New Nature : Shifting Paradigm

New Nature: A Shifting Paradigm Lewis Benmore

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Contents Introduction

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Environmental Position

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Landscape Character

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Explorative Mapping

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Phenomenological Approach

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The Desalination Plant

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Conclusion

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Appendix 1: Geomorphology

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Bibliography

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Introduction

‘Managed Landscape’- ‘Britain is a landscape altered by man. There is very little, if anything, that remains untouched and primitive within it, and its sense of place has been generated as much by the hand of man as by the way in which nature has responded to the management of the land.’ 1 Throughout history man has intervened with the land in order to live, farm and travel. The physical cooperation with the natural environment is necessary to humankind’s survival while the symbolic relationship represents a consciousness of our position within the ecosystem.

This thesis investigates how man relates to the environment through the process of building, dwelling and thinking.

Throughout the development of the modern world mans perception of nature has altered. Construing nature as a resource and applying to it all the latest scientific and mathematical techniques has helped man to understand and control the natural world. In doing so, man has become disengaged with nature and the landscape. The spiritual world, characterized by imagination as opposed to reason, feeling rather than logic, has also become detached from the world of nature. In the early nineteenth century the Romantics believed that the emphasis on mathematics failed to recognize the richness of the natural world or the imaginative powers of human understanding. This led to a

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reintegration of the material and the spiritual, influencing poetry, art and music displaying a heightened sense of awareness to mans connection to nature.

Consequently a pragmatic understanding of nature through developments in science and mathematics has enriched a poetic and spiritual view of the natural world. Biese states that the “present intensity”…(1905) of the feeling for nature…“is due to the growth of science, for although feeling has become more realistic and matter-of-fact in these days of electricity and the microscope, love for nature has increased with knowledge.”2 In the 20th Century advances in science and technology allowed man a better understanding of the natural environment and the effect development was having on climate change as a result of exploiting natural resources in an unsustainable way. Ecologists have recently proposed a new ‘non equilibrium paradigm’ that states ecological systems are open and have multiple pathways of change that are effected by process. The process includes both human and natural activity, creating disturbances that encourage the eco-system to adapt. 3 A symbiotic relationship between man and nature is evident in almost all natural landscapes. The conflict is most apparent in active landscapes; this thesis will explore the coastal region around the Walton backwaters, an area of tidal salt marshes and mudflats protected from the

1. Pearson, Dan. Spirit. UK: Murray & Sorrell FUEL, 2009. p23 2. Biese. The Development of the Feeling for Nature in the Middle Ages and Modern Times. UK: Hard Press Publishers, 2006. p357 3. Clarke.J. Nature in Question. UK: Earthscan Publications, 1993. P12

Walton-on-Naze Clis, In the past 20 years the pillboxes have fallen onto the beach

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Sea Wall, Walton Backwaters

North Sea by a spit of land. The coastal region is a fragile and restless landscape, constantly in flux. For centuries man has adapted to this shifting landscape however recently attempts have been made to control the natural process of erosion and preserve the landscape. It is only recently, in geological terms, that mankind has become disengaged with the land through the development of the built environment. The process of erosion along with the threat of a rising sea level leaves many coastal regions under threat.

“The disaster is not that the shoreline moves- the disaster is the fact that it is expected not to. The disaster is the perception of the land.” 4

4. Kristin Schuster. 306090 Landscape within Architecture. USA: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004. P167

The principles established in this thesis are expressed through a landscape management strategy, a series of structures that form a seawater desalination plant located in the tidal backwaters north of Walton-on-Naze. As a precursor to the desalination plant, a smaller intervention, a tidal observatory, will investigate how a structure can engage with the process of tide and manipulate the perception of a fluxing landscape. The desalination plant aims to re-establish a community within the fragile ecology that exists on the site, shaping how a culture evolves and challenge the disengagement between man and nature that exists. The physical manifestation of the plant will engage

with the geomorphological processes that characterize the landscape, creating a symbiotic relationship with nature and the spiritual roots of place and time.

By engaging with the landscape the Desalination plant will attempt to render visible natural processes, challenging the romantic idea of the ‘natural landscape’.

relationship between man and nature.

The research investigates the Walton Backwaters with the intention to arrive at a more holistic viewpoint, with specific reference to the pragmatic and the poetic.

Contemporary landscapes are not a product of a single intention, but numerous converging processes.

The traces of the changing views and treatments of landscape throughout history, influenced by social, economic and environmental changes – obsolete ancient infrastructures, traces of cultivation and old fortifications become part of modern landscapes, acquiring new meanings and uses. This study attempts to provide a portrait of a landscape, the Walton backwaters; a complex environment made through both endogenous and anthropogenic influences.

Maps are used to analyse the landscape at Walton from an experiential and cartographic perspective, mapping is employed to gain an understanding of ‘place’. Using four ways to map as defined

by Edward Casey (mapping of, mapping for, mapping with/in and mapping out) it is possible to explore the different methods on a micro and macro scale, and how they change the perception of a landscape. Maps, a subject often explored by artists, can embody the 7

Environmental Position

In order to explore the relationship between man and nature it is important to highlight the historical social developments and current views on the environment. J.J Clarke states: “The dominant world-view of modern times regards nature as a machine and human beings as isolated and fundamentally separate from nature, superior to and in some sense in charge of the rest of the natural world, and in competition with each other, values arising solely from the needs and rights of human beings. In this world-view the mental and the material, the spiritual and the physical, are sharply divided from one another, with the mental and the spiritual realm completely excluded from the realm of nature, a view usually known as dualism.” 5 This view signifies mans disengagement with nature, and a belief that we have a right to dominate and exploit nature.

Clarke suggests that while we might be concerned with questions about the environment, this concern is wholly anthropocentric and does little to challenge the general world-view.

It is widely acknowledged that global climate change is inevitable, and that it is likely to have significant physical impacts on the landscape. The South East region including Essex is particularly sensitive to the effects of climate

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change. The principal implications of global warming in Essex are likely to be sea level rises, estimated at 80cm by 2100 (6), threatening important coastal habitats through coastal squeeze and increasing the risk of flooding in lowlying areas. Along with sea level rise, isostatic post-glacial rebound is the term used to describe the tilting of the British Isles. The tilting is a result of Scotland’s mountain valleys rising steadily upwards due to them decompressing from the weight of melting ice caps. This rebound of Scotland is in turn pushing the South of England into the sea. The Environment Agency has been able to monitor and accurately measure this subsidence at a rate of 1-2mm per year. Rainfall levels will also change with winters expected to be 30% wetter and summer rainfall to decrease by up to 60% compared with current patterns.

