Reykjavik Masterplan - Research & Analysis

ReykjavĂ­k Volume I

Research & Analysis

a city of

duality

3

University of Bath Sustainable cities M.Arch Design Studio 6.1 2018/19

Ben Martin Cecilia Ferrari Daniel Mclean Gian Virdi Piotr Paszkiewicz Samuel Kalejaye

This booklet has been compiled using a range of resources both on the study trip and through desktop research. All data is factually correct as of 2018, verified through multiple sources. The references used to collate the data for each chapter are broken down in references, page 158: As-well as primary research, the following documents have acted as the library in preparation of this report: -Icelandic institute of research, ‘Iceland economy and context’ -Planning and building department of the city of Reykjavik, Vantnsmyri 102 Reykjavik -Reykjavik Municipal plan 2010-2030

Acknowledgements In the preparation of this report the group would like to give thanks to those who have given their time and knowledge throughout the course of the project. The final report has been made possible thanks to the knowledge and insight from the following: Professor Alex Wright Anna Claxton Jayne Barlow Rupert Grierson Andy Jarvis Jo Hibbert Studio Granda Tripoli Architects Iceland Academy of the arts

Report to be read in conjunction with : Volume 2: Process Volume 3: Proposal

Team Reykjavik

Íslands minni

[A toast to Iceland] Our land of lakes forever fair below blue mountain summits, of swans, of salmon leaping where the silver water plummets, of glaciers swelling broad and bare above earth’s fiery sinews the Lord pour out his largess there as long as earth continues. Þorgeir Guðmundsson (1794-1871)

1 Context 1.1 Global Context 1.2 Icelandic Context 1.3 City Context 2 City Elements 2.1 Urban Fabric 2.2 Climate and Light 2.3 Landscape 2.4 Energy 2.5 Society 2.6 Connectivity 3 Aims 3.1 City Issues 3.2 Assets and Challenges 3.3 Aims

1.0 context

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1.1 Global Context.

Greenland Sea Greenland

Iceland

United Kingdom

Iceland is not just a sprawling vista of untouched majesty.

It’s a place with the population of a small town—338,000 people—that’s an actual country. It’s a battlefield hosting a centuries-long battles between fire and ice, where unpredictable weather makes it seem like three seasons have passed in the course of four minutes.

Iceland is an island, a European country, located midway between North America and mainland Europe lying just below the Arctic Circle between 64 and 66 degrees north.

Its capital city- Reykjavik is the northernmost capital in the world, located exactly halfway between New York and Moscow. It’s location on the Mid Atlantic ridge (the largest tectonic plate boundary in the Northern hemisphere) has created a unique environment which is enhanced by the countries position on the north of the Gulf stream bringing warm air to break the Arctic climate providing temperate weather allowing for the settlement of Iceland.

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Arctic Circle

Satellite image of Iceland’s European context

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Nordic Context.

Although a European member state Iceland influences from Nordic culture are still ever present. The country was founded upon Danish Sovereignty which many of the influences remain today in the countries values, religions and demographic population. Because of Iceland’s isolation, it was late in being settled by the Danish empire and as a result has a considerably smaller population. However, the resurgence of the countries politics and GDP through its vast 500,000 resources of renewable energy meant it was soon to catch up with its counterparts financially having the 3rd highest GDP per captia in the Nordic region.

Population of Iceland 338,000

400,000

Population of Reykjavik 123,000

Iceland’s population comparably is a lot smaller than the other Nordic countries, however when the population spread is analysed 300,000 the results show that almost 69% of the countries population resides in the capital city. This puts Reykjavik in a unique position of power, effectively being a country within a city.

200,000

100,000 0 1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

Population of Nordic countries

Sweden: 9,950,000

10

10

8 8 Denmark: 5,700,000 Finland: 5,500,000 Norway: 5,200,000

44 22 00

population in millions

6 6

Iceland: 338,000

2015

time

2015

2010

2010

2005

2005

2000

2000

12

1995

1995

1990

1990

69% of Population residing in Reykjavik region.

% of population in capital city Oslo 10.9%

Stockholm 10.8%

Helsinki 13.1%

Iceland

Norway

Sweden

Finland

Population: 338,000 Population per Km2 3.31 people GDP per capita USD: 70,050 Energy consumption per year: 17.98 billion kWh

Population: 5,200,000 Population per Km2 13.71 people GDP per capita USD: 75,500 Energy consumption per year: 113.10 billion kWh

Population: 9,950,000 Population per Km2 22.50 people GDP per capita USD: 53,442 Energy consumption per year: 125.40 billion kWh

Population: 5,500,000 Population per Km2 16.29 people GDP per capita USD: 45,700 Energy consumption per year: 85.15 billion kWh

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1.2 The Icelandic Context.

a land of

duality

If ever there was a bounded, self-contained society, it might be Iceland. It is a moderately large island in the middle of the North Atlantic just below the Arctic circle. It is small and has a relatively homogeneous population descended from ninth-century refugees from the unification of Norway.

If ever there was an island of history, it, too, might be Iceland. The settlers had hardly disembarked when their descendants in the twelfth century began writing about their histories, family relationships, hardships, and victories.

Heavily influenced by both European and American cultures the country has defined itself at the centre of two continents relating to both, but becoming neither. Iceland presents itself as a land of fire and ice, a land of light and dark, a land of dualities.

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Reykjavik

Satellite image of Iceland

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National Parks and Assets.

Seljalandsfoss waterfall - Eyjafjallajökull

1 Vatnajökull 2 Jokulsargljiufur 3 Friðland Fjallabaki 4 Hornstrandir 5 Snæfellsjökull 6 Reyfólkvangur

One could rather agreeably state that the whole of Iceland is a makeshift national park. After all, the landscapes are ostensibly untouched and undeveloped, often leaving wild open space from horizon line to horizon line. Scattered with astonishing waterfalls, glaciers, fjords, volcanoes, wildlife, beaches, cliffs (the list could go on for ever) Iceland has hundreds of natural assets quite unique to the rest of the world. Under the jurisdiction of Environment agency of Iceland the country is split into 6 national parks with three: Þingvellir, Vatnajökull and Snæfellsjökull being the most significant expanse of natural wonder.

Reykjavik sits on the peninsula of Snæfellsjökull which holds the cities greatest landscape asset- Mount Esja- often described as Reykjavik’s mountain.

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4

3

1

5 Reykjavik

2 6

Vatnakojull 13,929 sqkm

Size of Iceland’s national parks Hornstrandir 580km Reykjanesfólkvangur 300 sqkm

Snæfellsjökull 170 sqkm 17

Honstrandir Kogurfjordur Godafloss

Vopnafjordur

Hvitserkur

Londranger

Borgarfjordur Eystri Fjarnaskogur

Reykjavik

Londranger

Pjupivogur Landmannalaugar Vestrahorn Hveragerdi

Svartifloss

Blue Lagoon Skogafloss Seljalandfloss

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Jokulsarlon

Areas of Natural Beauty. covering 11% of the Icelands land area.

262 glaciers

Jรถkulsรกrlรณn Glacial Lagoon, Vatnajรถkull National Park, Southeastern

11,120 waterfalls 130 volcanoes

35 of which are currently tectonically active

with Glymur waterfall cascading 198m

7 active geysers.

Icelands ethereal geothermal terrain, is constantly shifting, moulding the landscape into swathes of unique patterns.

Lava fields and obsidian beaches meet cold northern seas whilst storms thrash mountains leaving a barran white landscape broken only by glaciers, lakes and waterfalls.

Natural beauty is the essence of Iceland and has defined the country. Its uniqueness presents itself everywhere apart from Reykjavik. Instead of adopting the landscapes, the city, like many other cities in the world, has chased urban models based on countries without the assets of Iceland.

This has resulted in a unique city environment, but for negative reasons. It is sparse, characterless, lacks identity and is in the shadow of its countries nature.

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Tectonic Fault Lines.

Reynisfjara Formation, Vík í Mýrdal

The reason for this seismic activity is the location of Iceland on top the Atlantic ridge, the divergent boundary between the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates: As the two plates drift in opposite directions Iceland is in effect slowly being split apart. The rate of spreading along the MidAtlantic Ridge averages about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) per year, or 25 kilometers (15.5 miles) in a million years.

Most of the earthquakes detected in Iceland take place in one of the active volcanic zones or along the South Iceland Seismic Zone. There are also two main important types of earthquakes in Iceland: quakes created by volcanic activity and quakes caused by the release of tension caused by the movement of the tectonic plates.

1/3 of global magma erupted in Iceland

7.5 largest magnitude earthquake 5000 tremors per week 300-500 earthquakes per week

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Mid - Atlantic Ridge , Iceland.

Eurasian Plate

North-American Plate Reykjavik

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2010: Eyjafjallajokull (14 Apr - 23 May)

2010: Fimmvorduhals (20 Mar - 13 Apr)

2004: Grimsvotn (1 Nov - 6 Nov)

2000: Hekla (26 Feb - 7 Mar)

1998: Grimsvotn (18 Dec - 28 Dec)

1996: Gjalp (30 Sep - 14 Oct)

1996: Gjalp (30 Sep - 14 Oct)

Volcanology of Iceland.

Geologically young, Iceland contains about 200 volcanoes of various types. Volcanic activity has been particularly frequent since the 1970s.

The volcanic zones are directly above the boundary of the tectonic plates. extending East from Reykjanes peninsula to the South West where the Reykjanes ridge forms part of the North Atlantic ridge, and from the North-East extending North into the Arctic.

Iceland’s best-known volcano, Hekla, erupted four times in the 20th century: in 1947, 1970, 1980, and 1991; it also had a series of small eruptions in 2000. There were eruptions in the Vatnajökull area in 1983 and 1996. Eyjafjallajökull volcano, beneath an extension of Mýrdalsjökull (Mýrdals Glacier), erupted in March 2010 for the first time since 1821. It erupted again beginning on April 14 and sent wandering ash plumes into the skies that disrupted air traffic for days across northern and central Europe.

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Katla Volcano, Eyjafjallajökull, Mýrdalsjökull

Krafla

Reykjavik

Eyjafjallajokull

Oraefajokull

Katla Grimsvotn and Laki Significant Volcanoes of Iceland

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Krafla

Reykjavik

Katla

Oraefajokull

Mýrdalsjökull Grimsvotn and Laki

Major landforms in Iceland

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Topography.

