Integrated logistics support handbook mcgraw hill logistics series ebook pdf version

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CONTENTS

Foreword xiii Preface xv

Chapter 1. Introduction to Logistics

1.1

The Basis for Logistics / 1.1 The User / 1.3 The Logistician / 1.3 The Three Phases of Logistics / 1.4 Goals of ILS / 1.6 ILS Partners / 1.7 The Acquisition Cycle / 1.7 Logistics Phases and Acquisition Phases / 1.9 Conclusion / 1.9

Part I

Defining a Supportable Design

Chapter 2. The Evolving System Requirement

2.1

Defining the Need / 2.1

Chapter 3. Creating the Design Solution

3.1

Definitions / 3.1 System Architecting / 3.1 Unmeasurables / 3.2 Safety / 3.3 Affordability / 3.3 System Architecting Methodologies / 3.4 Complexity / 3.5 System Architecting Results / 3.6 System Engineering / 3.6 System Engineering Process / 3.7 Conceptual Design Stage / 3.9 Preliminary Design Stage / 3.9 Detailed Design Stage / 3.10 Production and Delivery / 3.11 In-Service Sustainment / 3.12

Chapter 4. Reliability, Maintainability, Testability, and FMECA

4.1

Reliability Engineering / 4.1 Concept of Reliability / 4.2 vii

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CONTENTS

Reliability Statistics / 4.3 Failure Rate (λi) / 4.4 Mean Time between Failures / 4.5 System Mission Failure Rate / 4.5 Mean Time between Critical (Mission) Failures / 4.6 Mission Success / 4.7 The Reliability Program / 4.8 Reliability Design and Evaluation / 4.9 Reliability Modeling / 4.9 Reliability Allocation / 4.10 Reliability Predictions / 4.11 Parts Count Reliability Prediction / 4.11 Part Stress Analysis Prediction / 4.12 Sneak Circuit Analysis / 4.12 Tolerance Analysis / 4.13 Parts Control Program / 4.14 Reliability Critical Items Analysis / 4.14 Effects of Functional Testing, Storage, Handling, Packaging, Transportation, and Maintenance / 4.14 Reliability Development and Production Testing / 4.15 Environmental Stress Screening / 4.15 Reliability Growth Test / 4.15 Reliability Qualification Test Program / 4.16 Production Reliability Acceptance Test Program / 4.16 Failure Reporting, Analysis, and Corrective Action System / 4.16 Maintainability Engineering / 4.17 Definitions / 4.18 Concept of Maintainability / 4.19 Maintainability Statistics / 4.20 Mean Time to Repair / 4.21 Mean Corrective Maintenance Time / 4.22 Mean Preventive Maintenance Time / 4.22 The Maintainability Program / 4.22 Maintainability Modeling / 4.22 Maintainability Allocations / 4.24 Maintainability Predictions / 4.25 Maintainability Analysis / 4.25 Maintainability Design Criteria / 4.26 Maintainability Demonstration / 4.27 Data Collection, Analysis, and Corrective Action System / 4.27 Testability Engineering / 4.28 Testability Goals / 4.29 Test Effectiveness Measures / 4.29 Testability Engineering / 4.31 Testability Requirements / 4.31 Test Design Trade-Offs / 4.32 Inherent Testability Assessment / 4.33 Testability Cost and Benefit Data / 4.33 Test and Evaluation / 4.33 Demonstration Planning / 4.36 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis / 4.36 Purpose of the FMECA / 4.39 Developing the FMECA / 4.39

Chapter 5. Supportability Characteristics The Supportability Engineering Challenge / 5.1 Easy to Maintain / 5.2 Cost Effective to Maintain / 5.6

5.1

CONTENTS

ix

Safe to Maintain / 5.7 Minimum Requirements for Manpower / 5.8 Maximum Use of Existing Personnel / 5.10 Minimum Requirements for Test Equipment / 5.10 Maximum Use of Existing Tools and Support Equipment / 5.10 Minimum Requirements for New Resources / 5.10 Maximum Use of Existing Facilities / 5.10 Maximum Use of Standard Parts / 5.11 Quickly Prepared for Shipment or Transport / 5.11 Transported by Standard Modes / 5.11 Interface with Existing Support Systems / 5.12 Restating the Requirements / 5.13

Chapter 6. Functional Supportability Analysis

6.1

Functional Then Physical / 6.1 Functional Supportability Analysis / 6.2 Comparison System / 6.3 Comparison Analysis / 6.3 Standardization Analysis / 6.8 Technology Benefit Analysis / 6.14 Support Infrastructure Analysis / 6.14 Comparison Analysis Revisited / 6.16

Chapter 7. System Safety and Human Factors Engineering

7.1

System Safety / 7.1 Human Engineering Program / 7.10

Chapter 8. Reliability-Centered Maintenance

8.1

History of RCM / 8.1 Preventive Maintenance / 8.1 Analysis Process / 8.3

Chapter 9. Software Support

9.1

Definitions / 9.1 Software Development / 9.3 Supportability / 9.7 Documentation / 9.11

Chapter 10. Availability Concept of Availability / 10.1 Measures of Availability / 10.1 Availability Predictions / 10.2 Maintenance Facility Capacity / 10.9 Transportation/Shipping Time / 10.9 Administrative Delay Time / 10.9 Fleet Availability / 10.11 Prediction Methods / 10.12