These environmental predictions suggest that whether in the near future or in the next century the landscape of the South of England will change drastically despite mans attempts to defend it. This creates an opportunity for architectural responses, that question how society and the built environment can evolve, exploring the relationship between the man-made and the natural world.

The study considers the implications of three approaches; defence, the structure will protect the fragile landscape,

5. Clarke.JJ. Nature in Question. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1993. P12 6. Wigley and Raper, Thermal expansion of sea water. Nature 330. 1993. p127131

maintaining existing sea defences; adapt, the built environment will allow erosion and sea level change to take place and simply adapt to the changing conditions, retreating inland; or attack, new inhabited structures over the sea will be developed, allowing man to become independent of the land.

Dutch Delta Works

7. Ewan Willars, Living with water, Visions of a flooded future (online resource) http://www.buildingfutures.org.uk/ assets/downloads/pdffile_57.pdf Date of Access: 10th March 2011

The defence approach, deals with the effects of rising sea levels and tidal surge, an approach adopted by the Dutch since the 17th Century. A large part of the Dutch landscape is very recent, the reclamation of the Zuiderzee was made possible in 1918, it was not until after World War II that the first polder (low lying land enclosed by a dyke) was reclaimed and developed as Flevoland. After the flooding of the Zeeland province in 1953, a delta act created numerous dikes and water barriers that would ensure the low-lying settlements would remain safe. Although it is recognised that land reclamation and defending the coastline is no longer a sustainable option, economically and environmentally, the Dutch must continue to protect the 25% of its area and 21% of its population that are located below sea level. The most recent addition to the Delta works is the Maeslankering storm surge barrier; completed in 1997 the barrier protects Rotterdam and the surrounding towns and agricultural land. When a storm surge of 3 meters above normal sea level is anticipated the barrier is closed automatically.

The strategy for defence contradicts the proposed shoreline management plans drawn up for the Essex coast by the Environment agency. The plan phases a managed retreat over 100 years according to sea level rise predictions.

The existing sea wall is breached in places and maintained where the built environment requires. This method is more economically and environmentally sustainable. The land behind the breached sea wall then becomes salt marsh; a natural defence against the sea.

Through absorbing the wave energy salt marsh can significantly reduce the cost of sea defences further inland. An example of this managed retreat is already under way at Abbots hall farm, the 700-acre coastal farm aims to demonstrate how the recreation of salt marsh can act as a more cost-efficient, sustainable sea defence whilst supporting a rich ecology.

An adapt strategy is demonstrated by the RIBA Building Futures project ‘Living with water: vision of a flooded future’

by Paul Ruff and Glen Moorley. The project imagines infrastructural shifts for East London; which include school boats, preventing a disruption to a childs education during prolonged periods of flooding. Vast reservoirs that retain flood waters until levels go down, along with Archi-gram inspired ‘bolt on’ architecture, allowing people living in flood zones to increase floor area above ground level.

This proposes an architectural flexibility 9

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as an alternative to hard flood defences.

A more ambitious conceptual approach to adapt is explored in the project ‘Retreating Village’ by Architectural firm Smout Allen. The project is a response to the erosion of a coastal shoreline where the village of Happisburgh in Norfolk, formerly located inland is at risk of falling into the sea. The proposal sees the village mounted on rails of “steel and concrete” that allow each house to be dragged across the landscape”. The houses become machines, attached to devices that mimic techniques for hauling boats from the sea, allowing them to retreat further inland. “The village is slipped, dragged, and rotated by a mechanism of anchors, ground beams, and concreted arcs” with each house “manipulated by no fewer than three pulleys that are anchored in the landscape”8. The project adopts an architectural language of impermanence that complements and contributes to the nature of the restless landscape.

The attack approach is realized in the Netherlands where construction firm Dura Vermeer has built a development of ‘amphibious’ houses floating on the River Meuse in Holland. Each house is moored to a metal pole and sits on a set of hollow concrete pontoons. When the river floods the houses respond by floating, as the water recedes the house will lower back down. Taking the concept of attack further, Frits Schoute 12

(1947), a professor at Delft University is developing a stabilizing platform that will allow communities to live comfortably on the sea. He expects that due to high density on land and the threat of rising sea level, man will colonize the live and work on the platform by 2020.

8. Smout, Mark. Augmented Landscapes.

NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007.

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Retreating Village by Smout Allen

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Dyke, Walton Backwaters

Landscape Character Essex

Essex has one of the longest coastlines in England comprising of complex estuary systems, extensive salt marshes and intertidal areas of international conservation importance.

The geology of coastal Essex is a complex array of varying marine, alluvial and glacial drift sediments that overlay or border the thick deposits of London clay and terrace gravels. The clay is part of the older strata of rocks that form the eastern sector of the London basin, a bowl created from the Cretaceous chalk.

The characteristic fringing marshlands protected by sea walls were traditionally grazing marsh but most of the land is now ploughed. These level, ancient marshlands with their relic dykes and ditches, composed of varied marine sediments lying at the seaward foot of the low clay hills or terrace gravels are often still visible, generally extend no further than 5m AOD. This land is under constant threat from flooding, water is controlled by a complex system of drains and ditches, some retaining the curves and bends of natural watercourses, others form straight lines and right angles.

Shales & Limestone

Limestone, Clay & Shale

Sandstone

Chalk

Limestone & Sandstone

Clay and Sands Granite

UK Geology Map

Archaeological work carried out in the coastal area of Essex has revealed extensive evidence for prehistoric settlements. At the beginning of the current interglacial period, people

were already living in most parts of Essex. Evidence from what were dryland sites along the coast suggest that communities at this time were mobile, undoubtedly exploiting resources from the sea, as well as the land, vulnerable coastal settlements were abandoned each year.

