MSc Urbanism Thesis by Kotryna Kozlovskaja

KEEP CALM AND

LET THE WATER COME MSc Thesis

by Kotryna Kozlovskaja

KEEP CALM AND

LET THE WATER COME Enabling water management plans for Southwest Dutch delta to give the nature more important position in order to strengthen area’s socio-economic vitality MSc Thesis

by Kotryna Kozlovskaja 4180690 July 4th 2013 Delta Interventions Graduation Studio MSc Urbansim Faculty of Architecture Technical University of Delft Delft, Netherlands

ons

terventi

Delta In

Colophon Keep calm and let the water come

Enabling water management plans for Southwest Dutch delta to give the nature more important position in order to strengthen area’s socio-economic vitality MSc thesis Kotryna Kozlovskaja kotryna.kozlovskaja@gmail.com Student number 4180690 Keywords water management, value of nature, ecosystem services, strategy for urban development, southwest Dutch delta Mentor team prof.dr.ir. Han Meyer - Chair of Urban Design - Theory & Methods, department of Urbanism ir. Verena Balz - Chair of Spatial Planning and Strategy, department of Urbanism ir. Wido Quist - external committee member Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology MSc Architecture, Urbanism and Building Sciences MSc track Urbanism Graduation studio Delta Interventions (http://www.deltainterventons.com/) Graduation studio leader: ir. Anne Loes Nillesen This thesis is downloadable for free from the TU Delft library website: http://www.library.tudelft.nl/collecties/tu-delft-repository/ Delft, July 4th 2013

cover images: photo of the water crown (source: www.mota.ru) photo of tidal beach (source: author)

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Preface This document is a Graduation Thesis of a master student Kotryna Kozlovskaja written under the guidance of Delta Interventions Studio at the faculty of Architecture, department of Urbanism, Technical University of Delft. This is the result of ten months work according to the MSc3 and MSc4 study programs. It aims to bring a problem statement, which is relevant to the society and an academic world, an adequate methodology for the consistent research and analysis, which logically proceeds towards a design - a detailed impression of the solution for the previously risen research questions. Finally, reflection aims to look back and see if the used approach worked, to understand ‘how’ and ‘why’ it is so and to bring conclusions on what can be learnt from this graduation project.

July 4th 2013, Delft

Table of contents I Forward

III Research & Analysis

011

introduction

030

geographic conditions

013

context

034

geographic conditions

036

geographic conditions / theory

040

geographic conditions

055

institutional conditions / review paper

064

institutional conditions

067

societal trends

069

research & analysis

Delta interventions

Worldwide deltas and the Southwest Dutch delta

II Framework

020

problem statement

022

aim

024

relevance

025

methodology

027

time planning

Unbalanced delta

Recognizing the value of nature

Contribution for society and academic world

Methods for research and design

Graduation calendar

Historic overview

Silting and poldering

Sedimentation and erosion

Influence of the Delta Works

From land-use to spatial planning

Multi-actor analysis of plans for the project area

Sustainability, tourism and energy

Conclusions

IV Design

V Afterword

072

aim

128

conclusion

073

design for regulating services

129

reflection

076

design for production services

132

references

078

design for cultural services

134

appendix

088

design implementation

112

visualizations

118

visualizations

Nature and economy - a mutual support

Natural development - as an alternative to dikes

Rehabilitating ecological productivity

Re-enforcing the potentials

Strategy

Changing landscape

The new land-use

Nature as a backbone for the delta development

Checking the approach of the graduation project

Literature list

Multi-actor analysis & cost-benefit calculation

Figure 1: the Dutch Southwest Delta Source: http://maps.google.com/ Edited by author.

011

introduction

013

context

Delta interventions

Worldwide deltas and the Southwest Dutch delta

Figure 2: Worldwide deltas and the most densely populated areas Source: NASA (2012). Composite map of the world assembled from data acquired by the Suimi NPP satellite in April and October 2012. [image online] Available at: <http:// www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NPP/news/earth-at-night.html> [Acessed 05 May 2013].

10

11

I Forward II Framework

terial limits of a finite planet (Costanza et al., 1997). New policies that recognize the interrelatedness of many disciplines at international, national and local scales is one of the tool to achieve the goal; socio-economic development must happen through qualitative and not quantitative improvements. What is more, urban planning is an effective tool as well. Not only that it physically changes the conditions of interaction between nature and economy, but it also has the power to influence the perceptions of society thanks to its characteristics of visual impression.

The word ‘delta’ was the weighting factor why I chose the Delta Interventions graduation studio. As previously mentioned, delta areas are like ‘hotspots’ that embrace many different disciplines whose sustainable interaction can be a great example of securing the future of natural environments and vital society in it. What is more, Dutch have the history of water management like no other nation. It gave me the confidence that I will learn from the best and will enrich my portfolio with a valuable project.

I would like to thank in advance for reading my MSc Thesis.

Literature: COSTANZA, R., CUMBERLAND, J., DALY, H., GOODLAND, R., NORGAARD, R. (1997). An introduction to Ecological Economics. Florida: CRC Press LLC.

V Afterword

Figure 3: densely urbanized Nile delta Source: NASA (2013). Nighttime photo of the Nile delta region taken from the ISS. [image online] Available at: <http://www.universetoday.com/101337/celebrateearth-month-with-2-new-videos-from-nasa/> [Acessed 05 May 2013].

“The global ecosystem is the source of all the material inputs feeding the economic subsystem” (Costanza et al., 1997) and delta regions are one of the hotspots of such feeding ecosystem. Deltas have been one of the most nutritious and economy sustaining landscapes since the beginning of a human era. They provided food, water, connectivity, and even nowadays they remain one of the most densely populated areas on Earth (fig. 2 and 3).

Since the Industrial Revolution highly advanced technological developments let the man to harness vast areas of the natural environments that were irreversably changed according to the human needs, more and more of the ecosystem sources were used to sustain world’s fast growing economy. “It took all of human history to grow to the $600 billion/year scale of the economy of 1900. Today, the world economy grows by this amount every two years” (Costanza et al., 1997). However, nature is not an inexhaustible source, it has a limited capacity and it regenerates rather slowly.

In order to ensure the future of existing and upcoming generations the whole concept of the economy has to change, because nature will never manage to keep up after unprecedentedly fast growing human needs. The relation between economy and nature has to change from nature-abusive towards the system where nature and economy sustain each other.

Now, the challenge is to learn to live sustainably and well, but with the ma-

III Research & Analysis

Delta interventions

IV Design

introduction

Figure 4: the worldwide deltas Drawing by author.

Source used: GOODBRED, S.L. & YOSHIKI, S. (2012). Tide-Dominated Deltas. In R.A. Davis & R.W. Dalrymple, eds. Principles of Tidal Sedimentology. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. pp.129-49.

12

I Forward

context

Worldwide deltas and the Southwest Dutch delta

Tide-dominated:

Figure 5: formation typlogies of the worldwide deltas Drawing by author.

Source: Harris, P.T. & Heap, A.D. (2003). Environmental management of clastic coastal depositional environments: inferences from an Australian geomorphic database. Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(5), pp.457-78.

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Human interventions in the southwest Dutch delta started in the 12th century when the first dikes were built in order to protect the land from severe floods. The growing population in the endiked areas forced the need for bigger food supply, therefore thanks for the silting processes and poldering activities more land could be reclaimed and used for the agricultural purposes. Human intervention in the delta’s formation was gradually increasing and after the disastrous flood of 1953 reached its peak with an extensive hydraulic engineering undertake - the Delta Works. The delta was transformed by the man-power into a system of compartmentalized basins blocked from the influence of the sea and rivers. Nowadays, inhabitants and their assets are safe by the safety standard of 1/4000, however the natural processes that actually gave a birth to an estuary throughout many centuries are blocked and will never be restored to the previous conditions.

Recently, people started to understand how many natural qualities were irreversibly lost due to categorically technocratic decision, which was done very fast, without properly studying the natural processes of an estuary and without considering other options. Closing of four main arms of the estuary brought an end to the natural transitions between fresh, brackish and salt water; sediment transport stopped

II Framework

Southwest Dutch delta

III Research & Analysis

There are many deltas worldwide and they all were formed in a certain way, mainly by the power of rivers, waves and tides. The one that dominated the most determined current form and appearance of delta.

River-dominated deltas typically have a bird’s-foot shape. The influence of the river and its sediment supply is so strong that the deltas expand deep into the sea or ocean (typical case: Mississippi river delta, fig. 4).

Wave-dominated deltas have a shape of the Greek letter Δ (delta). The delta is formed by waves supplying sediment to the coast via long shore drift (Harris & Heap, 2003). A good example of such delta is the river Nile delta (fig. 4).

Deltas, which undergo strong tidal interaction are classified as tide-dominated deltas. As sediment travels out of the delta into the sea, high tides and flood tides confine sediment on the delta plain and low tides carry sediment seaward.

Tide-dominated deltas typically occur in locations of large tidal ranges or high tidal current speeds (SEPM STRATA, 2012). The southwest Dutch delta is an example of such formation that could be compared to the Amazon delta (fig. 4), which has a similar shape. However, what distinguishes the southwest Dutch delta from any other delta worldwide is the major human intervention into the delta’s formation processes.

IV Design

Wave-dominated:

Worldwide deltas

V Afterword

River-dominated:

River discharges increase

Precipitation The sea level increases rises

Economic value grows

PRESSURE Figure 6: the pressure on flood risk management is growing Drawing by author.

Natural system

Socio-economic system

impacts demands Integrated water management laws, regulations, management

infrastructure

and large changes in the morphology began to develop; the original natural habitats disappeared, and were exchanged for man-made habitats (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

The decision-making of such undertake can be explained, keeping in mind the circumstances of that time - too much was lost during the flood (836 people deaths and 450 million euros of damage) and the society of 60s was strongly influenced by the technology-driven ideas.

The large-scale measure was a decision to persist with existing tradition of man controlling over the powers of water. As an inscription in the concrete of the Eesterscheldt dam says: “Here rule over the sea the moon, the wind, and we”.

Institutional system

Figure 7: Integrated water management Drawing by author.

Source: DELFT HYDRAULICS (1993). Methodology for Water Resources Planning. Research Rep.

industry+ports

tourism+leisure

OCCUPATION agriculture

urban patterns

energy

NETWORKS

transport water management

SUBSTRATUM

eco-systems

soil-water geomorphology

Figure 8: Delta as a complex system Source: IPDD (2012). IPDD flyer. Integrated Planning and Design in the Delta.

New approach of the delta management The Delta works can be called an active project when measures are taken after the damaging events. However, extreme floods coming from the large water supply from the rivers in Europe during the summers of 1993 and 1995 showed that it is time to work in a proactive way - before the disaster happened, and think about the water management in a different way. What is more, the new approach of water management is needed as the conditions are changing: the sea level is rising, the ground is subsiding, seasons are becoming unstable and urbanization along the rivers is getting denser. This all puts more pressure (fig. 6) on the flood risk management and existing means are becoming in-

sufficient. “The Dutch have understood that technological solutions alone will not be sufficient to win the battle against water problems in the long run” (REINHARD & FOLMER, 2009).

The Delta Committee prepared a New Delta plan in 2008 that together with flood risk management and fresh water supply incorporates country’s economic, ecological and social developments and opportunities (DELTA COMMISSIE, 2011). In other words, it uses an interdisciplinary approach for water management based on strong relations with spatial planning (fig. 7).

These interdisciplinary solutions are summarized in the figure 9, which shows that the main river discharge in the southwest Dutch delta should be directed through the Haringvliet by opening the Haringvliet dam and building some closable dams in the Rijnmond area; in order to reduce the pressure from the dikes in the Haringvliet and Rijnmond-Drechtsteden areas the Grevelingen and Volkerak lakes will be used as a temporary water storages during the peak river discharges and storm surges when the protective barriers are closed; in order to solve water quality problems the tidal movements can be brought back by upgrading Brouwersdam with closable sluices and by breaking off the compartmentalization strategy by reconnecting lakes and increasing the turbidity and salinity in the water.

The delta is now seen as a complex system (fig. 8), where balance must be found between many participants (nature, economy and safety) and on various scales (national, regional and local), taking into account that delta is a part of a larger river flowing through different economic and political systems (IPDD, 2012).

14

d

I Forward

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k ss pa

Legend: water storage space for the water salty water sand nourishment

W es M te u s p t

riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water discharge shipping route dam tidal dynamics exisiting barrier new barrier

Figure 9: reccomendations by the Delta Committee Drawing by author.

Sources used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/; DELTA COMMISSIE (2008). Working together with water. [e-book] Hollandia Printing. Available at: http://www.deltacommissie. com. [Accessed 18 October 2012].; RIJCKEN, T. (2010). Afsluitbaar Open Rijnmond een systeembenadering. Delft: Technische Universiteit Delft.

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III Research & Analysis

By Maas

change from 3,800 to 4,600 m3/s

IV Design

orary Temp ge r o t s a

r rs es eser rem ch to tuar ve n ain o An y a at p el tw nd ura en de er to p nav l iga tio n

S nd ho nu r t t or erm ish m en t

y

Antwerpen

V Afterword

O

sa

fro m3 nge 000 cha o 18, t

Volkerameer

sib le sto tem ra po ge ra r

II Framework

we L e Nieu

to ra ge

Te m

al 000 Wa m 16, /s

Po s

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st Re er dy stor sc 20 nam e t 75 ic he he an s be tid a d ld 21 twe l 25 en e

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Gr ev eli p

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Rotterdam

Context of location in the North-West Europe Three major Northwest European metropolitan areas enclose the southwest Dutch delta: Rhine-Ruhr, the Flemish Diamond and the Randstad. They are interconnected through networks of roads, waterways, digital infrastructure and everyday flows of people, goods and information (IPDD, 2012). These areas are the economic and urban centres that have the highest scores in characteristics such as GDP, population, density and level of urbanization (fig. 10).

The analysed delta scores very low in all these characteristics and shows how much it differs. It is like an ‘empty’ zone surrounded by highly urbanised areas. This opposing character makes area strong with the values like an open landscape and lots of nature and due to its vicinity to big cities it can serve as a great recreational area.

However, the delta is hardly having any benefits from such position, it rather works as a highway for cargo vessels which slowly but confidently pass the area by.

Such situation gives the motive for contemplation about the reason why the advantages of delta are not incorporated into area’s socio-economic vitality.

HARRIS, P.T. & HEAP, A.D. (2003). Environmental management of clastic coastal depositional environments: inferences from an Australian geomorphic database.

Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(5), pp. 457-78.

IPDD (2012). IPDD flyer. Integrated Planning and Design in the Delta.

REINHARD, S. & FOLMER, H. (2009). Introduction. In S. Reinhard & H. Folmer, eds. Water Policy in the Netherlands: Integrated Managment in a Densely Populated Delta. First edition ed. Washington, DC, USA: RFF Press. pp.1-13.

SEPM STRATA (2012). SEPM Stratigraphy Web. [Online] Available at: http://www.sepmstrata.org [Accessed 06 February 2013].

Literature: DELTA COMMISSIE (2011). Working on the delta.

Investing in a safe and attractive Netherlands, now and in the future. [e- book] Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Available at: www. deltacommissaris.nl.

ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004).

Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXLpress Worldwide Fund for Nature.

16

I Forward 0,65 mln

1 mln

6,78 mln

Density: 1000/km2

1500/km2

Area:

GDP:

8,287 km2

€230 bn.

nonurban urban

52% 48%

Density:

€ 200 bn

€ 300 bn

€ 400 bn

268/km2

Population: Area:

12,2 mln

1 mln

644 km2 land

water

65% 35%

III Research & Analysis

1000/km2

€ 100 bn

II Framework

Population:

Population: 1 mln

GDP:

€ 200 bn

€ 300 bn

Figure 10: the Dutch Delta enclosed by three metropolitan areas Drawing by author.

Sources used: www.openstreetmap.org/ http://www.wikipedia.org/

17

Density:

€ 400 bn

1000/km2

Population: 1 mln

5,1 mln

Density: 1000/km2

GDP:

GDP:

800/km2

€338 bn.

€160 bn.

€ 100 mln

€ 200 mln

€ 300 mln

€ 400 mln

1422/km2

€ 100 bn

€ 200 bn

€ 300 bn

€ 400 bn

V Afterword

€ 100 bn

IV Design

€30 bn.

Goeree-

G

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lin

Shouwen-

ge

n

Duiveland

Overflakkee

k

eraa

Volk

Figure 11: project location - Grevelingen lake area Drawing by author.

Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

020

problem statement

022

aim

024

relevance

025

methodology

027

time planning

Unbalanced delta

Recognizing the value of nature

Contribution for society and academic world

Methods for research and design

Graduation calendar

problem statement

Unbalanced delta Water related: Quantity (safety)

075

d2

te tda

Ou

Quality

Socio-economic: Social

Economic

Figure 12: water related and socio economic problems in the project area

Current situation in the Southwest Dutch delta and more precisely, the Grevelingen lake area (fig. 11), is suffering from some critical issues related to natural qualities.

These issues consequently trigger socioeconomic problems as they are closely interrelated (fig. 12). Lack of natural qualities stem not only from the position of the area in the Delta (with consequent needs for protection), but also from a failure of planning approaches in recent decays (fig. 13).

All this, instead of searching for a balance among all essential aspects of the delta (safety, economy and ecology), stimulated the shift towards safety and economy (fig. 14): “Changes in the use of the lake-like compartments of the branches behind the dams were far-reaching.

New strong economic interests grew profiting from freshwater for agriculture and extensive tide-free shipping routes” (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

Figure 13: plan for the Grevelingen area in 1975 Source: WERKGROEP HERZIENING INRICHTINGSSCHETS GREVELINGENBEKKEN (1975). Nieuwe inrichtingsschets voor het Grevelingenbekken. Rijswijk: Ministerie van cultuur, recreatie en maatschappelijk werk.

Water-related problems Water quantity (safety) The project area is now safe from flooding, however, due to the sea level rise current technical solutions might become not adequate between 2075 and 2125 (DELTA COMMISSIE, 2008). Thinking about the long-term safety, further dike heightening and other technical solutions would bring only a short-term safety, but much higher risks.

Water quality and environment The Delta Works forced the tide out and filled the basins with fresh or salt water, which became stagnant. Agriculture in particular benefited from the generous supply of fresh water in the area. However, the reduction of the tides, the fragmentation of the Delta into separate inland waters also had its downsides.

For example, the Grevelingen lake is now suffering from the lack of oxygen in the deeper levels of water (large anoxic areas). In the Volkeraak lake the blue-green algae and bacteria is forming on the surface of the lake during hot summer days.

There is plenty other nature-related problems in the project area such as decreasing salt marshes that are essential for birds to breed; the seaweed disappearance since 1988 because of increased salinity of the water; the decrease of mussel and oyster populations because of the lack of tides and water refreshment; and the fact that the original natural habitats were exchanged for man-made habitats.

The area is largely used for recreational purposes since the Delta Works, therefore, every nature-related problem has a direct impact on economic situation of the region. At the same time, weak economy triggers poor social conditions.

Socio-economic problems “Zeeland is undergoing a transition, i.e. a change from growth to stabilisation and shrinkage, with fewer employed people

20

S

afety

conomy

ature

E

conomy

Figure 14: shift of balance Drawing by author.

and more elderly people” (Zeeland provincial government, 2011). Young people are leaving to the major cities to study and after graduating do not return as there are little job opportunities. New companies are not being created and those that existed move out, therefore the area’s economy is weakening. Less working and taxes paying people mean more struggles with maintaining the needed amount of facilities for aging population.

21

Literature: DELTA COMMISSIE (2008). Working together with water. [e-book] Hollandia Printing. Available at: http:// www.deltacommissie.com. [Accessed 18 October 2012].

ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004).

Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXLpress Worldwide Fund for Nature.

WERKGROEP HERZIENING INRICHTINGSSCHETS GREVELINGENBEKKEN (1975). Nieuwe inrichtingsschets voor het Grevelingenbekken. Rijswijk: Ministerie van cultuur, recreatie en maatschappelijk werk.

I Forward

II Framework

N

E

III Research & Analysis

afety

IV Design

S

ature

en. Recently also this planning approach was critically reviewed: it favours the planning perspectives of powerful (economic) actors, leads to conflict among actors and delays in the implementation of plans. Also in this planning approach natural values are often neglected. High quality nature is not seen as potential for social and economic development but as a value that remains ‘outside’ of spatial planning; retreat to regulation and protection. The question is: why even under the sound ‘win-win-win’ slogan the recent planning approach still fails to fulfil the expectations. The awareness is there, however the task of implementation appears to be much more complicated than it was thought.

ZEELAND PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT (2011). The Path Ahead! Breaking down reflexes to respond to demographic changes in Zeeland. Zeeland provincial government.