10.1

x

CONTENTS

Chapter 11. Cost of Ownership

11.1

System Life / 11.1 Cost Elements / 11.3 Acquisition Costs / 11.4 Operation and Support Costs / 11.4 Disposal / 11.6 Estimating Cost of Ownership / 11.6 Cost Estimation Models / 11.9 Modeling Concept / 11.9 Modeling Problems / 11.9 Estimating Techniques / 11.11 Using Life Cycle Cost and Through Life Cost Models / 11.11 Operational Availability and Life Cycle Cost / 11.11

Chapter 12. Logistic Support Analysis

12.1

Goals of the LSA Process / 12.1 The Logistic Support Analysis Program / 12.3 MIL-STD 1388-1A––The LSA Tasks and Subtasks / 12.3 Program Implementation / 12.34

Part II

Developing the Support Solution

Chapter 13. Physical Supportability Analysis

13.1

Resource Identification Process / 13.1 Performing Level of Repair Analysis / 13.5 Creating the Physical Support Resource Package / 13.6 Applying the Physical Supportability Analysis Process / 13.10

Chapter 14. Level of Repair Analysis

14.1

Maintenance Planning / 14.1 Maintenance Philosophy / 14.1 Maintenance Concept / 14.2 Maintenance Plan / 14.4 Levels of Maintenance / 14.4 Concept of Level of Repair Analysis / 14.6 Level of Repair Program / 14.10 LORA Models / 14.12 LORA Philosophy / 14.16

Chapter 15. Logistics Support Information History of the LSAR / 15.1 MIL-STD 1388-2B-Data Tables / 15.5 Data and Data Selection / 15.14 Using the LSAR / 15.15 Logistics Management Information / 15.17 Managing Development of the LSAR / 15.23

15.1

CONTENTS

Chapter 16. Manpower and Personnel

xi 16.1

Determining Requirements / 16.1 Classification / 16.3 Planning / 16.4 Staffing / 16.6

Chapter 17. Support Equipment

17.1

Support Equipment / 17.1 Test Equipment / 17.5 Support Equipment Authorization / 17.8 Documentation / 17.9

Chapter 18. Provisioning and Supply Support

18.1

Spares Requirements / 18.1 Provisioning / 18.3 International Provisioning Systems / 18.15 Spares Procurement / 18.17 Dod Supply System / 18.17 Inventory Management / 18.20 Conclusion / 18.25

Chapter 19. Technical Manuals

19.1

Types of Manuals / 19.1 Operator’s Manual / 19.1 Maintenance Manuals / 19.27 Parts Manuals / 19.28 Manual Preparation / 19.30

Chapter 20. Training and Training Equipment

20.1

Training Phases / 20.1 Training Categories / 20.2 Training Concept / 20.3 Training Program / 20.5 Training Materials / 20.9 Training Support / 20.10 Training Equipment / 20.11 Documentation of Training and Training Equipment Requirements / 20.13

Chapter 21. Facilities Types of Facilities / 21.1 Requirements Identification / 21.4 Requirements Justification / 21.8

21.1

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CONTENTS

Chapter 22. Packaging, Handling, Storage, and Transportability

22.1

Definitions / 22.1 The PHS&T Program / 22.2 Transportability / 22.7 Packaging / 22.9 Handling / 22.15 Storage / 22.18 Modes of Transportation / 22.18

Part III

Logistics Management

Chapter 23. Logistics Management Plans

23.1

Integrated Logistics Support Plan / 23.1 Integrated Support Plan / 23.2

Chapter 24. Contracts

24.1

Contracting / 24.1 Government Contracts / 24.1 Related Government Documents / 24.7 The Contracting Process / 24.8 Types of Contracts / 24.12 Cost Plus Fixed Fee / 24.13 Proposal Preparation / 24.14

Chapter 25. Logistics Management

25.1

ILS Organizations / 25.1 ILS Program management / 25.3 Conclusion / 25.15

Appendix A. Roadmaps to Success

A.1

Appendix B. Joint Service Multiple Role Tactical Armored Vehicle Program (JTAV)

B.1

Appendix C. References

C.1

Appendix D. Abbreviations and Acronyms

D.1

Index follows Appendix D

FOREWORD

Throughout the industrial, government, and academic sectors, the field of logistics is continually evolving and assuming a higher degree of importance than in the past. The complexity of systems is increasing with constantly changing requirements and the introduction of new technologies on a continuing and evolutionary basis. Frequently, the life cycles of many systems are being extended while the life cycle of individual technologies are becoming shorter. Globalization requirements and international competition are increasing significantly from year-to-year, and the challenges of being able to first introduce new systems into the inventory and then maintain such throughout their respective life cycles are greater than ever before. The logistics for a given system (or mix of systems) is life-cycle oriented, and the implementation of program-related requirements in this area necessitates a highly interdisciplinary approach. While the past is replete with instances where logistics requirements have been relegated primarily “downstream” in the system life cycle, often resulting in a costly approach, today's environment requires that logistics be addressed as an integral part of the system design process from the beginning.

This currently changing emphasis within the broad spectrum of logistics requires that the practitioner in the field be not only knowledgeable of the various elements of system maintenance and support (e.g., procurement and supply support, transportation and handling, support equipment, personnel, data/information, facilities) but also be familiar with the overall system life-cycle and its many diverse activities, the design and manufacturing processes, the customer environment, and so on. The interfaces and interactions are numerous throughout the life cycle, and design and/or management decisions made in any specific phase will have an impact on the activities and resource requirements in each of the other phases of the life cycle. Thus, the logistics practitioner must first demonstrate expertise in the various facets of logistics, and also be conversant with the many other facets of a given program. The logistician must be technically competent, must be knowledgeable of available design and analysis tools/models and their application, and must be able to effectively communicate with other internal project personnel, suppliers, and customer contract and operational personnel across the board. Responding to this overall challenge requires that the practitioner in the field have a basic educational foundation in the principles and concepts of logistics, supplemented by continuing education and training in key areas of the discipline.