Population and settlement during the Iron Age (800-50 BC) and Roman periods (44BC-500AD), gradually increased, with resulting pressure on land, agriculture intensified and deforestation transformed the landscape. Essex’s coast, close to Europe, made it vulnerable to invasion from across the channel. From Roman times to the twentieth century there is evidence of military defence along the coast, an early example is the Roman fort of Bradwell on sea. In post-medieval times Martello towers were constructed, imposing structures standing out over the low lying marshlands. Fortifications between Point Clear and Harwich were crucial during the invasion of Napoleon.

Second World War pillboxes are located along the sea wall at pivotal access points between the marshland and the surrounding settlements. These monolithic concrete structures, although no longer in use, observe the shifting landscape. Built into the sea wall the low-lying pillboxes sit in harmony with the horizontal mudflats.

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Second World War Pillbox, Island Lane, Walton Backwaters

Sixteenth Century Timber Sea Defence, Walton Backwaters

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Along with defence from invasion, the Essex coast is under constant threat from erosion and flooding. The distinct sea walls that protect large parts of the old grazing marshes are medieval in origin, around the Walton backwaters the timber structures of these ancient sea walls have been exposed where the walls have been undercut.

The dynamic relationship between man and the sea along the Essex coast is not just defensive. Waterborne transport was the prime method of movement for people and goods throughout the greater Thames and east coast. From the Saxon period every farm would have had a simple quay alongside which barges could tie up. In effect the system survived into the early 20th century when barges took cereal and straw from the fields of Essex to the horse-powered streets of London, bringing back refuse to manure the fields.

The marshland areas of the Essex coast have been important for agriculture since the late Bronze Age. The grazing marshland produced wool and dairy produce for both local use and export to London. On the higher ground a mixed agriculture of grassland and arable developed. More recently this pattern of farming has changed, in the mid 20th century when developments in drainage technology, improvements to sea wall defences following the 1953 floods, and the provision of government subsidies 18

and incentives, led to a substantial loss of grazing marsh and its associated features in conversion to arable. Natural habitats, historic field boundaries and archaeological features were all lost to modern farming methods. Around 80% of the grazing marsh is estimated to have been lost since the Second World War. More recently, environmental schemes such as the re-alignment of the sea wall at Abbots Hall Farm hope to restore some of the grazing marshland.

Historically, most settlements are located beyond the edge of the marsh on the higher land, where farms often just above the 5m AOD in a line above the marsh. The only settlements that developed within the marshland itself were the fishing villages and some small ports. Paved roads and lanes lie close to the 15-20m AOD contour with unpaved track ways, usually to farms or old quays, forming right-angled routes down to the marsh edge and beyond to the creeks or sea, testifying the importance of water in commercial and agricultural life until the beginning of the 20th century.

The relationship between man and the sea turned to tragedy during the floods of 1953, when over 300 East Anglians died.

This tragedy was shared with the Dutch, whose death toll was even higher. The Dutch influence along the Essex coastline is prominent, from local Architecture built by Dutch sea merchants to the villages of Great Holland and Holland-

Walton Backwaters

London

Trade route between London and the Essex Farms

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1953 Floods, Walton-on-Naze

on-sea just South of Walton-on-Naze.

A number of Dutch Engineers were commissioned to design flood protection and land reclamation schemes along this coastline with the largest project in 1621

by Cornelius Vermuyden on the coast at Dagenham Marsh.

Along the coast the evidence of the struggle to retain, if not reclaim, the sea can be seen in breakwaters, groynes, and revetments that divide up so many beaches. These are similarly evocative structures, seeking to protect and retain the land against the daily encroachments of the North Sea. As dangers of flooding increase, partly due to the result of climate change, but also due to a gradual sinking of the land, the coastline once again is being adapted by human activity to respond to potential new dangers.

Aerial view of Abbots Hall Farm showing breached sea defence

down to just 1000 hectares.

The re-alignment of the Sea wall at Abbots Hall Farm was a high-risk strategy that paid off, despite reservations amongst local fisherman and farmers. Marginal arable farmland has been exchanged for new salt marshes and grazing marsh with a proliferation of returning marine plant life and bird life. In the long term the Essex coastline, so crucial to the unique identity of the county, is being retained as a naturally shifting boundary between land and sea, rather than being industrially farmed to within inches of the sea wall. These initiatives in flood management are being observed with interest across Europe, visitors from France, Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands have come to study the process at first hand.

Environmentalists in Essex have been in the forefront of proposals designed not to resist the threat of future flooding, but to manage it safely, through breaching or re-aligning the seawalls and creating floodplains which dissipate the power of the tides, protecting the settlements further inland. This has now happened at Abbots hall farm on the Blackwater and is currently happening at Deveraux Farm on the Walton Backwaters. Not only do such re-alignments help manage the risk of flooding; they also help restore the salt marshes, so crucial to the ecology of these estuaries. In the 1970’s, Essex had 4000 hectares of salt marsh; today this is 21

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Explorative Mapping

“Maps are graphic representations that facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes, or events in the human world” 9 Man’s relationship with the land in which he dwells has been represented through various forms of maps for centuries. From early impressionist landscape painting to modern cartography and O.S maps, each aims to depict features within a place that characterise it. Landscape painting as a form of map derived from mans need to control the land, it was an expression of power and wealth.

Similarly cartography has developed as man’s utilization of the world’s resources has increased, he has sought to control them as well as use them. The Ordnance survey was first established in 1791 and aimed at mapping the whole of Britain in one scale with a uniformity that could be read by anyone, developed by the army the map has a recognisable style and illustrates particular elements within the landscape.

9. Harley. J.B, History of Cartography, 1987:xvi 10. (Kordetzky.L, Transient Sedimentation, 2006:12)

By their very nature, Ordnance survey maps fail to portray the experiential character of the landscape and topography. To gain a better understanding of the landscape aerial photographs or satellite images can be used. An aerial photograph could be argued to be more accurate than an Ordnance survey map. Simply by the level of detail, materiality and texture,

the photograph presents a stronger impression of the character of the landscape. Maps and aerial photographs capture a landscape at a specific point in time but both fail to depict the constant changes.

Lars Kordetzky states “The unpredictable cannot be decoded, real places are never on a map, they keep updating themselves, and they are the difference of difference ceaseless transformation, constant disintegration and renewal. Real places proceed in infinite movement.” 10 It is possible with the use of satellite imagery to continuously update a map, with the use of sensors it is possible to measure movements, tremors, differences in pressure and temperature, these are recorded and compiled in ephemeral maps. These maps relay data from a past event, however they do not provide information on possible events that will occur in the future.