Much of Iceland is underlain by basalt, a dark rock of igneous origin. The oldest rocks were formed about 16 million years ago. The landscape in basaltic areas is one of plateau and fjord, characterized by successive layers of lava visible one above the other on the valley sides.

The basalt sheets tend to tilt somewhat toward the centre of the country. Iceland’s U-shaped valleys are largely the result of glacial erosion creating depressed zones between the basalt areas have extensive plateaus above which rise single volcanoes and vast peaks of table mountains.

Landmannalaugar Highlands

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“Iceland is certainly one of the most catastrophic examples of de-forestation in the world.” Þröstur Eysteinsson

Director of the Icelandic Forest Service.

Kirkjubæjarklaustur, Southern Iceland

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Deforestation.

One thousand years ago, upon the then recent settlement of Norsemen to Iceland, approximately 40% of the countryside was forested. Today, the island is most widely known for its starkly beautiful, yet treeless landscape at around 1.9% coverage. Viking settlers took their axes to the forests that covered one-quarter of the countryside and within a few centuries, Iceland would prove to be one of the worst examples of deforestation ever on record; where there were once trees now sat grazing lands, barren soil and young grass, an environmental turnaround the likes of which have not been since.

Despite the planting of three million or more trees in recent years, the amount of land that is covered in forest estimated at about 1% at the turn of the 20th century, when reforestation was made a priority - has barely increased.

879 - 40.1% Tree Coverage

of Icelands forests have been deforested.

80%

700 2018 - 1.9% Tree Coverage number of hectares of Icelands largest forest.

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critically endangered native tree species.

1.9 % of landscape occupied by forests.

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Icelandic Regions.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

28

Höfuðborgarsvæði Suðurnes Vesturland Vestfirðir Norðurland vestra Norðurland eystra Austurland Suðurland

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Map of Icelands Regions

4 6 5

7

3

1

Reykjavik

8

2

Höfuðborgarsvæði is Iceland’s capital region situated on the West coast of the country. It is by far the most densly populated urban area with its inhabitants accounting for almost 60% of the population. Because of Icelands vast geological landscape the other 7 regions are a large eclectic mix of fire, ice, mountains and water, the regions dominate Iceland’s identity whereas Höfuðborgarsvæði offers very little to compete.

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1.3 The City Context.

Reykjavik, the world’s northernmost capital city, offers a surprising variety of cultural and social for the countries small population. Located on the most western peninsula of Iceland it benefits from the hospitable weather climate which has allowed for its growth since it first became settled

by Norsemen. The city has grown slow, yet influences from the US, Europe have created a significantly different architectural archipelago to any other capital city in the world. Small sheets of corrugated metal form the citiy’s most obvious architectype, all cast under the shadow of the Hallgrímskirkja Church- by far the tallest building in the city.

‘The northernmost capital city’ creates a sense that city should have an identifiable character which can define the city, it does not and this needs to change.

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Reykjavik viewed from Öskjuhlíð

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The Birth of Reykjavík.

2009

2009

2008

2004

1981

1980

1970

1944

1940

1380

1380

1000

870

Timeline of Reykjavik

Financial Crisis

First Norse settlements on Iceland. Previous inhabitants were a small number of Irish monks.

Norway and Iceland enter a Union.

Iceland Adopts Christianity.

Icelanders vote in a referendum to become a Republic.

Reykjavik established as a city by the Danish crown 1904: Iceland declares independence and autonomy for Norway

Vigdis Finnbogadottir becomes first female president of Iceland.

1970: Iceland enters the European Free Trade Movement (FTA)

Grimsvotn volcano erupts, scattering ash as far away as Finland and causing aircraft to divert.

Iceland suffers from high inflation, averaging 38% annually.

Iceland formally applies for EU membership after parliament votes in favour of accession.

Iceland formally applies for EU membership after parliament votes in favour of accession.

In the late Middle Ages and early modern period, Reykjavík had little presence on the Icelandic stage, let alone the international one. The island itself went through huge changes, however, going through civil war then being absorbed into the Kingdom of Norway in the 13th Century.

After that, it was consolidated into the Kalmar Union (the Scandinavian Union dominated by Denmark) in 1380 and continued to be subject to the Danish Crown after the union dissolved.

Norsemen arriving to Reykjavik depicted in the book of settlements

32

Reykjavík’s rise back to power started with one new arrival; Dane Skuli Magnusson moved to the farmland in the 18th Century and established wool workshops, which brought work to the area and meant that the products were of high quality. This did not go unnoticed by the Crown authorities; when trading charters started to be provided to Iceland’s settlements in 1786, Reykjavík was to get a permanent charter resulting in city status and its slow rise to the capital city of present day.

2018 Reykjavik City

1960 American City Masterplan

1940

British establish airport in WW2

1786

Founding date of the city

1752

Danish King built houses and industry

870 Timeline of Reykjavik

Norsemen settled on Reykjavik

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1.2% United Kingdom

1.9% Denmark

1.4% Norway

1.4% N Ireland

1.6% France

3.1% Spain

2.3% Austria 2.1% Germany

2.8% Finland 1.8% Greece

3.5% Lithuania

3.1% Serbia 3.5% Armenia

3.1% Sweden

3.6% Bulgaria 3.9% Luxembourg

2.9% Croatia

5.5% Iceland

4.1 % Ireland

Fastest Growing Economies Comparison

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Iceland

Finland

Denmark

Norway

Sweden

GDP Sweden 511.2B Norway 370.1B Denmark 340.4B Finland 215.1B Iceland 19.9 B

Economic growth in Nordic countries

Nordic Average

The Fastest Growing Economy in the EU.

Having come through the crisis a decade ago, Iceland is now enjoying an economic revival, with technology, renewable energy and tourism replacing the unsustainable boom in banking. Visitor numbers have quadrupled and output per head is among the strongest in Europe. The employment rate is the highest in the world.

Iceland became the first European country since the UK in 1976 to go to the International Monetary Fund for a bailout – requiring £2.4bn, equal to nearly £7,000 for every man, woman and child – before imposing capital controls that were not removed until 2017. The króna lost half its value in the three years to the end of 2010, while GDP plunged by 15% during the slump – (the biggest contraction recorded by a wealthy economy during the crisis).

The country has now more than made up for the fall in GDP since the crash. By 2016 the economy was growing by as much as 7.2% before the pace moderated as a result of the króna appreciating in value. However, it is still forecast to maintain a growth rate of about 3% over the next two years – more than double the UK’s.

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A Growing City.

36

1810

1935

Danish adventurer Jörgen Jörgensen takes power in Iceland and declares Iceland’s independence. naming the city Reykjavik meaning smoky bay because of the geysers.

Following WW1 and the preceding WW2 British and American forces made base in the city resulting in its growth to the south and East.

1975 In the aftermath of the war infrastructure was in place for better transport communications to the city and therefore continued to grow to a population of 200,000

2017 A global city, Reykjavik has expanded across the peninsula resulting in the majority of Iceland’s population living in the city creating extensive city sprawl issues

Reykjavik’s Urban Sprawl

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Reykjavik

Copenhagen

Population Capital Area : 122,853 Greater Reykjavik : 216,940

Population Capital Area : 777,218 Greater Copenhagen : 1,627,000

Capital Area : 273 km2 Density : 451.5/km2

Captial Area : 178.46 km2 Density : 4,400/km2

ReykjavĂ­k Scale.

Stockholm

Oslo

Population Capital Area : 932,917 Greater Copenhagen : 1,510,000

Population Capital Area : 658, 390 Greater Oslo : 942,084

Captial Area : 188 km2 Density : 5,100/km2

Captial Area : 480 km2 Density : 1,400/km2

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The most sparse capital in the EU. Björn Teitsson, Reykjavik city planner stated that ‘Iceland has encouraged a surprisingly wasteful, sprawling layout for such a small city,’ mainly down to its aggressive expansions based on the American town planning (prioritising cars) in the 1960’s. City centre Reykjavik has given away its land to the tourist boom resulting in there being a lack of space from new development due to the stark land value increases as a result of Air B and B’s and hotels.

In comparison to other Nordic cities, Reykjavik has the lowest of population densities which results in the city not having the characteristics of a capital city such as Copenhagen or Oslo. Iceland’s small population means that density can become a problem because there is more than enough land per person, yet if the city is to become a true capital city, this must be addressed.

Reykjavik 600 people / km2

Oslo 3300 people / km2

Copenhagen 17000 people / km2

City density

40

Riga 6,400 / ppsqm

Reykjavik 600 people / km2

Amsterdam 5,900 / ppsqm

Oslo 3,300 / ppsqm Munich 12,500 / ppsqm

Helsinki 2,900 / ppsqm Rome 6,500 / ppsqm

Berlin 10,000 / ppsqm

Tallinn 4,900 / ppsqm

Vienna 11,000 / ppsqm

Stockholm 12,000 / ppsqm Hamburg 6,200 / ppsqm

Dublin 12,000 / ppsqm

Prague 7,700 / ppsqm

Athens 46,000 / ppsqm

Barcelona 44,000 / ppsqm

London 14,000 / ppsqm

Copenhagen 17,000 / ppsqm

Paris 54,000 / ppsqm

Comparing the Density of European Cities

41

42

Iceland has encouraged a surprisingly wasteful sprawling layout for such a small city.

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Districts of Reykjavík.

Iceland’s local authorities function under the Local Government Act, No. 138/2011. Tasks that the local authorities are required to do by law are defined in various items of separate legislation, the act sets out their rights and obligations specific to the municipalities.

Because of Reykjavik’s scale, the services to population is relatively small and therefore most places where people work, shop or partake in leisure activities are located in the Miðborg municipality (the defined city centre.) Because of this, the other municipalities have become commuter suburbs which house the residents who ‘service’ the Miðborg region resulting in a distinct lack of character (other than residential) in the suburbs of Reykjavik. It has been commented by local residents that this makes it hard for people to socialise in their municipality as there is no need for services because of the lack of capacity in the areas.

