ का ऩता हभें ‘अॊततभ ऩुरुषाथव’ र्ीर्जक कववता

ॊफॊधी बाव भें एक तनजीत्व का स्ऩर्ज बी

है ।

े चरता है :

प्राण भें जफ क्राश्न्त,

जीवन भें थकन जफ व्माऩती है ,

स्वप्न साये टूट कय उडीन हो जाते रूख के ऩत्ते मथा ऩतझड भें ।

स्वप्न भें ये बी चतुददव क टूटकय उडने रगे हैं, औय भैं दफ ु री बुजाओॊ ऩय उठामे

व्मोभ का ववस्ताय एकाकी खडा हूॉ। ‘हाये को हरयनाभ’ कववता को ऩढ़कय प्राम: मह नतीजा तनकार सरमा जाता है कक अऩने जीवन के आर्खयी दौय भें वे तनयार् हो गए थे, इ सरए यहस्मवाद औय आध्माजत्भकता की ओय चरे गए। ददनकय जी नाजस्तक कबी नहीॊ यहे । इ सरए इन के ववश्वा ों

ॊग्रहों की कववताओॊ को दे खकय मह कहना कक वे अऩने ऩहरे

े ववभख ु हो गए थे, अनधु चत होगा।

रोग सभझते यहे फक

भैं दे श का ददव गाता हूॉ। भगय ददव भैंने अऩना ही गामा था॥“

अत: याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय का यचनाकार 21वीॊ

दी के ती ये दर्क

े र्ुरू होकय आठवें दर्क तक

पैरा हुआ है । आधतु नक बायत के सरए मह फड़ा भहत्वऩूणज कार है । ती ये दर्क े ऩाॉचवें दर्क के फीच अॊग्रेजी हुकूभत को बायत े उखाड़ पेंकने का आॊदोरन अऩनी तनणाजमक रड़ाई रड़ यहा था। एक तयप, भहात्भा गाॊधी अर्खर बायतीम स्तय ऩय जन-नामक के रूऩ भें प्रततजष्ट्ठत हो चक ु े थे। अदहॊ ा, त्माग्रह औय अ हमोग के उनके तयीके याजनीततक अस्त्र तो थे ही, वे एक व्माऩक

की भाॉग कय यहे थे। उन्नी वीॊ अॊधववश्वा

के र्खराप

ाॊस्करततक फदराव

दी भें दे र् के ववसबन्न दहस् ों भें जो ऩुयानी रूदढ़मों, कुयीततमों,

ुधाय आॊदोरन चर यहे थे, भहात्भा गाॊधी ने उन

फको स्वाधीनता

ॊग्राभ 34

का अॊग फना ददमा। स्वाधीनता का तनहत्था, तनयक्षय, तनयीह

े तनयीह

याष्ट्रप्रेभ के उत् ाह की रहय

ॊग्राभ अफ

भाज के सर्क्षक्षत

ाधायण बायतीम जनभान

भद ु ाम का भाभरा नहीॊ यह गमा।

अफ इनकी धयु ी फन चक ु ा है । इन्होने

म्ऩूणज याष्ट्र भें ऩैदा कय दी थी। प्रखय याष्ट्रवादी चेतना के सरए याभधायी

स हॊ ददनकय जी नवमुवकों भें रोकवप्रम बी हो गए थे। याष्ट्रवादी दर्जन भें धभज की है । वह बायतीम इ

ॊस्करतत की

सभरावट नहीॊ यही

ाभास कता को भहत्व दे ती है । उनका याष्ट्रवाद अॊधयाष्ट्रवाद बी नहीॊ है।

प्रकाय के याष्ट्रवाद भें द ू यों को दसरत कयके खद ु को प्रततजष्ट्ठत कयने की चेष्ट्ठा नहीॊ यही है ।

सॊदबव : (1) याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय,

ॊचतमता, बायतीम ज्ञानऩीठ, नई ददल्री, वर्ज: 2005

(2) याभचन्द्र र्ुतर, दहन्दी

ादहत्म का इततहा ,

वर्ज-2018।

(3) नगेन्द्र, दहन्दी

ादहत्म

योवय, ददल्री,

ॊर्ोधधत प्रकार्न

ॊ हाउ , नई ददल्री, प्रकार्न वर्ज-1973। ादहत्म का इततहा , नेर्नर ऩजब्रसर्ग

(4) ऩुष्ट्ऩा ठतकय, ददनकय के काव्म भें

ाभाजजक चेतना, अयववॊद प्रकार्न, फम्फई,1986।

(5) याभधायी स हॊ ददनकय,

ॊस्करतत के चाय अध्माम, याजकभर प्रकार्न, ददल्री, प्रकार्न वर्ज-

(6) हयदमार,

ाभाजजक भूल्म,

1980। 1952।

ादहत्म औय

ादहत्म भण्डर प्रकार्न, नई ददल्री, प्रकार्न वर्ज-

35

Reports of the Programmes

On the occasion of ―Buddha Jayanti-2022‖, a book titled ―Social Philosophy of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar‖ written by Dr. Desh Raj, Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy released by Dr. Abha Sudarshan, Principal, Post Graduate Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh. She said that Dr. B.R. Ambedkar is known as the father of the Indian Constitution and his wrote a famous book ―The Buddha and his Dhamma‖ in his later years of life. This is a true tribute to this great leader to publish his ideas and propagate his ideals. This book includes chapter on introduction of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, his social and educational philosophy, his views on casteism and human rights and the conflict between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi. This book also includes the active contribution of Dr. Desh Raj in the field of Ambedkarism, human rights and women studies from 2006 to 2021. Dr. Rajesh Kumar (Dean), Dr. Baljit Singh (Vice-Principal) and other faculty members Dr. Pooja Garg (Registrar, Examinations), Ms. Jyoti (Department of Political Science), Dr. Siddhartha Kumar (Department of Punjabi) also present there.