In the past 50 years cartographers have used air photography as a way of surveying the land. An air photograph however depending on the angle it was taken distorts the landscape. The science of photogrammetry, which is concerned with the making of maps from measurements taken from air photographs, has developed from the need to remove these distortions of shape.

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Tim Abrahams describes the act of mapping as ‘disengaged’. The use of satellite images and digital surveying means modern cartographers are not required to experience the landscape first hand in order to record it. This suggests a map depicts ‘site’ rather than ‘place’. In order to gain a better sense of place other methods of mapping need to be explored. Artists such as Richard Long and Layla Curtis navigate the space between cognitive mapping and Cartesian coordinates to consider mapping in terms of permanence, impermanence, identity of place, human emotion and creative expression.

with scientists. She used GPS tracking equipment that recorded her whereabouts every few seconds. The GPS recorded her location and the resultant drawings are performative, relaying Curtis’ experience as imaginary lines.

The lines describe different journeys that Curtis takes throughout the three months, daily trips become repeated lines and special journeys are depicted by long solitary lines. The established paths, roads and architecture of the base camp along with the geography of the landscape define the journeys Curtis takes; these characteristics become manifested in the lines.

Richard Long explores the cognitive and the Cartesian through the act of walking, believing that walking - as art - provides an ideal means to explore relationships between time, distance, geography and measurement.

“I create walks and land-based sculptures as a way of inhabiting the rich territory between two ideological positions, namely that of making ‘monuments’ or conversely, of ‘leaving only footprints’.”

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Long’s use of words, photographs and installations record a journey and portray the experience to the viewer in the gallery.

The artist Layla Curtis created maps of Antarctica during an expedition 24

11. Long.R, Heaven and Earth, 2009:146

Layla Curtis - Polar Wanderings (2005)

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Navigation Map from Secret Water - Arthur Ransome

Using Maps to explore ‘Place’

that depicts a changing landscape, unlike an O.S map or an aerial photograph that captures a specific moment in time.

The four ways to map as defined by Edward Casey include mapping of, mapping for, mapping with/in and mapping out.

12. Abraham.T, Maps, 2009:13

Mapping of can be used to describe the O.S map, to map a particular place or territory in the effort to capture its exact geography and structure. The science of Cartography in this form represents disengagement with specific locales of place and topography.

Mapping with/in is concerned with the experience of place. Rather than an indicative map, the aim is to portray how it feels to be in a specific locale. Artist Nigel Peake creates maps through the memory and experience of place. The maps become poetic ‘fictional reality’.

He uses pen and ink to describe pattern and texture and he uses text to represent the narrative of place. “Nigel’s maps are playful, evocative and humane.” 12

Mapping for a specific purpose, rather than being cartographically accurate.

These maps indicate how to get to a specific location in relation to where the viewer is standing as they read the map itself. An early example being the ‘Strip Maps’ drawn in 1675 by John Ogilby, these were based on a survey of all the main roads in the United Kingdom. The maps show sufficient information to guide travellers along roads and are in half plan, half pictorial style. Another definition includes mapping for the specific purpose of predicting the future changes in the landscape, this can be done through understanding the natural and man-made processes that take place and by observing how the landscape changed due to these processes in the past. These long and shortterm processes can be recorded and measured; creating an ephemeral ‘map’

Arthur Ransom’s Secret Water is a story of five children marooned on an island in the Walton Backwaters, with basic provisions, a compass and a blank map, their challenge is to explore and map the islands. The blank map is given to the children for them to fill in as they discover a place; the place is then named by its salient features or by a memory or event that happened there. Before they begin to explore the islands they start by orientating themselves in the landscape using the bearings on the compass.

This method of mapping is similar to early cartographic techniques; the use of triangulation was used in order to position elements in the landscape accurately. Since the measuring of angles was more accurate than lengths it is possible to map a point, fixed by intersection from two other points whose relative position are known.

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Details surveyed on the landscape were then sketched in relation to the points.

In the case of Secret Water it was their experiences that were mapped.

Mapping out is to immerse oneself in the landscape, once in the landscape, boundaries that appear in cartographic maps become porous. In order to express this experience it is important to take yourself out of the landscape and represent this immersion through a format that moves others in significantly similar ways to the ways in which you been moved by being in a particular landscape.

Land artists such as Richard Long and Robert Smithson were among the first to bring the experience of landscape into a gallery. Moving away from the pictorial, they aimed to create a diagrammatic representation of landscape, more material than visual. Whether like Long through photographs and text or like Smithson who went further by creating his ‘Non Sites’ (indoor earthworks). A Non Site – Pine Barrens, New Jersey, was Smithson’s first Non Site. The disrupted state of the site appealed to him, he was looking for a denaturalisation rather than a scenic beauty. The Non Site acts as a map rather than a picture; it was constructed from natural materials he chose from remote, unpopulated areas.

The materials from the site were brought into the gallery and placed alongside an Ordnance Survey map.

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The Nonsites highlight a tension between the outdoors and indoors, and were examples of Smithson’s explorations into site, displacement and location. The displaced material refers the viewer back to the site where the materials were originally collected.

“My non-sites in a sense are like large, abstract maps made into three dimensions. You are thrown back on the site.” 13 The first two types of mapping are concerned with the scientific act of cartography and orientation whereas the two last methods are concerned with the experiential and emotive relationship with the land. In order to use mapping as a tool to gain a greater understanding of place these methods will be applied to the Walton Backwaters and their relevance will be discussed.

13. Smithson.R, The Collected Writings, 1996:181

‘Non-Site’ - Robert Smithson (Franklin, New Jersey) 1968

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‘Notes on Maps’ Richard Long (1994) A map can be used to make a walk. A map can be used to make a work of art.

Maps have layers of information; they show history, geography, the naming of places.

A map is an artistic and poetic combination of image and language.

For me, a map is a potent alternative to a photograph, it has a different function.

It can show the idea of a whole work, not a moment.

A map can show time and space in a work of art.

Distance, the days of walking, the campsites, the shape of the walking, can be shown in one concise but rich image.

In some of my works, I find the best places to realise particular ideas by first looking at a map.

A map can decide a place and idea, either or both.