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Úlfarsársdalur

Hlíðar

Árbær

Laugardalur

Population- 4

Population-50

Population-3197

Population-11

262.8ha

10ha

58.9ha

80.4ha

Háaleiti

Grafarvogur

Kjalarnes

Breiðholt

Population-2,736

Population-1473

Population- 550

Population-43

42.8ha

43.7ha

44ha

13ha

Districts of Reykjavik

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MiĂ°borg.

Midborg is the heart, soul and centre of Reykjavik. It is the area of the city which was first settled and is the connection of all political, social, economical and recreational activities of the city and Iceland.

Its position in the North of the city means it benefits from protection from the Greenland sea due to the Reykjavik fjord forming a bay which the city spreads out along. The connection of the water and the sea is ever present through the large coastline, which is somewhat undersold because of the city’s ring road disconnecting the buildings to the water.

Urbanism of the 101 Locale

46

47

Locale.

The Industrial quarter

The Old quarter

The Shopping quarter

The Government Quarter

District 101

Cultural

48

Commerce

Residential

Industry

City Section - Coast to Park

101 City Section - Harbour Edge

City Section - Residential

Reykjavik’s scale as a city is small and therefore most of the capital city function is located in the Miðborg region. Therefore, the focus of this research will be on this area forming the locale for the masterplan- Area 101. The 101 zone is significant to all aspects of Iceland life including residents and tourists alike. It offers the perfect juxtaposition of landscape and city, cultural significances and the largest array of the built form making it the perfect location for significant change in the city.

The research and analysis of this area was conducted in October 2018 and provided the opportunity of first hand evaluations. Because the 101 is small, we gained a deep understanding of the city’s built environment and the people that lived there allowing the group to gain insight into what will create significant changes to Reykjavik.

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City Mapping. harbour

residential Perspective Sketch - Residential Street city centre

commercial park

residential

Perspective Sketch - Harpa Concert Hall

During the site visit it became apparent, like the rest of municipalities, that the 101 zone had a zonal mix of city function which has resulted in distinct quarters of the city.

Each quarter has a unique identity which is often associated by the people that live there and the tourists that visit.

However, an overarching opinion was the amount of land given over to car use. It became apparent that roads dictated urban planning which was often detrimental the public space and the sense of it being a city centre at the capital of Iceland.

The city grew up around the harbour and in the early 20th century it became one of the centres of the Icelandic trawling industry. The harbour area has been transformed in the past decades. It is still one of the most important harbours in Iceland, but in recent years tourism and whale watching have gradually replaced fishing vessels while shops and restaurants have occupied warehouses.

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The old harbour has icons of the old fishing industry. Valuable land is being wasted.

A typical residential street is long and lack connection or community space.

In the city centre the church can be viewed from almost anywhere

There is no distinct change between the residential and the commercial, with cars dominating both.

Grey, bleak residential streets are lifted by spectacular vistas of Mt. Esja

The park offers the city a connection to nature which seems small considering the country it sits within.

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2.0 city elements

53

2.1 The Urban Fabric.

There are four significantly different architectural forms in Reykjavik which start to form the urban fabric. However, because of the city’s young life there is not one dominating style albeit a significant Scandinavian influence, a derived from the Danish and Norwegians.

Guðjón Samúelsson was the state architect for almost 3 decades creating a homogeneous style (situated around laugavegur street) the city which was not broken until the past decade when Architects trained on mainland Europe returned. This resulted in a more holistic European approach to design which was not restricted by typical capital city constraints that constrict a city’s growth.

Reykjavik is growing architecturally and its skyline can be identified by three significant buildings: Hallgrímskirkja Church Built by Guðjón Samúelsson this is the most famous building in the city and defines the identity of the place.

The Harpa concert hall Built by Henning Larson architects it is definitive of ‘new’ Reykjavik and the city’s attempt to have an iconic building which certate a design discourse across the city.

Hallgrimskirkja church

The Perlan Formed on top of the city’s hot water tank supplies the glass dome forms a significant attraction and is representative of the city’s green energy.

Harpa concert hall

Laugavegur street

Perlan

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Harpa Concert Hall

Hallgrimskirkja church

Laugavegur street

The perlan

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Land Use.

Reykjavik is starting to become a palimpsests of architecture, particularly with the hybridisation of modern day Europe and America mixed with the traditional Scandinavian approach of the city. However, because of the city’s implementation of a gridded masterplan in the 1960’s it has evolved with significant zoning resulting in specific areas of the city.

Unique to many capital cities, Reykjavik has a domestic airport in the centre of the city, however, this was subject to an international competition of master-planning following the news that it was to be integrated with the international airport in Keflavik.

Zoning of Reykjavik

The 101 zone has a central core of residencies, the most dense building type in the city, whilst the majority of all the city’s commercial activity is based along the Laugavegur street. Due to the city’s population capacity there is no need for the integration of mix uses which further emphasises the city zoning.

GreenSpace Space Green Airport Airport Hospital Hospital University buildings University Commercial / Industry Commercial/industrial Mixed use Mixed-Use

Residential Residential 1960’s masterplan of Reykjavik

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101 zoning Commercial Commercial/Service Hospital Hospital

Residential Residential Mixed Mixed UseUse Industrial Industrial Green Space Green Space

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Planning Policy.

Icelandic Planning Policies.

2018 Distance to Frontier (Best Planning Strategy)

84.06: Denmark (Rank: 3) 80.37: Finland (Rank: 13) 79.00: Germany (Rank: 20) 78.50: Iceland (Rank: 23) 77.46: Average 76.13: France (Rank: 31)

Reykjavik Planning Policy: Focus on the quality of the existing built environment.

3/5 Storeys

60 Residential units per hectare

A special emphasis will be placed on increasing the supply of smaller residential units by 25%.

The plan is to densify the urban area closest to the city centre from 50% to 90%.

Comprehensive neighbourhoods units that remove obstaclesand encourage positive communication between different age and social groups.

New commercial areas will be introduced in the periphery.

Some existing shops requiring more space will be moved from the city centre to the outskirt.

The city has long lived under the restrictions of the 1960 masterplan resulting in increased pressures for urban sprawl and density.

In 2016, Reykjavik outlined a Municipality plan which aimed to increase the potential of the city and its identity as a capital city in a leading economy. The main emphasis of the Municipal Plan in the past years has been to create suitable conditions for its continuous growth; to ensure that the city is ready to meet the demands of anticipated growth in population and industry.

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Heavy and polluting industrial activities will be moved outside the city .

Public transport, cycling and walking will be increased by 50% with new infrastructure and services.

Car traffic will be dicreased and road capacity will no longer be a focal point.

48% potential footprint.

current footprint, 52% of which devoted to the car.

If Reykjavik was condensed by removing all carparks & roads it could fit in just

48% of available land.

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Building Heights.

Hallgrímskirkja Church stands at 74m, the tallest building in the city which is treasured by the city’s planners and frames the focus of Reykjavik’s intended identity. In order for the church to be significant in the skyline and to reduce the amount of shadow in the city, a 5 storey build limit has been implemented within a 300 metre radius.

Because of the size of the city this has created a relatively low building height average which the taller buildings being on the periphery of the 101 zone.

Reykjavik’s low population per km2 density means that the need to build tall has not been a problem in the past. However the recent (and predicted continued) population boom has created urban sprawl problems because of the land values created by the 5 storey limit, restricting the potential to build dense and tall.

1-2 storeys

3-4 storeys

5-6 storeys

7-8 storeys

9+ storeys

Typical Residential Street

Building height capped at 5 storeys church clock Hallgrímskirkja Church

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Plan highlighting the heights of buildings in the city

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Hospitals Libaries

Hospital

Educational Religious Swimming

Libraries

Educational

Cultural

Church build

Swimming p

Cultural bui

City analysis of public utilities

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Swimming Cultural

Buildings

Parks and Squ

City analysis of public parks and squares

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Non Coloured

Grey Bui

Building

8% of buildings have colour

City analysis of coloured buildings

64

“The mountains, the lights, the water, the nature. They are bright, full of life and magnificent. Reykjavik is not.”

Maria Jandóttir, Icelandic University of Arts

65

6

1

5 2 4

3

Notable Landmarks of Reykjavik 1 - Harpa Opera House 2 - Cafe on Laugavegur (main shopping street) 3 - Hallgrimskirkja

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4 - City Hall (park) 5 - Cathedral of Christ the King 6 - Maritime Museum

Urban Landmarks.

Harpa Concert Hall

Hallgrimskirkja Church

Laugavegur Street

City Hall

1: Harpa Concert Hall 2: Laugavegur street 3: Hallgrimskirkja Church 4: City Hall 5:Cathedral of Christ 6: Maritime Museum Reykjavik’s age as a city has resulted in a slow growth of significant buildings with the most important to the people of the city being the Hallgrímskirkja Church, however the influence of tourists has resulted in many other buildings becoming identifiable to the city.

Cathedral of Christ

Maritime Museum

The city’s strong religious grounding in Christianity has resulted in many churches in the 101 including Hallgrímskirkja and the Cathedral of Christ. Large scale economic investment has been implemented to try and improve the identity of the place to a ‘true’ capital city, yet the more traditional ‘bottom-up’ investments have resulted in the growth of Laugavegur street, the most significant street in the city.

The most historic part of the city – the old harbour – frames both small scale investments. In between the old city, a make up of little shops, stalls and coffee shops is the Harpa concert hall (the cities most valuable economic building) and the maritime museum.

67

Harpa (Opera House) Hofdi House

Central Bank of Iceland The National Theatre

Landakotskirkja

Government house

Reykjavik City Hall Fríkirkjan Hallgrimskirkja 0.5 km

Nordic House

Perlan

One of the benefits of being a small capital city is that all the important buildings, squares and landmarks in the city are close together and compact. Particularly significant in Reykjavik is that all the buildings that have a large part to play in Iceland’s economy, politics and social agendas derive from within the 101 locale.

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1.5 km

2.0 km

Reykjavík Art Museum Kjarvalsstaðir

University of Iceland

Distances from Central Hallgrimskirkja Chruch

1 km

1.5 km

Compact City.

0.8km: National Theatre 0.8km: Frikirkjan 1.0km: Art Museum 1.1km: Central Bank 1.2km: Goverment House 1.3km: City Hall 1.5km: Harpa Concert Hall 1.7km Landakotskirkja 1.7km University of Iceland 1.9km: Hofdi House 1.9km: Perlan 69

City Typology.