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Celebration of World Happiness Day-2022

Department of Philosophy and Department of Sanskrit in association with NSS of P.G. Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh organised ―World Happiness Day‖ on 16th March, 2022. Prof. (Dr.) Abha Sudarshan, the Principal of Post Graduate Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh gave a floral welcome to the guest.

Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Head, Department of Philosophy, introduced the distinguished speaker and told that in 2011, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution which recognised happiness as a ―fundamental human goal‖ and called for ―a more inclusive, equitable and balanced approach to economic growth that promotes the happiness and well-being of all peoples‖. In 2012 the first ever UN Conference on Happiness took place and the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution which decreed that the International Day of Happiness would be observed every year on 20 March. It was celebrated for the first time in 2013 but due to holiday on 20th March it is being organised by the college today.

Dr. Sudhir Baweja, Former Co-ordinator, Department of Philosophy & Certificate Course in Vivekananda Studies, USOL, Panjab University, Sector-14, Chandigarh has delivered a lecture on the topic ―Life is a Blessing of Bliss‖. He said life is a blessing, it depends on the person how he finds the purpose of life. Human life is not a punishment, it is your ultimate blessing! Start feeling happy and thankful for every blessing that you have. Treat everything as a blessing and you will be blessed in every aspect of your life. Practice of virtues in life is important. Through practice comes Yoga, through Yoga comes knowledge, through knowledge love, and through love bliss.

The lecture was highly participative and the interaction between the students and speakers yielded a fruitful discussion. Dr. Ramandeep Kaur,Head, Department of Sanskrit proposed Vote of thanks. Dr. Rajesh Kumar (Dean), Dr. Simmi Arora (Vice-Principal) and more than 150 faculty members, NSS Volunteers and students from college participated in the programme.

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Celebration of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Jayanti-2022

Department of Political Science and Department of Philosophy of P.G. Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh celebrated birth-anniversary of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar on 12th April, 2022. Dr. Abha Sudarshan, the Principal of Post Graduate Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh gave a floral welcome to the guest introduced the distinguished speaker. Dr. Gobind Chandra Sethi, Head, Department of Political Science told about celebration of birth-anniversary of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Dr. A. S. Bhatia (Former Faculty of Political Science) has delivered a lecture on the topic ―Vision and Mission of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar‖ and he reflected upon the life and philosophy of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

He told that Ambedkar was an Indian jurist, economist and Dalit leader who headed the committee drafting the Constitution of India from the Constituent Assembly debates, served as Law and Justice minister in the first cabinet of Jawaharlal Nehru, and inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement after renouncing Hinduism. 1990, the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, was posthumously conferred on Ambedkar. He is also referred to by the honorific Babasaheb. He was an intellectual, scholar, and statesman and contributed greatly in the nation building. He led a number of movements to emancipate the downtrodden masses and to secure human rights to millions of depressed classes. He has left an indelible imprint through his immense contribution in framing the modern Constitution of free India. He stands as a symbol of struggle for achieving the Social Justice.

In the programme, a prize-distribution function was also organised by the Electoral Literacy Club of the college and prizes and certificates distributed among the winners and participants. Ms. Jyoti (Faculty of Political Science) proposed vote of thanks. Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal (Department of Philosophy), Dr. Salma (Department of Mathematics) and more than 100 students from college participated in the programme.

38

Contributors to this Issue Mr. Pramod Kumar Dash, Head, Department of Philosophy, Nayagarh Autonomous College, Nayagarh, Odisha.

Ms. Charu Thapliyal, PhD Research Scholar, Department of Philosophy, Delhi University.

Mr. Mohit Vasdev, Guest Faculty, ICSVS, Panjab University, Chandigarh.

Dr. Meenu A. Gupta, Associate Professor, Dept of English, Panjab University, Chandigarh.

Dr. Aquil Ahmad, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, AMU, Aligarh (U.P). डॉ प्रवीण ठाकुय, ठाकुय तनवा , भल्माणा, ऩो. ऑ. भल्माणा, तह ीर–सर्भरा, जजरा– सर्भरा, दहभाचर प्रदे र्, वऩन-171001

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Instructions to the Contributors Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) welcomes contributions in all areas of research proposed by the Centre. All articles are sent to experts who evaluate each paper on several dimensions such as originality of the work, scientific argument, and English style, format of the paper, references, citations and finally they comment on suitability of the article for the particular Journal. In case of review articles the importance of the subject and the extent the review is comprehensive are assessed. Prospective authors are expected that before submitting any article for publication they should see that it fulfills these criteria. The improvement of article may be achieved in two ways (i) more attention to language (ii) more attention to the sections of the article.

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CPPIS, Pehowa (Kurukshetra) Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS) Pehowa is a joint academic venture of Milestone Education Society (Regd.) Pehowa and Society for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (SPPIS), Haryana (online) to do fundamental research in the field of Humanities and Social Sciences.

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All contributions to the Journal, other editorial enquiries and books for review are to be sent to: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Chief-Editor, Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy, Department of Philosophy, Post Graduate Govt College, Sector-46, Chandigarh Mobile No.09896848775, 08288883993 E-mail: cppiskkr@gmail.com Website: http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

“My objective is to achieve an intellectual detachment from all philosophical systems, and not to solve specific philosophical problems, but to become sensitively aware of what it is when we philosophise.”

- Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal

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