This third edition of the Integrated Logistics Support Handbook by James V. Jones constitutes a significant contribution to the logistics literature. The handbook is very nicely organized into three distinct parts: Part I introduces many key terms and definitions, defines the requirements for a system and its support infrastructure, covers critical aspects of the system design process, and discusses many of the tools, analytical techniques, and models utilized throughout the system design process, with the design for supportability as a key objective. Part II, which builds upon the baseline provided in Part I, describes development of the required maintenance and logistic support infrastructure (e.g., supply support, support equipment, transportation requirements, etc.).

Basically, this part deals with the proposed “solution” for the problem identified in the first part.

Part III addresses logistics management and those activities required to ensure that the objectives stated in the first part of the handbook are successfully implemented. In its totality, the handbook provides a valuable roadmap for those who wish to pursue further study in the field.

The author, James V. Jones, is an internationally recognized logistics expert and has conducted many workshops and training programs both throughout the United States and in Asia, Australia, and Europe. He has consulted extensively and has established an excellent reputation as a consultant in the field, working with defense contractors, government agencies, and throughout xiii Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

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FOREWORD

various facets of commercial industry. Much of his experience is reflected throughout this excellent handbook and its organization. Jim is to be congratulated for this accomplishment.

Finally, this edition is the first offering in a new series provided through the SOLE Logistics Press, and is an invaluable addition to the logistics library. It serves as an excellent guide not only for the practicing logistician, but also for those outside of the field seeking additional knowledge in logistics. It is readily adaptable for practitioners at all levels of expertise, and the material presented allows for an easy understanding of the details of the profession.

BENJAMIN S. BLANCHARD, FELLOW, CPL Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University Co-Editor, SOLE Logistics Press ANTHONY E. TROVATO, CPL Raytheon Technical Services Company Co-Editor, SOLE Logistics Press

PREFACE

Integrated Logistics Support (ILS) is an internationally accepted analysis methodology and management process, which today is applied to virtually every major acquisition program in both the military and civilian sectors. The guiding principles of ILS form the basis for achieving the highest level of capability within an acceptable cost of ownership. There is a fine balance between the performance and supportability characteristics of a system that must be underpinned with a reasonable investment in both the system design and the necessary support infrastructure. ILS has proven to be the best approach to achieve this balance.

Eleven years since publication of the second edition of this text, we have seen a dramatic change in the acquisition philosophy of governments and corporations. In the 1990s most buyers dictated minimum requirements through a series of complex standards, handbooks, and specifications. Many of these standards formed the basis for the concepts and practices described in that earlier work. Today, most of these standards, handbooks, and specifications have been cancelled, replaced, or greatly relaxed to encourage a more flexible approach to acquisition. In writing this third edition, I decided to retain references to many of these requirements documents even though they are no longer mandated. This decision was based on the fact that the requirements of a majority of these documents are still valid and provide a point of reference and basis for continuity.

New requirements documents such as MIL HDBK 502, Acquisition Logistics, and MIL-PRF 49506, Logistics Management Information, have been included to illustrate that the transition from earlier procurement practices has not changed the basic application of ILS. There are also some promising initiatives, for example performance-based logistics (PBL) and product life cycle support (PLCS), which should provide long-term solutions to many of the problems that have plagued support of systems.

Also included in this third edition are corrections and the results of suggestions that I have received from many students and attendees at workshops and seminars, and the points that readers have taken the time to correspond with me about over the past few years. To these individuals, my collective appreciation and thanks.

Logistics is a challenging profession. It is my hope that readers of this third edition will find herein some small aid in meeting these challenges.

JAMES V. JONES Logistics Management Associates Irvine, California

xv Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

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INTEGRATED LOGISTICS SUPPORT HANDBOOK

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS

Logistics is the applied science of planning and implementing the acquisition and use of resources.

Logistics is the most important thing in the world. It is what creates and sustains civilization.

Without logistics, the world as we know it would cease to exist.

Logistics Support is the application of knowledge and resources to achieve a measurable objective or outcome.

Integrated Logistics Support (ILS) is the disciplined and unified management of all activities necessary to produce a supportable system design and a reasonable support capability to achieve a predetermined set of measurable objectives within an acceptable cost of ownership.

If you asked 100 people to define logistics you would probably get 100 different answers. Why? Because its definition lies in the context of the definer’s concept of its application. Depending on what a person does, and what their roles are in life, logistics can be defined in an infinite number of ways. In the retail sales industry, logistics centers on physical storage, movement, and distribution of products from point of wholesale purchase to point of retail sale. The automotive industry considers logistics as the entire process from source of raw materials through the manufacturing process that results in cars for purchase.

THE BASIS FOR LOGISTICS Logistics is a straightforward, universally standard set of actions that are proven to achieve the definitions stated above. Figure 1.1 identifies the five parts of this set of actions that provide the methodology to meet the requirements.

Definition of Need All logistics actions are based on meeting a completely defined, predetermined need. Without this final objective, logistics will never be successful. A typical need might be for a person to buy a new set of clothes to attend a party because their current wardrobe does not contain the correct items.

The need might be stated as “I need to buy a new set of clothes so that I am comfortable when attending a fancy party next week.” This definition of need contains several specific statements including: (1) new set of clothes, (2) comfort for the person, (3) a fancy party, and (4) must be purchased before the date of the party. These are the four statements that form the basis of the need.