The result of the 1960’s masterplan meant that many of the roads are given over to the use of the car, and therefore lack identity. The typology of Reykjavik has started to change over the past decade, however it is still dominated with the typical Icelandic form shown on the opposite page, a derivative of the old turf houses.

Laugavegur Street Isometric Sketch.

Corrugated iron dominates the streetsin Reykjavik. Most often utilised solely for industrial purposes—such as to build sheds, storages or barns—in Iceland, the material proved so ideal for the local weather that it got embraced by the nation as a whole, allowing it to develop aesthetically. For instance, while the iron plates of such houses are elsewhere applied horizontally, in Iceland they are vertical, making them better suited for fending off rain and salt.

A_A

B_B

C_C

D_D

Typical Residential Street Isometric Sketch.

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Section A_A

Section B_B

Section C_C

Section D_D

The Harbour

Residential Street

Shopping Street

Laugavegur Street

71

View to parliament quarter at night

72

Vistas of Mt.Esja on a residential street

Reykjavik city lake

Evening sun from the Perlan

“Reykjavik is a city in between. A capital in the middle of mountains and ocean. It is small in the urban but large in the world.”

Maria Jandóttir, Icelandic University of Arts

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The Waterfront.

Reykjavik is situation on the Greenland sea in a bay formed by a large glacial fjord. The bay offer views out across the ocean and views of Mount Esja provided an amazing opportunity for the city to develop its coastlines.

Iceland has a large historic connection with water yet the construction of a large ring road in the 1970’s meant that the city has to cross over four lanes of traffic to meet the water. This has resulted in a dis-connection to water up until the old harbour noted as the heart of Reykjavík and the catalyst to its formation. The city grew up around the harbour and in the early 20th century it became one of the centres of the Icelandic trawling industry. The harbour area has been transformed in the past decades. It is still one of the most important harbours in Iceland, but in recent years tourism and whale watching have gradually replaced fishing vessels while shops and restaurants have occupied warehouses.

Section - Waters proximity to the harbour

Section - Road Network Isolating Coast and City

View back across the coastline towards Harpa concert hall

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Section - The Old Harbour and Docks

The Old Harbour

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2.2 Climate and Light.

Despite its Northerly location, Iceland is really more solar than polar. This is thanks to the warming effects of the Gulf Stream which provides a temperate climate year round.

Icelandic weather is unusually volatile however. The Gulf Stream brings mild Atlantic air in contact with colder Arctic air, resulting in frequent and abrupt weather shifts where you may experience four seasons in one day.

Iceland does not have a rainy season, but precipitation peaks in October to February, with the southern and western parts receiving the most rainfall. The North, East and Interior experience colder winter temperatures but warmer summers, and noticeably less snow and rain.

Most significant to Iceland is the extreme duality in lighting conditions it experiences throughout the year. During summer it can experience day long sunlight whilst the winter, equally as much darkness.

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“If you don’t like the weather, just wait 15 minutes and it will change.”

Ejudir frerddóttir, 101 Resident

Reykjavik at during the midnight sun.

77

Extreme Light Conditions.

Reykjavik 22 hrs fluctuation

Helsinki 18hrs fluctuation

Oslo 17 hrs fluctuation

London Rome Lisbon 14 hrs fluctuation 13 hrs fluctuation 12 hrs fluctuation Light Fluctuation Comparison

the longest and shortest days in Europe.

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24 hrs

22 hrs

20 hrs

18 hrs

16 hrs

14 hrs

12 hrs

10 hrs

8 hrs

6 hrs

4 hrs

2 hrs

0hrs

January

February

March

April

May

June

2 hrs of Darkness in Summer

22 hrs of Darkness in Winter

July

August

September

Due to its proximity to the Arctic circle, Iceland experiences extremes in the amount of and loss of sunlight. The summer months are subject to the natural phenomena of the midnight sun where the sun barely kisses the horizon.

The winter months also suffer from extremities of sunlight where the country only receives light for a 2 to 4 hours a day.

A fluctuation of 22 hours is what Icelanders will experience between the peaks of summer and winter.

An advantage of this extreme light conditions is that the winter months allow natives and relatives opportunities to gaze up at the Northern Lights.

October

November Darkness December Hours of Daylight per month.

79

Sun Paths.

June 21st, Summer Solstice - the sun will set in Reykjavik at midnight and then rise again at 3am, still bright enough to read a book outdoors though Spring and Autumn see extremes in the change in lighting conditions with early November losing around 10minutes of daylight a day December 21st, Winter Solstice - The sun will rise around 11:30am and set at 3:30 however the position of sun in winter never rises above 2 degrees which makes it very difficult to block that sun for all those drivers.

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Midday Sun

Midnight Sun Midnight Sun

1am 1am

4am 4am

2pm 2pm 10am 10am

January 21st January Shortest21st Day Shortest Day

June 21st June 21st

Longest Day Longest Day

December

July

Winter Solstice where the sun never rises above 2° and the city is in darkness for 20 hours a day

Summer Solstice where the midnight sun can be experienced and the sun is never higher than 45°

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The Effects of Light. of darkness during the depths of winter.

The circadian rhythm is your bodies 24-hour clock that’s running in the background, regulating the timing of our biological processes and daily behaviours. In essence it is our sleep/wake cycle.

Light (along with food) is the prime factor in effecting this cycle.

Exposure to light releases serotonin which is known as the feel good neurotransmitter, promoting our wellbeing and feelings of happiness but it also allows us to concentrate. Removal of light prompts the release of the hormone melatonin which tells us we’re tired and ready to sleep.

23hrs

10.6%

Too much exposure to light makes it difficult to sleep, reduces our metabolism and negatively affects relaying information. It also puts us at a greater risk of Bipolar disorder.

In addition to the extremes of serotonin production, the lack of melatonin has negative impacts which comes in the form of lack of energy and depressive symptoms. 1 in 10 suffer from depression which is the fourth highest rate in Europe. Its also the largest consumer of anti-depressants in the world.

of the population clinically depressed.

Shortest Day

Longest Day

82

of the Icelandic population is dependant on antidepressents.

10.1%

1 hour of light during the depths of winter.

Hospitals

18

6

Suicides

00

Sea so na l

12

t: gh Li

Suicides

Circadian C l

Winter, Autumn/ Deep Sleep Deep Sleep Deep Sleep Deep Sleep Eat Deep Sleep Deep Sleep Deep Sleep

Suicides

12

6

Hospitals

18

k oc

Summer, Spring/ Deep Sleep Wake Eat Work Eat Work Eat Sleep

00

40 commit suicide every year

The Biggest Consumer of Antidepressants Canada

Australia

Portugal

Iceland

Sweden

UK

120

100

50

0

Denmark

83

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Average Temperature (c)

0

Reykjavik

-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11

Average at Reykjavik Latitude

-12 -13 -14

December

November

October

September

August

July

June

May

April

84

March

Febuary

January

Comparing the temperature of Reykjavik and the average of its latitude.

Winter Climate.

-3: Average Min Temp of Reykjavik.

-11: Average Min Temp at Reykjavik latitude.

-0.4 Reykjavik average temperature.

Copenhagen average temperature.

-1.6

-3.5

Stockholm average temperature.

The climate of Iceland is maritime subarctic. It is influenced by the location of the country on the broad boundary between two contrasting air currents, one of polar and the other of tropical origin.

The climate is affected also by the confluence of two ocean currents: the Gulf Stream, from near the equator, and the East Greenland current. The latter sometimes carries Arctic drift ice to Iceland’s northern and eastern shores.

-4.3 Stockholm average temperature.

-5.2 Helsinki average temperature.

-11 Average temperature at Reykjavik latitude.

Seasonal shifts in temperature and precipitation are largely the result of weather fronts crossing the North Atlantic. Relatively cold weather, particularly in the northern part of the country, results from the movement of a front south of Iceland; mild, rainy weather is brought by the movement of a front North Eastward between Iceland and Greenland. Although its northernmost points nearly touch the Arctic Circle, Iceland is much warmer than might be expected.

Comparison of Winter Average Temperatures.

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Kjalarnes Kjalarnes

warmer jet stream winds

Kjalarnes

Kjalarnes

Easterly Winter Prevailing Winds

Vestubaer Vesturbær

Grafarvogur Grafarvogur

Midborg (City Centre)

Miðborg (City Centre)

Hildar Hlíðar

Ulfarsarsdularand Grafarhol Úlfarsársdalur

Breidholt

Breiðholt

Haaleiti and Bustadir Háaleiti and Bústaðir Laugardalur

Laugardalur

Arbaer Árbær

Summer Southernly Prevailing Winds

Map showing the prevaling winds in relation to the regions of Reykjavik.

86

Prevailing Winds.

Due to its location close to the North Atlantic current and just East of Greenland, the wind climate of Iceland varies and at times, extreme.

Prevailing winds come from the east, orientating in the polar regions of North America and passing over the high grounds of southern Iceland. It rapidly increases through the month of December going from 14 to 16mph, bringing with it showers. Prevailing winds in the summer are Northerly.

April Wind Directions.

September Wind Directions.

October Wind Directions.

December Wind Directions.

Reykjavik 6.3 m/s

Copenhagen 5.7 m/s

Helsinki 4.8 m/s

Oslo 2.6 m/s Sun Path Diagram

Average Wind Speed comparison

87

Map showing the location of glaciers in Iceland.

11%

of Iceland‘s land is covered in Glaciers

Hofsjokull

Langjökull Vatnajokull Eyjafjallajökull

Iceland’s four major glaciers are retreating at almost 100 metres per year.

88

Climate Change.

Glacial volume (mm w.e.)

‘Iceland is melting’

2000

1950

1900

1850

1800

Global warming trend

Time

Glacial retreat in Icleand

Global warming is effecting Iceland is an unprecedented fashion. With the temperature having risen 2 degrees, Iceland is losing one of its greatest natural beauties, its glaciers. The impact of global warming means glaciers such as Svínafellsjökull are melting, resulting in cracks openings resulting in them melting faster than anywhere else in the world. This then forms glacial lakes which then affect the transportation of minerals and sediments through the rivers and down into the sea, affecting not only the wildlife but also the flooding risk of residnets on the island. This glacial flooding due to its reduction in land pressure then increase volcanic activity and have extreme weather implications.