DWYER, L., EDWARDS, D., MISTILIS, N., ROMAN, C., SCOTT N. & COOPER, C. (2008). Megatrends underpinning tourism to 2020: analysis of key drivers for change.

Queensland: CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd.

V Afterword

N

Reasons for problems The main reason for current unsatisfactory situation in the project area is a constant struggle with the risks of flood. In order to be safe people used a technocratic approach and captured the natural area in an artificial state. At the beginning such decision seemed to be a bold victory against all mighty nature and attracted many people. However, on a longer time scale, natural conditions started to deteriorate and societal perceptions have changed as well. Now people are more aware of environmental issues and value the natural authentic qualities (DWYER, L. et al., 2008).

Further planning approaches and interventions also influenced an existing state of the Grevelingen area. Basically, it is a product of a special vision coming from the 1970s (fig. 13) and which is now very much eroding. The plans of 60s-70s were very determinative and later they failed, as they could not adapt to the changing social, economic and environmental circumstances due to their inflexibility and lack of integrity. The 60s-70s planning approach neglected local ecological circumstances, did not include private and civil stakeholders as the central role was of the government.

In the 1990s responding to the criticism of the earlier planning approach planning approaches changed. Summarized under the header ‘spatial planning’ a new planning style focused on constructing win-win-win solutions. Characteristics of this style: inclusive for all stakeholders, interactive and flexible, development driv-

aim

Recognizing the value of nature

Existing situation

Controlled Inundation

Reduced Controlled Tide Figure 15: section of detail from Sigma plan Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Figure 16: Controlled Inundation Area in use Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004).

Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

The aim of research is to analyse nature’s position in the Delta throughout time and in the plans according to different planning approaches. What is more, I aim to prove that nature has the value that could be expressed in the monetary way and that it can bring the socio-economic benefit for the area. In other words, nature and economy can have a mutual support for each other. Two reference projects should illustrate my position of putting the nature at more prestigious place.

European Fr@me project, England (Humber river estuary) The project was implemented during years 2001-2005; here dikes on the Alkborough

flats that were raised along the east coast after the 1953 storm were removed. As a result, the Humber estuary (440 ha) was changed from agricultural land into natural grass and estuary habitats. The river and sea were given more space to flood (water storage) and the intertidal flats are now working as a natural breaks of the incoming waves and are creating the new habitat for wildlife (fir. 17). The saving in maintenance and building costs of the surrounding dykes was estimated at 18 million euros while the project cost was of 12 million euros. Project involved public participation in planning process in order to make people aware of changing environment and the need of their lifestyle change.

The Sigma plan, Belgium (Scheldt river estuary) Another project is in the Western Scheldt estuary, Belgium and is planned to be executed in the period between 2005-2030 at a cost of 930 million euros. An idea is to create a system of Controlled Inundation Areas by giving the floodplain back to the tidal system in a controlled way, while new, higher dikes in the hinterland protect the neighbouring villages and cities. This approach gives way for the process of sedimentation. The designated areas are filled with ‘normal’ height of water eight times per year and in this way allow the area to grow following the rise of the sea level. A park with precious ecological and recreational benefits will be created.

22

I Forward III Research & Analysis

II Framework Figure 18: An overflowing dike in the flemish System of controlled Innundation Areas (CIA), Western Scheldt estuary, Belgium Source: http://www.imdc.be

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V Afterword

IV Design

Figure 17: European Fr@me project in England, Humber river estuary Source: www.environment-agency.gov.uk.

relevance

Contribution for society and academic world The graduation project aims to contribute for both academic and societal perspectives. Academically, it can complement the common body of knowledge and socially - stimulate the discussion and in this way attract the attention of important governmental bodies towards the issues that are so important for the society.

Academic relevance There is a lot of literature about the state of art in the project area and the topic.

However, there is a missing gap of the role of design, which works as a tool to investigate what are the possibilities. It is talked a lot about the problems, but what about the solutions that can actually work? This graduation project is the type of research that asks if using certain parts of nature can bring the social attractiveness and economic sufficiency to an area.

This graduation project also contains a literature research paper, where developments in the project area led by different planning approaches are discussed.

The up- and down-sides are presented as well as the challenges of the current planning approach. The graduation project aims to address those challenges and in this way tribute for the general body of knowledge.

Literature: MEYER, H., BOBBINK, I. & NIJHUIS, S. (2010). Delta urbanism, the Netherlands. Washington: American Planning Association, Planners Press.

Societal relevance The contribution of a project for the society is significant as it aims to identify and put the Southwest Dutch delta and Grevelingen lake area on the map. A lot was

expected to happen in the Delta after the Delta works (greater scales of urbanization and economic growth) - all this can be seen in different plans made for the project area according to various planning approaches (later discussion in the theoretical part of the project). Unfortunately, those expectations did not happen. Islands of the delta were abandoned as the power and population growth shifted to the economic centres of Randstad and Antwerp-Louvain-BrusselsGhent conurbation. Islands become dependent on economic concentrations of power outside of the area (MEYER, H., BOBBINK, I., NIJHUIS, S., 2010).

Nowadays, the provinces, the government and the society acknowledge that the area is struggling and everyone agrees that something must be done. This graduation project aims to demonstrate the possible solution and present it in a visual way.

Visual impressions can directly speak to the imagination of project developers, the stakeholders, and trigger the following discussions. As mentioned in the Forward part of this thesis, images can help changing the views and perceptions of society. Sometimes very ambitious, however rather crucial topics are regarded critically as they stem for fundamental changes that society is not ready for. However, in order for the project to be successful, societal approvement is essential. That is why such projects like this graduation project with its visualizations, can help slowly but surely form new points of view of our society.

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Figure 19: One of the schemes for multi-actor analysis showing hierarchical interrelationships between different stakeholders Drawing by author.

Source: ENSERINK, B. et al. (2010). Policy Analysis of MultiActor Systems. Hague: LEMMA.

The main research question is divided into different sub-research questions that will help to build a reasonable methodology and to approach the problem statement systematically.

(1) Integral planning:

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

Nature Figure 20: the layer approach Drawing by author.

Source: SCHAICK, J.V. & KLAASEN, I. (2011). The Dutch Layers Approach to Spatial Planning and Design:A Fruitful Planning Tool or a Temporary Phenomenon?

European Planning Studies, 19(10), pp.1775-96. Available at: http://www.academia.edu.

25

What is the integral planning and what should be integrated in the project area?

- safety - socio-economic situation - ecology Method(s): - literature study on integrated water management, current integral plans for the Southwest delta by the New Delta Committee, Integrated Planning and Design in the Delta - IPDD research program

Method(s): - literature review of previous planning approaches in the project area and the lessons learnt from them - multi-actor analysis (fig. 19) on previous plans for the project area (what kind of plans were produced, what did they promote, who were the main actors and how much power did they have in the decisionmaking, what was the relation between main aspects of the delta?)

(2) Socio-economic situation

(3) Nature

What are the relations between main aspects of the Delta (safety, socio-economic situation, ecology) throughout time?

Method(s): - layer analysis (fig. 20) for systematical approach to a complex system and for seeing the relationships between different layers throughout time - mapping as it helps to present complex ideas in a simple, conceptual way, besides, it is one of the best tools to communicate with other people

How can socio-economic situation benefit from nature?

I Forward

II Framework

How to contribute integrally(1) for the Grevelingenmeer areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s socio-economic(2) vitality through positioning the nature(3) at a more prestigious place?

Why an integral planning is the right approach for the project area?

III Research & Analysis

The aim of this graduation project as it was mentioned previously, is to prove that the nature has a monetary value that can bring socio-economic benefits for the project area. Going out of this, the main research question of thesis is formed in order to focus and narrow down the objectives:

IV Design

Methods for research and design

V Afterword

methodology

Methods

Process

Products

Preliminary literature study

Motivation

Motivation poster

Literature study mapping, data analysis

Layer analysis

Studio booklet

How to design for the safe future of the delta where nature is put forward?

Problem statement & Aim

Literature study

Research questions

Review paper

Literature study, data analysis, expert interview, mapping

Research by design

spatial organization idea

Literature study, reference studies

Theoretical framework

Design:

Literature study, reference studies, expert interview

Evaluation

Method(s): - mapping and sketching - interviewing an expert about the processes of erosion and sedimentation (Jan Mulder - senior coastal specialist at Deltares) - reference study (controlled inundation areas in the Scheldt estuary)

Design:

key interventions

CBA

calculations

Conclusions

Figure 21: methodology Drawing by author.

- literature study on â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ecological economicsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; by Costanza, 1997; ecosystem services, case studies of ecosystem benefits from Natura 2000 areas by Institute for European Environmental Policy and CE Delft - cost-benefit analysis for actual calculations of investments and benefits that ecosystem services can bring according to design

How to design in order to promote ecosystem services?

Method(s): - mapping and sketching - interviewing experts (Sam de Haan - secretary RTM Ouddorp; Jaap de Rooij - secretary of the Nederlandse Oestervereniging) The way of organizing this thesis in a logical process is depicted in a graphic scheme (fig. 21). The main process is always based on research by different methods and end up with final products like booklet, review paper or design. Finally, the end products, the process and the ethics of projects are evaluated and brought to conclusions.

26

36

37

38

39

40

43

44

47

48

49

52

1

4

5

6

7

9

10

13

14

15

17

18

19

21

22

23

24

3

10

17

24

1

8

15

22

29

5

12

19

26

3

10

17

24

31

7

14

21

28

4

11 12

18

25

4

11

18

25

1

8

15

22

29

6

13

20

27

3

10

17

24

1

7

14

21

28

5

12

19

26

2

9

15 16

23

30

7

14

21

28

4

11

18

24 25

1

8

15

22

1

8

15

22

29

5

12

19

26

3

10

17

24

31

7

14

21

28

4 5

September

41

42

October

45

46

November

50

51

2

December

3

January

P1

8

February

P2

11

12

The main parts of graduation calendar are research and analysis, multiactor analysis, regional scale design, costbenefit calculations (CBA) and the key interventions on a local scale.

March

16

20

April

P2

May

P3

25

26

June

27

July

P4

P5

retake Motivation poster

Orientation Workshop in Florence

Abstract paper

Building with nature conference

Studio booklet

Thesis plan

III Research & Analysis

Graduation project is executed during 10 months period (20 weeks). In order to finish on time a strict time planning is required.

The faculty determines certain dates of presentations and few deliveries (like motivation poster, literature review paper and thesis plan). The rest is under the guidance of a student who has to organize the work according to a chosen topic of research.

I Forward

Graduation calendar

II Framework

time planning

Literature review paper

Research & Analysis

Preparing presentation P1

Preparing presentation P2 Preliminary thesis1

P2 retake

Research by Design

Key projects and visualizations

Preparing presentation P3

Preparing presentation P4

Preliminary thesis 2

Preliminary thesis 3 Reflection

Motivation poster Literature review abstract

Preparing presentation P5 Final thesis Conclusions

Literature review paper

Regional scale spatial organization plan

Preliminar local scale projects

Delta scale design

Thesis plan

Research conclusions

Reflection

Final key projects

Studio booklet

Preliminary thesis 2

Preliminary thesis 3

Final thesis

Preliminary thesis 1

CBA calculations

Holidays Presentation day Delivery/event day Process Delivery

27

Figure 22: graduation calendar Drawing by author.

V Afterword

Draft idea of design

IV Design

CBA calculations

Multi-actor analysis

030

geographic conditions

034

geographic conditions

036

geographic conditions / theory

040

geographic conditions

Historic overview

Silting and poldering

Sedimentation and erosion

Influence of the Delta Works

055

institutional conditions

064

institutional conditions

067

societal trends

From land-use to spatial planning

Multi-actor analysis of plans for the project area

Sustainability, tourism and energy

Introduction 1. Existing geographic conditions (and development towards them)

How to contribute integrally for the Grevelingenmeer areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s socio-economic vitality through positioning the nature at a more prestigious place?

Coming from this, it becomes more obvious that focus of research should be on the relation between nature and economy.

Relation between nature and economy is influenced by the set of factors, such as:

3. Societal trends - on sustainability (recognizing the natural qualities) - on recreation - on energy

Economy

V Afterword

Nature

- literature review on different planning regimes - multi-actor analysis of the previous plans for the project area - conclusions

III Research & Analysis

2. Institutional conditions

II Framework

- layer approach

IV Design

The main research question, which was presented in the previous section, will help to understand how the research part of this graduation thesis is organized. The main research question is formulated hereinafter:

I Forward

research & analysis

31

Urban patterns

geographic conditions

Historic overview

Nature

Oldest towns and their activities In the XIIIth century most inhabited areas of the Delta were in the southern part, while northern part (currently around Haringvliet and Grevelingen inlets) were still untouched. Nowadays it is not the case as whole Delta is almost equally dispersed with middle-size towns.

XIII century

Figure 23: 13th century soil map and exisitng towns Drawing by author.

Source used: RIJN, D., POLDERMAN, R., NEDERLANDSE GEMALENSTICHTING (2010). Het water de baas. Nederland: Verloren.

The reason for such division of inhabited and not inhabited areas in the XIIIth century is the typology of soil. The light grey colour on the maps marks peat areas which are very wet and therefore, unstable to be built on. Later these areas were covered with clay (dark grey) and became suitable for new settlements to arise.

XXI century

Figure 24: 21st century soil map and exisiting cities and towns Drawing by author.

Source used: RIJN, D., POLDERMAN, R., NEDERLANDSE GEMALENSTICHTING (2010). Het water de baas. Nederland: Verloren.

32

Oldest towns and their activities

N S

Nature

E

turnips, beets and salt - the most precious good at that time. Fishing was also one of the most important activities, Brouwershaven was famous for its oyster and mussel industry. Towns further inland (Ouddorp, Kerkwerve, Dreischor, Oosterland, Ouwerkerk) were busy with agriculture and farming.

Haamstede was a particular town because of its specifically residential function. The balance between nature, economy and safety is clearly leaning towards the nature.

33

Figure 26: 13th century towns and their activities Drawing by author.

Source: www.geschiedenisvandirksland.com

V Afterword

IV Design

Figure 25: the balance of an estuary in the 13th century was towards nature Drawing by author.

XIIIth century The earliest settlements in the Netherlands appeared in the Delta because of their close relationship with water and the opportunities it provided: shipping, trading, fishing, fertile soil. This is why most settlements are located by the water and are having ports (Goedereede, Dirksland, Zonnemare, Brouwershaven, Burgh and Zierikzee). Towns were trading wood, stone, wool, textile, flax,

II Framework

Historic overview

III Research & Analysis

Infrastructure

I Forward

Urban patterns

geographic conditions

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

N

Nature

Oldest towns and their activities

S

E

Figure 27: the balance of an estuary in the 17th century was towards nature Drawing by author.

Shipping

Port

Fishing

Trading routes

Market/trading

Dikes

Livestock / farming

17th century lands

Shellfish / oyster

current boundaries

XVIIth century More settlements and more ports appear when the Oveflakkee island is reclaimed thanks to the silting processes and poldering activities. Ports of Middelharnis, Stad

aanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Haringvliet, Ooltgensplaat, Oude and Nieuwe-Tonge appear.

The silting process is visible - ports are digging the canals in order not to loose the connection with the sea.

Agriculture Residential

Figure 28: 17th century towns and their activities Drawing by author.

Source: ATLAS VAN LOON (2012). ZelandiĂŚ pars transscaldina vulgo Beooster-Scheld. [image online] Available at: <http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl> [Acessed 05 December 2012].

34

N

Nature

Oldest towns and their activities

S

E

Figure 29: the balance of an estuary in the 19th century was towards nature Drawing by author.

XIXth century Ports are struggling even more with the silting process and towns that once used to be on the edge between water and land are now in the middle of the island (Goedereede, Dirksland, Middelharnis and Zierikzee).

The benefits of living by the water always comes with a certain risk of flooding. Because of the strong long-shore currents entering the estuary from the North Sea some settlements could not manage to maintain the dikes in a place and had to give up against the ‘mother nature’. The X’s on the map are signing the towns that drowned.

II Framework

Infrastructure

I Forward

Urban patterns

Port

Main dikes Secondary dikes Dunes Canals Drowned villages 19th century lands

Figure 30: 19th century towns and their activities Drawing by author.

Source: Topographisch Militaire Kaart of the year 1830 from TU Delft map room.

35

V Afterword

IV Design

current boundaries

III Research & Analysis

Trading routes

geographic conditions

Silting and poldering

Nature

In the island of Goeree-Overflakke there are three interesting cases of ports that had to fight continuously with silting process in order to maintain their connection with the sea and economic benefits it was providing.

Dunes Plates Oldest

The set of maps (fig. 31) is showing the growth of the island Goeree-Overflakkee and how newly silted areas were enpoldered immediately in order to increase the area for the crop cultivation.

Endiked areas Youngest

1415 Goedereede

1483 Goedereede

Middelharnis Dirksland

Dirksland

36

1751

Middelharnis Dirksland

1937

1821 Goedereede

Figure 31: the growth of Goeree-Overflakke Drawings by author.

Source: Rabobank Middelharnis (2001). [images online] Available at: <www.geschiedenisvandirksland.com> [Acessed 02 February 2013].

Dirksland

IV Design

Middelharnis

Middelharnis Dirksland

V Afterword

Goedereede

III Research & Analysis

Middelharnis

II Framework

Goedereede

Dirksland

37

I Forward

1600 Goedereede

geographic conditions / theory

Infrastructure

Sedimentation and erosion

Legend: Intertidal Shallow Deeper Deep

XVII

Figure 32: bathymetry map of Zeeland 17th century Drawing by author.

Source used: BLAEU, W. J. (1636). Zeelandia Comitatus. [map] available from: TU Delft map room.

Nature

The Dutch Southwest delta was gradually formed by the natural processes of sedimentation coming from the sea and inland rivers.

The rise in sea level during the Holocene and the energy of waves, tidal effects, and currents reassembled material from the sea floor and the sediment from the rivers to create the coastal landscape we know today (MEYER, NIJHUIS & BOBBINK, 2010, p.4). Inland rivers were always supplemented by the rain and meltwater from the mountains. A strong stream would erode the land, catch the sediment and carry it downstream. The lower reaches of the river system are wider so the water stream is getting slower, therefore the sedimentation

XIX

Figure 33: bathymetry map of Zeeland 19th century Drawing by author.

Source used: Topographisch Militaire Kaart of the year 1830 from TU Delft map room.

rate is faster than the rate of erosion.

After building the Delta Works the process of sedimentation stopped as almost all inlets lost their relation to the sea. What is more, rivers also stopped carrying enough sediment as the river banks were strongly consolidated. Two inlets of the Dutch Southwest delta were left open or partly open: Westerschelde and Oosterschelde. The Westerschelde due the shipping activities has to be constantly dredged and deepened, in return the channels are gradually eased and the tidal wave enters the estuary easier; the difference between high and low tide increases, this in turn leads to higher local velocities, which in turn affects the buildup of inter-tidal areas (MULDER et al., 2010).

XXI

Figure 34: bathymetry map of Zeeland 21st century Drawing by author.

Source used: ZUIDWESTELIJKE DELTA (2009). Atlas van Zuidwestelijke Delta. Een uitgave van het programmabureau Zuidwestelijke Delta. Middelburg: Southwest Delta Programme Office. [Online] Available at: <http:// www.zwdelta.nl/> [Accessed 15 September 2012].

38

SEA

ESTUARY

Barrier Flood

Turbulence

1 -60m depth Scour hole

SEA

ESTUARY

Barrier Turbulence

Ebb Slow flow - sedimentation

2 Scour hole

SEA 3

ESTUARY

Barrier Flood

Turbulence

Slow flow - sedimentation

Scour hole

Figure 37: a closed cycle of a “sand trap” Source: MULDER, J. Interviewed by: Kozlovskaja, K. (5th December 2012).

39

I Forward II Framework

III Research & Analysis

Literature: MEYER, H., BOBBINK, I. & NIJHUIS, S. (2010). Delta urbanism, the Netherlands. Washington: American Planning Association, Planners Press.

MULDER, J. Interviewed by: Kozlovskaja, K. (5th December 2012).

IV Design

Figure 36: in- and out-going “tidal jet” Source used: BRUIJN, R. (2012). The future of the Oosterschelde with a new inlet channel. Delft: Delft University of Technology.

both sides of the barrier that form a “sand trap”. The fig. 37 represents a section of the storm surge barrier and a closed cycle of sand transportation through the barrier. It is estimated that an amount of 400-600 million m3 of sediment is necessary to increase the flow velocities, restore the sediment transport from the channels and to obtain a new dynamic equilibrium. The sea level rise in the Oosterschelde basin leads to a steady increase of sediment shortage: by the current rise rate of 2 mm per year, the sediment demand is growing by 0.75 Mm3 annually (BRUIJN, 2012, p. 4).