However, there is some room for interpretation of the requirements. First, does the term new mean the clothes must be of the latest fashion, or does it simply mean clothes that have never been worn before? Second, does comfortable mean that the clothes must fit comfortably, or that the person should feel comfortable within the group by having the right clothes? Third, to some people a fancy party means wearing real shoes and a shirt with collar and tie rather than flip-flops and sweatshirt; to others a fancy party means tuxedo. Finally, the only really measurable requirement at the start is the date of the event.

1.1 Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

1.2

CHAPTER ONE

• Definition of need • Identification of limits – Minimum – Maximum • Determination of terminal objectives • Measurability – Tangible – Intangible • Assessment – Before – During – After FIGURE 1.1 Basis for logistics.

Identification of Limits There must be limits to any endeavor. Typically, these limits take the form of ranges of maximum and minimum acceptability for the situation. These limits may be imposed by external factors, or they may be created internally. In the case of the example of clothes for a party, the maximum limits are probably based on the person’s available budget to purchase anything and the amount of time they have for shopping. Minimum limits would possibly include the types of materials, styles, and possible sources for purchase. It could also include ideas such as not too flashy or appropriately tailored.

Determination of Terminal Objectives There must be a stated set of terminal, or final, objectives that are used to guide all logistics activities through their application. For a corporation, these terminal objectives may be based on profitability and share price. In the case of the example of the person requiring clothes for the fancy party, the terminal objectives may be receipt of positive compliments on the attractiveness or appropriateness of their new clothes. The person may have a mental image of actually arriving at the party and being in conversation with other partygoers in an enjoyable event. The terminal objectives could also contain a desire to avoid negative or undesirable situations such as someone making a detracting comment on the inappropriateness of their new clothes.

Measurability Meeting the predefined need can only be achieved if measurable criteria are established to gauge the ability of the process to produce the desired final result. These measurable criteria normally consist of both tangible and intangible characteristics. Tangible characteristics are those that can be measured by anyone to determine if they have been met. Such things as price, quality, and fit are very measurable. In the example of the person requiring clothes, each of these areas of price, quality, and fit have clearly measurable criteria of acceptability. Intangibles tend to be more personal and subjective, but still clearly understandable to the person who is making the decisions although not necessarily measurable to anyone else. These attributes include looks good, feels good, and value for money. A list of both tangible and intangible criteria must be prepared so that the logistics process can measure its progress toward meeting the terminal objectives.

INTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS

1.3

Assessment An assessment process is necessary to determine the success or failure of any endeavor. This assessment compares progress with the measurable criteria developed for the terminal objectives.

Assessment must be continuously applied to any activity. This means that there must be a conscious effort to measure the ability to attain terminal objectives before, during, and after all activities.

Assessment before starting procurement may simply be checking to see that all the things required to initiate the activity are in place. Assessment during the process focuses on near-term success of shortterm needs that eventually lead to overall success. Assessment after completion is the final examination to assure that all terminal objectives have been met. In the example of the person requiring clothes for the party, before procurement assessment would consist of verification of the budget available to purchase any clothes, ensuring that the person really wants to attend the party and identification of what other partygoers might be wearing. During procurement the person would match the items in shops for sale with the criteria set before starting to make sure no maximum limit is exceeded or minimum limit not attained. There could also be assessment during the actual party where minor adjustments might be made to more closely meet the anticipated need of social acceptance. Then there is the final assessment where after the event the results are compared with the terminal objectives to determine complete success of the logistics process.

THE USER Basic logistics requirements never change because the User’s needs never change.

Over 2000 years ago there was a charioteer who was given the mission to carry a very important message from one city to another. History has not provided the names of individual chariot drivers, so we will improvise and call this specific driver Joe T. Roman. Joe drove his chariot along one of the famous Roman roads connecting the two cities. The road that he chose had not been maintained very well and had several large holes where stones had become dislodged. As he drove his chariot over one of the holes in the road, the right wheel was knocked loose and was damaged. Joe T. Roman had a broken chariot, and he needed to fix it in a hurry so that he could complete his mission. To replace the broken wheel he had to scout around the local area to find a replacement. After finding the replacement wheel he had to devise a method of raising the chariot off the ground, so he cut a long stout sapling to use as a lever and found a large rock near the road to use as a fulcrum. Then he discovered that it was impossible to simultaneously raise the chariot and replace the wheel, so he had to enlist the assistance of a farmer who happened to pass by. Luckily, Joe had experience in changing the wheel on his chariot, so he used this prior training to complete the repair of his chariot.

In short, Joe T. Roman needed repair parts, tools and support equipment, technical know-how, and additional help.

Now we jump to the present. Joe T. Roman’s descendent, Joe Snuffy, has just joined the Army.

He is put through eight weeks of basic training and sixteen weeks of advanced individual training as a tank mechanic, and is assigned to a tank battalion. Joe Snuffy needs repair parts, tools and support equipment, technical know-how, and help to repair tanks.

The User and his requirements never change; only the complexity of his equipment changes. The difference is that because of the change in equipment complexity, today we plan to provide the User with what is needed in advance of the need, rather than requiring the User to acquire what he needs when the need occurs.

THE LOGISTICIAN The logistician is responsible for applying the appropriate concepts, techniques, and analyses necessary to assure achievement of predefined supportability and support requirements and objectives.