Maps can be read in many different ways, they are a standard and universal language.

I like to think my work on a map exists equally with all the other information on it.

On a long walk a map becomes a familiar, trusted object, something to look at endlessly, without boredom.

I can look at the planned future and the completed past.

A map is light.

A map could save my life.

(Long.R, Selected statements and interviews, 2007:31) 30

‘No Where. A walk of 131 miles within an imaginary circle. Ten days and nights. Scotland 1993.’ Richard Long

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Mapping of

Ordnance Survey maps were derived from a need for a more accurate, detailed map to service the increasing complexity of English social and economic life in the early nineteenth century.

In order to better understand a particular place O.S maps can be used to identify particular elements and features that exist in the landscape. The information that can be extracted from O.S maps include both man made and natural features, boundary, settlement and thoroughfare. By extracting each feature it is possible to understand the different elements that make up the landscape and their relationship between each other.

a series of sea walls, reinforced banks, and tidal gates. The man made elements that are depicted on the O.S map all have an effect on the formation of the landscape and therefore suggest the delicate ecology that exists in the backwaters is entirely managed by man.

“Lines are signs of natural and artificial movement, the quiet signs of a dynamic world. Lines are indicative of underlying forces and tensions, of differences in force and tension; they are invested with content and meaning.” 14 The backwaters north of Walton-onNaze is an area of tidal creeks, mud flats and salt marshes; protected by a spit of land they form a delicate boundary between the land and the North Sea. At first glance this baron landscape appears naturally formed. The organic forms of the mudflats are created through the constant ebb and flow of the tide however this landscape is contained by

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14. Kordetzky.L, Transient Sedimentation, 2006:10

Place Names

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Current Maps

Measuring the Landscape

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Mapping for

Coastal landscapes are in constant flux, to gain an understanding of place it is important to understand the geographical processes that have formed and are impacting on the landscape.

Man is in constant battle with the forces of the sea. The North Sea currents that exist off the coast of Walton-on-Naze are changing land through the process of erosion. In order to predict how the landscape might change, land erosion needs to be understood. The effect of two converging currents, from the North Sea and the English Channel are represented through a current map, solid lines depict the direction of the strong currents reforming the land by the North Shore Drift, the land is shown as a fragile dotted line constantly changing.

In comparison to O.S maps the current maps, presented as a series, represent the relationship between the different elements over a certain time period.

Measuring the character of a landscape is described in the Phenomenology of Architecture. “Through the interaction of surface relief, vegetation and water, characteristic totalities or places are formed which constitute the basic elements of landscape.” 15

15. Schulz.C, Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, 1991:30

long term, through reclamation of land and rising sea levels. Any intervention will have an impact on the landscapes character, in order to measure this impact a grid is employed. By laying a grid over the landscape it is possible to measure the percentage of each element. This can then be used to record the changing structure of the landscape through time.

The grid is drawn on tracing paper; 5mm squares ensure that the grid can be accurate in relation to the scale of the map. The inaccuracy in applying this method arises when squares are only partially occupied. This problem is overcome by counting the squares that are more than half full, ignoring the remainder.

The results at low tide: Managed Land 44.7% Mudflats 26.9% Water 28.3% By measuring the three elements an abstract map is created, the landscape becomes a solid element, a built form.

The organic forms of mud are no longer visible. Placing a grid over the landscape suggests the dependence geometry has on the planet and the resistance of earth itself to explicit cartographic representation.

The elements that make the Walton Backwaters include the managed land, the inaccessible mud flats and the tidal creeks. Each element changes on a daily basis through the tidal movement and 49

Using historical maps it is possible to trace the changing landscape. A map from 1300, 1800 and 2000 are overlaid to show how the landscape has changed over time. Humanity has been adapting through history to a fragile landscape.

The predicted rise in sea levels and coastal erosion allows us to imagine what the landscape will be like in 100 years.

This method can illustrate the impact on local communities, towns and farmland lost to the sea. This is speculative and cannot accurately indicate the impact further sea defenses might have or how intervening in a landscape might eect its appearance and form.

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Tidal Observatory drawing (841x594mm)

Tidal Observatory In 1953 a tidal surge in the North Sea caused one of the most devastating natural disasters ever recorded in the UK. Events like this demonstrate nature’s strength, it is important for people to re-engage with the landscape and the processes that effect their environment.

the connection between the sea and lunar activity.

The observatory sets up a relationship with other landmarks seen on the horizon; it becomes a tool for positioning oneself in a flat expansive landscape.

As a monument for the 1953 floods the tidal observatory is a device for recording the traces of the tide. Similar to the Munro Gauge the tidal observatory produces sea level elevations, recording coastal processes; tidal response, storm surge behaviour and the rise in sea level. The ebb and flow of the tide draws lines, the rhythmic forces are recorded becoming a map that periodically highlights the instability of nature.

The observatory portrays a landscape in flux on a daily basis as the tidal elevation is scribed into the metal drum that forms the top of the tower. The lightweight skeletal frame exposes the user to the environment; with a feeling of impermanence the tower touches the mudflat lightly allowing a continual movement of silt. The rigid structure sits on the ever-changing landscape emphasising the movement of the tide.

The spiral staircase offers a 360° view of the landscape, as the user ascends up into the observatory drum; the line of the tidal elevation replaces the horizon. The floor and the roof are open, emphasising 53

Mapping with/in A satellite image can be understood as a more honest representation of a landscape than an O.S map. Although not as useful for orientating oneself in relation to specific features, the satellite image has a different purpose, it is capturing the landscape at a certain moment in time. By drawing this image a better understanding of form, process, texture and boundary can be achieved. The process of drawing forces a considered representation of details and characteristics that O.S maps do not include. However, due to the perspective, an aerial photograph removes the infinite sense of landscape created by the horizon line and the sense of time and scale. Translating the photograph into a drawing abstracts the sense of place; it is therefore more the process of the drawing/tracing rather than the outcome that leads to a better understanding of ‘place’.