Glaciers cover around 11% of land mass and being one if Icelands largest tourism attractions, global warming has the devastating opportunity to cause irreversible effects to Icelands character and economy.

Eyjafjallajökull glacier is melting away

89

2.3 The Landscape.

“In Reykjavik, where I was born, you are in the middle of nature surrounded by mountains and ocean. But you are still in a capital in Europe. So I have never understood why I have to choose between nature or the urban.”

Bjork Tenundson, 101 resident

Laugadalur valley sits on the North of the Greenland bay Fjord at the vally between Mount Esja and Mount Vífilfell. Within the valley sits Reykjavik benefitting from the spectacular views of mountains and the long, flowing coastline along the fjord. Because of the cities location to the sea, and Iceland volcanic formation the city is relatively flat.

However, the most noticeable typographical changes in the city occur in the centre of the city giving the Hallgrímskirkja Church far mor significance in the city. Equally to the south of the valley the Hljómskálagarður hill holds the city’s largest wooden area and is the base for the Perlan looking over the city.

90

The Landscape of Reykjavik

Mount Skarðsheiði 1000m

Mount Keilir 379m Mount Esja 914m

101 locale

Mount Vífilfell 655m

91

Typography.

The intrusion of the mnt. Esja.

Typography of the 101 Locale.

Just as the topography of Iceland consists of low lands and rugged mountain ranges, the 101 Locale is made up of two large hills which sit 20m above sea level slope down to remaining lowland and the waters edge and harbour to the North.

Hallgrimskirkja Church is then located on the southern hill and can therefore be seen as a visual marker throughout the city. The locale offers views out into the landscape which surround the city centre, offering visual access to Icelands natural beauty, when the light permits that is.

92

The Typography of Reykjavik and the 101 Locale.

93

Whale Watching Excursions from Reykjavik Harbour

94

Icelandic Puffin.

Native Fauna.

Artic Fox

Icelandic Sheep 270 Icelandic Horse

species of marine fish.

72

East Icelandic Reindeer

species of bird breed on iceland.

1 native species the artic fox.

Despite being a land of fire and ice with very little vegetation, Icelands native fauna have preserved through the time. Prior to human settlement in the 9th century, the Arctic fox was the only land mammal found in Iceland, having walked over the sea-ice of the last ice age and subsequently being stranded here when the ice melted away.

Minke Whale

Fed by the Gulf Stream, Icelands fertile sub-Arctic waters are home more than 20 different species of dolphins and whale. With a historic past to the creature of the deep, the whale-watching industry is changing the relationship Icelanders and tourists have with the majestic creatures.

The elusive and rare Puffin is another native to Iceland. With approximately 60% of the north Atlantic puffin population in Iceland, the millions of nesting pairs can be seen up close in many parts of the country from their arrival at the start of summer in April and May until late August.

Humpback Whale

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Seljalandsfoss river

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Seljalandsfoss waterfall

Sólheimajökull glacier

Reynisfjara beach

“Iceland is a living geological masterpiece, a peerless volcanic land of dramatic skies,bubbling earth, thundering waterfalls and thermal lagoons.”

Halldór Guðjónsson Icelandic novelist and Nobel price winner 1955

97

The sun emits charged particles into space after a solar flare.

These solar particles make thier way to earth, travelling along Earths magentic fields, and enter the atmosphere at the poles.

The charged particles collide with molecules and atoms in the earths atmosphere, resulting in light emitting photons.

Different colour auroras are caused by different light emitting photons produced by the collisions.

Charged Solar Particles

Solar Radiation

Solar Winds Aurora

Aurora

Magnetic Field

Formation of the Aurora Borealis

98

The Aurora Borealis.

Since the dawn of our planet, the natural phenomena have been witnessed by the dinosaurs, the Vikings and us now, in the modern day. The Northern Lights are occurring above us constantly, even when the light is too bright for us to experience them.

Stories of them in Norse Mythology believed that the lights were the glow from the shields and armour of the fiercest female warriors, the Valkyrie, in battle, deciding who is allowed to fight another day. They also appear in Norse mythology as being the bi-frost bridge in Asgard which links the nine realms under Yggdrassil. However these bright lights are actually the result of electrically charged particles being emitted from the sun and passing through the earth’s atmosphere and being tangled in our magnetic field and then pulled to each pole, with different colours being emitted when then the particles collide with the different gasses in the atmosphere.

The extreme dark experienced through the winter months in Iceland allow it to be one of the best places in the world to experience the northern lights, especially when removed from the city. Allowing people to experience the landscape beneath them and above them.

Northern Lights tours are also a main contributor to tourism within Iceland.

“When I look at the northern lights, I see our ancestors dancing around a sacred fire.�

Gylfie Gudmunsson, 101 resident

Northern Lights across Reykjavik Harbour

99

2.4 The Energy.

Energy Use Per Capita.

0.7 0.7

Iceland 17,500 kgoa

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

Energy Intensity

0.4 0.4

Iceland

0.3 0.3

Norway 5800 kgoa China

0.2 0.2

Finland

Sweden 4700 kgoa

Norway Denmark

0.1 0.1

Denmark 3400kgoa

0.0 0.0 Comparison of Energy Intensities.

100

Iceland’s energy resources are vast. Feasible hydro-energy is estimated at nearly six gigawatts and geothermal energy at more than 1.5 million gigawatt hours per year. Only about one-eighth of the hydroelectric power of the country’s rivers has been tapped. Geothermal energy heats all of Reykjavík and several other communities; it provides steam for industrial energy and is used in commercial vegetable farming in greenhouses. However, despite its vast natural resources, Iceland produces more greenhouse emissions per capita than any other country because of its reliance on oil for fishing and transportation.

Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station.

101

A Renewable Energy Leader.

76.4% Sitting on the Mid-Atlantic ridge, the largest fault line on Earth, Iceland has an abundance of resources which allow if to be the gold standard for renewables. Iceland are the pioneers in geothermal space heating with 9 in 10 of Reykjavik’s homes being heated through geothermal water.

Iceland

Being the land of fire and ice, Iceland energy is broken down into 73% hydro-electrical, 26.8% geothermal and oil acting as a back-up at 0.2% (mainly servicing the fishing and transportation industry).

The country can boast over 99% of its electricity comes from renewables compared to other European cities such as, Denmark and Portugal which produce 50.4%. Iceland does not have a national grid like other major cities, but instead the underground geothermal fields are harnessed by boring holes down into the ground near one of the 600 hot spring locations. The steam released turns turbines to pump up water to supply the towns nearby, not only does this produces C02 emissions, but it also saves Iceland ÂŁ50milion a year.

57.1% Norway

23.4% Switzerland

13.3% Germany 21% of energy produced by hydroelectrics

60% of energy produced by geothermal

Iceland’s Energy Composition.

102

9.2% Belguim 7.9% United Kingdom

19% of energy produced from Oil 5.0% Belguim Comparison of Energy derived from Renewables

57.1% Norway 41.1% Finland 76.4% Iceland

49.5% Sweden

7.9% United Kingdom

30.2% Denmark

9.2% Belguim

8.0% Ireland

5.0% Netherlands

13.3% Germany

11.5% Poland

62.1% Liechtenstien 35.7% Austria

23.4% Switzerland

30.5% Portugal

17.3% Spain

17.1% Italy

16.9% Greece

European energy derived from renewables.

103

1,600

Vatnsfell

1,400

Nasjavellir Sultartangi 1,200

Svartisengi Nesjavellir Burfell

1,000

Krafla Blanda

800 MW

Hrauneyjafloss

Svartisengi

600

Sigalda Krafla Mjolla

400

Burfell Largafloss 200 Ljosafloss

Irafos

Laxa 0 1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

Total installed capacity of hydroelectric and geothermal power plants in Iceland.

104

1990

2000

2010

Coal 9%

Denmark

Gas 15% Iceland

Finland

19% Oil

Wind 8%

Oil 39%

Coal 10%

21% Hydro 60% Geothermal

Imported 3% Biomass 24% Gas 7% Oil 30% Hydro 8% Wind 1%

Biomass 33%

Nuclear 8%

Coal 3%

Sweden

Oil 39% Gas 6%

Oil 29%

Coal 3% Biomass 6%

Gas 3%

Norway Hydro 15%

Hydro 44% Wind 1%

Biomass 33%

Energy compositions of the nordic nations.

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...still dependant on oil.

Despite all the natural resources, Iceland is still one the highest gasoline consumers per capita in Europe, with a daily consumption 1.58 litres per person, compared to Denmark with 0.94l and Norway with 0.73l. The cause of this is the importing of fossil fuels for cars, buses and planes, and its fishing industry.

The reliance contributes 10% to Iceland’s carbon foot print alone and Fishing and transportation takes up 95% of Iceland’s oil consumption.

Although a global leader in renewable energy, Iceland has the potential to become 100% green, potential acting as a research and development capital of energy use globally.

Energy Consumption per Tonne of Oil. 0.70.7

19% energy derived from oil.

0.60.6

per tonne oil use per captia

0.50.5

0.40.4

0.30.3

0.20.2

0.10.1

0.00.0

Iceland

China

Finland

United States

Sweden

Nordic Average

Norway

Japan

Germany

Denmark

106

71% energy derived from renewable resources.

100

Oil

95 90 85 80

Geothermal

75 70 % of energy consumption

65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 Hydroelectric

20 15 10

2020

2015

2010

2005

2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

1975

1970

5 0

Energy composition of Iceland from 1970 - 2020

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“Although, the most renewable country in the world, Iceland’s reliance on oil for cars and fishing must be addressed.”

Guðni Th. Jóhannesson (President of Iceland) Speaking at European Renewable Energy council 2016

99.9% fuel dependant

0% electricity dependant

108

Iceland’s dependancy on Oil.

109

Energy Connections.

Boreholes and Geothermal Electricity Outlets supplying the city of Reykjavik.