Probably the best logistician I have ever met, or will ever meet, is my wife. She is responsible for our home and all the things that are required to sustain our family life. To list every logistics task,

1.4

CHAPTER ONE

what she does would actually fill this text, but, as a logistician, she plans for the shelter, feeding, and livelihood of our family. Meals are planned, prepared, and served on a predetermined schedule. Clean clothes are always available when needed, and replaced as required. Our house is always clean, in a state of good repair, and all appliances are functional. Automobiles are operational and ready for use.

Scheduled visits to doctors and dentists are handled as standard occurrences. Our children attend school on time and extracurricular activities on a regular basis. In short, she plans, acquires, and provides the resources necessary for a successful home. And very importantly, she does it within a set budget of both time and money. She is the consummate logistician.

Why then, do we need to discuss the subject of logistics any farther? Well, my wife is the logistician for our family only. If she were to attempt to manage more than just our household she would be presented with a whole new set of challenges which would require more coordination, more planning, more resources, and a far more formal management approach. When logistics moves from the personal application to the larger nonpersonal arenas, logistics becomes a formal set of disciplines which work together to meet a common goal. I can imagine my wife being tasked to manage 50 households.

To do this, she would require several assistants who would each be assigned individual responsibilities. One assistant would be responsible for planning meals and buying food. Another assistant would be responsible for preparation and serving of meals. And, yet another would be responsible for cleaning and replacement of clothes. And so on until each of the tasks she had previously accomplished for our family would be divided into separate areas, each with its own responsible person. To achieve the end goal of providing support, each of the separate areas would have to coordinate their activities to ensure overall success without duplicating efforts or wasting resources. This example can be enlarged to encompass 1000, 100,000, and 1,000,000 homes, and then, eventually, the world. As the scope of the example grows, the areas of responsibility are enlarged and then divided. Where my wife simply pays the electricity bill to provide electricity to our home, in the entire world example, there would be a segment that would be responsible for generation of electricity, another responsible for its distribution, and another for procurement of fuels for the generator that creates electrical power. The magnitude and scope of responsibilities are endless.

THE THREE PHASES OF LOGISTICS Since logistics is such a broad issue, it is necessary to focus our discussion as it relates to contemporary logistics activities. Generally speaking there are three basic phases, or stages, in the application of logistics to a given set of equipment, functional requirements, physical requirements, and use.

These are shown in Fig. 1.2. Each logistics phase has its own distinct purpose.

Functional requirements

Use

FIGURE 1.2 Logistics phases.

Physical definitions

INTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS

1.5

Use Phase It is easiest to describe the logistics phases by starting with the Use phase. Any activity related to the product, when in the possession of the User, is encapsulated in the Use phase. Some people call this the in-service phase. This is where logistics began historically with Users such as Joe T. Roman providing their own support. As equipment became more complex the User’s organization began to supply all users from a common source. This is where the formal logistics support organization had its origins as a User-owned organization charged with the responsibility of providing support to all the users within the organization. The support systems of today evolved from this beginning. Figure 1.3 shows the support it provided through four typical commodities or product-based sources: supply, maintenance, transport, and training. Logistics activities in the Use phase focus on operation and maintenance of equipment. This includes all the supply, maintenance, training, transportation, and other activities attendant to use of the equipment.

Physical Requirements Definition Phase As equipment became more complex and the lead times for acquiring support became longer, the need for early planning and acquisition of resources that could be procured and prepositioned for the User became evident. This required that the physical requirements for support of new equipment be defined prior to the User receiving the equipment. The physical requirements definition phase of the logistics cycle is where the concept of logistics technical disciplines began. Individual organizations responsible for identification and procurement of spares, preparation of technical documentation, identification and procurement of tools and support equipment, and development of training courses evolved. Each of these organizations had its own rules and standards, and was independent of other organizations. This obviously led to mass confusion, waste of money and resources, and ultimately to Users not having what they required to operate and maintain assigned equipment. The solution to this problem was to devise a management structure to organize the individual organizations into a single cohesive, cost-effective process for identification, procurement, and rationalization of all resources that the User would require into a single Integrated Logistics Support package. Hence, the name ILS and the goal of planning and acquiring support resources in anticipation of the User’s needs. Part II of this text provides a detailed discussion of all aspects of physical support development for an acquisition program. This phase begins with the creation of the physical design and ends when the system and all required supports are delivered as a single package to the User.

Functional Requirements Phase The last phase to discuss, and the newest formal logistics phase, is the functional requirements phase.

This is where supportability characteristics and requirements for the system are developed before a physical design exists. This activity is most commonly called supportability engineering, or front-end

Maintenance

Supply Operational logistics support Training FIGURE 1.3 Operational logistics support types.

Transport

1.6

CHAPTER ONE

analysis. Regardless of the name, it is the process of setting goals, thresholds, constraints, and objectives for the design of the product that will later, after the design is completed, result in the most costeffective equipment possible. This phase has been the hardest to gain understanding because the traditional logistics disciplines have historically focused on the physical characteristics of a system.

Today, logisticians participate in the development of requirements for the design before it physically exists. These requirements are used as guidelines or constraints during the design of the system.

This is conceptual logistics, which must address the functional aspects of the new system because there is nothing physical at this point in the development of the system. Part I of this text describes that process of defining User requirements and then participating in the systems engineering and design engineering processes to ensure that the final design solution meets all performance, supportability, and cost of ownership terminal objectives.