The case of Oosterschelde is very important for the area of this graduation project. The reason is that there are plans to upgrade the Grevelingen dam with closable sluices (the same situation as in the Oosterschelde basin). Oosterschelde can be seen as a case study of what can happen with the Grevelingen lake if the tidal movements and exchange with the North sea water will be brought back.

MULDER, J.P.M., CLEVERINGA, J., TAAL, M.D., VAN WESENBEECK, B.K., KLIJN, F. (2010). Sedimentperspectief op de Zuidwestelijke Delta. Delft: Deltares.

BRUIJN, R. (2012). The future of the Oosterschelde with a new inlet channel. Delft: Delft University of Technology.

BOSBOOM, J. A. M. S. (2011). Coastal Dynamics 1. Delft: VSSD.

V Afterword

Figure 35: Schematization of the decrease of shoals by the ‘sand starvation’; black arrows represent erosion of the shoals and the red ones - rebuilding, which decreased by 75%, becasue of the decreased flow velocities indicated by the blue arrows.

Source used: HESSELINK, A. W., VAN MALDEGEM , D., VAN DER MALE, K., & SCHOUWENAAR, B. (2003). Verandering van de morfologie van de Oosterschelde door de aanleg van de Deltawerken. Den Haag: Rijksinstituut voor Kust en Zee/RIKZ

The process in Oosterschelde is opposite. Here, after building the Delta works a large change of the hydrodynamics in the basin could be observed: large decrease in the tidal volume and flow velocities. This caused a decrease in sediment transport from the channels with about 75 percent.

This situation in Oosterschelde is also called a ‘sand hunger’. The consequence of decrease in sediment transport from the channels is the present ongoing process, where due to waves, the shoals erode, but not build up again. Eroded sediment is transported to the sides of the shoals and channels, but not back from the channels to the shoals, as it did before the interventions (fig.

35). The shoal height and the intertidal area inside the estuary decrease, that mainly has a negative influence on the protected nature, which is very important for the natural habitats, safety and recreation (BRUIJN, 2012, p. 9).

Another reason for erosion in Oosterschelde is that the sediment transport through the barrier is not possible. This is due to the dam that blocks the sediment transport in both directions mainly because of a “tidal jet” phenomenon. The origin of the “tidal jet” is the basin geometry that has a small entrance compared to the length of the basin. Water flows from all directions towards the inlet during flood and has so much momentum that when it passes the barrier, it can not spread out fast enough, creating a “tidal jet” on the landward side (BOSBOOM, 2011). The reverse process occurs during the flood (fig. 36).

Final reason for the sediment blocking by the barrier are the scour holes at

Urban patterns

geographic conditions

Infrastructure

Influence of the Delta Works

Figure 38: the last ship that has left the port of Middelharnis, 1970 Source: http://www.geschiedenisvandirksland.com

Nature

Introduction After the flood of 1953 the Dutch government stated: “This no more!” and successive decisions lead to manpower overtaking the nature - the shift of balance from nature towards safety and economy (fig.

41).

The delta was transformed into safe, compartmentalized and more accessible delta without natural processes of an estuary (no organising forces of tides, no sedimentation processes that let the land grow together with the sea level rise and no water refreshment and transitory function for animals - fig. 39). If before the closure the majority of land was endiked and in

No more sedimentation process and growth with the sea level rise

No more organising forces of tides

this way ‘fixed’, so after the Delta Works the water was ‘fixed’ as well (fig. 40). For delta, which was formed by the water and sediments this was a drastic change.

An economic situation was forced to change as well: many ports were shut down (fig. 38) and towns had to rearrange their main resources of economy. Agriculture became most important industry thanks to the generous supply of fresh water from Volkeraak lake, reduced drought and salinisation; calm and clean water (because there were no suspended particles) could be used for the new industry for an area - tourism and recreation (fig. 42).

No more water refreshment and transitory function of estuary

Figure 39: the Delta Works influence on nature Drawings by author.

Shouwen-Duiveland

Goeree-Overflakkee

fixed

fixed

fix

Land

Water

Land

Figure 40: section A-A’ Drawing by author.

40

S

I Forward

N E

Figure 41: the shift of balance from nature towards safety and economy Drawing by author.

II Framework

Goeree-

Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; -Overflakkee

Schouwen-

Fresh water -Duiveland

IV Design

A

III Research & Analysis

Tides

Fresh water

Figure 42: influence of the Delta Works Drawing by author.

Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

41

Salty / brackish water Project area

V Afterword

Delta Works

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

Hectares 16000 de Weste chel r- s lde he 8000 Ooster- sc s Delta lake

12000

4000 0 1856

1910

1938

1960

1978

1988

1995

Figure 43: Development of the total area of salt marshlands.

Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Nature

Influence on nature The influence of Delta Works was bigger than it was expected in 1960s when Tinbergen prepared the cost-benefit analysis (CBA). He concluded that the costs of Delta Works (1.6 billion euro) will be higher than the magnitude of the damage the flood caused (500 million euros), however in order to justify the high costs the nonmaterial value of the impact of disaster was included at a value of 3 billion euro (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

At that time, the damage made to nature due to man’s involvement was not calculated. Nowadays, however, the worldwide degradation of ecological quality, the economic value of ecosystems is being more widely recognised. Applying

the economic values attached to an estuary, for instance fisheries, it can often be showed that human intervention results in huge economic losses. Calculated in this way, the economic value of the Dutch south-western estuary will have declined by 40% between 1900 and 2000 (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

Since the execution of the Delta Works a characteristic estuarine nature has changed dramatically into a typical ‘inland’ nature (fig. 44, 45). Many marine species were changed with riverine that are more common in the Netherlands (fig. 46). Much of the intertidal areas were transformed into pasture areas. All in all, the dynamic landscape was ‘put to sleep’.

Before:

After:

Salt marshes in North Beveland

Salt marshes turned into gazing lands, Tholen

Figures 44, 45: from estuarine to typical ‘inland’ nature Sources: http://www.ecomare.nl and http://www.zeeinzicht.nl.

42

I Forward

After:

Figures 46: change of flora and fauna species Sources: http://www.wikipedia.org/

43

V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

Before:

Time Nutrients

from agricultural fertilizers and smaller rivers

Passing sunlight

No turbidity

Not passing sunlight Algea growth Death of fish and benthic animals

because no tides

Suspending paritcles Acquatic plants growth

Decomposing plants uses oxygen

Figure 47: euthrophication process Drawing by author.

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/ science/edexcel/problems_in_environment/pollutionrev4.shtml

Figure 48: algea formation on the surface of Volkeraak lake Source: http://www.zwdelta.nl

Figure 49: map showing the dissolved oxygen in the soil Source: PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS (2009). Verkenning Grevelingen water en getij. Rijkswaterstaat Zeeland, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat.

Environmental problems The positive predictions of the benefits from the Delta Works did not last long. The use of fresh water from Volkeraak lake for agriculture had to be stopped due eutrophication process (fig. 47 ).

Increased nutrients coming from the farmlands and small tributary rivers, and the lack of flow are causing the eutrophication process to appear. The nutrients increase algal growth and after dying they sink to the bottom where they are decomposed and the nutrients contained in organic matter are converted into inorganic form by bacteria. The decomposition process uses oxygen and deprives the deeper waters of oxygen which can kill fish and benthic animals. Enhanced growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton and algal blooms disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems such as a lack of oxygen needed for fish and shellfish to survive.

The accumulation of organic material in combination with the local low oxygen content of the soil and the water in the Grevelingenmeer is one of the main concerns of the current situation. The oxygen content in the upper layer is good, but deeper parts of the lake (from about 5m depth and especially at depths greater than 10 m) are suffering from oxygen-free water and soil. This is due to a combination of stratification and oxygen consuming (degradation) processes in and near the ground. Stratification is a process where by differences in temperature and salinity of water, several water layers, separated by a so-called thermocline, oc-

cur. These anoxic conditions characterized by the formation of white mats on the floor of the Grevelingenmeer, caused by different types of sulphur bacteria Beggiatoa spp.

Although anoxic conditions occurred since the closure in 1971, the problem has increased further in recent years.

Now anoxic conditions occur not only during a warm spring and hot summer, but throughout the whole year and these conditions seem to expand into shallower parts of the lake. Figure 44 shows the places in which the oxygen concentration is insufficient in the summer of 2000. A healthy aquatic system usually contains not less than 8 mg/l of oxygen. Concentrations between 6 and 4 mg/l have negative effects on the growth of marine organisms and below 2 mg/l occurs irrevocably mortality (PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS, 2009).

The water quality problems have a big influence on recreational activities in the lake that socially became very important. Divers who used to enjoy the great variety of plants and animals in the waters of Grevelingen are now facing the layers of white lifeless mud (fig. 50).

44

Until 3m deep

45

3<>4m deep

Deeper than 4m

Figure 50: visibility in different layers of water Source: PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS (2009). Verkenning Grevelingen water en getij. Rijkswaterstaat Zeeland, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat.

Figure 51: water quality problems in Grevelingen and Volkeraak lakes Drawing by author.

Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/

I Forward V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

Brouwershaven for the PZC newspaper

II Framework

“That’s all dead. Nothing survives there. It looks like a thick layer of white mold.

Twenty years ago you saw through in the 25 meters depth. Last year it was only in ten meters depth. “ Marloes Otten - an experienced diver from

Urban patterns

geographic conditions

Influence of the Delta Works

re

Influence on economy The Delta Works made an area much more accessible and people from all over the country were tempted by the new vast and cheap areas available for the agriculture. The map (fig. 54) shows how much the delta towns grew since the construction of Delta Works, most of them grew double of their pre-construction size.

GDP bn euro 800

830

700

Trade 18%

600

644 km2

500 400 300

200

105 km2

100

30 Delta

ndustry 26%

industry 13,5% construction 6,5% transport 5,3%

80 Port

NL

Figure 52: GDP camparison Drawing by author.

Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Fishing >1%

Agriculture 7%

The delta region now contributes only 5% to the Dutch economy: the area makes 30 billion euro of a total gross national product of more than 600 billion euro (1997). This is far less than the average production by area in The Netherlands. To compare: the size of the economy of Rotterdam harbour (80 billion euro) is 2-3 times larger than that of the entire delta region while the surface area is much smaller (fig. 52).

Little of the economy of the delta is related to its watery character and could GDP have been developed anywhere in the bn euro country. Fewer than half of the economic 830 water supplies (agriculactivities use the ture, industry), while the real water-bound644 km ed activities (fisheries, sand supply, maritime sector) represent only 5% of the local economy. In this sense, the strength of the 105 km region is not exploited.

Although the area is a green (na80 30 ture) and blue (water) oasis of outstandDelta Port NL ing landscape quality, the economy turns its back on these characteristics (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

800 700

Trade 18%

600

2

500 400 300

Services 42% - healthcare 15% - catering 7% - education 5%

92% Industry, trade & services

200

2

100

Industry 26%

- industry 13,5% - construction 6,5% - transport 5,3%

Figure 53: main economic activities of delta Drawing by author.

Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

46

Figure 54: the growth of Delta towns Drawing by author.

Source: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

47

V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

Expansions: New town areas Old town areas

I Forward

Legend:

Fishing

1900: 850 people 1% of working population

2010: 900 people >1% of working population

Figure 55: working population in the fishing sector Drawing by author.

Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Cod

Salmon

Sole

Shrimp

Ostrea edulis

Black Goby

Crassostrea gigas

Figure 56: commercial species changed into less popular ones Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Where sea and rivers meet, the natural production in the creeks and on the silt- and sandbanks is very high. People started to exploit these riches through fishing and the gathering of mussels and oysters. Although the area was very suitable for fishing, in recent times this has not been a large industry. Around 1900, 1% of the working population worked in the fisheries, about 850 people. Nowadays this figure is almost the same (900), although the total number of inhabitants and jobs in the region has doubled (fig. 55).

The delta engineering works had a very negative impact on the fishing and aquaculture activities. In the artificially created lakes most species disappeared. To compound the difficulties faced by mussel and oyster companies following the works, a parasite has recently harassed the mussel fields causing the transfer of a large part of the industry to the Waddensea in the north of the country. Now, only 2000 ha in the Eastern Scheldt are cultivated for mussels; almost 2/3 of the total area (5600 ha) has moved to the Waddensea. Similarly, oyster culture has barely overcome the effect of the imported disease Bonamiasis. Because of it cultivators had to shift from the cultivation of the Flat oyster (Ostrea edulis), which is exclusive high quality to the cultivation of a Pacific oyster (Cassostrea gigas), which is not susceptible to the disease, however of an affordable high quality. Pacific oyster banks have developed vastly in the last decades and has caused a drop in the

market price for the Flat oysters. The industry now consists of over 30 companies all situated in the delta (Eastern Scheldt and Grevelingen lake working on 1550ha and 500ha cultivation parcels respectively); the harvest of 1400 tons of oysters is worth 5 million euro a year, where Grevelingen is 13 part of it (http://www.zeeuwseoesters.nl).

The fish population changed after the closure: the number of species declined and the composition altered. Commercial species such as cod and sole have disappeared while new, less popular species such as the Black Goby, have appeared (fig. 56) (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

48

7% of working population; 3% of total income Figure 57: working population in the agriculture sector Drawing by author.

Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Figure 58: land reclamation process during the period of 12-20th century Drawings by author.

14

mld euro

12 10 8 6 4

‘87 ‘88 ‘89 ‘90 ‘91 ‘92 ‘93 ‘94 ‘95 ‘96 ‘97 ‘98 ‘99 ‘00 ‘01 ‘02 ‘03 ‘04 ‘05 ‘06 ‘07

Agriculture

Horticulture

Livestock

Figure 59: diminishing importance of agriculture nowadays Scheme by author.

Source: CBS, Landbouwrekeningen, 2007.

49

The delta engineering works had a very positive influence on agriculture. Large volumes of salt water were turned into fresh water for irrigation, to maintain the freshwater bubble, and to flush brackish water out of the ditches and canals. As this delivered

I Forward II Framework

x 80 = 8 000

III Research & Analysis

2010:

Providing food for the growing population was the main driving force for large-scale land reclamation and made the building of dykes necessary. Outside the dykes, natural sedimentation went on. Whenever the salt marshes rose high enough for use, new dykes were built to incorporate them into the arable land of the growing islands.

This process lasted until deep into the 20th century (fig. 58). Around 1900, 46% of the working population were farmers. They produced mainly grains and these are still the most important crops. The economic importance of the agricultural industry has now declined (fig. 59): it employs 7% of the total working population (8000 people) accounting for less than 3% of the income in the area. Agriculture itself has been industrialised. Intensive branches such as meat, vegetables and flower production need more and more capital inputs, and less farmland. In The Netherlands, the future of those forms of agriculture which use large areas of land is very uncertain. Some predict almost no land use in that form, as the opening of the world market and the enlargement of the European Union to eastern European states makes it cheaper to produce elsewhere (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

higher agricultural productivity, it proved to be an important argument for the engineering response after the 1953 disaster (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

IV Design

46% of working population

Agriculture

V Afterword

x 381 = 39 100

1900:

Recreation 2010:

x 160 = 16 000 8,5% of working population; 3% of total income

Figure 60: working population in the recreation sector Drawing by author.

Source: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004). Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXL-press Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Figure 61: the beach of Domburg, 1905 Source: GESCHIEDENISZEELAND, 2013. Opkomst van Domburg als badplaats. [online] Available at: < http:// www.geschiedeniszeeland.nl/tab_themas/themas/kunstenaars_domburg/domburg_badplaats/> [Accessed 9 February 2013]. mln 1.9 1.8

The delta area has been a popular recreation destination since 19th century (fig. 61).

This happened because of introduction of the steam tram which made villages easily accessible. What is more, it was acknowledged that healthy salt air and sea baths help against various ailments. Various villas were started to be built since 1830 by wealthy people (GESCHIEDENISZEELAND, 2013).

Thanks to the Delta Works (increased accessibility, calm and clean water) the mass tourism started in 1960s. Such recreational activities like angling, deepwater diving, swimming, sailing, motor-boat cruising, relaxing on the beach, camping, visiting the historical towns and eating mussels are now popular pastimes. Since the 1960s, leisure time has expanded and recreation provisions have become an important component of the spatial planning process. Today, more than 3 million tourists come to the delta area each year, providing an annual income of more than 900 million euro.

The delta engineering works changed the systems, and recreation has benefited from it. Instead of going to the sea coast, people started visiting the shores of the lakes and the hinterland. The huge

1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4

constructions themselves attract hundreds of thousands of people (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004).

Lately, the number of visitors has diminished and stabilized at a certain rate (fig. 62). The reason for this might be international market and availability to travel further and cheaper, increasing needs for active and multi- functional holidays.

Literature: ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004.

Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXLpress Worldwide Fund for Nature.

PROJECTTEAM VERKENNING WATER EN GETIJ & WITTEVEEN+BOS, 2009. Verkenning Grevelingen water en getij. Rijkswaterstaat Zeeland, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat.

THE DUTCH OYSTER INDUSTRY, 2010. The Dutch Oyster industry. [online] Available at: < http://www.zeeuwseoesters.nl/de_oestersectorUK.html> [Accessed 17 April 2013].

GESCHIEDENISZEELAND, 2013. Opkomst van Domburg als badplaats. [online] Available at: < http://www. geschiedeniszeeland.nl/tab_themas/themas/kunstenaars_domburg/domburg_badplaats/> [Accessed 9 February 2013].

1.3 1.2

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Figure 62: number of guests in Zeeland Scheme by author.

Source: CONTINUVAKANTIEONDERZOEK (2010). Bewerkt door Kenniscentrum Kusttoerisme.

50

Infrastructure

Influence of the Delta Works Infrastructure Since the construction of the Delta Works, the connectivity has greatly increased. Now the delta is one of the busiest European shipping routes that connects two largest ports (Rotterdam and Antwerp) and few smaller ones (Vlissingen, Terneuzen). The east side of the delta is used for the commercial shipping, while the western is mainly for the recreational use.

XIX

Roads: Highways Possible new highways Regional

Legend: Railways: Passanger Highspeed Freight Tourism Roads: Highways Possible new highways Regional

Delft

Shipping: 0 - 5,000 5,000 - 10,000 10,000 - 25,000 25,000 - 50,000 50,000 - 75,000 75,000 - 125,000 125,000 - 150,000

XXI

Shipping: 0 - 5,000 5,000 - 10,000 10,000 - 25,000 25,000 - 50,000 50,000 - 75,000 75,000 - 125,000 125,000 - 150,000 Sluices: Commercial Touristic

Rotterdam

Sluices: Commercial Touristic

Brielle

Dordrecht

Goedereede

Dirksland

Somelsdijk

Herkingen Oude Tonge

Moerdijk Ooltgensplaat

Zierikzee

Goes

Goes

IV Design

Middelburg Middelburg

II Framework

Waterways Railroad

Railways: Passanger Highspeed Freight Tourism

III Research & Analysis

Legend:

I Forward

geographic conditions

Vlissingen

51

Figure 64: 21st century infrastructure Drawing by author.

Source used: ZUIDWESTELIJKE DELTA (2009). Atlas van Zuidwestelijke Delta. Een uitgave van het programmabureau Zuidwestelijke Delta. Middelburg: Southwest Delta Programme Office.

V Afterword

Antwerpen

Figure 63: 19th century infrastructure Drawing by author.

Source used: Topographisch Militaire Kaart of the year 1830 from TU Delft map room.

Dikes - the elements of separation The spatial carcass of the project area can be divided in three main areas: closed, open and transitory. Closed spaces are in the west side and has this character because of the dune’s landscape and some forests. The major part of islands is an open space with farmlands. There are just a few transition spaces that are outer dike areas, which used to be intertidal areas.

Dikes play an important part in dividing the previously mentioned spaces.

This division can be hard, soft or normal. It

Urban patterns

Infrastructure

urban areas farmlands grasslands forests dunes closed space transition zones open space dike dike hard hard edge edge soft soft edge edge bathymetry bathymetry currents drowned villages

B

A

C B’

F’

’

A’

C D

E

D’

E’

F

shallow shallow deep deep

depends on how close the dike is to the water and how steep is the bottom of the lake.

The steepness of most of the hard edges were influenced by the currents entering an estuary from the North Sea. Their forces were continuously eroding the banks. Some of them could no longer stand it and were given back to water. That is why in the areas of strong currents that are close to the land, there are many towns that have drowned.

In order to see what is the role of dikes in defining area’s spatial quality I drew I serie of sections. Three of them are soft edge, two - hard edge and one - normal edge. The map (fig. 65) shows the places and typology of sections.

Figure 65: spatial carcass of the area and the role of dikes in it Drawing by author.

Source used: http://www.openstreetmap.org/.