The city of Reykjavik has grown dramatically and with it so has the need for hot wate. However, the 9 wells in within the capitals geothermal region still supply the city and the surrounding suburbs with 8% of its hot water requirements. A further 3% from the geothermal area in the valley of Elliรฐaรกr whilst Nesjavellir geothermal power plant, located 30km east of Reykjavik sitting on the mid-Atlantic ridge, supplies more than 70 gigalitres of hot water with a current capacity of 750MWt facilitating 56% of the population of Iceland with hot water. The area is one of the highest temperature geothermal fields in Iceland and not only supplies hot water but electricity for the national grid.

Major Hydroelectric Energy Plants

Major Geothermal Energy Plants

3

3 4 10

9

2

2 1 1

3

6 7 6

5

4

7

4 8

Fjotsdalsvirkjun 690MW Hellisheidi 307MW

110

Burfell 270MW

Reykjanes 100MW

Borehole and Geothermal Outlet locations.

111

Energy Potential.

Wind Energy 7.5MW

Hydroelectric 1972 MW 99.8% unexploited

Geothermal 5592 MW

Wind Energy 0.2% unexploited

83% unexploited Current renewable energy outputs.

Iceland has only been developing their geothermal and hydropower for the past 30 years and with an estimated only 20% of technically feasible hydropower and electricity production, Iceland is only scratching the surface of their potential, government projects drilling deeper into the earth to around 5km with current bores reaching 2/3km. In its current condition Iceland is harnessing 7TWh of geothermal electricity, however theoretical capacity of economic and feasible 30TWh of geothermal electricity to be exploited, Iceland could therefore be one of the largest exporters of electricity to the US or main-land Europe.

In light of the current reports of global warming with Iceland’s glaciers melting, hydro-power could become even more viable. And whilst solar energy is not an obvious option because of the lighting conditions, its efficiency can be increased, particularly during the 21 hours of sunlight during summer months.

Iceland benefits from multiple locations with high wind capacity and the declining cost in the wind power industry, means Iceland has huge potential to add to its renewable portfolio with state of the art wind farms.

Geothermal 17% exploited

48% unexploited

Geothermal 52% exploited

Energy potential of renewable resources.

112

Locations for Potential Wind Energy Exploitation - according to a recent goverment study.

Melrakkasletta Landganes

Blanda Fljotsdalssheildi

Snaefellnes Myrar Hofn

Burfell Heillisheildi

Orlakshofn

Medallandssviet Landeyjar

Iceland 1300W/m2

Norrway 325W/m2 Wind Energy Potential comparisons.

Sweden 305W/m2

Finland 280W/m2 113

2.5 The People.

Iceland was the last country to be settled in Europe, when emigrants from Scandinavia and the British Isles first came to live on the island in the ninth and tenth century. It remains the most sparsely populated country in the continent.

Shaped by the unrelenting forces of nature, Iceland’s harsh natural environment has bred a resilient nation that has learnt to exist under extreme conditions, and harness the natural resources they create for its own prosperity.

Today, Reykjavik’s is a progressive, modern society that continuously ranks at the top of measurement’s for quality of life, such as the United Nations Human Development Index. Its economy is one of the most productive economies in the world, per-capita, and it is annually considered to be one of greenest countries on the planet, due in large parts to its vast renewable energy resources.

114

Icelanders celebrating Iceland National day: 17th June 2018

115

Demographics of Iceland.

95-99 yrs

0.0%

90-94 yrs

0.1%

0.2%

85-89 yrs

0.4%

0.5%

80-84 yrs

0.7%

0.8%

75-79 yrs

1.0% 1.4%

1.3%

70-74 yrs

2.1%

65-69 yrs

2.0 %

2.5%

60-64 yrs

2.5 %

3.0%

3.0 %

55-59 yrs

3.1%

3.2 %

50-54 yrs

3.0%

3.1 %

45-49 yrs

3.1%

3.1 %

40-44 yrs

3.1%

3.1 %

35-39 yrs 30-34 yrs 25-29 yrs 20-24 yrs

3.6% 3.4%

3.2 %

3.8%

3.6 %

3.3%

15-19 yrs

3.2 %

3.1%

10-14 yrs

3.5%

5-9 yrs

3.4%

0-4 yrs

3.4 %

3.1 % 3.3 % 3.3 %

3.2 %

3.1 %

0% Male Female

116

The Icelandic Population.

The population of Iceland is extremely homogeneous. The inhabitants are descendants of settlers who began arriving in AD 870 and continued in heavy influx for about 60 years thereafter.

Historians differ on the exact origin and ethnic composition of the settlers but agree that between 60 and 80 % of them were of Nordic stock from Norway. The rest, from Scotland and Ireland, were largely of Celtic stock.

93% of Population Native

The dominant language in the period of settlement was Old Norse, the language spoken in Norway at the time. Through the centuries it has evolved into modern Icelandic, which is used throughout the country. Modern Icelanders can still read Icelandic sagas in Old Norse without difficulty. There are no ethnic distinctions. The early Nordic and Celtic stocks have long since merged, and the small number of subsequent immigrants have had no major effect on the population structure.

7% Immigrants 1.7% Annual population increase

Population change in Iceland’s Regions.

00

00 Iceland: 330,000

00 Capitial Region: 213,000

00

0

Reykjavik: 130,000

2015

2015

2010

2010

2005

2005

2000

2000

1995

1995

1990

1990

117

A Nation in a City. % of overall population residing in Reykjavik

Northwestern Fjords Eastern Western Southern Peninusula Southern The majority of Iceland’s population live in Reykjavik – almost 69% - which in comparison to other major cities such as Oslo (10.9%), Helsinki (13.1%) and London (8.25%) is astonishingly high. Although it is normal that many major cities across the world have a significant population living in the capital, the overall population of Iceland makes Reykjavik unique in the sense that almost all of the country live there.

Northeastern

This puts the city in a unique position of political, social and economic power which is normally spread out across a country. Because of this, the 101 locale, and indeed the masterplan will have to take the view that Reykjavik is not just representative of a city, in a country, but a country within a city.

Reykjavik

% of overall population residing in capitals comparison

Reykjavik - 69%

Of Icelandic Population residing in Reykjavik.

338,000 Population of Iceland.

69% Helsinki Copenhagen Oslo Stockholm

118

- 13.1% - 11.3% - 10.9% - 10.8%

29,000 Northeastern Peninsula 6,800 Westfjords

15,500 Western Region

6,800 Northwestern region

12,400 Eastern Region

213,000 Reykjavik 22,000 Southern Peninsula

24,000 Southern Region

Icelandic Population Distribution.

119

1900

90.000

1910

1915: Universal Suffrage.

Iceland has a population of 89,000 people.

1918: Iceland becomes a sovereign, independent nation.

Iceland has a population of 92,000 people.

1920 1930 1940: The British invade, violating Icelandic neutrality.

Iceland has a population of 120,000 people.

1950 1951: The United States Army set base in Keflavík.

Iceland has a population of 145,000 people.

1960 1963: Volcanic eruption forms Surtsey.

Iceland has a population of 163,000 people.

1970: Iceland joins the European Free Trade Association.

Iceland has a population of 204,000 people.

1973: Volcanic eruption in Vestmannaeyjar..

Iceland has a population of 212,000 people.

1980

1990 1994: Iceland joins the European Economic Area.

Iceland has a population of 266,000 people.

2006: The United States Army abandons the military base in Keflavík, thus ending a 55-year U.S. military presence in Iceland. The population reaches 304,000.

2000

2008: A doublet earthquake strikes the south.

Iceland faces financial crisis following the collapse of the country's three major commercial banks. The population reaches 317.000.

2009: The parliament narrowly passes a bill authorising the government to apply for EU membership.

The population reaches 318.000.

Volcanic eruption of Eyjafjallajökull.

The population reaches 318.000.

2010

The population reaches 332.000.

2015

History of Iceland’s Society.

120

180.000

270.000

360.000

A Progressive Society.

1st

country to elect an openly gay female president Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

1st country to legally enforce equal pay in the workplace.

1st in the rankings for gender equality for the past 6 years.

1st in the rankings internationally for gender pay gap.

International Womens day 2018

47.9% of the Icelandic Government is Female.

Icelandic economy

According to the Social Progress Index 2017, Iceland is the 4th most socially progressive country in the world, after Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. The index is an attempt to measure social progress not according to economic measures but according to how successfully a society meets basic human needs such as nutrition, clean water and shelter; how strong their foundations of wellbeing are, such as access to knowledge and healthcare and how sustainable they are; and finally according to metrics of Opportunity such as personal rights, freedom, choice, tolerance and access to higher education.

Social progress index

For the past six years, Iceland has topped the World Economic Forum’s gender gap index and looks likely to do so again in 2019. The Economist named Iceland the world’s best place for working women in 2018. In comparison, the UK came in at 24th.

Icelandic economy vs social progress index

121

15,000

+5

2013

2011

2009

2007

2005

2003

2001

1999

1997

1995

1993

1991

Demographics.

+3

+2 +2

+1

10,000

15,000 kr

20,000 kr +2 +5

20,000 kr

+2

25,000 kr

+5

30,000 kr

2011

2009

600 500 400 300 200 100

Population per Km2

3.31 people

0 Citizen aquisition by gender (1991 - 2016)

Average age

37.9yrs 122

Population

Population

Females

Males

338,000 436,000

in 2018

in 2060

2013

2011

Pro-capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

2009

2003

2001

1999

1997

1995

Emigration

2005

Economic Growth (1991 - 2016)

Immigration

(1991 - 2016)

2005

2003

2001

1999

1997

1995

1993

1991

Pro CapitaEmigration Domestic Product andGross Immigration

2013

+6

40,000 kr

1993

Below are the key figures for Iceland population in 2018: • 4,564 live births • 2,129 deaths • Natural increase: 2,435 people • Net migration: -77 people • 170,523 males as of 31 December 2018 • 167,180 females as of 31 December 2018

35,000 kr

1991

Iceland requires a large number of foreign workforce which has resulted in around 12% of the population being born overseas resulting in the dilution of the gene pool which because of the countries isolation has resulting in improvements in the general health and wellbeing of the population.

2007

Gender proportions nationally were almost completely even, with 1,007 men for every 1,000 women. Regionally, though, things varied greatly: in Reykjavík, there are 985 men for every 1,000 women, but in the countryside the ratio is 1,129 men for every 1,000 women.