Robert Smithson discusses aerial photography, “The landscape begins to look more like a three dimensional map than a rustic garden. Aerial Photography and air transportation bring into view the surface features of this shifting world of perspectives...The world seen from the air is abstract and illusive.”16 Drawing the landscape Landscape painting as a form of mapping 54

derived from mans desire to control the land, it was an expression of power and wealth. Where maps and cartography were developed to depict the entire world from a new perspective, landscape painting remains regional and often depicts ‘place’ in a local sense. The term ‘Landscape’ first entered the English language from the Netherlands in the 16th Century, at the time when the Dutch were actively reclaiming land with new engineering methods for drainage.

‘Landschap’, like the German ‘Landschaft ’, meant both a place where people lived, as well as a pleasing object.

The landscape paintings by John Constable depict the picturesque region surrounding the Stour Valley on the Essex/Suffolk border. By concentrating on the characteristics of the region and understanding the elements of land, sky and water that impact on the landscape, Constable gained an intimate knowledge of the region. This deep understanding of the landscape and a particular technique meant Constable was successful in capturing a sense of ‘place’.

The drawing of the backwaters describes a place in time and its form, atmosphere and texture that are otherwise ignored in conventional cartographic maps. Similar to the traced map the process of drawing forces a stronger engagement with the landscape than simply observing a photograph.

16. Smithson.R, The Collected Writings, 1996:130

Harwich Lighthouse, John Constable (1820)

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Tracing of Satellite Image, Pencil (841x594mm)

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Pencil sketch of Backwaters, Low tide

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Mapping out

Collecting the landscape In order to represent the materiality of the Walton backwaters samples of the earth are collected. The changing state of the earth from mudflat to cultivated arable farmland characterises the landscape. The state of the earth also dictates the route through the landscape, the mudflat being inaccessible and the sea wall path having a harder surface more suitable for walking.

Collecting a sample of the landscape is similar to Robert Smithson’s ‘Non Site’, the samples are then placed in a preserving Jar. The displaced material is then identified with a coordinate from the location it was collected. The coordinate creates a reference to the conventional cartographic maps. The juxtaposition of the coordinate against the organic matter within the jar highlights the conflict between the organic processes of nature and the geometry of man.

The displacement of the landscape in the jar symbolises a process of preservation.

The material is removed from the ‘place’ and separated from the natural processes that created it, although there is a visual resemblance the preserved landscape could be considered dead.

This suggests a landscape is more than its physical matter, its character is also defined by geology, biology, geography and environment.

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The airtight jars create a physical barrier between the viewer and the landscape; this separation symbolises man’s disengagement with the landscape.

‘Non-Site’ Various locations, Walton Backwaters

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Filming the landscape The short film is a collection of still and moving images documenting the landscape at the Walton Backwaters throughout a tide cycle. Observing in detail the effects of the tide on the landscape. The images on the film are no longer fragments of the place, captured in time, but details that attract attention, deconstructing the landscape. With these images we grow aware not of the vastness and complexity of the space, but of the existence of micro spaces: water, with a material density, rendered in changing colours, the transportation of sediments and reeds blowing in the wind, considered samples of landscape.

These microcosms highlight the frailty of the landscape, exploring issues of space and time, the material and the symbolic.

This deconstruction of a landscape symbolises the ongoing tension between man and nature within the landscape.

The observation of a landscape through a tidal cycle presents a new level of intimacy with the space. The movie illustrates a constant flux and highlights the effects of moving tides. The sample jars and the movie expresses the experience of the landscape, however the portrayal of tide allows the movie to better define the true character of the dynamic landscape.

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Phenomenological Approach

Phenomenology attempts to describe the world as it is experienced by a subject as opposed to how we might theoretically assume it to be. The investigation of the landscape from a phenomenological perspective will allow for a more intimate understanding of the landscape and how man experiences the ‘place’. Phenomenology does not attempt to explain the geology and historical characteristics of a landscape; it is an alternative description that may lead to new knowledge of what exists in the landscape and how it impacts human consciousness.

(above) and the only line inhabitable to man, the horizon. In the backwaters the sea wall embankment, at times acting as the horizon, forms a restrictive path allowing access between the inaccessible mudflats and the cultivated land, this gives clear definition between where you have come from (back) and where you are looking to (front). The sea wall disconnects the visitor from the surrounding landscape, allowing them to look and survey both the earth and the sky from an elevated position.

The stability of the sea wall emphasises the fluxing landscape below and the changing light of the sky above.

The area surrounding the Walton backwaters is a flat, featureless landscape. Christopher Tilley states that “The body, in relation to the experience of place and landscape. Has six basic and concrete dimensions: above/below or up/down; in front/behind and to the right/left.”17 These dimensions extend beyond the body itself and connect the body with the world: bodily dimensions are not limited to the body itself but relate to the space around it constantly changing and repositioning. If we apply this theory to the Walton backwaters it is possible to understand how the structure of the landscape affects our experience and vice versa.

The landscape can be divided into three elements, the earth (below), the sky 68

Earth and Sky, The Body Matrix Rudolf Schwarz

17. Tilley, C. Materiality of Stone, 2004: 4

Embankment sea wall, Walton Backwaters

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Monk by the Sea, Casper David Friedrich (1810) top View of Haarlem, Jacob Van Ruisdael (1675) bottom

Looking out over the flat uninhabitable landscape creates a sense of danger; this is something the painters of the sublime attempted to portray. Caspar David Friedrich was a German romantic artist, the Monk by the sea is considered one of the first ‘abstract’ landscape paintings.

Heinrich von Kleist wrote: “Nothing can be sadder and more uncomfortable than this position in the world: the only spark of life in the wide realm of death, the lonely centre in a lonely circle. With its two or three mysterious objects the painting lies before us like the Apocalypse, as if it had Young’s night thoughts, and since in its uniformity and boundlessness it has no foreground except the frame, when one looks at it, it is as if ones eyelids had been cut away.”18

18. Kleist.H, Empfindungen vor Friedrichs Seelandschaft. Stuttgart: Phaidon, n.d. p836 19. Stechow.W, Dutch landscape painting of the seventeenth century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981. P47

The landscape is reduced to three horizontals: the low-lying dune, the dark oppressive sea and an expansive sky.

Standing in the foreground a monk, the only vertical element, looks out into the horizon. The low horizon creates a sense of depth and contributes to the overall feeling of the sublime. The imminent sense of danger is juxtaposed with the beauty of nature. The expression of the sublime in the context of landscape painting makes the overwhelming experience of nature the subject of discussion and embodies it in the painting. With the inclusion of the monk, in whose place the viewer imagines

themselves it is possible to experience man as superior in the encounter with a large over powerful nature.

all important because only they stand out.”19

Whilst walking along the sea wall the eye is drawn to the horizon in the distance.