52

Section CC’ is a soft edge. It crosses the ex-tidal area of Slikken van Flakkee, which is now a protected area. Slowly rising ground is interrupted by the dike and then the wide stripe of gazing lands follows.

I Forward

Section BB’ is very different from the first one and is a hard edge. The road is enclosed by two more narrow and steep dikes. The first dike is very close to the deep water, thus contributing to the typology of this section. An opportunity to oversee an area is possible only when riding a bicycle on top of the first dike.

II Framework

Section AA’ is a soft edge, because the distance between the dike and water is quite big. The area rises slowly and the dike itself is very wide and divided in several levels with different typology roads on top of it. Driving a car on the top of this dike gives an opportunity to observe the whole area.

Section: A-A’

roads

ex-intertidal area

Grevelingen

Section: B-B’

small road

swamp

dike

road

dike

Grevelingen

IV Design

crop fields

III Research & Analysis

JUAN 20.154.133-S VTE BUENROSTRO

N215

53

secondary small road dike

farmland

dike

Slikken van Flakkee

Grevelingen

V Afterword

Section: C-C’

Section DD’ is a normal edge - the depth of waters is not very big and the steepness is gradual. The narrow road and ditch splits the space between the dike and residential area in several segments making the influence of the vicinity of the dike less tangible.

Section EE’ is a soft edge and is located on the Grevelingendam. On the right side there is an Oosterschelde with salty tidal waters and on the left is Grevelingen lake with salty, but still water. The difference between nature on both sides is immense: typical marine nature with sand and several plants; and a typical lake nature with plenty of deciduous trees and grass.

Section FF’ is a hard edge and located in the town Scharendijke. The steepness of the lake bottom and dike is high and the living area is only at a distance of the narrow road. This all make this section a particularly hard edge and shows how the living environment is blocked from the relationship to water by a high dike.

Section: D-D’

Herkingen

ditch

road

dike

Grevelingen

Section: E-E’

Oosterschelde

intertidal area TIDES

Grevelingen dam

park

DELTA WORKS

Grevelingen NO TIDES

Section: F-F’

Scharendijke town

road

dike

Grevelingen

54

Key words â&#x20AC;&#x201C; land-use planning, spatial planning, recreation, integration, Dutch Southwest Delta

1 Introduction The purpose of this literature review paper is to form a theoretical backbone about the spatial development in the Southwest Dutch Delta starting from 1960s till nowadays and use it for the graduation thesis. The Dutch Southwest Delta was a subject to planning for the past fifty years. During this time different forms of management on a regional level were applied due to its vulnerability to flooding and due to the Dutch planning doctrine according to which the most important centre of the country is Randstad, which has to be restricted to uncontrolled sprawl so new industrial and residential centres were envisaged to grow in the marginalized regions e.g. Southwest Delta. The reason for this research is that the current state

55

of the area is a product of a special vision coming from the 1960s and which is now very much eroding. This theoretical research will help me to understand how and why did this happen and will help to distinguish the main challenges that can arise in nowadays planning.

In the next sections I will discuss the current literature on the theories of spatial development and how these theories were and are applied in the Southwest Dutch Delta. I will explain the theoretical framework ordered by themes: traditional land-use planning and the spatial planning. I will pay attention to the reasons of emergence of two theories, the differences between them, the supremacy and critics.

I Forward II Framework

III Research & Analysis

This literature review is aimed to form a theoretical backbone about the evolution of spatial developments in the Dutch Southwest Delta. This is due to the fact that the current state of the Delta is a product of a special vision coming from the 1960s and which is now very much eroding.

An analysis of land-use planning dominating during those times will help to answer the question of such spatial decay in the Delta. In order to prepare a successful graduation project, the latest planning consensus â&#x20AC;&#x201C; spatial planning will be analysed and discussed regarding its reasons of emergence, features and main challenges.

The main findings of this paper are that land-use planning in the Dutch Southwest Delta had flaws regarding its inability to balance the main factors that are crucial for successful spatial development (i.e. safety, economic strength, social liveability and environmental sustainability); the priority at those times was given to the technological insurance of safety (the Delta Works) and economic strengthening through the vast expansion of the Port of Rotterdam and comprehensive transportation network, while question of ecology was dismissed. The spatial planning that replaced the land-use planning is aiming for such balance, however increased complexity and uncertainty makes this task harder to achieve.

The theories of both types of planning are supported by the literature review of such academics like Louis Albrechts, Andreas Faludi and Vincent Nadin.

IV Design

From land-use to spatial planning

V Afterword

institutional conditions / review paper

2 Traditional land-use planning in 1960s Usually authors distinguish planning as a statutory, legal framework such as regulation by means of the zoning of land uses or processes to allocate an investment. It helps to steer developments in a certain direction and to ensure that undesirable developments do not occur (Albrechts, 2004). The traditional land use planning as Louis Albrechts (2004, p.744) – a Belgian planner and academic at University of Leuven claims ‘embodies a proposal as to how land should be used in accordance with a considered policy – as expansion and restructuring proceed in the future’. Land-use planning is basically concerned with the location, intensity, form, amount, and harmonization of land development required for the various space- using functions: housing, industry, recreation, transport, education, nature, agriculture, cultural activities (Albrechts, 2004, p.744). Another academic of University of Nijmegen – Andreas Faludi (2010) states the following: Project plans are blueprints of the intended end-state of a material object and the measures needed to achieve that state. In project planning, interaction in the planning process focuses on the adoption of the plan. Once adopted, the plan is supposed to be an ambiguous guide to action, so its adoption implies closure of the image of the future (p. 303).

In other words, the traditional landuse planning is expected to guide the de-

velopments according to the existing policies with the main tools like zoning and land use regulation. What is more, it tends to have a determinate end product.

Throughout the decades the plan has proved to be an effective instrument of urban policy and a spark for urban change (Neuman, 1998, p. 209). In many European states the first planning legislation was produced in the early twentieth century as a response to increasing development pressure and the consequent problems that arose from dense and disorganized development (Albrechts, 2004, p.744). Especially after the World War II when Europe had to rebuild its cities and infrastructure and the subsequent baby boom offspring during 1946-1964 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001) with its need for homes and schools. Such plans like Greater London Plan of 1944 (figure 1) by Patrick Abercrombie, the famous Copenhagen’s Finger plan (figure 2) of 1947 and the Dutch Randstad with the Green Heart in between represent the need of control of urban expansion.

Figure 1: Abercrombie’s open space plan - establishment of rural environments around the city in which the building of new infrastructure and housing was severely restricted and the promotion of new towns outside the Greater London area to accommodate the overspill of population.

Source: The garden and landscape guide http://www. gardenvisit.com

Figure 2: According to the plan, Copenhagen is to develop along five ‘fingers’, centred on S-train commuter rail lines, which extend from the ‘palm’, that is the dense urban fabric of central Copenhagen. In between the fingers, green wedges are supposed to provide land for agriculture and recreational purposes.

Source: Ministry of the Environment http://www.regjeringen.no/en

2.1 The case of the Dutch Southwest Delta 2.1.1 The Delta Works Urban planning in the Dutch Southwest Delta during sixties was closely related to the flood safety control. Because of a devastating flood in 1953 a highly advanced technological plan of large protective constructions like dams, locks, sluices, dikes and storm surge barriers was prepared and implemented during more than 30 years and is called the Delta Works. An outcome of Delta Works was a closing of three in total of five sea inlets, in this way the Dutch

56

57

Schematic plans below show how these presumptions were tried to be solved.

The port extension was projected not only towards west but also towards south – the Haringvliet (figure 3). A vast area was designated for this purpose and newly designed network of waterways, roads and railways accompanied this growth. Then the big

I Forward II Framework

The significance of the Rotterdam port at that time was immense – the destruction of the centre and port forced the city to innovation on a large scale, thus making it one of the most modern city in Western Europe with the best equipped port of the continent (Randstad en Delta, 1956).

III Research & Analysis

All the developments in the Netherlands after World War II led to the growth of the urban surface. This is due to increased needs for dwellings, more car ownership, leisure and recreational activities (Brandes, 2006).

In the Randstad it created problems, as already densely inhabited area could not be allowed to grow too much. It became national policy to create new industrial centres in the marginalized regions and spread out economic and urban development more equally over the country (Meyer, 2012, p. 83). The book called ‘Looking for living space’ published in 1966 by Robbert and Rudolf Das shows this striving and it is full of illustrations of the modernist concepts of how a habitat for a better future could be constructed (Salewski, 2012). A better-connected and ‘newly discovered’ Southwest Delta fell along with such concepts and became a focus of urban planning practice, where new relations with one of the most important city of the Randstad – Rotterdam and its main function – port, could arise.

The report about this newly occurred relationship is clearly described in report ‘Randstad en Delta’ prepared by the Provincial Planning Service in South Holland in 1956.

There it is being spoken about the ‘imminent dangers of a continuing population congestion in Randstad and South Holland’, about the port’s need to find a sufficient space for development as a ‘World Port’ and about the need to accommodate an appropriate recreational needs of the Randstad’s society, which is now having more free time, is more conscious about vacation spending and is increasingly motorized. The visionary and very conceptual plans are presented and the main focus is given to the possibilities for the port extention and the implications that it might bring.

More specifically, an expantion of industrial land that will be accompanied by a boost of industrial labor force, which eventually will influence the even larger areas occupied by residential habitats. Then the question of ‘habitability’ and ‘healthiness’ of compactly populated Randstad arises.

IV Design

2.1.2 Randstad and Delta

2.1.3 Three examples of land-use planning practice

importance was given to the recreation theme and how to ‘unlock’ the central Delta for this purpose. The key appeared to be the new connections and surprisingly, it was planned to happen not only through the range of dams of the Delta Works, but also through a newly designed road in the middle of Delta, which should not ‘mix with the main internal circulation with the twin cities’ (i.e. Rotterdam and Antwerp) (figure 4.).

Figure 3: The map showing the possible expansion of the Rotterdam port towards the Haringvliet inlet and the new connections.

Source: Provinciale Planologische Dienst in Zuid-Holland, 1956. Randstad en Delta. Den Haag.

V Afterword

coastline was shortened and the number of dikes that had to be built was reduced significantly. Since most of the inlets lost their relation to the sea and were transformed into lakes, most of the old cities had to reorient the focus of their economies from trading and fishing to industry, tourism and recreation (Meyer, 2010). The Delta Works also resulted in a better connectivity between the islands and with the Randstad, thus involving the Southwest Delta into the urban planning documents on a national scale.

Figure 4: The new connection in between the ‘Delta Works’ road and the Rotterdam-Antwerp road, which should directly connect Rotterdam with recreation area in the Grevelingen.

Source: Provinciale Planologische Dienst in Zuid-Holland, 1956. Randstad en Delta. Den Haag.

What is also interesting about this document is that the Delta was seen on a bigger – northwest European context. The Delta is located in the middle of three major metropolitan areas: Rhine-Ruhr area, the Belgian triangle (Brussels-Antwerp-Ghent) and the Randstad, thus ‘the central location of the precious recreation area in the Delta increases the habitability of the whole Benelux area’ and it can be seen as an area, where ‘four nations will meet’ (Provinciale Planologische Dienst in Zuid-Holland, 1956) (figure 5.).

One more large-scale plan related to the Port of Rotterdam was presented during those times. Plan 2000+ was a most pronounced form of the spatial arrangement of the side of Rotterdam. The extention of port once again was planned to reach Goere- Overflakke and the northwest coast of North Brabant. This area provided

Figure 5: The Dutch Southwest Delta on a northwest European scale.

Source: Provinciale Planologische Dienst in Zuid-Holland, 1956. Randstad en Delta. Den Haag.

for the port expansion was considered as an ‘empty landscape’ – nothing more than monotonious and flat rural area. The plan 2000+ was a detailed regional plan with a coherent vision to come to live, work and recreate for a total industrialized region.

The residential area was extended both in the direction of Green Heart (Gouda) as to Goere-Overflakke, where a new city – Grevelingenstad was designed for at least 500,000 inhabitants. The various new areas were connected by a coprehensive system of roads and rail connections (Schuyt & Taverne, 2011).

Figure 6: Stad Rotterdam, Port of Rotterdam, Rotterdam Plan 2000+ one more document, where the Port of Rotterdam is supposed to grow extensively. This growth should be supported by the New Towns like Grevelingenstad.

Source: SALEWSKI, C., 2012. The Dutch New Worlds Scenario’s in de stedenbouw en ruimtelijke ordening in Nederland, 1970-2000. 1st ed. Rotterdam: 010 Uitgeverij.

The map which is still influencial today is the Second Nota planning policy document (1966) which became known as the ‘Blokjeskaart’ (figure 7.). An exaggerated thinking of viability is visible in this planning instrument as well as in the previously discussed visionary plans (CanonRo jury, 2009).

This extensive technocratic vision has never worked. On the contraty – it served as a catalyst for many action and environmental groups, which after twentyfive years of action, resulted in a disruption of those ‘optimistic and influential technocratic ideas’ based on the port expansion (Schuyt & Taverne, 2011).

58

Albrechts (2004) talks about the flaws that land use planning has. He claims that those plans are ‘far more rigid and inflexible and less responsive to changing social and economic circumstances’ (Albrechts, 2004, p.745). Usually plans were prepared in accordance with the major stakeholders who could link the planning towards their needs (e.g. like it happened with Southwest Delta and the port of Rotterdam). Therefore, Albrecht (2004) says: ‘Coproduction of plans with the major stakeholders and the involvement of ‘weak’ groups in the land use planning process are non-existent’. What is more, the plans were usually prepared by the modern architects that were concerned with ‘contemporary problems’ of future society building and not with location-oriented physical problems. An image formed in the public mind had a character of a blueprint, a calculated layout for the future (Salewski, 2012).

2.2.1 The case of the Dutch Southwest Delta

Figure 8: The Southwest Delta in the Second Nota on Spatial Planning, 1966.

Source: SALEWSKI, C., 2012. The Dutch New Worlds Scenario’s in de stedenbouw en ruimtelijke ordening in Nederland, 1970-2000. 1st ed. Rotterdam: 010 Uitgeverij.

59

In the case of Southwest Dutch Delta the Second Nota on Spatial Planning of 1966 was soon severely criticized because of its static image of the year 2000. Such document could not keep pace after the spatial and economic problems that arose on dif-

3 The shift towards the spatial planning The trends that determined the consensus of societal and spatial coherence in 1960s (rationalized spatial organization that incorporated agriculture and industry, efficient transportation systems, modern town planning and hydraulic engineering) have spurred doubt, resistance and reappraisal during the last three decades of the 20th century (Meyer, 2010).

The reasons for that are multiple, however the basic ones could be selected.

First of all, it is an increased complexity of spatial relationships – ‘people travel more often and further, economic activities and

I Forward

The plans of 1960s never reached their final image. Some New Towns were created (such as Spijkenisse and Hellevoetsluis), Grevelingen became a recreational area however an attention was soon given to the hierarchically higher standing locations like Amsterdam and Rotterdam. ‘Importance of the urban systems around and in the estuaries decreased drastically as they became more and more marginalized’ (Meyer, 2010, p.83). The ‘recreational’ road directly connecting Rotterdam with Grevelingen was never built and recreation capacity never reached the planned limits.

II Framework

2.2 Critics on land-use planning

III Research & Analysis

ferent scales (Salewski, 2012). What is more, the lack of integrity of different aspects could be seen, for instance the questions of ecology and specific local needs were never touched upon.

IV Design

The yellow, orange, red and brown blocks represented four types of urbanization. Their form was outlined and the surface area of the blocks represented the real surface area and each type had a pronounced characteristic, with 15 to 60 dwellings per hectare. Type A (yellow) represented a spatial unit within the town district of around 5,000 inhabitants, with local bus, park and local. The other types (with 15,000, 60,000 and 250.000 inhabitants respectively) had a train station, regional bus or express train. Many of the new centers can easily be found on the map today, for example: Almere, Blaricum, Huizen and Zoetermeer (CanonRo jury, 2009).

As for the Southwest Delta the ‘blocks’ appeared on the southern part of the Voorne-Putten island by the Hellevoetsluis and sparsely on the other side of the Haringvliet inlet (figure 8.).

V Afterword

Figure 7: National Planning Department, Second Nota on Spatial Planning, 1966: Spatial structure sketch for the Netherlands around the year 2000 (“Blockjeskaart’).

Source: SALEWSKI, C., 2012. The Dutch New Worlds Scenario’s in de stedenbouw en ruimtelijke ordening in Nederland, 1970-2000. 1st ed. Rotterdam: 010 Uitgeverij.

investment are much less tied to particular places, communications and media have opened the world in our homes’ (Nadin, 2007). Secondly, an increased imbalance between the power and the right of those who make decisions, the exclusion of those most affected by these decisions and the responsibilities of those who are best placed to safeguard the interests of those most threatened by change (Royal Town Planning Institute, 2001). Thirdly, it is a dramatic increase in interest of environmental sustainability, which requires a shift towards more collaborative and interdisciplinary working approach. The forth reason is the growing imbalance between the conflicting things (for instance, economic growth and ecology).

The challenges are serious and ‘our capacity to meet them however has not grown to match the scale and pace of change in our society’ (Albrechts, 2004).

That is why the need for effective and creative planning is more urgent today than it has ever been. In the Netherlands, for example, the new ways to balance hydraulic engineering, urban planning, economic development and landscape design, and with new ways to balance different authorities and institutions at local, regional and international scales has to be reinvented (Meyer, 2012). Planning should no longer be restricted to just ‘land use zoning’, it has to be a more holistic planning, which would include the wider range of activities (Royal Town Planning Institute, 2001). What is more, planning is not about defining a simplistic future ‘end-state’, because there are no

end- states; there is always change (Royal Town Planning Institute, 2001).

3.1 The theory of spatial planning The description of a term of spatial planning is not an easy task as it evolved during the past four decades and is based on the lessons learned from the previous planning consensuses. For Albrechts (2004) spatial planning is not a single concept or tool. It is a set of concepts, procedures and tools that must be tailored carefully according to the particular situation. The procedure itself does not flow smoothly from one phase to another, but it is rather a dynamic and creative process where new point of view and facts can come to light at any stage and make an influence on the project.

For Faludi (2000) ‘spatial planning is not a technical process of producing material things, but rather a process of mutual learning involving interaction between a multitude of actors’ (p. 299). Planning-aslearning is important as ‘with gaining a better understanding of the problems with which we are faced now and in the future, can help to make better decisions now’ (p.302). He also claims that in a learning situation any attempt to specify end result is inappropriate, because the plan must be a flexible document capable of guiding the process and evolving alongside it.

3.2 Reinventing the Dutch Delta in the 21st century On the light of the new planning approach-

es, lessons learned from the past and more complex challenges, the Dutch Southwest Delta has to be reinvented. The main task is to find ‘a comprehensive approach of managing the delta in a ways that improve systems of flood defence, protect the environment, create high- quality urban development and attractive landscapes, and support a prosperous economy’ (Meyer et al., 2010, p.8); and ‘with the new ways to balance different authorities and institutions at local, regional and international scales’ (Meyer, 2010). In order to do that a serious shift of paradigm was undertaken: from ‘fighting against the water’ to ‘working with nature’. Various projects on different scales according to this approach are being made.

On a national scale the Delta Commission plans are playing the major part (figure 9). To counteract larger river discharges the beds of Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt rivers are being widened rather than the dikes risen. This is a project called ‘Room for the rivers’. Then some basins of the Delta (Volkerak and Grevelingen) can be used as temporary water storage during high river discharges and North Sea storms.

On a regional scale the ecological and water quality problems are planned to be solved by reintroducing the natural dynamics of tidal ebb and higher water flows and by reconnecting the basins.

This will make the transition between land and water more soft and natural, however some adjustment must be made on a local scale in order to hedge from the damages.

60

An example of such new transition zone is a Perkpolder project at the riverbank of the West Schelde (figure 10).

61

Nadin (2007) talks about the challenge of integration, where conflicting sides have to collaborate. Usually those conflicts arise between short-term economic and fiscal benefits and longer- term economic and social costs arising from development.

There is no natural equilibrium between them (Royal Town Planning Institute, 2001).

Therefore, we should ask with whom and how and for what purpose integration should be exploited (Nadin, 2007). Another challenge is complexity (where there are simply too many actors) and uncertainty, that is why during current uneven economic and political times it is hard to financing for well balanced and long-term projects.

Because of these challenges there has been some essential critics on spatial planning: ‘spatial planning is far from providing a panacea for developing win-winwin solutions, instead it remains a highly political and contested process with winners and losers’ (Allmendinger & Haughton, 2010, p.806).