GOALS OF ILS The goals of the ILS are based on the overall aims of the organization. Figure 1.4 lists the goals of ILS as stated by the buying organization such as the Department of Defense (DoD) or any corporation that is making a capital investment. The Buyer’s reasons for applying ILS are to cause logistics support considerations influence the design of a system, identify and develop support requirements that are related to and supportive of readiness objectives of the system, to acquire the necessary support, and to provide the required support for the minimum cost. The ILS organization is an integral part of the engineering effort that designs military systems. Logistics engineers work hand-in-hand with other engineers to ensure that support is considered in the design process. Logistics analyses are conducted to identify ways in which the design can be changed to improve support or supportability. Additional analyses are performed to identify the resources that will be required to support the system when it is used. Logistics support resources are the biggest expense associated with a military system over its useful life, so it is imperative that ILS plan for the most economical use of these resources.

The goals for any Seller organization to apply ILS are complementary to, but different from those of the Buyer. The Seller’s ILS goals are listed in Fig. 1.5. First, and foremost, the Seller must make

• Achieve lowest cost of ownership • Influence design decisions to improve supportability and support • Identify and limit cost and support drivers • Identify and develop support resources FIGURE 1.4 Goals of ILS (as stated by the Buyer).

• Profit • Revenue • Increase technical capabilities • Increase market share • Meet customer requirements FIGURE 1.5 Goals of ILS (as stated by the Seller).

INTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS

1.7

a profit to stay in business. Profit only comes from revenue. The Seller also strives to continually improve on their technical capabilities which should enhance their market share. These can all be realized while meeting their customer’s requirements.

This is an important point. Everyone does ILS. However, each organization must realize why it is being applied and the terminal objectives that are being sought through its application.

ILS PARTNERS The overall ILS organization that develops the support for a system is composed of two partners that must work together as a team to achieve the goals of the ILS program. These partners are an element of the Buyer (in the US military this is the DoD) which establishes a need for the system and the Seller and the government contractors, who design and produce the system. The actual element of DoD, which acts for the government, depends on the specific system. It could be any branch of the military or an organization within a branch that is charged with the responsibility of acquiring military weapon systems. For the purposes of this text, the terms DoD and the government will be used to generically signify any government or DoD organization acquiring military equipment. The success of the ILS organization depends on the ability of both partners to work together to achieve the goals of the ILS program.

In the commercial industry there is also a partnership in providing support to systems, which is more economically based on the seller providing both a system and the long-term support for an acceptable price to the Buyer. The technical disciplines identified above may not be as rigidly distinct as in the military, but the end products are just as necessary.

THE ACQUISITION CYCLE ILS begins with the acquisition planning for an item of equipment and continues throughout its useful life. This evolutionary process is the same for all items, whether a small, simple piece of equipment or a major, complex system. The acquisition cycle can be divided in several distinct phases, and depending on the source, there are several different sets of names that can be given to each life cycle phase. Each phase can be subdivided based on the unique requirements of each project. Figure 1.6 illustrates the phases of the acquisition cycle: presystem acquisition, system acquisition, and sustainment.

Pre-system acquisition

System acquisition

Sustainment

Buyer activities necessary before any procurement can begin

Design, development, or procurement and then testing followed by delivery

Operation and support ending in disposal

FIGURE 1.6 System acquisition phases.

1.8

CHAPTER ONE

Presystem Acquisition Phase The acquisition cycle begins with the presystem acquisition phase where the need for new equipment is identified. This need may be based on an evaluation of an existing equipment that can no longer perform its mission or it can be based on a new type of mission for which an item of equipment does not exist. The purpose of this phase is to fully define the new need, develop a complete mission profile for the new equipment, identify in gross terms the resources that exist or must be developed to fulfill the need, and establish priorities for continuing the acquisition process. There is an underlying element to this phase and that is the continually evolving baseline of technologies available for incorporation into any system. It is important that this evolving technology baseline be continually assessed to determine the applicability of available technologies to the new User requirement. This phase also contains all the Buyer activities necessary to launch any procurement. When the need has been fully defined, along with resource identification and establishment of priorities, the next step is to develop alternative approaches for fulfilling the need. All the possible alternative approaches to fulfill the need are identified. The positive attributes and risks involved with each alternative are evaluated to ensure that the alternatives selected are capable of fulfilling the need. The result of the phase is selection of the most feasible alternative, or alternatives, for further study. If an alternative cannot be identified, then the cycle reverts back to the start of this phase for redefinition of the need.

System Acquisition Phase The alternative or alternatives developed during the presystem acquisition phase must now be completely explored to determine if the alternative actually fulfills the need. Up to this point, the alternative has been a general approach to solve the need. After all, that is why it is called a concept. The purpose of this phase is twofold: (1) to take the concept and transform it into an actual, functioning item and demonstrate that it actually works, and (2) to validate that the item will fulfill the need defined during the preconcept phase. Failure of all alternatives to pass system acquisition phase returns the process back to the presystem acquisition phase for identification of more alternatives.

The alternative or alternatives that pass the first step of this phase proceed to actual acquisition. There are typically five options available to a procurement project to purchase a system that meets the need identified in the presystem acquisition phase. These are listed in Fig. 1.7. The modification program takes a system that is already in the possession of the User and modifies or upgrades its capabilities and then returns it to the User to meet the new requirement. When modification is not acceptable, then the next option is to purchase an existing item with no changes, normally called an off-the-shelf procurement. This type of procurement minimizes development time and normally accelerates delivery of the system to meet the need. A modified off-the-shelf program takes an existing design and then modifies it prior to production. This may be a high risk program since off-the-shelf items have been designed for other uses, and it may cost more in terms of time and money to develop this type of system rather than going straight to a new design. An integration program takes existing items and integrates them into a new system to meet the predefined need. Most complex systems of today, especially predominately software systems, use this procurement option. One of the problems with

1. Modification program 2. Off the shelf program 3. Modified off the shelf program 4. Integration program 5. New design program FIGURE 1.7 Procurement options.

INTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS

1.9

this option is incompatibility of the existing items selected for integration. The final option is a new design program. The new design program typically has the longest acquisition phase, may be the most expensive, but normally produces a system that most closely meets the need for a reasonable cost of ownership. The first step of this phase is sometimes called engineering and manufacturing development (EMD), full scale development (FSD), or full scale engineering development (FSED). During this step, the equipment undergoes sufficient engineering processes that develop an equipment design that meets all the requirements of the need and performs in the field. As will be shown in later chapters, a large percentage of ILS activity occurs during system acquisition. Actual manufacturing of the new equipment occurs during the last step of this phase. This is the first appearance of the complete, operationally ready equipment. The design of the equipment is frozen at the start of production and cannot be changed thereafter without formal approval of the government. As systems are manufactured, the system along with its required support package is deployed so that the User has the capability to perform assigned missions.

Sustainment Phase After the equipment is manufactured and deployed, the User assumes ownership and operation and support begins. The equipment is fielded and starts fulfilling the need identified during the presystem acquisition phase. As the equipment functions in its intended environment, its capability to fulfill the need is continually evaluated. The equipment’s performance is also evaluated as new needs arise. This ends the circle of one acquisition cycle and begins another. The sustainment phase also includes disposal of items that are no longer serviceable and of waste and by-products from the maintenance and support of systems. When a new item of equipment is fielded, the item being replaced is phased out and disposal begins for the old item. This phase continues until all of the old equipment is purged from the User’s inventory or redistributed to fulfill other needs.

As stated, the acquisition cycle is a never-ending circle of events that continually addresses new needs as they are identified. ILS participates in each phase of acquisition. Subsequent chapters will address how ILS provides input to the planning for and use of support resources required to sustain equipment operational capabilities.

LOGISTICS PHASES AND ACQUISITION PHASES We have now discussed two different types of phases that address logistics and acquisition. It is important to understand that these two different concepts are interdependent. The logistics phases identify different types of logistics activities and the acquisition phases pertain to stages in the life of a system. Figure 1.8 illustrates how the logistics phases apply to the acquisition phases. The logistics functional requirements phase starts in the presystem acquisition phase and continues until engineering drawing for the final design has been created which is normally sometime during system acquisition phase. The physical requirements phase starts where engineering drawings are available and continues until the system has been delivered to the User. The Use phase continues thereafter through the completion of the acquisition cycle. There is obviously some overlap between phases and each program will be slightly different. App. A, Roadmaps to Success, illustrates how all these activities work together to achieve the goals of the ILS program.

CONCLUSION Integrated Logistics Support is a universally applied concept and methodology. It is extremely flexible and applicable to any situation. It is both science and art. It is a science because of its measurable

1.10

CHAPTER ONE

Use

ion isit qu Ac

n itio s i qu ac Functional e requirements Pr

Physical definitions

Su sta inm en t FIGURE 1.8 Combining the logistics and acquisition phases.

results but also an art because its application may be different in every situation. It is this complex mixing of both science and art that makes it one of the most powerful processes available to meet the requirements of the User, Buyer, and Seller.

Part I of this text presents the concepts applied by supportability engineering during the early stages of the acquisition process. This part starts with identification of the User need and continues through the systems engineering and design engineering processes to produce a supportable design.

The focus of this part is to illustrate how measurable supportability characteristics should be developed for any system during its acquisition.

Part II takes over where Part I ends with a physical design and demonstrates how a reasonable and cost-effective support solution should be developed and delivered. This part discusses how each of the logistics technical disciplines participates in developing the final support solution for a system.

Part III contains basic concepts and practices for managing the application of ILS to a specific program. It discusses planning, contracting, and the management process.

In this chapter we have discussed the basic concepts of logistics, ILS, logistics phases, acquisition phases, and other areas that provide a starting point for the remainder of this text. ILS is a total package concept with each of its parts interdependent to meet a common goal.

P

●

A

●

R

●

T

●

I

DEFINING A SUPPORTABLE DESIGN

Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

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CHAPTER 2

THE EVOLVING SYSTEM REQUIREMENT

Each acquisition must begin with identification of the requirements for the system. This identification includes the intended use of the system, the environment where the system will be used, the rate of usage, concerns pertaining to support of the system and potential costs of ownership. The importance of this identification cannot be overstressed. Failure to perform this identification properly will almost always result in an inappropriate system. Therefore, due diligence must be applied to this initial process. It is the first step toward success of any acquisition.

DEFINING THE NEED The first step in identification of the system requirement is to define the need for the system. Not, what is the system, but what does it have to do? Figure 2.1 illustrates the questions which must be answered as the initial step in defining the need. The answers to these questions form the basis for supportability engineering. This list of questions represents the minimum input information necessary to establish the basis parameters that delineate the ultimate criteria for system success. Throughout this text, this list will be continually referenced since the answers to the questions represent the final acceptability of the system to meet the User’s need.

Answering the questions posed in Fig. 2.1 is not a simple activity. Typically, no single person or organization has all the correct answers. Experience has shown that most people or organizations have guesses or assumptions which they use as answers, but different organizations working on the project have made different guesses or assumptions which they do not share or compare.