10,000 kr

2007

Iceland is experiencing a population boom and if the current forecast remains will reach a population of 436,000 a growth of 28% in comparison to the European average growth rate which is predicted to reduce by -0.5% according to population trends from the EU.

Average Life Expectancy 85.5 Female 8.01 Male

Belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church

83.3yrs 76.6%

Of icelandic population native Skilled Workforce.

A higher percetage than Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland.

49.2%

93%

49,200

Average GDP per Capita.

10.1%

Suffer from Depressive Symptoms as a result of lighting extremes.

Demographics of Iceland.

123

2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7

Number of Visitors (millions)

1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 Eyjafjallajรถkul eruption

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

population increase

0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 2015

2010

2005

2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

1975

1970

124

1965

1960 Comparison of Local to Tourist Population Increase.

...a 400% increase in tourists in the last 10 years.

1965 0.001 million

Since the nation’s financial collapse in 2008 the krona had halved in value, detrimental to Iceland economics.

However a tourist boom was set off by the 2010 eruption of EyjafjallajĂśkull which disrupted flights around the world.

Fearing negative publicity, tourist authorities responded with an international publicity campaign. But the eruption intrigued prospective visitors rather than deterring them.

Iceland offered a nature driven adventure which was, it transpired, within easy grasp. Icelandair had long been offering transatlantic stopovers, and budget airlines were being lured to KeflavĂ­k by cheap landing fees resulting in vast numbers of visitors form the US and Europe. The draw of alternative nature driven holidays resulted in the jump of visitors to Iceland increasing by almost 400% by 2018 and as such the economy grew.

1975 0.004 million

1985 0.07 million

1995 0.1 million

2005 0.4 million

2015 2.2 million

Tourist Increase in Iceland between 1965 - 2015

125

tourist to local ratio across the 6 sites.

1: Harpa Opera Feature 2: Laugavegur Street 3: Hallgrimskirkja 4: City Hall 5: Cathedral of Christ 6: Maritime Museum

70%

90%

80%

10%

20%

60%

It has been stated that in peak season for every 1 local in Reykjavik there are 5 tourists during peak season. This has a huge impact on infrastructure and makes investment difficult as it is hard to judge the capacities of people to build for, particular when the tourist market is volatile.

During the visit we conducted a study on the ratio of tourists around the city over the space of two days. This results showed that for every 1 local there were 7 tourists, particularly around the high profile landmarks such as the church and opera house. This has impacted the building type around the areas which have predominantly turned into tourist driven programs, reducing the need for a local to go there.

126

Tourist Percentage.

Locals Percentage.

Study of the proportion of tourists to locals.

6

1

5 2 4

3

1 - Harpa Opera House 2 - Cafe on Laugavegur (main shopping street) 3 - Hallgrimskirkja

4 - City Hall (park) 5 - Cathedral of Christ the King 6 - Maritime Museum

Map showing the locations of the study.

127

A Tourism Economy.

Tourism has been one of country’s main pillars for growth and to maintain a current account balance (roughly, exports minus imports) which has allowed Iceland and Reykjavik to continue to recover and grow from the economic crash. The total industry is worth £1.6billion annual equating to almost 24% of Iceland’s total GDP according to The Nation Finance of Iceland 2017 report. This equates to almost double the value of the fishing industry which makes it unsurprising that the industry has diversified around the old harbour.

Air B&B lettings dominate the city with almost 44% of all tourist bookings to the 101 locale being from the company. This has resulted in the inflation of the housing market and average house prices further increasing urban sprawl yet adding to the land value of the city.

Iceland 24%

Iceland 24%

Sweden 5.3%

Denmark 3.9%

Sweden 4.9% Denmark 3.6% Norway 3.6% Finland 3.1

2018

128

2008

1980 Graph showing the contribution of tourism to GDP.

Norway 3.8%

Finland 3.2%

Comparison of the contribution of tourism to nordic GDP.

ÂŁ46million 34% 44% ÂŁ1.6billion

Air B&B rentals generated

to the economy in 2016

of Reykjavik economy is tourism driven as of 2018 of rentals in Reykjavik are Air B&B as of 2018

Tourism generated

in 2017

Map showing the distribution of Airbnb rentals in central Reykjavik

129

The fastest growing housing market globally.

% growth of the housing market in 2018

Estonia

Hungary

Ireland

India

Columbia

Sweden

8

Bulgaria

9

Lithuania

10

Australia

11

China

12

Norway

13

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Property Price increase for average dwelling.

Hong Kong

14

Canada

Malta

15

Turkey

16

New Zealand

17

Slovakia

130

18

Slovenia

The balancing act between tourism and housing investment has resulted in the need for houses in Reykjavik at a shortage of 30% and with the predicted population growth it is predicted that there needs to be 17,000 new homes built in 2019 and a further 80,000 by 2060.

19

Germany

Iceland is currently the fastest growing housing market in the world, this is down to two reasons. First, 1.3 million tourists are expected to visit Iceland this year and the prospects are upwards. As a consequence, investors have started greedily buying buildings and flats to rent them to the tourists resulting . However, Iceland, with a current population of 338,000 inhabitants, can’t hold this progression (3 million tourists in 3 years), and tourism will stagnate very soon if the government doesn’t plan it carefully and invest money in the sector. Capital controls are the second factor. After the severe economic recession in Iceland and collapse of the national currency, the parliament, as a protective measure, limited drastically sales of Icelandic Króna and therefore the availability of local investment in the market.

Iceland

68% increase in property value in 10 years.

20

17,000

new homes needed in 2019

Iceland 23.2%

Ireland 9.6% Sweden 9.6%

Bulgaria 8.8%

Romania 8.8% Norway 6.6% Portugal 4.4%

France 2.9% Denmark 2.4%

Luxembourg 2.1%

United Kingdom 2.2% Switzerland 1.1%

Graph representing the property market increase per annum.

131

Social Calender.

Even though there is lack of social space in the city centre. Reykjavik has a social vibrancy which is often dictated by the extremes of light during the year. The two solstices provide the foundations for festivals which run through out the year: Summer solstice: The Secret Solstice Festival takes place over the summer solstice during the brightest part of the year, and is establishing itself as a major event in Icelandic music.

Winter solstice: The Winter Lights Festival is an annual event that stimulates the city life in the midwinter. The Festival celebrates both the winter world and the growing light after a long period of darkness. The program is a mixture of art and industry, environment and history, sports and culture. The festival provides entertainment for Reykjavík’s locals and guests alike.

v No

Dec

Jan

Oc

t

Feb

Sep

21/06/2019. Summer Solstice festival

Mar

2019 l

g Au

Ap ri y Ma

y

June

Jul

A city with two seasons.

132

07/07/2018. Iceland in the Football World cup

25/01/2019 Winter solstice festival

2018 A YEAR IN REYKJAVIK

January

February

x

x April

x

March

x x

May

x

x

x July

x

x

August x

x October

June

November

Septemebe x

December

x x

x

133

2.3 Connectivity.

Reykjavik’s position as the capital of city between two major global powers: the US and Europe has allowed it to benefit from for the cultural, economic and social aspects from both. This has allowed for rapid development in the past 60 years and puts the country and city in a strong position for the future allowing for potential trade routes and import options for city wealth generation.

However, even though the city has benefited from the countries positives, it has adopted the negatives. Reykjavik’s city is based on car use and therefore reliance has become un-precedented. For the most renewable city in the world it is catastrophic that a city should have such heavy use of carbon based fuels for a major system in their country. ¬¬

134

Local

Regional

Global

135

80% 300% 2 Airlines 17 Airlines An

Airline connections from Keflavík Airport.

increase in flights departing from Keflavík Airport in the past 3 years.

more flights depart from Keflavík Airport than Stockholm, Oslo and Copenhagen’s airports combined.

2005:

operate flights to Keflavík Airport.

2017:

operate flights to Keflavík Airport.

United States Canada Finland Norway

Sweden Denmark Germany France England Spain Italy 136

More than three-fifths of Iceland’s exports go to the EU, which also is responsible for more than half of Iceland’s imports. About one-tenth of imports come from the United States. Some two-fifths of Iceland’s exports are fish or fish products; aluminium makes up roughly another two-fifths of exports. Iceland has been a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) since 1970. In 1973 it concluded a tariff reduction agreement with the European Economic Community (now the EU), as did other EFTA countries.

Import and Export trade connections

4.7B Exports Aluminuim - 1.4B Fish - 998M Negative Trade Balance of 1.88B.

Northern Trade Route

Artic Bridge Trade Route

Top Export Destinations.

Netherlands 945M United Kingdom 558M Germany 445M

6.62B Imports Cars 409M Hydrocarbons 552M

137

Car Dependency.

The most car dependent country in Europe, Reykjavik relies on car transportation over all other forms of travel, the people of Reykjavik have a history of driving to their relatives…on the adjacent road. The volume of road transportation vehicles has resulted in a No2 level 3 times the level of the Oslo and 4 times the level of Stockholm, Helsinki and Copenhagen.

Reykjavik : 106µg m-3

Reykjavik has a pollutant reading of 06µg m-3 which is high enough warn people with breathing difficulties not be outdoors for long enough. But that it not all, road vehicles now contribute to 24% of the Co2 emissions in the city. This needs to change.

Oslo 31µg m-3

Helsinki: 24µg m-3 Stockholm 22µg m-3

Iceland

NO2 pollution comparison per city.

Geothermal 5%

Other 2% Fishing 16%

Finland

Norway

Sweden

Denmark

Road vehicles 24% Industrial Processes

distribution of co2 emission 47% by source 2010 Cars Per Capita Comparison.

138

Stationary, combustion, oil 3% Carbon Dioxide emissions by source in 2010

Latvia 387 cars

Reykjavik 1000 cars

Germany 610 cars

Norway 604 cars France 590 cars

Finland 730 cars Netherlands 543 cars

Ireland 525 cars

Belgium 585 cars

Croatia 416 cars Sweden 542 cars

Portugal 479 cars

United Kingdom 544 cars

Denmark 508 cars

Romania 329 cars

Comparing the Cars per Capita of European Cities per 1000 inhabitants

139

‘‘Car addiction is Icelandic culture, we drive to the end of the street. Its not laziness... just part of our way of life.’’

Baddi Fanngeirson 101 resident

The dominant role of the car park.

140

View off Laugavegur highstreet.