In the second section I discussed the traditional land use planning approach, the reason of emergence and theoretical definition. The planning was important to control an urban growth during the immense population increase of the Post-War period. The expansion was based on housing, industry and transport planning. The main tools for that were zoning and land use regulation. I illustrated it with the visionary plans prepared for the Southwest Delta and explained the main objectives for that particular area. The plans were mainly driven by the newly occurred situation thanks to the Delta Works and increased connectivity with Randstad. Since Randstad already had problems with densely inhabited area, it became a national policy to create new centers in the marginalized regions like for example, the Southwest Delta. The documents ‘Randstad en Delta’ (1956), ‘Rotterdam Plan 2000+’ (1969) and ‘Second Nota on Spatial Planning’ (1966) were analyzed carefully. They all show similar plans that were closely related to the Rotterdam port and its expansion towards the North Sea and southwards towards Haringvliet. Then the need for a vast recreational area in order to increase the health and habitability

I Forward II Framework

In this paper I have researched the main urban planning theories starting from 1960s until nowadays. To explain and illustrate how those ideas were applied in reality I used the Dutch Southwest Delta as a pilot location. It makes sense, as my graduation project location is Grevelingen lake area.

III Research & Analysis

The standard spatial planning definition in short would be a ‘win-win-win’ strive, when different actors are involved on an equal basis. This, however, is an uneasy task. Some authors like Nadin and Faludi are talking about the main challenges the one has to face in order to reach the spatial planning goals.

IV Design

Figure 10: Perkpolder, a new transition zone of land and water at the riverbank of the West Scheldt. Plan by Buro Lubbers and Rijnbout Van der Vossen Rijnbout, 2008.

Source: http://www.deltaro.nl/referenties.php

5 Conclusions

V Afterword

Figure 9: Delta Commissie plans for the safety from flooding on a national scale.

Source: DELTACOMMISSIE, 2008. Working together with water. Delta Commissie.

4 The challenges of spatial planning

of densely populated area is mentioned.

All these new developments can arise only with a comprehensive roads system.

The critics of such planning are discussed later. The main flaws, according to Albrechts (2004) were inflexibility and lack of responsiveness to changing social and economic circumstances, the preference to the major stakeholders and not those who are affected mostly, lack of links to the area itself and the fact that nature and ecology were not mentioned at all.

The third section is about the transition towards more comprehensive spatial planning approach. As in the previous section I give some basic knowledge about the reasons of emergence and theoretical definition by Albrechts and Faludi. As the complexity of spatial relationships, the imbalance of power and those who are mostly affected, an interest on environmental sustainability and growing imbalance between conflicting things were increasing, an upgraded way of planning was needed.

To give an idea how does this new approach works, the latest spatial planning projects for the Dutch Southwest Delta are presented. They strive to achieve the balance between flood defense, environment protection, high quality urban development, attractive landscapes and prosperous economy.

Some ideas about the main challenges of spatial planning are given at the

last. It is the task of complexity and integrity that must be given the most attention. Nadin (2007) suggests that it is important to ask with whom and how and for what purpose integration should be exploited.

To conclude, the last five decades showed the wide transitions and improvements of the urban planning system. It is important to mention that maybe one approach might be better than another, however an absolute and supreme approach will probably never be achieved. Therefore, it is important stay open- minded and transparent for the changes.

6 Recommendations for the graduation project and further research The Dutch Southwest Delta is a complex system and during nowadays-economic situation it is important to show who, how and why should be involved in the planning.

Therefore, the further research should be concerned with multi-actor analysis of the Dutch Delta. What is more, when designing for this Delta it is important to learn from the mistakes of the past and let the nature take its right place. In order to do that, I have to prove that ecology and natural landscape has its value. Therefore, the further analysis must be concerned with authors who did such research (e.g. SAEIJS, COSTANZA) and with examples where ecology proved to be an important economic development factor. The question of recreation is also essential in the Dutch Southwest Delta. The reasons why it never reached the planned heights are the change in society needs

due to globalization (e.g. people travel further and cheaper), environmental decay of the Delta and because the planning ideas were simply abandoned to those of the ‘higher importance’.

References ALBRECHTS, L., 2004. Strategic (spatial) planning reexamined. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 31, pp.743-58.

ALLMENDINGER, P. & HAUGHTON, G., 2010. Spatial planning, devolution, and new planning spaces. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 28, pp.803-818.

BRANDES, E., 2006. The Randstad: face and form. In IFoU 2006 Beijing International Conference Modernization and Regionalism - Re-inventing the Urban Identity.

Beijing, 2006.

CanonRo jury, 2009. “Well made”. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK “http://www.canonro.nl/” http://www.canonro.nl/ [Accessed 07 January 2013].

CHRISTOU, M.D., STRUCKL, M. & BIERMAN, T., 2006. Land Use Planning Guidelines in the context of Article 12 of the Seveso II Directive 96/82/EC as amended by Directive 105/2003/EC. European Commission joint research centre.

DELTACOMMISSIE, 2008. Working together with water.

Delta Commissie.

FALUDI, A., 2000. The Performance of Spatial Planning.

Planning Practice & Research, 15(4), pp.299-318.

NEUMAN, M., 1998. Does Planning Need the Plan?

Journal of the American Planning Association, 64(2), pp.208-2020.

MEYER, H., 2010. URBAN PATTERNS IN THE DUTCH DELTA | A LAND OF CITIES. In H. Meyer, I. Bobbink & S. Nijhuis, eds. Delta Urbanism The Netherlands. Chicago: American Planning Association. pp.65-98.

MEYER, H., BOBBINK, I. & NIJHUIS, S., 2010. Delta Urbanism The Netherlands. Chicago: American Planning

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SCHUYT, C.J.M. & TAVERNE, E., 2011. 1950. Welvaart in zwart-wit. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK “http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/schu069welv01_01/sch u069welv01_01_0008.php” http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/ schu069welv01_01/schu 069welv01_01_0008.php [Accessed 06 January 2013].

ROYAL TOWN PLANNING INSTITUTE , 2001. A New Vision for Planning. London: ROYAL TOWN PLANNING INSTITUTE. THE GARDEN AND LANDSCAPE GUIDE, 2008. Abercombie plan. [image online] Available at: <http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape_architecture /london_landscape_architecture/landscape_planning _pos_public_open_space/1943- 44_abercrombie_plan> [Accessed 22 December 2012].

THE MUNICIPALITY OF COPENHAGEN, 2001-2002. Fig4-2. [image online] Available at: <http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/md/documents-and- publications/ government-propositions-and-reports- /reports-to-thestorting-white-papers- 2/20012002/report-no-23-to-thestorting-2001- 2002/4.html?id=452144> [Accessed 22 December 2012].

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U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, 2001. Oldest Baby Boomers Turn 60! [online] Available at: <http://www.census.gov/ newsroom/releases/archives /facts_for_features_special_editions/cb06-ffse01- 2.html> [Accessed 5 January 2013].

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SALEWSKI, C., 2012. The Dutch New Worlds Scenario’s in de stedenbouw en ruimtelijke ordening in Nederland, 1970- 2000. 1st ed. Rotterdam: 010 Uitgeverij.

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PROVINCIALE PLANOLOGISCHE DIENST IN ZUID-HOLLAND, 1956. Randstad en Delta. Den Haag.

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Association.

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institutional conditions

Multi-actor analysis of plans for the project area Current state of the Grevelingen lake area is influenced by different planning approaches and interventions. I order to understand how exactly they affected an area a multiactor analysis of plans for the project area was made. Some of them were actually executed while others remained on the table, however they were influential for the later decision making.

The scheme (fig. 66) starts with description of some tendencies per decade, which helps to rationalise some decisions made in the plans. Then a short description of the plans follows. Every plan involves the stakeholders - “those whose interests are affected by the issue or those whose activities strongly affect the issue; who possess information, resources, expertise and implementation resources” (UN-Habitat, 2001). I divided them into governmental and nongovernmental stakeholders and looked into what were their general roles, what were their interests and objectives in the project area, were they involved directly or not, on which scale did they operate, what were their resources, level of interest, level of power and how much attention and priority they gave to the nature.

The general insights I made were that in 1960s the government had a lot of power and was the main decision-maker and developer, while non-governmental stakeholders (who usually were actual area users and therefore, had high interests) did not have much power and were not included into decision making. The gov-

ernment at that time was giving low priority to nature, as excitement about the recently built Delta Works was high. Another important stakeholder was a Rotterdam Port, which at that time was a governmental stakeholder because of being a part of municipal department. Port’s interests were extremely high as they envisaged the project area for the port expansion and the city functions that would accompany it.

Their ideas were never accepted, instead, worked as a catalyst for the environmentalists to make their first steps towards a more nature-friendly delta. Subsequent plans for the project area were much more respectful regarding nature. It reflected in the plans through zoning of natural and recreational use areas, because it was believed that they should mix as little as possible. In the 1980s a striking step towards public involvement was an evaluation note, where every inhabitant could state his opinion about the development of the area. It resulted in an overview of the policy which emphasized nature preservation enhancement.

Later that decade, a decision to make into depth research on physical properties of the reclaimed area was made before any intervention could take place. This placed new typology of stakeholders - researchers who had power to make suggestions for the decision makers who could now see an area from a wider scope and with more information. Not many plans were made up until 2008, when New Delta Committee initiated their sub-programme of Delta Works.

At this point many changes happened. The New Delta Committee’s set of goals was safe, resilient and vital long-term delta development, where an integrated approach is used. It should ensure safe, but ecologically and economically vibrant delta. The social participation (citizens and businesses) is fostered at the beginning of the programme. What is more, a stakeholder on wider European scale (European Directive) is involved as apprehension, that delta is only a part of a much bigger system covering various countries (trans boundary system), is adopted. Public participation and power obtainment by non-governmental stakeholders is increasing while government undergoes the process of devolution.

Literature: UN-HABITAT (2001). Section 2: Tools to Support Participatory Urban Decision Making Process. [online] Available at: < http://www.polytechnic.edu.na/academics/ schools/engine_infotech/civil/libraries/urban_planning/ Urban%20Planning%20Tools_StakeholderAnalysis.htm> [Accessed 11 May 2013].

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65 V Afterword

Figure 66: multi actor-analysis Drawing by author.

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III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

+ to economy, so later it was exchanged to Government decides and funds

A conclusion scheme of figure 66 on previous page is presented below. Four aspects of the analysed plans are summarized: plan’s priority to nature, how much flexible and adaptive to changing environmental and social conditions it is, was the plan powered by governmental stakeholders or was it influenced by the devolution process, and finally, whose interests the plan was promoting: economy’s, nature’s or of both?

So, the conclusions are that not long after the execution of Delta Works, an awareness to nature started to increase, and if at the beginning the priority was given

Cooperation between governmental forces: ‘Nature and Recreation Board Grevelingen’

Involvement of semi-governmental forces: Nature conservation institutions; Research Institutions

Awareness, separation

-

Cooperation between governmental forces: ‘Nature and Recreation Board Grevelingen’

-

High priority to nature

Not adaptive plan

-

Adaptive plan

Involvement of semi-governmental forces: Nature conservation institutions; Research Institutions

Working with nature

The New Delta plan

1956

1970

1967

1969

Figure 67: conclusion scheme of multi-actor analysis Drawing by author.

-

Devolution Nature

Conservation, attention to the shelf area Need for bigger participation of private parties

‘Fixed’ plan

1960

-

Integration into the spatial planning Learning about the nature

Learning about the nature

Natural and recreational areas

Port

Recreation and forests

Port

-

1988

Aknowledgement of economic value

Research on natural processes

Awareness, separation

1990

+

Low priority to nature

Economy

Public involvement and evaluation

1980

1975

1990

1988

2000

1993

2010

2008

Time

Plans 66

+

Learning about the nature

‘Fixed’ plan

Governmental (centralized) -

Nature was disregarded

Conservation, attention to the shelf area

Both sides benefit

+

Research on natural processes

Nature was disregarded

Government decides and funds

Public involvement and evaluation Natural and recreational areas

Port

Port

Recreation and forests

nature. In my opinion, relation between nature and economy should evolve towards a mutual support and become beneficial for both parties. What is more, the way of planning had evolved from purely governmental (centralized) towards a process, where many parties at different levels and scales are involved (process of devolution). Finally, the plans are aiming flexibility and1980 1960 towards 1970 adaptability to changing environment as the lesson of ‘trapping’ the nature into an artificial state1956 is learnt. 1967 1969 1975

Production services: - food - wood - water - energy - medicines - substances

Cultural services:

- recreation - health - education - archeological record

Ecosystem

Regulating services:

- erosion control - water quality regulation - carbon capture - biodiversity - nutrient cycle

Figure 69: types of ecosystem services Drawing by author.

Source: SMIT, M.E., et al., 2012.

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Sustainability trends “Sustainability is the ability to maintain or improve the societal, ecological and economic spectrum (a.k.a. people, planet, profit)”(TRENDSACTIVE, 2010). In the Southwest Dutch delta the ratio between these three components have not been equal since the construction of the Delta Works: people were safe and new conditions stimulated economic profit in such sectors like agriculture and recreation. However, lack of attention to one of the component - the ‘planet’, brought us to the situation as we have now - a imbalance of a whole system.

What we need is to include nature and activate the system as a co-dependent circle, where every aspect stimulates the well-functioning of other aspects.

A study on interdependence and

Tourism trends Globalization resulted in a possibility for more foreign tourists, however it also brought an increased competition from international tourist destination market.

That is why for the tourism and recreation industry it is crucial to recognise and deal with change across a wide range of behavioural, environmental and technological factors and the way they interact (DWYER, L., et al., 2008).

I Forward II Framework

coevolution of human economies and natural ecosystems over time and space is called ecological economics. Robert Constanza attempted to valuate the global ecosystem in 1997 (fig. 68) by determining the ‘price’ of the ecosystem services by the environment.

The open oceans, continental shelves, and estuaries had the highest total value, and the highest per-hectare values went to estuaries, swamps/floodplains, and seagrass/ algae beds (COSTANZA, R. et al., 1998). The ecosystem services are the humankind benefits from a multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by the ecosystems.

Ecosystem services are grouped into three broad categories (fig. 69): production (such as food, water), regulating (such as control of climate and disease, nutrient cycles, crop pollination) and cultural services (spiritual and recreational benefits). Monetary value attachment to the nature can have a crucial impact on decision making towards more sustainable developments.

III Research & Analysis

Figure 68: global map of the value of ecosystem services Source: COSTANZA, R. et al. (1998). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Ecological Economics 25 (1): 3–15.

“Societal trends are trends that relate to the social and cultural values and practices within a society” (TRENDSACTIVE, 2010). The trends are formed by the political and economic forces, environmental changes and the explosive growth of information technology.

In my case, broader societal movement can become an important argument in decision making and investment into something that is not an economic trade, something that will bring the outcomes only in a long-term period, but is still very important. I will shortly discuss sustainability, tourism and recreation, and energy trends and how do they relate to my project area.

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Sustainability, tourism and energy

V Afterword

societal trends

Figure 70: Faldheim wind farm Source: ASSESTS INHABITAT, n.d. Feldheim wind farm. [image online] Available at: <http://assets.inhabitat.com/ wp-content/blogs.dir/1/files/2013/02/feldheim-windfarm.jpeg> [Accessed 12 May 2013].

Literature: TRENDSACTIVE (2010). Societal Trends. [online] Available at: < http://www.trendsactive.com/#!/our-trends/ mentality-trends/> [Accessed 12 May 2013].

DWYER, L., EDWARDS, D., MISTILIS, N., ROMAN, C., SCOTT N. & COOPER, C. (2008). Megatrends underpinning tourism to 2020: analysis of key drivers for change.

Queensland: CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd. COSTANZA, R. et al. (1998). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Ecological Economics 25 (1): 3–15.

SMIT, M.E., BLOM, M.J., WARRINGA, G.E.A. (2012). Economische waardering en verzilvering van ecosysteembaten in Natura 2000-gebieden in Europa / Drie case studies in België en Nederland. Delft: CE Delft.

BOYER, M. (2013). Feldheim, Germany Generates 100% of its Energy From Renewable Sources! [online] Inhabitat. Available at: <http://inhabitat.com/powered-by100-renewable-energy-german-town-of-feldheimachieves-energy-independence/> [Accessed 12 May 2013 ].

Here are some of the main trends that challenge the nowadays tourism industry: - the growing urban congestion in both the industrialized and developing worlds leads to the increasingly felt need to engage in discretionary tourism to escape and/or to indulge; - ageing of populations has implications for the type of tourism experiences that will be demanded by visitors and the types of products and services that tourism businesses need to develop; - individuals, particularly those in the developed countries, have an increased social and environmental consciousness, seeking ‘authentic’ tourism experiences (wish to be involved as participators not spectators); - holidays are becoming more specialised, and increasingly carry with them some kind of self improvement experience (emphasis on health, well-being, education, skill development and cultural appreciation); - changing work patterns allow for more flexibility of travel plans (flexible job schedules allowing them to have more, but shorter holidays, advanced technologies give the possibility to work from home); - special interest markets (rural, seniors, nature-based, cultural and heritage, health and wellness, event, adventure, eco-tourism and more); - interactive access to product through ICT (need for self-organization).

Energy trends Due primarily to population growth and economic development, the biological and physical resources of the Earth are being degraded and/or exhausted. One of the major economic issues in the world is the inevitable rise in the price of oil and the consequent impact this will have on economies, given the current dependence on fossil-fuel based energy sources ((DWYER, L., et al., 2008). Therefore, there are more and more investments into the research and production of renewable energy and energy efficiency schemes. Being self-sustaining is becoming a question of supremacy, however not yet on a daily routine.

A German town Feldheim, which generates 100% of its energy from renewable sources is a great example. A small village located about 60 kilometres from Berlin has its own energy grid and generates all of its power from wind, solar and biogas. Feldheim is home to just 150 inhabitants, but it has become a major tourist destination in recent years, drawing journalists, delegations and filmmakers from all over the world to marvel at the town’s energy independence. In 2010, the residents of Feldheim each chipped in €3,000 to build their own electric grid, which gave them control over electric prices in the town. Feldheim residents now pay about 30 percent less for electricity (BOYER, 2013).

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incorporated into the developments. Unfortunately, due to inflexibility of engineering constructions it is not possible to bring the natural functions of an estuary completely back, however some adjustments to existing situation can be made, which can bring human and nature closer again.

When creating a new vision it is crucial to learn from the past. The nature of developments in this area is inherent from a long-term thinking, that is why any attempt to prepare a precise end-state plan is destined to fail. Further developments should work as the guidelines that would adapt to ever changing environmental and socioeconomic conditions and bring benefits to both sides no matter what happens in the future.

III Research & Analysis

Every intervention starting from the building of the first dike brought nature and the Man further apart. The peak was reached when the Delta Works were constructed and nature was trapped in the artificial state. The project strictly regarded safety and economy (in other words - human needs), while attention to ecology was not given.

The times have changed, new perspectives and values in nowadays society arose - people understood that a lot of natural qualities have been lost since the construction of Delta Works. More knowledge about the natural systems was gained, the objectives of Delta Works soon will be hard to fulfil as due to the sea level rise the safety measures will be outdated in 2070, while endless rise of the dikes is unacceptable.

Agriculture, which was one of the main argument that contested for the Delta Works, is now loosing its importance due to the opening of the world market and the possibility to produce elsewhere much cheaper.

Recreation is at the similar situation - the idea of Delta Works as the 8th wonder of the industrial world does not attract so many visitors as it used to in 60s. All in all, not many economic activities are directly related to the main resource of the region water.

This all give a strong motivation for the search of new identities for the southwest Dutch delta where relation between engineering infrastructure and nature could be reinvented in a different way, where the value of nature is recognized and

IV Design

Conclusions

V Afterword

research & analysis

072

aim

073

design for regulating services

076

design for production services

078

design for cultural services

088

design implementation

112

visualizations

118

visualization

Nature and economy - a mutual support

Natural development - as an alternative to dikes

Rehabilitating ecological productivity

Re-enforcing the potentials

Strategy

Changing landscape

The new land-use

aim

Nature and economy - a mutual support Stemming from the research which was done according the research questions, an aim of design part of the graduation project is formulated: To demonstrate the ways of capturing an economic value of the nature in order to use it for the vital socio-economic development of the Grevelingen lake area.

and cultural services. It is important to mention that a proposed design is not a master plan or an image of an end state, but rather a spatial organization scheme, which can be applied on any scale, acceptable at a certain period of time. It would be logical to adapt the design for a smaller area and look how it evolves during time. Later it can be used on a wider scope with the new information that could be adopted from the pilot project.

Further questions for the design part are: How to design for the safe future of the delta where nature is put forward?

What is the fruitful balance between engineering infrastructure and creating new roles for the natural processes? and How to design in order to promote ecosystem services?

The main design is executed in layers according to the theory of ecosystem services.