This results in confusion of project goals and parameters. The answers developed on a project normally result from coordination among all the stakeholders, arbitration where differences occur, and finally, agreement of all parties. The answers to each question are important; however, it is the first question, addressing how the system will be used, that is most important. The actual use of the system creates requirements for support and, therefore, is the focus of supportability engineering.

Let’s look at two examples that will be used in following chapters in this text.

The automotive industry takes flat sheets of steel and transforms the sheets to different body parts for a car. This is done by a stamping process. The stamping process is performed by a complex system called a transfer press. A transfer press is a large, complex, and expensive system. It contains sets of stamping dies which are raised and lowered hydraulically pressing the sheets of metal into a series of shapes until the final desired shape is produced. Figure 2.2 illustrates this process. The shaping of one car panel may require up to six different die sets. The stamping process is one of the initial steps in car production that feeds the assembly plant. A single car model may require up to 50 different sizes and shapes of parts created by a single transfer press.

Therefore, it must be capable of producing a large number of different parts at a specific rate to assure a smooth flow of parts to the assembly line. The overall need for the transfer press can be stated as: “The transfer press must be capable of producing the parts for assembly at a rate of 2.1 Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use.

2.2

CHAPTER TWO

• How will the Users actually use the system?

• What are the minimum performance requirements?

• Where will the system be used?

• How frequently will the system be used?

• Under what circumstances will the system be used?

• How will the User measure system success?

• How will the User measure system failure?

• Are there any limitations on system use?

• Are there any limitations on system characteristics?

• Are there any economic issues or constraints?

• Are there any environmental issues or constraints?

• Are there any support limitations?

FIGURE 2.1 Critical starting questions.

500 cars per day.” This is the measurable output statistic for the system and establishes a minimum performance requirement. If the transfer press cannot output panels in quantities sufficient to feed the assembly operation, the entire car production rate is slowed. Everything that is done during acquisition of the stamping machine must enable it to achieve this requirement. There are many other facts that must also be addressed; one of the most important is the cost of the transfer press and the cost of operating the press. These costs are amortized into the cost of each part produced by the machine. The transfer press must operate efficiently. Any defect that stops its operation creates a break in the flow of parts to the assembly activity. Therefore, the transfer must be very reliable and also easy to restore to an operable condition when a defect occurs. Supportability engineering focuses its activities on both the cost of the transfer press and the ability to support it.

The second example is a main battle tank used by the Army. A tank is also a very complex and expensive system. Its purpose is to be capable of defeating opposing forces, especially the opposing force’s tanks. The requirements for the main battle tank therefore focus on the capabilities of any opposing forces and attributes that the tank must have to overcome any opposition. This situation is quite different from the transfer press of the automotive industry. The desired output is not as explicitly measurable in terms of production quantities.

Flat steel sheets

Input to die #1

Transfer press

Stamp shape 1

FIGURE 2.2 Transfer press operations.

Move to die #2

Shaped car parts

Stamp shape 2

Eject final shape part

THE EVOLVING SYSTEM REQUIREMENT

2.3

Definition of the need for the tank must start with a study of the tactical mission that the tank must perform to defeat opposing forces. The tank will potentially meet several different types of opposing force equipments on the battlefield. These may include tanks, infantry, aviation, artillery, and antitank mines. These are commonly grouped into potential threats to its survival and mission success.

The need for the tank can be summarized as: “The tank will be capable of closing with and defeating opposing threat forces through mobility and superior application of firepower.” This brief description of the need for the tank conveys the requirement for the tank to be highly mobile with an accurate and lethal gunnery system. Figure 2.3 shows these high-level requirements for the tank.

Mobility requirements must be further defined to determine distance, time, and terrain, which will lead to engine horsepower, transmission, track suspension system, and driving controls. The requirement for superior firepower must be expanded to consider munitions, cannon, sight system, fire control system, and gunnery controls. Underlying the obvious requirements for mobility and firepower is another: survivability. The tank must be capable of surviving a combat situation. This mandatory characteristic will define the size, shape, and construction of the tank body. As the tank body increases in size, its weight also increases. An increase in weight increases the requirement for engine horsepower to improve mobility, etc. Each of these requirements is interrelated. There is one other requirement required for operation and that is to communicate. An unspoken requirement for the tank is its ability to operate for some period of time without failing. A tank should never break down in the middle of a combat mission. This leads to supportability engineering, which is an integral participant in the systems engineering process that will develop the tank design.

Environmental Issues The environment in which the system is to be used must be explicitly described. The specific conditions to which the system will be subjected have a very significant bearing on its operability. Different environments pose different stresses on a system. Environmental issues can be divided into two categories: physical environmental effects on the system and system effects on the environment. Both of theses issues must be considered prior to start of development or procurement of a system.

Physical Environment The effects of the physical environment where a system will be used can have a significant effect on its ability to operate efficiently. Figure 2.4 lists the typical areas that must be considered. The temperature range of the location where the system will be operated has a direct impact on its success. If the location is very hot, the system will probably require some type of cooling, or if it is very cold, the system may require heating. If there are many locations where the system will be used, then it may require both heating and cooling with a capability to monitor and adjust the temperature. Humidity of the environment of operation must also be considered. High levels of humidity lead to corrosion of metal components and interfere with electronic assemblies. Extremely low humidity causes accelerated deterioration of materials such as rubber gaskets or adhesives. Airborne particles can pose additional concerns for proper system operation. Particles such as dust may require a filtration element to remove

Main battle tank requirements

Mobility

Firepower

FIGURE 2.3 Main battle tank requirements.

Survivability

Communicate

Supportability

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have