The shipping cranes at Felixstowe port act as landmarks on the horizon. Whilst the sea wall dictates the route across the landscape the landmarks are necessary for orientation. The horizon is perceived as an open expanse, an unbounded and formless field, creating a suggestion of possibility. Firmly placed on the landscape, towers establish centres, rest place from space, reaching up to heaven. This can be seen in the flat Dutch landscape where artist Jacob Van Ruisdael painted objects and structures amidst the vast horizons that created a sense of escapism. The vast low-lying Dutch landscape coupled with a low horizon line gives the viewer a sense that they are looking down on the landscape, a feeling of power. The church spires located along the horizon line connect the earth with the sky, a reference to religion. The spires dominate the flat landscape and become a tool for navigating the eye around the painting.

Similarly in the landscape itself the spires aid orientation.

“They stand in in awe-inspiring immutability where the great tracts of land (from below) and clouds (from above) meet; they provide the main vertical accent – relatively small, but 71

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Cranes on the Horizon, Walton Backwaters

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The Desalination Plant

The seawater desalination plant exists as part of a landscape management strategy, a series of structures located in the Walton backwaters that facilitate the ‘managed retreat’ approach. Challenging the threat of sea level rise and tidal surge, the plant turns seawater into a manageable resource, creating a more symbiotic relationship between man and nature.

Since the 1960s, the population of Essex has grown by 18%. Today, as this growth continues, the demand for water supply is predicted to rise by around 6% over the next 25 years, almost entirely due to population needs. Essex is the driest county in the UK receiving less than 60mm of rain a year, which is two thirds of the average for England and Wales.

Only half the water supplied in the Essex area is sourced from within the county.

The other half being sourced from the Ely Ouse, water is transferred 60 miles via pipelines and pumping stations to the River Stour and River Blackwater in Essex. Low average rainfall and the rising demand for water creates significant challenges to fulfil the needs of a growing population. (20) The sea water desalination plant aims to meet the demand for water in Essex, taking advantage of the coastal location, the process of desalination takes saline water and uses reverse osmosis to filter the nutrients and salt, providing potable water that can be distributed locally

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for drinking and irrigation. By returning nutrients extracted from the sea during the process of desalination back on to the land, it reduces the need for chemical fertilisers, creating an ecological loop.

The plant will reestablish a community within the fragile ecology that exists on the site, shaping how the culture evolves and challenging the disengagement between man and nature that has developed.

The structure of the desalination plant intervenes with the coastal geomorphology. Coastal geomorphology deals with the evolution of coastal landforms, the processes at work on them and the changes taking place. (Ref Appendix 1) The pipeline structure is supported over the mudflat by a series of sunken concrete barges; placed at varying angles these manipulate the flow of water to create areas of accretion and erosion. This will encourage the formation of new salt marsh. Salt marshes can be used to absorb the sea’s energy, in collaboration with sea defence; they are valuable in the protection of the land from high tides and storm surges. A sea wall with no salt marsh in front of it costs £5 million per km to construct, but only a tenth of that if there is a salt marsh. (21) The Desalination plant explores the physical and psychological experience of dwelling in the flat expansive landscape of the Essex salt marshes.

The water tower, located on the existing

20. Author Unknown, Water resources planning (online resource) http://www. eswater.co.uk/Waterresourcesplanning. aspx Date of Access: 12th April 2011.

21. Pretty.J, Guide to a green planet. UK: University of Essex Press, 2002. P103

Landscape strategy drawing, Pencil & Pen (841x594mm)

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seawall generates new possibilities for occupation and itineraries that delimit the space, focusing on a state of suspension between a raised level (sky), the ground (horizon) and the substratum.

The horizon is the only reference for man to position himself within the landscape, located between the uninhabitable space of belowground and the sky. The tower, a vertical element, departing from the horizontal, symbolises human deďŹ ance to the horizontal limitations of the landscape. The service stair alongside the tower gives man a new perspective of the landscape. The stair leads to a platform that houses a surveying theodolite, using triangulation to survey the newly constructed salt marsh. Through the monitoring of the uxing landscape, the tower symbolises man’s desire to control nature.

The public access to the salt marsh is via a new sea wall embankment, connecting the desalination plant, located inland at 10m AOD, with the water tower.

Descending below the ground to enter the lower level of the tower, the walkway places the inhabitant at eye level with the ground. As the user descends they become at one with the horizon until a new horizon is formed and the embankments frame the sky. Providing a new vantage point and false horizon to facilitate an understanding of the sky as a separate element, without its earthbound limitations.

Physical Model, Concrete and Cardboard (Scale 1:100)

At the point where the tower meets the ground, a large concrete reservoir acts as a settlement tank and stores the seawater before it is pumped inland to the desalination plant. The solidity of the concrete base ties the structure to the ground, emphasising the vertical direction of the lightweight steel water tower. Freeing it from the earth, it occupies the sky. Dug down into the earth and built up into the sky, the structure highlights mans ambition to penetrate and possess the earth and the sky, aspiring toward the distant horizon line in between.

The seawater is pumped in from a separate reservoir located in the channel.

The pipeline structure also supports a public walkway. The pier like structure creates a new horizon, allowing man to access the previously uninhabitable salt marsh, at high tide the pier facilitates recreational activities, strengthening the relationship between the community and the landscape.

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Shifting away from mono-functional infrastructure, the proposed desalination plant merges existing landscapes with emergent infrastructures in order to catalyze new ecologies, economies and most significantly, a new social infrastructure. Combining processes with spatial experience. Christian Norberg Schulz states: “Man-made places are related to nature in three basic ways. Firstly, man wants to make the natural structure more precise. That is, he wants to visualize his understanding of nature, expressing the existential foothold he has gained. To do this he: builds what he has seen, he adds what is lacking, he has to symbolize his understanding and he has to translate its meaning: A natural character is for

instance translated into a building whose properties somehow make the character manifest. The purpose of symbolization is to free the meaning from the immediate situation, whereby it becomes a ‘cultural object’.”