141

52% of land dedicated car

Road Networks Parking

infrastructure

All trips made

75.4% cars 19.5% walking

“We tend to use our car as our overcoat instead of dressing up and walking 1km.�

4% public transport 1.1% other

52% of land dedicated car infrastructure

6% increase in cars 1.8% increase in population Work trips made

87.4% cars 8% walking 3.5% public transport 1% other

Driving in modern day Reykjavik allows you to drive across the city around 15 minutes. Members of the public can leave 5 minutes before an appointment and still get there on time and due to public transport being unreliable and expensive, there is no wonder that 75% of people use cars are their primary mode of transport. However, this reliance on cars can not only have implications on health but space.

Car infrastructure takes up is around 52% with over 5000 car parking spaces in the 101 zone and numbers only growing.

The drawing on the opposite page highlights the staggering amount of space given up to cars. With a city suffering sprawl issues could easily be put to better use.

142

Map showing the area within the 101 locale designated to the car.

143

Public Transportation. ferry services 10

summer bus services across the country

5 3 3

domestic airlines

full-time bus services across the country

National Transportation Networks - Iceland Ring Road.

Public transport in Reykjavik is available, but its not reliable. The drawing on the opposite page shows that only one bus route has waiting times of less than 15 minutes with the remaining routes making people wait over 30mins which in there extreme climate, wont be fun.

Public transport across Iceland isn’t too great either, the reliance on cars has meant that only 3 bus services run through the year, connecting the other cities and towns together. The additional 5 bus services that run through the summer months typically are filled with tourists and provide excursions to Iceland’s natural beauty further increasing the dependency on private car use.

Reykjaviks unreliable bus system.

144

Vesturbaer

Grafarvogur Laugardalur Reykjavik

Midborg Breloholf Kopavogur

Arbaer

Gardabaer

Hafnarfjodur Map showing the major transportation networks.

145

D

C 5mins

E

F 5mins B

A

146

10mins

20mins

30mins

Pedestrian Routes.

22min

7 mins

25 mins

A

B

C

9 mins

3 mins

15 mins

Despite the exploitation of cars in Reykjavik, the city allows its inhabitants to walk to the majority of their destination within the city in under 30mins. With nearly 20% of total travel trips being taken by foot, walking is the second most of transportation behind the car.

D

E

The city’s residents have access to the urban fabric and the natural landscape through designated walking paths throughout. On the other hand there are little to no provisions for cyclist to get around the city and whilst cycle routes are being invested in, the reliance of the car and the extreme weather conditions still bring the necessity of bikes into question.

F

Proposed ss actual walking times

Designated cycle paths in Reykjavik

10mins

13mins

15mins

20mins

25mins

National Theatre

City Hall ReykjavĂ­k Art Museum

Hofdi House

Hofdi House University of Iceland Nordic House Harpa concert hall

Perlan

147

3.0 aims

149

3.1 Challenges

Following the research trip and subsequent analysis it is clear that there are four key issues within Reykjavik which will have to be addressed during this masterplan: Urban sprawl The population increase and combined numbers in tourists and land values has resulted in the uncontrolled sprawl of the city creating a city which spreads out far more than it needs too. The centre of the city needs to densify in order to turn Reykjavik into the true capital city of the North Too many cars Reykjavik reliance on cars comes from a distinct lack of alternative viable options creating a city that has forgotten about people. Far too much space in the city centre is given up to cars and car parks which could be used for inner city densification.

Lack of social spaces The climate means that for half of the year, Reykjavik’s main park is dark and unwelcoming, if there was an alternative area for socialisation such as the harbour or opera house, this has been dominated by tourists.

Energy diversification Even though the country and city is a world leader in renewables it could become so much more. Iceland has vast amounts on untapped energy potential which could for the basis for the city’s identity.

150

Urban sprawl and lack of density

Lack of social spaces

To many cars on the roads

Energy not diversified and used responsibly

151

Identity Crisis.

Reykjavik has and identity crisis. Although it is the Northern most capital city in the world, the city centre is anything but. Small and slow population growth has meant that land has been abundant and therefore planning policy has been allowed to sprawl across the region. Iceland is a country of beauty which draws visitors from around the world. Mountains, waterfalls, black beaches, Northern Lights, glaciers, rivers all add to the beauty yet Reykjavik, although sitting in middle of astonishingly natural beauty lacks any real identity.

The research has outline various issues which show the reasons why this could be predominantly indicating the pressures of a city which has a whole country’s population within it. There is an over dependence of car use which has resulted in too much land in the city centre being wasted.

However, the research has also identified the unparalleled potential the city has to re-create its identity. The city is the capital of one of the most beautiful country’s on earth that has un-rivalled access to renewable energy sources, inner city land and a booming economy to totally re-define it.

Identity- Glaciers

152

Identity- Waterfalls

Identity- Mountains

No Identity- Reykjavik

A

city

lost in a

Country

Iceland

Reykjavik

153

3.2 Assets

Light

154

Climate

Mountains

Energy

“Iceland has an abundance of natural beauty and resource which if managed its capital - Reykjavik, can become the most beautiful city on Earth .�

155

IVITY

CONNECTIVITY

CONNECTIVITY ENERGY

CO CLIMA

3.3 Masterplan Aims.

CONNECTIVITY

CONNECTIVITY

CONNECTIVITY

CONNECTIVITY

Reykjavik has an abundance of renewable energy resource which can act as the foundation for the future development in the city. Not only does this create huge economic advantages, it also creates a global draw to the city which can be used to re-define its identity.

Improve Connectivity

The aim of the masterplan is re re-create, re-brand and re-design Reykjavik addressing a series of issues which holistically have the same purpose of increasing the city’s overall identity. Focusing on the 101 zone allows the masterplan to address key social, political CONNECTIVITY CONNECTIVITY and economic issues enabling the proposal to have the biggest impact to the city, country and world. Focus will be placed on the issues which in turn should interrelate to Reykjavik’s identity and the future design decisions to be made in the city.

Improve Energy use

CONNECTIVITY

The beauty of Iceland’s nature can act as the foundation for Reykjavik. If Renewable energy can be explored to its maximum potential and the city can address the issues within Reykjavik then the city can truly re-create its identity and become the true most Northern capital city in the world. Reykjavik can become the city of light.

ENERGY

CLIMATE

Reduce Sprawl

CLIMATE

Reduce Car use

DENSITY

CLIMATE

DENSITY

REYKJAVIK

CITY OF LIGHT BORG LJÓS

156 ENERGY

CLIMATE

DE

DENSITY

Identity

Climate Energy, Density, Transport, Social

A Future Vision for

ReykjavĂ­k.

157

References.

This booklet has been compiled using a range of resources both on the study trip and through desktop research. All data is factually correct as of 2018, verified through multiple sources. The references used to collate the data for each chapter are shown below:

1.0 Context

2.0 City Elements

1.1 Global Context

2.1 Urban Fabric

Gísli Pálsson, and E. Paul Durrenberger, Images Of Contemporary Iceland (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1996)

Planning and building department of the city of Reykjavik, Reykjavik municipal plan 2010-2030 (Reykjavik, University of Iceland press, 2014)

‘Research In Iceland’, Sciencenordic.Com, 2019, Available at: http:// sciencenordic.com/about/research-iceland, [Accessed 17 October 2018]

Planning and building department of the city of Reykjavik, Vantnsmyri 102 Reykjavik (Reykjavik, University of Iceland press, 2013)

1.2 Icelandic Context 2.2 Climate and Light Central Icelandic institute of research, ‘Iceland economy and context’, Skraarsafan Icleland, 2018 1.3 City Context Ministry for the Environment and Natural resource- Planning, Master Plan for Reykjavik 1962 - 83 Adalskipulag Reyjavikur (Reykjavik: University of Iceland press, 2010) Trausti Valsson, Shaping the Future: Ideas-Planning-Design (Reykjavik: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform,2017) Guðni Valberg, Anna D.Ágústdóttir , Reykjavík sem ekki varð (Reykjavik, University of Iceland press, 2017) Planning and building department of the city of Reykjavik, Vantnsmyri 102 Reykjavik (Reykjavik, University of Iceland press, 2013)

158

‘Climatological Data | Icelandic Meteorological Office’, Icelandic Meteorological Office, 2018, Available at: https://en.vedur.is/climatology/data, [Accessed 17 November 2018] ‘Iceland Climate: Average Temperature, Weather By Month, Iceland Weather Averages - Climate-Data.Org’, En.Climate-Data.Org, 2019, Available at: https://en.climate-data.org/europe/iceland-135/,[Accessed 17 November 2018] 2.3 Landscape Wilson, Keith, Chris Fitch, Keith Wilson, Ella L’etang, and Keith Wilson, ‘Iceland: Land Of Fire And Ice – Geographical’, Geographical.co.uk, 2018, Available at: http://geographical.co.uk/nature/geophoto/ item/2512-land-of-fire-and-ice [Accessed 9 November 2018]

Ari Trausti Guðmundsson, and Halldór Kjartansson., Living Earth (Reykjavík: Mál og menning, 2007) 2.4 Energy “Energy Statistics”, National Energy Authority Of Iceland, 2018 <https://nea.is/the-national-energy-authority/energy-statistics/> [Accessed 17 October 2018]

Also the invaluable help throughout the process from : Studio Granda Tripoli architects Iceland Academy of the arts Residents of 101, Reykjavik and Iceland

“Statistics Iceland”, Worlddata.Info, 2019, Available at: https://www. worlddata.info/europe/iceland/index.php [Accessed 27 November 2018] 2.5 Society ‘Hagstofan: Inhabitants’, Statistics Iceland, 2018 Available at: https:// www.statice.is/statistics/population/inhabitants/ [Accessed 6 November 2018] Oddný Þóra Óladóttir, Tourism in Iceland figures, (Reykjavik, University of Iceland press, 2018) Christi Frent, The economic benefits of the tourism in Iceland: Boosting the economy (Reykjavik, Stell, 2018) 2.6 Connectivity Planning and building department of the city of Reykjavik, Reykjavik municipal plan 2010-2030 (Reykjavik, University of Iceland press, 2014)

159

160

City of Light

University of Bath Sustainable cities M.Arch Design Studio 6.1 2018/19

161