Design for the regulating services forms a basis for the rest of the designs: production

Nature

Economy 72

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I Forward II Framework

Here, water during the storm surge flood a designated area between lowered inner dike (along the river) and higher outer dike (fig. 71), letting large amounts of water to be stored, thus protecting valuable areas nearby from flooding (COX, et al., 2006). These areas are called a flood control areas (FCA). These areas will be flooded once or twice a year, usually during winter, therefore some agricultural activities might still be possible (COX, et al., 2006). An alternative set-up is controlled reduced tide areas (CRT), where tidal regime is introduced.

During normal tidal cycles, water flows in and out the area through well-designed culverts. This also means the area is used as a nature conservation area (BROEKX, et al., 2010). Typical agricultural activities are not possible there, but can be changed into saline crops cultivation. The system of CRT and FCA areas is a way of using existing water management infrastructure with the new, more nature-friendly approach. It might be more cost efficient and less aggressive for the residents whose living environment will change drastically. The areas chosen for the land-use change are not picked accidentally. If we put a 13th century map on top of existing situation we will see that the areas I determined are the oldest ones and therefore, the lowest ones (because of a process of subsidence) - (fig. 73).

In design for regulating services (fig. 72) the current system of dikes has to be adapted in order to accommodate the new concept of flood protection control.

III Research & Analysis

Figure 71: schematic section of flood control area (FCA) (A) and controlled reduced tide area (CRT) (B) Source: COX, T., MARIS, T., VLEESCHAUWER, P., MULDER, T., SOETAERT, K., MEIRE, P. (2006). Flood control areas as an opportunity to restore estuarine habitat. Ecological engineerinf 28, 55-63.

Over the past ten years, questions have been raised about the desirability and usefulness of the rigid technological approach (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004). Maybe there is a fruitful solution between engineering infrastructure and working together with the forces of the nature and the characteristics of an estuary?

The primary economic driver in the Dutch delta was agriculture, which is currently diminishing and loosing its rationale of maintaining endiked land for regional food supply. If it continues, a new choice opens - creating a more dynamic delta where part of the natural processes are back and which is able to adjust to changing conditions.

This is possible by giving part of the land back to sea by displacing or adjusting the dikes and enabling temporary inundation and sedimentation processes to take place. When the sea floods an area, suspended sediment settle down and the ground in a longer period starts to raise. Depending on how frequent an area is flooded, it can rise up until safe elevation. In the new floodplains the estuarine nature can rehabilitate and an ecological productivity and diversity of species can be optimised (ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY, 2004). Living in these areas would be possible by applying adaptive housing (floating housing, housing on poles, etc).

For applying this idea into a project site I used a case study of a Scheldt estuary, where such approach was used.

IV Design

Natural development - as an alternative to dikes

V Afterword

design for regulating services

Legend:

Lake Grevelingen area: 11 000 ha (S) Depoldered area: x ha (S1) Annual sea level rise: 2 mm (h) Period of closure from the sea: 43 years (t) Amount of sand needed in m3:

urban areas sand replenishment islands CRT areas FCA areas primary dikes

(S + S1) Ă&#x2014; h Ă&#x2014; t

culverted dikes new primary dikes secondary dikes water exchange

CRT

CRT

CRT

CRT

CRT

FCA CRT

CRT

FCA CRT

FCA

CRT CRT FCA

CRT

Figure 72: design for regulating services Drawing by author.

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ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004).

Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXLpress Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Inner dike

Outer dike Storm

FCA

CRT

Hightened secondary dike

Storm waves Tide

(daily)

(1-2 times/year)

(1-2 times/year)

Tidal waves (daily)

Secondary dike

Figure 74: scheme of innundation areas Drawing by author.

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COX, T., MARIS, T., VLEESCHAUWER, P., MULDER, T., SOETAERT, K., MEIRE, P. (2006). Flood control areas as an opportunity to restore estuarine habitat. Ecological engineerinf 28, 55-63.

Primary dike with culverts

BROEKX, S., SMETS, S., LIEKENS, I., BULCKAEN, D., NOCKER, L. D. (2010). Designing a long-term flood risk management plan for the Scheldt estuary using a risk-based approach. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. MULDER, J.P.M., CLEVERINGA, J., TAAL, M.D., VAN WESENBEECK, B.K., KLIJN, F. (2010). Sedimentperspectief op de Zuidwestelijke Delta. Delft: Deltares.

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Literature: Figure 73: height map with 13th century map on top Drawing by author.

IV Design

In order for the land to grow together with the sea level rise a sufficient amount of sand must be available in the system. An example of Oosterschelde and its closable storm surge barrier showed that even though there is a semi-open connection with the sea, a sediment exchange does not occur and the basin starts to suffer from the ‘sand hunger’. To avoid this, a certain amount of sand must be stored in the lake. In order to know how much sand is needed I use a simple formula (surface area of lake (S1)+surface area of CRT (S2) × height of annual sea level rise (h) × years(t), which is presented in the work of Jan Mulder (MULDER, et al., 2010).

V Afterword

Majority of current primary dikes have to be adjusted with the culverts, some segments of secondary dikes must be heightened to meet the primary dike safety standards, while new primary dikes must be constructed in the CRT and FCA areas around existing towns (fig. 72 and 74).

FOOD: Agriculture Live stock ENERGY:

Saline cultivation

Wind

low-value crops

Tidal

Aquaculture

Biomass (from halophytes)

Seaweed Oyster parcels Commercial fishes

Figure 75: design for production services Drawing by author.

76

MULDER, J., TAAL, M., TANGELDER, M., JANSEN, L., HENKES, R., WERNERS, S. (2012). Sedimentstrategie voor de ZW Delta: een verkenning van kansen. Delft: Deltares.

+1.00 m

Saline cultivation

Figure 76: scheme of cultivation areas Drawing by author.

77

I Forward

IV Design

BROEKX, S., SMETS, S., LIEKENS, I., BULCKAEN, D., NOCKER, L. D. (2010). Designing a long-term flood risk management plan for the Scheldt estuary using a risk-based approach. Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

In the newly converted areas (CRT and FCA) some productivity is expected as well. Agriculture can be maintained within a flood control areas (FCA), however it is expected that high-value crops as vegetables, sugar beets and orchards will be replaced with low-value crops as corn or pasture for live-stock (BROEKX, et al., 2010).

For the floodplains (CRT) the production services would be reed, saline crops (salicornia, sea lavender) and aquaculture (smallscale fish farming and shellfish farming) (MULDER et al., 2012). Salicornia is a plant that can be used in many ways. First of all, it is a primary product (a sea vegetable) that can be sold for the restaurants. Secondly, the plant contains 33% of oil and can be used as a cooking oil and it can be the source of a biofuel. One more benefit of saline cultivation is that it reduces the amount of salt in underground water levels leading to an improvement in the surrounding land usage for agriculture.

Shellfish

Fish farming

Tidal routine

24 hours under water

V Afterword

Literature:

The new approach for water management also enhances rehabilitation of specific characteristics of the estuary - ecological productivity and the diversity of species can be optimised.

For example, the tides are bringing back more momentum into the water, so the deeper levels are supplied with more oxygen and nutrients. It is extremely important for the productivity of the oyster industry as oyster parcels will be constantly refreshed with fresh sea water. The salinity of the lake will drop down so the Zeekraal (salicornia) return is possible to the waters of the Grevelingen lake. Connection with the North Sea will be accommodated with the tidal power plant, which will enable a production of green energy for about 100 000 households. Strong winds passing the Brouwersdam are giving a great possibility to build a wind park, which will make the dam a real â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;power machineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Connection between compartments and the North sea will give the possibility for migrating fish species to return and bring more profit for the fishing industry.

II Framework

Rehabilitating ecological productivity

III Research & Analysis

design for production services

Rozenburg

Maasluis

Rotterdam

Slinge

Hoogvliet

Zuid Holland

Rhon

Spijenkasse / De Akkers

Hellevoetsluis Zuidland

Stellendam

Bruinisse Zierikzee

Tholen

Noord-Beveland

Noord Brabant

Figure 77: design for cultural services Drawing by author.

Middelburg

Goes

Zuid-Beveland 78

Legend: Nature organizations New islands Dunes Adaptive housing Town expansion Proposed renewal of old tramline Secondary proposed renewal of old tramline Possible railway or metro extensions Railways Marinas and boating routes New canals Main entrances through train/metro, tram and highway Hiking routes Hiking route around the lake Highways Primary roads Secondary roads Confirmed highway extensions Proposed highway extensions

79

A natural landscape of an estuary can be used for the new typology of housing - an adaptive housing, which is resistant to changing intertidal environment. It can be floating housing or houses on the poles.

Such way of living is exciting as it brings a human being much closer to the nature.

What is more, the project area is surrounded by an urban fringe with major metropolitan areas of the North-West Europe, which are great sources of people who want to escape from a busy congested environment into a calm, natural area and support the tourism industry of the project area.

Accessibility from the outside is very important if more people are tempted to live or visit the project area. The most promising neighbour is Rotterdam. Distance from the port area and Stellendam is only 18km, giving, for example, a highly educated port workers a thought of living in a nature-surrounded environment. An old tram track that used to connect Rotterdam and islands can be re-used for a separate fast lane for the bus. If commuting increases and the fast bus is not enough, two other possibilities might be discussed. The first is

All towns in the project area have their own identity, some of them are strong already, while others can be re-inforced through various interventions. An analysis of town identities helped me to apoint each town to a specific group (fig. 79) and create a map where interconnections between them are visible (fig. 78).

Such division of towns according to their identity can be useful for the tourism industry and marketing of towns image. For example, if the family is interested in historic towns and active sports, it can pick a brochure and check the places they wish to visit and stay. For better interconnectivity I

I Forward II Framework

the prolonging of the railway from Maasluis up until Stellendam. The second would be prolonging of the metro line from Spijkenisse/De Akkers up until the same Stellendam. In all cases, the town will have a huge potential to become a hub for transport and industries that are usually attached to the fast connections. Other towns that can become gates to the project area are Bruinisse and Zierikzee. Bruinisee is already developing its image as the gateway and a highway extension that would connect project area directly with North Brabant and further - Germany would help to achieve this image. Zierikzee could be connected with North and South Beveland that are already very popular tourist destinations by the tram up until the train station of Goes and would let the project area be included into a high quality network of tourism areas.

III Research & Analysis

New landscape conditions can help to bring out much of a cultural potential that the project area has. This can be done through increasement of attractive places to live and to visit. Therefore, design for cultural services focuses on improving living conditions and using the potentials to improve tourism and recreation sector.

IV Design

Re-inforcing potentials

V Afterword

design for cultural services

propose to restore an old path of a steam tram that was crossing the area in the 19th century and connect the towns that have the highest potential for tourism (fig. 78 and 80). An old way of travelling brings an area a sense of authenticity - what tourists value a lot.

Some other identities could be strengthened due to the new landscape

TOWN IDENTITIES: Food Healthcare Oldest towns (circular church) Hotels Active sports SPA & Wellness

qualities. For example, a natural estuarine landscape is a perfect place for a SPA/ Wellness or a healthcare centre for elderly people. Such development goes well together with the current trends in tourism industry. What is more, improved environmental conditions increase the productivity of local food, therefore, a development of a slow food tourism can be an interesting idea for the local entrepreneurs.

Camping Fisheries Goedereede

Agrotourism

Ouddorp

Stellendam

De Punt Melissant

Port-Zelande

Middelharnis Dirksland

Rennesse

Brouwershaven Ellemeet

Den-Osse

Stad aanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Haringvliet

Brouwershaven

Noordwelle

Zonnemaire

Nieuw-Haamstede Haamstede

Bommenede De Bommel Nieuwe Tonge Battenoord

Serooskerke Noordgouwe

Burgh

Herkingen

Dreischor

Oude Tonge

Kerkwerve Sirjansland

Schuddebeurs

Zierikzee

Figure 78: scheme of the towns with similar identities and interrelations between them Drawing by author.

Ooltgensplaat

Oosterland Nieuwekerk

Bruinisse

Ouwerkerk

80

Nature

Water sports / marina Fishery

Residential Shopping

Agriculture

Amenities

RTM tramline

81 Noordgouwe Dreischor Nieuwerkerk

Camping

Monuments

GOEREE-OVERFLAKKEE

Burgh

Figure 80: a tram route through olderst towns of the project area Images from wikipedia, google maps and www.geschiedeniszeeland.nl

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

BURGHSLUIS

I Forward

WESTEN-SCHOUWEN

BURGH-HAAMSTEDE

NIEUW-HAAMSTEDE

RENESSE 800

NOORDWELLE 1226

ELLEMEET

SEROOSKERKE

KERKWERVE

1300

13th cent.

1298

ZIERIKZEE 1248

SCHUDDEBEURS

OUWEKERK

1233

NIEUWEKERK

OOSTERLAND

BRUINISSE

SIRJANSLAND

NOORDGOUWE

DREISCHOR

1206 1298

ZONNEMARE

BROUWERSHAVEN

DEN OSSE

SCHARENDIJKE

SCHOUWEN-DUIVELAND

HERKINGEN

BATTENNOORD

NIEUWE-TONGE

OUDE-TONGE

ACHTHUIZEN

OOLTGENPLAST

DEN BOMMEL

STAD AAN’T HARINGVLIET

MIDDELHARNIS

DIRKSLAND

MELISSANT

STELLENDAM

776

1285

1229

12th cent.

Figure 79: groups of towns with similar identities Drawing by author.

V Afterword

Active sports

GOEDEREEDE

Hotels

OUDDORP

Healthcare

1312

Circular church

1300

Protected village

In order to understand what determines the town to one group or another I analysed the history, current activities of the town and the spatial essence of urban cores.

One of the most interesting group is the group of oldest/historical towns. Most of them have a very specific urban core - a circle with the church in the middle and the

ring of houses that surrounds it (fig. 81). Most of such towns are in the Schouwen-Duiveland island because it was settled down by the humans much earlier than GoereeOverflakkee. The most picturesque town of such urban form is Noordgouwe, where the ring is practically perfect. There are at least twelve more towns of a similar structure.

Another typology of historic urban cores is the town surrounded by defensive walls and which has a number of monuments that can be seen in the townâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skyline (fig. 82). One of the best examples of such structure is Zierikzee (fig. 83).

- Noordgouwe (1298) - Oude Tonge (1438) - Nieuwe Tonge 1461) - Brouwershaven (1285) - Zonnemare (776) - Dreischor (1206) - Nieuwekerk (1100) - Ouwerkerk (1233) - Kerkwerve (1298) - Serooskerke (1200) - Noordwelle (1300) - Renesse (1226) - Burgh Haamstede (800)

Figure 81: a typical circular urban core structure of a historical town in the project area Drawing by author.

82

I Forward II Framework

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

Figure 82: a skyline of Zierikzee with defensive walls and various monuments Drawing by author.

Figure 83: a typical urban core with defensive walls structure in the project area Drawing by author.

83

V Afterword

Zierikzee (1248)

- Brouwershaven (1285) - Zierikzee - Middelharnis - Goedereede - Dirksland

Another typology of urban cores is closely related to water or more precisely, to port or marina that define activities such as fishing, active sports, local food markets. In some of the towns this water-related urban structure is well integrated into the town and activities take place in the very heart

of it. An example of such structure is Brouwershaven. Here, livability of the space could be strengthened even more if the tram would cross through it and small portable market cubicles would create more activities in a spacious square.

Portable market cubicles Tramline

Figure 84: a water-related urban core Drawing by author.

84

spaces with water-related activities, such as market on water. What is more, dike could be adjusted to support more than its primary function of safety but other functions as well: retail or horeca and have special viewing platforms on top of the dike to admire the beauty of open landscape.

I Forward

Less attractive but with great potential urban core is where the port or marina is located outside the town and is separated by the tall primary dike. Herkingen illustrates such situation perfectly (fig. 85). Here, the situation could be improved by bringing the water into the town and by creating

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

- Herkingen - Ouddorp haven - Battenoord - Bruinisse - Scharendijke

Figure 85: a water-related urban core Drawing by author.

85

Proposal...

Figure 86: market on water Source: http://the-nicest-pictures.blogspot.nl

V Afterword

Current situation

Figure 87: possible situation of urban core of Herkingen Drawing by author.

86

I Forward

floors. Renesse and Burgh-Haamstede are perfect examples. Here is the biggest concentration of tourists staying for the night and enjoying and wider variety of restaurants, shops and other activities.

Figure 88: an urban core of resort Drawing by author.

87

V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

- Renesse (1226) - Burgh-Haamstede

One more typology of urban cores is a tourist hub with lots of amenities, shopping, horeca and other functions, in other word - a resort (fig. 88). These towns have wide pedestrian zones, small scale building typology with open and interactive ground

design implementation

Strategy

Literature: SMIT, M.E., BLOM, M.J., WARRINGA, G.E.A. (2012). Economische waardering en verzilvering van ecosysteembaten in Natura 2000-gebieden in Europa / Drie case studies in België en Nederland. Delft: CE Delft.

COX, T., MARIS, T., VLEESCHAUWER, P., MULDER, T., SOETAERT, K., MEIRE, P. (2006). Flood control areas as an opportunity to restore estuarine habitat. Ecological engineerinf 28, 55-63.

BROEKX, S., SMETS, S., LIEKENS, I., BULCKAEN, D., NOCKER, L. D. (2010). Designing a long-term flood risk management plan for the Scheldt estuary using a risk-based approach. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. WITTEVEEN+BOS (2012). MKBA verkenning Grevelingen. Deventer : Witteveen+Bos. COSTANZA, R. et al. (1998). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Ecological Economics 25 (1): 3–15.

This graduation project besides a design task, has a planning strategy as well. The strategy concerns the timescale, investments and retributions - in other words, it shows piece by piece where and how much should be invested first and who, how much and in what period benefit from it. A rough cost-benefit analysis forms a basis for the strategy. What is more, the calculated benefits (expressed in euros or other terms) are coming from the ecosystem services only.

The socio-economic benefits from the natural areas are not widely recognized and accepted. Protection of these areas is often regarded merely as a cost or burden to the community and the economy rather than as a benefit (SMIT, et al., 2012).

This graduation project is aiming to identify, quantify and to value the range of potential benefits delivered by managing the project area, and to consider the range of options available for capturing or generating financial returns from the range of benefits identified. In this way I can prove that nature is not a ‘burden’ to the community, but on the contrary, a partner for increasing the socio-economic vitality in the area.

Calculating the benefits coming from the interventions in the state of ecosystem services was not an easy task. A fruitful source for calculations was study by SMIT et al. (2012) - Economische waardering en verzilvering van ecosysteembaten in Natura 2000-gebieden in Europa; COSTANZA et al. (1998) - The value of the world’s ecosys-

tem services and natural capital; and an article by Broekx et al. (2010) - Designing a long-term flood risk management plan for the Scheldt estuary using a risk-based approach. The way of cashing the benefit can be direct or indirect. Direct benefit is when service can be directly sold to a client (like food or energy). Indirect benefit is when due to the intervention the losses are prevented (like flood control saves human lives and helps to avoid economic damage or how production of ‘green’ energy reduces the carbon dioxide emissions and helps to avoid the damage to environment).

Not all interventions are equal in their importance. There is a group of interventions that form a core (A) and which create new conditions for other projects to be implemented (B), where both nature and economy benefit. Therefore, they are highly dependent on the core interventions and their appearance on the timescale is important.

The last set of projects (C) are completely independent and might appear in any period of the timescale. I will comment each group of projects onwards.

88

I Forward

Independant

C1: Connections

C2: Green energy

ly d

h

Hig

Hig

t

an

nd

e ep

hly

de

pe

nd

II Framework

B1: Changing land-use

an

t

C

Main projects that create new conditions for other projects, where both economy and nature benefit

A4: Adapting dikes

A3: Depositing sand

B4: New living environments

Ind

ep

B3: Injection into recreation facilities

end

I

C3: xxx

ant

end

p nde

ant

Figure 89: a strategy scheme showing interdependencies between each other Drawing by author.

89

A2: Re-connecting with the North Sea

IV Design

B

A

A1: Re-introduction of tides

B2: Injection into fishing and oyster industry

V Afterword

B5: Bridge Grevelingendam

III Research & Analysis

New conditions

design implementation

B

A1: Re-introduction of tides

Private investors

Stakeholders: - Strukton civiel en DELTA - Energy consumers

Public investors

In collaboration with: - Rijkswaterstaat - Water boards

Involved parties

- Fishermen - Oyster industry participants - Divers - Boaters - Holiday makers - Recreation entrepreneurs - Natuur en Recreatieschap De Grevelingen

Investments

Tides are back

Possible ways of funding: - Corporate sponsorship from Rotterdam Port for obtaining a greener image - Flood protection Programme (HWBP) - SDE (encouraging sustainable energy programme)

A

C

As mentioned before, the group A forms a core for the overall strategy. It means that if implemented, it creates completely new conditions that can trigger an emergence of other interventions.