The desalination plant aims to make a provocative contribution to how our contemporary landscapes are designed, made and culturally valued. Underlying this aim is the belief that the landscape is not simply a reflection of culture but an active instrument in the shaping of modern culture. Landscape reshapes the world not only because of its physical and experiential characteristics but also because of its eidetic content, its capacity to contain and express ideas and so engage the mind.

22. Schullz, C. Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. UK: Rizolli:31

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Water tower section (pencil)

Drawing of pipeline structure interacting with geomorphology (Pencil and Pen)

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Conclusion Exploring the landscape in a pragmatic as well as poetic sense has resulted in a loss of sentimentality; this research has highlighted the physical and psychological construction of landscape, altering the generic perception of the picturesque.

What was previously perceived as natural is now understood as almost entirely man made. Interventions throughout history have created a ‘new’ nature, an artificial landscape that we now relate to and perceive as natural. There has been a shift in the perception of landscape since the industrial revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the inventions of this period, the steam engine, electric power, advances in extractive industry and agriculture, were directly translated into landscape features. These infrastructures were designed independently of the existing landscape terrain, informed by functionalism. Infrastructure was built on the landscape having no consideration of the long-term effects of the environment or the natural processes that existed.

These engineered structures, like the sea walls, dykes and drains on the Walton backwaters have informed and created the present landscapes on a physical and visual level.

Investigating the Walton backwaters, a site of special scientific interest and natural beauty, challenges our emotional

feelings towards new developments in a landscape that can stand in the way of our rational knowledge about what is really happening. Even if we accept the concept of intervening with nature, we still may not be ready to accept its consequences on the land. The proposal for a desalination plant forces us to acknowledge the inescapable fact that landscapes have been changing throughout history, and that modern developments are just another episode in that process.

It is widely acknowledged that global climate change is inevitable. In order for man to adapt to climate change and reengage with nature, it is important that our perception returns to a rejection of dualism, a view that perceives nature as a living whole, recognizing mans position within the ecology as interdependent.

Today’s political and social arrangements are inadequate to deal with the population resource environmental crisis, often involving short-term solutions that aggravate the problem in the future. It is required that our political, economic and philosophical views that exist within a modern society, for future generations, are revised in order to create a more sustainable relationship between mankind and the environment.

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The tide relates directly to the formation of a marshland, certain areas are subject to ooding aecting the overall topography.

The varying ecological systems that exist in each zone are dictated by the tidal range.

Certain plants that colonize the middleupper marsh such as spartina have intrinsic root networks that contribute to sediment particles being collected with the tidal cycles.

MHWS MLWS MHWN MLWN HAT MHW MLW

-Mean High Water Spring Tide -Mean Low Water Spring TIde -Mean HIgh Water Neap TIde -Mean Low Water Neap Tide -Highest Astronomical TIde -Mean High Water - Mean Low Water

Wave accretion is the main force that triggers sedimentation around an estuary.

The incoming wave (submersion) brings forward the sediment, as it receeds (accretion) sediment is deposited.

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Marshland section

Appendix 1 Geomorphology

Coastal geomorphology deals with the evolution of coastal landforms, the processes at work on them and the changes taking place. Processes at work in the Walton backwaters include winds, waves, tides and currents, which together provide the energy that shapes and modifies the coastline by eroding, transporting and depositing sediment.

Along with hydrological processes, chemical processes such as flocculation of fine-grained sediment and biological processes such as the growth of salt marsh affect the morphology of the backwaters. These processes interact, one process augmenting or diminishing the effect of another.

A basic understanding of the geomorphology will inform how a structure could intervene and manipulate the processes and the consequences of this action.

Waves are undulations of a water surface produced by wind action. The Backwaters at Walton-on-naze is a tidal inlet, protected from ocean swell by the Naze headland and Horsey Island. Here wave dimensions are determined partly by the fetch (the extent of open water across which the wind is blowing) and by the duration and strength of the wind.

The waves generated locally by winds are typically shorter and less regular than ocean swell. On the surface of the wave the oscillatory motion can throw silt and clay into suspension, the ebb tide can remove this sediment out to sea.

Alternatively on a rising tide, sediment in suspension can be carried forward by waves for deposition in the upper intertidal zone on the salt marsh.

The tide is the periodic rising and falling of the level of the sea caused by gravitational attraction of the moon and sun on the rotating earth. There are usually two high and two low waters in a tidal or lunar day. Tides follow the moon more closely than the sun. As the lunar day is about 50 minutes longer than the solar day, the tides occur on average 50 minutes later each day. The ebb and flow of the tides generates tidal currents.

In the open ocean tidal currents rarely exceed 3km per hour, but in locations similar to the backwaters where the flow is channelled through the entrance of the estuary and between islands the tidal currents are strengthened, and may locally exceed 16 kilometres per hour.

Currents generated by wind and tides can be strong enough to move sand or even gravel on the sea floor, contributing to longshore drift, supplying material to a beach, or carrying it away offshore, affecting the morphology of the coast.

These various processes cause the movement of sediment on the sea floor, and particularly in the nearshore zone.

They have contributed to the shaping of the existing sea floor and coastal landforms and can be correlated with changes taking place with the sea at its present level.

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Modelling coastal processes Simulation of structures intervening with the various processes has been attempted using a water tank in which waves, tides and currents can be generated and their combined effects assessed using a time-lapse movie. The aim was to test the theory concerning the way in which these processes cause erosion, move sediment and promote deposition on the sea floor and along the coast. The physical model has limitations because of the difficulty of scaling down materials and processes without modifying their physical properties but they have been useful in exploring potential responses to the introduction of structures. Inc what the images show, directing water into a larger area reduces its energy causing accretion and the build up of sediment.

Understanding and modelling the hydrological processes taking place in the backwaters informs the development of the structure of the desalination plant.

The structure, located on the mudflat, will engage with the processes and encourage sedimentation and eventually the formation of a new salt marsh, the natural defence against storm surge and the rising sea level.

Undefended cliffs Erosion Groins Accretion Walton on Naze Direction of littoral transport Long shore drift

Incident wave crest Reflected wave crest Concrete barge defences forming spit

Beach protects sea wall

Accretion

Horsey Island Drain

Mudflat

Saltmarsh Eroded Coastal Squeeze Salt Marsh Drain Sea Wall

Farmland

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Modelling Sedimentation & Accretion

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