First on the list of A group projects is re-introduction of tides. Converting an existing dam into a closable barrier and adding the tidal energy central will require € 300-500 mln investment. There might me also some funding possibilities, one of them could be a corporate sponsorship from the Rotterdam Port which is currently seeking to obtain a greener image. An investment into a green energy is a perfect opportunity. There are some National funds as well (Flood protection Programme HWBP and Encouraging Sustainable Energy Programme SDE). The annual retributions are expected to be € 140-230 mln from the sell of tidal energy (production services). Main investors are the private investors and the public investors are only collaborators. Because of improved water conditions there are many parties that are directly involved

(like fishermen, oyster industry participants, holiday makers, recreation entrepreneurs and etc.).

This project is one of the most promising one, because even though it costs a lot of money it retributes the costs in a short period (2,5 years). This is why it is obvious why the main investors are the private stakeholders. A schematic explanation of investments and retributions on a timescale is presented below.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tidal energy € 140-230 mln

Tidal central

5 years

€ 300-500 mln

In 2,5 years

Fast retributions / From production services / Private investors

Overtoom

2 years

€ 8 mln

Sand replenishment

2 years

€ 88 mln

Adapting dikes

4 years

€ 472 mln

Timeline

90

II Framework

I Forward Figure 90: location of the project and its influence on water basin Drawing by author.

91

V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

Getijcentrale Brouwersdam (http://nieuws. zeeland.nl)

design implementation

B

A2: Re-connecting with the North Sea

Public investors

Stakeholders: - Province of Zeeland - Rijkswaterstaat - Municipality Schouwen-Duiveland - Natuur- en Recreatieschap De Grevelingen - The Dutch Zeejachthaven Development (NZO)

Involved parties

- Recreational boaters - Recreation entrepreneurs - Marina owners in Grevelingen - Fishermen

Investments

Tides are back

Private investors

The second project is the boating connection with the North Sea. This intervention can be implemented in two years period at a cost of € 8 mln. Here, the group of investors are mixed between private and public. Bigger involvement of public investors means that it is not expected to get the retributions as fast possible (in around 10 years). The retributions are expected through the recreational boating and the will to visit a project as an iconic object (cultural services), and through the regulating services - the possibility for the fish to migrate. All these services have value, however it is mostly an indirect retribution except for the costs of transferring the ship through the gates.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tidal energy € 140-230 mln

Tidal central

5 years

€ 300-500 mln

Overtoom

2 years

In 2,5 years

Fast retributions / From production services / Private investors

Fish migration - € P.M.; Iconic object (tourist attraction) - € P.M.; Recreational boating - € P.M.

In ~ 10 years

€ 8 mln

Sand replenishment

2 years

A

C

Middle-term retributions / From regulating & cultural services / Mixed investors

€ 88 mln

Adapting dikes

4 years

€ 472 mln

Timeline

92

I Forward II Framework Figure 91: location of the project Drawing by author.

93

V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

Overtoom Brouwersdam (http://www.trouw.nl)

design implementation

B

A3: Depositing sand

Public investors Involved parties

Stakeholders: - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen - Government (ministry of Infrstructure and Environment) - Entrepreneurs of recreation - Natura 2000 - Staatbosbeheer

Tides are back

Possible ways of funding: - The Delta Programme - Flood protection Programme (HWBP) - Stimuleringregeling Voordelta - Rural investment budget (ILG)

Investments

After the connection with the North Sea is built, a sand replenishment project can begin. This part is crucial as before reintroducing the tides a necessary amount of sand must be deposited into the lake, otherwise a “sand hunger” process can appear and a possibility to rise together with the sea level will be out of the question.

This project can cost around € 88 mln and main investors are only public. This is because there are no direct retributions that private investors are interested in. This project will bring only indirect retributions that still have a major importance. I talk about the flood control, increased habitat for nursery, water quality and climate regulation (regulating services). What is more, some benefits can be obtained through education and recreation (cultural services).

Some funding programmes might help to sustain this project (The Delta Programme, Flood protection Programme and others).

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tidal energy € 140-230 mln

Tidal central

5 years

€ 300-500 mln

Overtoom

2 years

A

C

In 2,5 years

Fast retributions / From production services / Private investors

Fish migration - € P.M.; Iconic object (tourist attraction) - € P.M.; Recreational boating - € P.M.

In ~ 10 years

€ 8 mln

Sand replenishment

2 years

€ 88 mln

Middle-term retributions / From regulating & cultural services / Mixed investors

Flood control - € P.M.; Habitat for nursery, water quality and climate regulation - € P.M; Education and recreation - € P.M.

In ~ 20 years

[ ... ]

Long-term retributions / From regulating & cultural services / Public investors

Adapting dikes

4 years

€ 472 mln

Timeline

94

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

Shorelines are naturally adaptive to sea level rise, as long as they are sufficiently supplied with sediment in order to be able to â&#x20AC;&#x153;keep upâ&#x20AC;? with the sea level rise (TAM, L., 2009).

IV Design

Sand replenishment (http://www.concretebasics.org)

Stable shoreline

Land level

Figure 92: location of the project Drawing by author.

95

V Afterword

Sea level

design implementation

B

A4: Giving the land back to the sea

Public investors Involved parties

Stakeholders: - Water boards - RIjkswaterstaat - Provinces - Municipalities - Residents around the dikes

Investments

Tides are back

Possible ways of funding: - The Delta Programme - Flood protection Programme (HWBP)

The last intervention from the group A is very important as well. Basically, it is the last step in order to obtain the new flood defence strategy. Here, the dikes must be updated in order to let the water come inside the poldered areas and let them be flooded daily (CRT) or once/twice a year (FCA).

The costs of adapting the dikes is very high - around € 472 mln, but it has a primary importance since we are dealing with the region’s safety and possibility to store water. So, the retributions will come from the regulating services - flood control and avoided damage in case of flood (see the scheme below). Here, the retributions are also indirect, therefore investors are only public. According to my calculations the costs will never be retributed, however if we look at the longer timescale, investments into the dike heightening will be cut once and for all as this flood protection strategy is based on land’s growth together with the sea level rise.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tidal energy € 140-230 mln

Tidal central

5 years

€ 300-500 mln

Overtoom

2 years

A

C

In 2,5 years

Fast retributions / From production services / Private investors

Fish migration - € P.M.; Iconic object (tourist attraction) - € P.M.; Recreational boating - € P.M.

In ~ 10 years

€ 8 mln

Sand replenishment

2 years

€ 88 mln

[ ... ]

In ~ 20 years

Flood control - € 147 mln from avoiding building dikes in other places + € 92 mln from avoided damage in case of flood.

Adapting dikes

4 years

Middle-term retributions / From regulating & cultural services / Mixed investors

Flood control - € P.M.; Habitat for nursery, water quality and climate regulation - € P.M; Education and recreation - € P.M.

€ 472 mln

Once

Long-term retributions / From regulating & cultural services / Public investors

...

Will never be retributed, / From regulating / Public investors but has high importance Timeline

96

Primary dikes updated with culverts - 86,5 km New primary dikes - 67,4 km New secondary dikes - 8,9 km Primary dikes

I Forward

Secondary dike updated to primary - 108,5 km

Secondary dikes Dunes Areas under the sea influence Areas under the weaker sea influence

II Framework

Controled reduced tide areas (CRT)

CRT

Flood control areas (FCA) Already naturalized areas

“Culverting”

CRT

CRT

CRT

FCA CRT

CRT

III Research & Analysis

CRT

FCA CRT

FCA

CRT CRT

CRT

Inner dike

Outer dike Storm

FCA

CRT (daily)

(1-2 times/year)

Figure 93: location of the project Drawing by author.

97

Hightened secondary dike

Storm waves Tide

(1-2 times/year)

Tidal waves (daily)

Secondary dike

Primary dike with culverts

Scheme of innundation areas Drawing by author.

V Afterword

CRT

IV Design

FCA

design implementation

B

B1: Changing the land-use

Public investors

Involved parties

Stakeholders: - Government - Provinces - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen - Nature organizations - Farmers - Science and Resaerch Institutes - Entrepreneurs of recreation Possible ways of funding: - LIFE programme (European level) - Stimuleringsregeling Voordelta - Subsidieregeling Kwaliteitimpluls natuur en landschap - Rural investment Budget (ILG) - Subsidie Natuur en Lanschap (SNL)

Change of land-use

4 years

€ 97 mln

The next group of interventions (group B) can appear only if the previous group is being implemented. An introduction of sea water into a currently arable land will not stop the farmers from producing the financial returns as the common way of agriculture can be changed into the saline cultivation. This industry is still very young and there is a lot of knowledge missing, however being one of the first areas that can introduce saline products on a commercial level can bring a very desirable ‘green’ image for the project area. What is more his idea is not unfamiliar to project area: Kust laboratorium is already conducting a research on saline cultivation.

This intervention can take place simultaneously with the group A interventions and it might long for four years and cost around € 97 mln. The retributions can be quite fast and come from regulating, production and cultural services (for more information look into appendix C). This can be a very successful project as money might return in only two years. That is why private investors like farmers, science and

research institutes or entrepreneurs of recreation might participate actively. What is more, few funding programmes can coincide with the goals of this project.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tides are back

Investments

A

C

Regulating services: € 25-25,4 mln/year; Production services: € 9,8 - 15 mln/year; Cultural services: € 11,7 mln/year.

In 2 years

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs a lot, but brings a lot as well.

Timeline

98

I Forward

Low-value crops Saline cultivation Nature organizations

Inland aquaculture

II Framework

CRT

Salsola

Sea lavender Salicornia

CRT

CRT

CRT CRT

CRT

FCA

CRT

FCA

“Space for economic development and landscape quality.”

FCA

Sea beet

Corn field

CRT

IV Design

Agretti

CRT

FCA

III Research & Analysis

CRT

CRT

Figure 94: location of the project Drawing by author.

99

Figure 95: aquaculture Source: KUSTLABORATORIUM (2013). Aquacultuur. [image online] Available at: <http://www.kustlaboratorium.nl/watis-kustlaboratorium/aquacultuur.htm> [Acessed 05 June 2013].

V Afterword

Sea aster

design implementation

B

B2: Injection into fishing and oyster industry

Public investors

Stakeholders: - Municipalities - Province Zeeland - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen - Staatsbosbeheer

Private investors

- I. S. M. de visserijsector of Grevelingen - Nederlandse Oestervereniging - WSV Bommenede - Sportvisserij Zuidwest Nederland - Herkingen Marina B.V - WSV Herkingen

Involved parties

- Residents - Fishermen - Tourists

Change of land-use

4 years

€ 97 mln

This intervention might be very appealing to the private investors, because due to improved water quality and reconnecting the lake with the sea, higher productivity in fishing and oyster industry can be achieved.

It was hard to calculate how much there has to be invested into improvement of the facilities of fishing and oyster industries, but according to the SMIT et al. (2012) research it can bring a financial return of € 91 mln a year.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tides are back

Investments

A

C

Regulating services: € 25-25,4 mln/year; Production services: € 9,8 - 15 mln/year; Cultural services: € 11,7 mln/year.

In 2 years

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs a lot, but brings a lot as well.

Injection into fishing and oyster industry Production services: € 91 mln/year.

2 years € 2,5 ++ mln 1 year

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs nothing, but brings a lot.

Timeline

100

Seaweed

Commercial fishes Fishing marinas to improve

Salicornia (seakraal)

Bommenede Lobster

Migrating fish: salmon

Herkingen Battenoord

Ostrea edulis

Figure 96: influence of the project Drawing by author.

101

Bruinisse

IV Design

Cod

V Afterword

Ouddorpse haven

III Research & Analysis

New oyster parcels

II Framework

I Forward

Oyster parcels

design implementation

B

B3: Injection into the recreation facilities

Public investors

There may be many interventions executed in the recreation industry that benefit strongly from improved water quality conditions and changed image of the landscape. Various SPA centres, observation towers, various activities on the newly created islands, etc. I used an existing ideas for the projects from the book Projectenboek Grevelingen where some costs were mentioned as well. These interventions will mainly attract private investors as investing into a recreation industry can bring a lot of revenues (from the cultural services) in quite a short period of time.

Stakeholders: - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen - Staatsbosbeheer - Municipalities

Private investors

- Stichting DING - Entrepreneurs - Zeeland Buitenland - Catarinenburg B.V

Involved parties

- Residents - Tourists

Regulating services: € 25-25,4 mln/year; Production services: € 9,8 - 15 mln/year; Cultural services: € 11,7 mln/year.

Change of land-use

4 years

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tides are back

Investments

A

C

In 2 years

€ 97 mln

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs a lot, but brings a lot as well.

Injection into fishing and oyster industry Production services: € 91 mln/year.

2 years € 2,5 ++ mln 1 year

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs nothing, but brings a lot.

Injection into recreation facilities Cultural services: P.M.

2 years

€ 127 + mln

In ~ 5 years

Fast retributions / Mainly private investors / Cost a lot and bring a lot.

Timeline

102

Hiking paths Marinas and recreational waterways

Inspiration center (Enno Zuidema Stedebouw, 2012)

Self-sufficient island development (Enno Zuidema Stedebouw, 2012)

Observation tower in intertidal area (design by Olaf Gipser and Vista)

Connecting urban areas with intertidal nature

Wellness center on island (design by Studio Noach + Anne Holtrop) SPA center Scharendijke (design by AMP arquitectos)

Figure 97: locations of the projects Drawing by author.

103

V Afterword

IV Design

Diving services

III Research & Analysis

Cycling paths

II Framework

I Forward

Project locations

design implementation

B

B4: New living environments

Private investors

Stakeholders: - Housing development companies

Involved parties

- Residents - Future residents

Regulating services: € 25-25,4 mln/year; Production services: € 9,8 - 15 mln/year; Cultural services: € 11,7 mln/year.

Change of land-use

4 years

Thanks to the new landscape a different typology of living environment can be created. Living in a nature surrounded environment has a lot of value, and being located not far away from the metropolitan area like Rotterdam give a perfect opportunity for the private investors to get involved with the adaptive housing development. It is very hard to tell how much this intervention will cost and how much it can bring back, however the point is that the ‘WOZ-waarde‘ (the real estate value) will be higher than it currently is. In this way high quality living environments will attract wealthier people who will invest more into the region.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tides are back

Investments

A

C

In 2 years

€ 97 mln

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs a lot, but brings a lot as well.

Injection into fishing and oyster industry Production services: € 91 mln/year.

2 years € 2,5 ++ mln 1 year

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs nothing, but brings a lot.

Injection into recreation facilities Cultural services: P.M.

2 years

€ 127 + mln

In ~ 5 years

In ~ 5 years Housing

€ 74 mln

Fast retributions / Mainly private investors / Cost a lot and bring a lot.

Cultural services: P.M.

In ~ 5 years

Fast retributions / Private investors / Cost a lotand bring a lot

104

I Forward

Normal developments Adaptive developments

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

Areas under the sea influence

Figure 97: possible locations of new living environments Drawing by author.

105

Figure 98: floating housing Source: BACA Architects (2009). The Life handbook. Long-term initiatives for flood environments. Bracknell: IHS BRE Press.

V Afterword

IV Design

Adaptive housing

design implementation

B

B5: Bridge Grevelingendam

Public investors Involved parties

Stakeholders: - Ministerie I&M - Provincies Zeeland and Zuid-Holland - Residents - Tourists - Fishermen

Regulating services: € 25-25,4 mln/year; Production services: € 9,8 - 15 mln/year; Cultural services: € 11,7 mln/year.

Change of land-use

4 years

The last intervention from the group B is important for its benefits from the regulating services. Connecting lakes Grevelingen and Volkeraak will strongly influence the water quality in the Volkeraak which will become saline as well. What is more, the fish migration will further contribute to the fishing industry. A bridge can become region’s architectural icon as well.

Since intervention does not have the direct retributions it will probably not attract private investors, therefore public investors should take control.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Tides are back

Investments

A

C

In 2 years

€ 97 mln

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs a lot, but brings a lot as well.

Injection into fishing and oyster industry Production services: € 91 mln/year.

2 years € 2,5 ++ mln 1 year

Fast retributions / Public and private investors / Costs nothing, but brings a lot.

Injection into recreation facilities Cultural services: P.M.

2 years

In ~ 5 years

€ 127 + mln

In ~ 5 years

Housing € 74 mln

Fast retributions / Mainly private investors / Cost a lot and bring a lot.

Cultural services: P.M.

In ~ 5 years

Bridge Grevelingendam Regulating services: P.M.; Cultural services: P.M..

2 years

€ 87 mln

Fast retributions / Private investors / Cost a lotand bring a lot

In ~ 20 years

[ ... ]

Long-term retributions / Public investors / Cost a lot, but is very important Timeline

106

I Forward III Research & Analysis

II Framework Figure 99: location of the project and its influence on the lake Volkeraak Drawing by author.

107

V Afterword

IV Design

Bridge Grevelingendam (Enno Zuidema Stedebouw, 2012)

design implementation

B

A

C

C1: Connections The final group of interventions has a small relation with the new conditions, however they can help to improve the general quality of visiting or living in the project area.

What is more, it is not important where on a timescale the project will appear - it can happen tomorrow or in twenty years.

For example, improving connectivity with Rotterdam, North Brabant and Beveland island can be done in a short period of time thinking in a way that increased connectivity will attract more people. However such projects cost a lot of money and an approach can be reversed - if flows of people increase then it is clear that better connections are the key to even greater success.

A similar situation with the renovation of the steam tram route. Of course, it would revitalize an area, bring a lot of identity, however it is a grand investment and if the number of holiday makers does not improve, there is no need to spend 84-143 million euros. Haalskanal in the GoereeOverflakkee and a canal in the SchouwenDuivelan islands are in a similar situation.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Investments Cultural services: P.M..

Tram

3 years

€ 84-143 mln

Cultural services: P.M..

Canals

2 years

€ 342 mln

Train/metro/fast bus lane

3 years

Highway - trunk road

Cultural services: P.M..

€ from 121 mln

1 year € from 21 mln

Cultural services: P.M..

Unknown

[ ... ]

Unknown term of retributions / Private investors / Cost a lot, not very important

Unknown

[ ... ]

Unknown term of retributions / Public and private investors / Cost a lot, not very important

Unknown

[ ... ]

Unknown term of retributions / Private investors / Cost a lot, might become very important

Unknown

[ ... ]

Unknown term of retributions / Public investors / Cost a lot, might become very important

108

Secondary roads Planned highway extensions Proposed highway extensions Railways

Rozenburg

Proposed railway or metro extensions

Highways

Maasluis

Rotterdam

Secondary proposed renewal of old tramline

Secondary roads

New canals

Planned highway extensions Proposed highway extensions

Expanded and improved waterways

Slinge

Main entrances through train/metro, tram and highway

Railways Proposed railway or metro extensions

Hoogvliet

Zuid Holland

Proposed renewal of old tramline Secondary proposed renewal of old tramline

Spijenkasse / De Akkers

Hellevoetsluis

New canals Expanded and improved waterways

Rhon

I Forward

Proposed renewal of old tramline

Primary roads

Zuidland

II Framework

Stellendam

III Research & Analysis

Main entrances through train/metro, tram and highway

Bruinisse

IV Design

Zierikzee

Figure 100: possible new connections Drawing by author.

Middelburg

Goes

109

Zuid-Beveland

Noord Brabant

V Afterword

Tholen

Noord-Beveland

design implementation

B

C2: Green energy

Private investors

Public parties

Stakeholders: - DeltaWind - Eneco - HVC - Veluweturbine B.V. - Zeewind - Economische Impuls Zeeland - Zeeland Seaports - Biopark Terneuzen - Syntens - Kamer van Koophandel - Provincie Zeeland - Municipalities

Involved parties

- Residents

1 year

Production services: P.M..

â&#x201A;Ź 39 mln

Bio-fuel plant

2 years

â&#x201A;Ź ? mln

Investing into a green energy is not something new for the project area. An Agency Biobased Zealand was created in 2011 and it consists of various representatives (Economische Impuls Zeeland, Zeeland Seaports, Biopark Terneuzen, Syntens, Kamer van Koophandel and the province of Zeeland).

In my project I suggest to use the Brouwersdam to create a wind park from 13 new turbines. What is more, since a lot of land will be transformed into saline cultivation lands, where a plant salicornia containing 33% of oil can be used for the bio-fuel production in a new biomass power plant.

All these interventions should be initiated by the private or semi-private investors as they cost a lot, however can bring high revenues in a short period of time.

Retributions from the ecosystem services

Investments 13 Wind turbines

A

C

Production services: P.M..

Unknown

[ ... ]

Unknown term of retributions / Private investors / Cost a lot, brings a lot

Unknown

[ ... ]

Unknown term of retributions / Private investors / Cost a lot, brings a lot

110

Existing wind turbines

I Forward

Proposed wind turbines

Veluwe Windturbine B.V.

IV Design

De hoop

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

Possible fields for biomass yield from salicornia

Kik

Figure 101: possible locations of new green energy interventions Drawing by author.

111

Zeeland along with the neighboring regions of West Brabant and East Flanders, is a pioneer in the field of bio-based economy

V Afterword

Biomass Power Plant on The Banks of The River Tees, UK

visualizations

Changing landscape The controlled reduced tide areas are subject to the daily tides. While flood control areas are floodable only during the storms once or twice a year. The set of drawings will illustrate how the landscape is changing due to different levels of water.

- EBB

Natural

FCA

Saline Housing

Natural

Saline Housing

Saline

112

113 V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

visualizations

Changing landscape During the tide water enters easily the controlled reduced tide areas and covers saline cultivation and natural landscape areas.

- TIDE

Natural

FCA

Saline Housing

Natural

Saline Housing

Saline

114

115 V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

visualizations

Changing landscape Few times per year due to the storm and increased water levels the flood control areas are flooded. Since such event occurs usually during winter, the low value crops are not destroyed. Adaptive houses are rising together with the water level.

- STORM

Natural

FCA

Saline Housing

Natural

Saline Housing

Saline

116

117 V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

visualizations

The new land-use The new way of living together with the water is possible through changing the land-use and building such type of housing which is adaptable to the fluctuating water levels. The sand storage islands can become an attractive touristic spot easily reachable by the funicular.

The following set of drawings depicts how the new land-use might look from the inside.

New islands (sand storage)

Adaptive housing Saline cultivation

118

119 V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

visualizations

The new land-use

- SALINE CULTIVATION FIELDS

120

121 V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

visualizations

The new land-use

- ADAPTIVE HOUSING FROM THE RESTORED TRAM LINE

122

123 V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

visualizations

The new land-use

- NEW ISLANDS FROM THE FUNICULAR

124

125 V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

128

conclusion

129

reflection

132

references

134

appendix

Nature as a backbone for the delta development

Checking the approach of the graduation project

Literature list

Multi-actor analysis & cost-benefit calculations

conclusion

Nature as a backbone for the delta development A lot of discussion has been going on lately about what is the future of the southwest Dutch delta and how will we manage the fact that the nature conditions are getting more and more extreme and that current engineering solution soon might become inappropriate. Some people still consider to continue with the old fashion of dike strengthening, while others would rather make a turn of 180 degrees and let the delta go back to its previous open state. But what is the real fruitful balance between engineering infrastructure and natural processes?

With this graduation project I searched for an answer to this question and in my opinion, I found it through an approach where both - Man and nature benefit. Until now nature was suppressed by the human needs and activities, and lately the bad sides of such situation start to show off. However, what if our interventions would let both of the sides to flourish and stay unhampered... I believe that by letting an estuary to go closer to its previous state, humans can still live there and be economically successful. This can happen by letting the water naturally flow inside the currently endiked areas and with the needed amount of sand stored in the water basin let the land grow by itself on a longer terms.

Such approach does not mean that all human activities must stop in the reversed to the natural state areas. On the contrary, economic profit can be increased through the new type of agriculture - a saline culti-

vation and better conditions for the recreation sector. It especially makes sense with the current trends in our society: appreciation of natural environment, original identities, quality instead of quantity, durability, health and etc. A rough cost-benefit analysis is proving this point and shows what kind of benefits humans can achieve by recognizing the value of nature.

Such an approach was already presented in a few other projects, the Kust Laboratorium is even having a pilot plant.

My project is suggesting an intervention on a much bigger scale which might seem unrealistic. The point of converting such a vast area is to shock and stir up the society.

In this way the project can capture an attention of many people who might start a discussion on new possibilities for the future and see it in another light. It is very hard to change the perception of people who were fighting against the water for as long as they remember into a situation, where water is let to come in and where it becomes a friend instead of enemy.

128

Research & Design A good design can result only from an extensive research on the factors that formed the project area. The research gives a certain framework of knowledge that lets to move on with the design part. In my case, the research was done on geographic development of an area throughout time (layer analysis), on institutional conditions (planning regimes and plans), on societal trends for certain topics and on scientific theory (sedimentation processes) that come from another field of study. Throughout the

129

I Forward II Framework

whole research I was focusing on analysing the relation between economy and nature.

After starting to work on the design part it showed up that some parts of research are still missing. Such type of research is called research by design.

The goal of design was to find the right balance between existing engineering infrastructure and creating new roles for natural processes. These new roles of nature are the ecosystem services that can be converted into a monetary value. Therefore, the design was aiming for exposing existing and potential ecosystem services.

From the layer analysis I found out that a close economic relation with water (the main resource of the region) diminished vastly due to the Delta Works, therefore the design stimulates the return of an old connections with water.

A research on the sedimentation processes was used for the new flood defensive design. The cost-benefit analysis helped me to prove that nature can also bring economic benefits for the society.

Analysis of the previous planning approaches and plans helped me to understand that my design is not a picture of an end state, but rather a scheme for the spatial organization which can be applied on any scale which is acceptable at a certain period of time. It is important since the design that I am proposing is a long-term design and it can adapt to the changing environmental and societal conditions, and to augmentation of a scientific knowledge.

III Research & Analysis

This graduation project provided an implementation and visualization of a possible new way of flood protection through working in a more nature-friendly way. It also involved calculations that prove that nature should be regarded not as a protected and regulated area, but as an area which can bring socio-economic benefits for the society. This chapter is a moment when I step aside and look back at the graduation project in order to check if my approach worked and to understand what can be learnt from it. The reflection will be done on several aspects: - relation between research and design; - relation between theme of the studio and the chosen subject; - relation between the methodical line of approach of the studio and the method chosen by me in my framework; - relation between the project and the wider social and academic context.

IV Design

Checking the approach of the graduation project

V Afterword

reflection

Figure 102: the Delta interventions studio booklet Source: MEYER, H., & NILLESEN, A.L. (2012). Delta interventions Semesterbook September 2012. [e-book].

Available at: www.deltainterventons.com. [Accessed 09 May 2013].

Very much above average Significantly above average Above average Average Below average Strongly below average

Figure 103: Socioeconomic status by postcode area, 2010 Source: SCP (2011). Statusontwikkeling van wijken in Nederland 1998-2010. Den Haag: CSP Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau.

Studio and the subject The Delta Interventions graduation studio is mainly concerned on the topics related to the water management throughout various fields of study (architecture, urban and landscape design, civil engineering) and on various scales (buildings, public works, urban areas, landscapes and regions).

Therefore, the spectrum of possible subjects for the graduation project is very wide.

The lectures we got were mainly from the Dutch practice and many aspects were compared or presented according to the Southwest Dutch delta and the new Dutch “Delta Programme” (fig. ). I figured that choosing this location will bring me closely to the focuses of the studio and I will get the most relevant and complete information for the project.

In the studio booklet (fig. ) it is mentioned that there is a ‘need to create a new urban delta landscape’ and that ‘in addition to safety in the Dutch Delta there is a need for stronger spatial identities and new cohesion of cities and their water-landscapes’ (MEYER, H., & NILLESEN, A.L., 2012). I believe that with my graduation project I aim for the same targets: the new ‘safety’ approach through working with natural process create a totally different delta landscape with new spatial qualities and identities, the need for cohesion of cities is met through the showcasing of the identities of old, picturesque towns that are now connected by the tram, and the water is brought back to the everyday life of the delta citizens.

Methodical line of approach of the studio and the method chosen by me As the studio booklet states: “there is a strong link in between research and design.

From the research and analyses we will always try to abstract insights or tools relevant for the design”. Such approach was useful for me during and after the layer approach analysis, however after starting the design part it switched and I used the design in order to do more relevant research. Using 3x3 analyses (layer approach), case study analyses (or in my case, references) and research by design were methods suggested by the studio.

Wider societal context The project relates to the wider societal context in a few ways. First of all, it is how the project directly addresses the socioeconomic problems of the region which are widely discussed in the provinces, the government and the society itself. The area scores low on socio-economic score for all post codes - a research executed by the Social Cultureel Planbureau (SCP) every four years (fig. ). This score is based on income, education and employment. The higher the score, the greater the decay. The average score for the Netherlands is 0. A negative score means that a zip code is doing better than average, a positive score means that the socio-economic decay is larger than average. The latest figures (2011) shows that the average score of all Zeeland postcode areas is about 0.080. This is slightly worse than the national average (0). In the previous SCP measurement (2006), the average score was 0.075. Therefore, the conclusion

130

131

I Forward II Framework III Research & Analysis IV Design

Wider academic context There is a lot of literature about the state of art in the project area and the topic.

However, there is a missing gap of the role of design, which works as a tool to investigate what are the possibilities. It is talked a lot about the problems, but what about the solutions that can actually work? This gradu-

ation project is the type of research that asks if using certain parts of nature can bring the social attractiveness and economic sufficiency to an area.

This graduation project also contains a literature research paper, where developments in the project area led by different planning approaches are discussed.

The up- and down-sides are presented as well as the challenges of the current planning approach. The graduation project aims to address those challenges and in this way tribute for the general body of knowledge.

V Afterword

Figure 104: the new Dutch Delta Programme Source: DELTA COMMISSIE (2008). Working together with water. [e-book] Hollandia Printing. Available at: http://www.deltacommissie.com. [Accessed 18 October 2012].

is that socio- economic climate of Zeeland has slightly decayed during the last five years. Concerning with the exact project area (Goeree-Overflakke and SchouwenDuiveland islands) the score shows average or below average socio-economic climate, and only in the coastal areas it hits higher.

The project aims to emphasize on the ecosystem services, by pointing out the socioeconomic benefits they can provide. These benefits were translated into a cost-benefit analysis of project and the benefits that ecosystem services provide.

The second aspect is how the nature of design (as not typical to Dutch) can make the area noticed by its innovative and yet sustainable decision. It might become an example for other areas having the same problems.

Finally, the problems are being widely discussed and some directions for problem-solving are already given by the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Delta Programeâ&#x20AC;? and other research organizations. However what is lacking is an actual design, a visual impression and scheme of how an idea can work. These images can provoke further discussions between the main stakeholders and decisionmakers and encourage actual actions to take place sooner.

references

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BOSBOOM, J. A. M. S. (2011). Coastal Dynamics 1. Delft: VSSD. BOYER, M. (2013). Feldheim, Germany Generates 100% of its Energy From Renewable Sources! [online] Inhabitat. Available at: <http://inhabitat.com/powered-by100-renewable-energy-german-town-of-feldheimachieves-energy-independence/> [Accessed 12 May 2013 ].

BROEKX, S., SMETS, S., LIEKENS, I., BULCKAEN, D., NOCKER, L. D. (2010). Designing a long-term flood risk management plan for the Scheldt estuary using a risk-based approach. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. BRUIJN, R. (2012). The future of the Oosterschelde with a new inlet channel. Delft: Delft University of Technology.

CONTINUVAKANTIEONDERZOEK (2010). Bewerkt door Kenniscentrum Kusttoerisme.

COSTANZA, R., CUMBERLAND, J., DALY, H., GOODLAND, R., NORGAARD, R. (1997). An introduction to Ecological Economics. Florida: CRC Press LLC. COSTANZA, R. et al. (1998). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Ecological Economics 25 (1): 3–15.

SCOTT N. & COOPER, C. (2008). Megatrends underpinning tourism to 2020: analysis of key drivers for change.

Queensland: CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd. ENNO ZUIDEMA STEDEBOUW (2012). Projectenboek Grevelingen. Rotterdam: Enno Zuidema Stedebouw ENSERINK, B. et al. (2010). Policy Analysis of Multi-Actor Systems. Hague: LEMMA. ERASMUS UNIVERSITY & RADBOUD UNIVERSITY (2004).

Changing estuaries, changing views. Nijmegen: XXLpress Worldwide Fund for Nature.

GESCHIEDENISZEELAND (2013). Opkomst van Domburg als badplaats. [online] Available at: < http://www. geschiedeniszeeland.nl/tab_themas/themas/kunstenaars_domburg/domburg_badplaats/> [Accessed 9 February 2013].

HARRIS, P.T. & HEAP, A.D. (2003). Environmental management of clastic coastal depositional environments: inferences from an Australian geomorphic database.

Ocean & Coastal Management, 46(5), pp. 457-78.

IPDD (2012). IPDD flyer. Integrated Planning and Design in the Delta.

MEYER, H., BOBBINK, I. & NIJHUIS, S. (2010). Delta urbanism, the Netherlands. Washington: American Planning Association, Planners Press.

MEYER, H., & NILLESEN, A.L. (2012). Delta interventions Semesterbook September 2012. [e-book]. Available at: www.deltainterventons.com. [Accessed 09 May 2013].

COX, T., MARIS, T., VLEESCHAUWER, P., MULDER, T., SOETAERT, K., MEIRE, P. (2006). Flood control areas as an opportunity to restore estuarine habitat. Ecological engineerinf 28, 55-63.

MULDER, J.P.M., CLEVERINGA, J., TAAL, M.D., VAN WESENBEECK, B.K., KLIJN, F. (2010). Sedimentperspectief op de Zuidwestelijke Delta. Delft: Deltares.

DELTA COMMISSIE (2008). Working together with water. [e-book] Hollandia Printing. Available at: http://www. deltacommissie.com. [Accessed 18 October 2012].

MULDER, J., TAAL, M., TANGELDER, M., JANSEN, L., HENKES, R., WERNERS, S. (2012). Sedimentstrategie voor de ZW Delta: een verkenning van kansen. Delft: Deltares.

DELTA COMMISSIE (2011). Working on the delta.

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RIJCKEN, T. (2010). Afsluitbaar Open Rijnmond een systeembenadering. Delft: Technische Universiteit Delft.

ZEELAND PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT (2011). The Path Ahead! Breaking down reflexes to respond to demographic changes in Zeeland. Zeeland provincial government.

SMIT, M.E., BLOM, M.J., WARRINGA, G.E.A. (2012). Economische waardering en verzilvering van ecosysteembaten in Natura 2000-gebieden in Europa / Drie case studies in BelgiĂŤ en Nederland. Delft: CE Delft.

TAM, L. (2009). Strategies for managing sea level rise. The Urbanist, 487 [online] Available at: <http://www.spur. org/publications/library/report/strategiesformanagingsealevelrise_110109 > [Accessed 6 June 2013].

THE DUTCH OYSTER INDUSTRY (2010). The Dutch Oyster industry. [online] Available at: < http://www.zeeuwseoesters.nl/de_oestersectorUK.html> [Accessed 17 April 2013].

TRENDSACTIVE (2010). Societal Trends. [online] Available at: < http://www.trendsactive.com/#!/our-trends/mentality-trends/> [Accessed 12 May 2013].

UN-HABITAT (2001). Section 2: Tools to Support Participatory Urban Decision Making Process. [online] Available at: < http://www.polytechnic.edu.na/academics/ schools/engine_infotech/civil/libraries/urban_planning/ Urban%20Planning%20Tools_StakeholderAnalysis.htm> [Accessed 11 May 2013].

WERKGROEP HERZIENING INRICHTINGSSCHETS GREVELINGENBEKKEN (1975). Nieuwe inrichtingsschets voor

133

II Framework III Research & Analysis

SEPM STRATA (2012). SEPM Str atigraphy Web. [Online] Available at: http://www.sepmstrata.org [Accessed 06 February 2013].

ZUIDWESTELIJKE DELTA (2009). Atlas van Zuidwestelijke Delta. Een uitgave van het programmabureau Zuidwestelijke Delta. Middelburg: Southwest Delta Programme Office.

IV Design

SCP (2011). Statusontwikkeling van wijken in Nederland 1998-2010. Den Haag: CSP Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau.

WITTEVEEN+BOS (2012). MKBA verkenning Grevelingen. Deventer : Witteveen+Bos.

V Afterword

RIJN, D., POLDERMAN, R., NEDERLANDSE GEMALENSTICHTING (2010). Het water de baas. Nederland: Verloren.

I Forward

REINHARD, S. & FOLMER, H. (2009). Introduction. In S. Reinhard & H. Folmer, eds. Water Policy in the Netherlands: Integrated Managment in a Densely Populated Delta. First edition ed. Washington, DC, USA: RFF Press. pp.1-13.

appendix A

1

Multi-actor analysis table

134

135

V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

2

3

136

137

V Afterword

IV Design

III Research & Analysis

II Framework

I Forward

4

appendix B

Cost analysis (table 1) Costs price/unit

m

€/m

a) culverting the main dikes

86 500

770

b) building new primary dikes (7m)

67 400

840

108 500

2250

c) hightening secondary dikes to primary d) building new secondary dikes e) outlet sluices for FCA

8 900

1000

5090 ha

19000 / ha

f) annual maintenance cost

0,5-1,5 % of investment cost

€/ha

a) replacement of high value crops with low value crops (corn, pasture)

5090

10 000

b) 10% loss of production during the first 10 years after replacement

5090

288

c) loss of added value of low value crops in case of flood (1-2 per year)

5090

288

d) administrative costs

5090

250

5090

150

e) clean-up costs in case of flood

source

a) replacement of high value crops with saline crops (salicornia, reeds)

Case study of Scheldt estuary.

Broekx et al., 2010

244 8,9 96,7 7

€/ha

7823

5407

Mm3

€/m3

- water surface (S=10800 ha; h=0,002 m; t=43 years)

9,46

3,25

- land surface (S=19275 ha; h=0,002 m; t=43 years)

16,6

3,25

- water surface (S=10800 ha; h=0,002 m; t=1 year)

0,22

3,25

- land surface (S=19275 ha; h=0,002 m; t=1 year)

0,38

3,25

b) further annual sand deposition

(source: Economische waardering en verzilvering van ecosysteembaten in Natura 2000-gebieden in Europa Drie case studies in België en Nederland Delft, CE Delft, november 2012)

- The government - Rijkswaterstaat - Water Boards - Provinces - Municipalities

0,15 1,5

- Farmers - Natura 2000 - Staatbosbeheer - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen

0,76 source Case study of Scheldt estuary.

Broekx et al., 2010 http://www.hamariweb.com/ articles/article.aspx?id=20307

- The Delta Programme - Flood Protection Programme (HWBP)

€ mln

€ mln

- The government buys the land from the farmers, transforms the land-use and then leases it to the farmers who want to continue with saline cultivation.

- Science and research institutes - Private investors from the housing industry that want to develope adaptive housing.

- Private investors who will benefit from the increased value of landscape.

- Staatbosbeheer.

- Natuur en Recreatieschap

42,3

EU level: - LIFE program (climate change, nature and biodiversity, natural resources and waste - Dutch budget € 8.5mln).

National level: - Rural Investment Budget (ILG).

- Stimuleringsregeling Voordelta (strengthening economy and ecology).

- Subsidieregeling Kwaliteitsimpuls natuur en landschap (quality of nature).

- Subsidie Natuur en Landschap (SNL) € 100-1500 ha/year.

A compensation system: - The British Environmental bank.

- Creating a Dutch Environmental bank.

€ mln Case study of Zandmotor.

- http://www.seacityresearchnet.com/archives/1194 Interview with Jan Mulder - Mulder J. et al, (2012).

Sedimentstrategie voor de ZW Delta: een verkenning van kansen.Deltares

30,8 54 0,715

- The government - Natura 2000 - Staatbosbeheer - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen

- The Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment is responsible for the engineering.

- The government

Time

- The Delta Programme - Flood Protection Programme (HWBP) - Stimuleringsregeling Voordelta - Rural Investment Budget (ILG) - reconstruction of sandy areas

- Private investments from households: € 300 mln costing plant produces 118 GWh which is enough for 35000 households. If all of them invest € 8000 the payback period would be 10.5 years.

- Corporate sponsorship from Rotterdam Port or other industrial comapanies in order to get a greener image of the comapny - Contributions from Flood protection programme (HWBP) - SDE fundings (Encouraging Sustainable Energy programme)

1,235

total:

87,75

Total:

656,55 -

-

source

€ mln

1. Passage in Brouwersdam with tidal energy plant

-

-

-

-

3. Bridge Grevelingendam

-

-

Economische waardering en verzilvering van ecosysteembaten in Natura 2000-gebieden in Europa Drie case studies in België en Nederland. Delft, CE Delft, november 2012

300-500

2. Overtoom (connection to North Sea)

total:

Possible funding programmes

42,3

a) for the period since the closure in 1971 until 2014

II. Reintroducement of tides

- Water boards - Residents around the area

1,27

total:

4. Sand replenishment:

56,616

54,58 ha

Project developers

50,9

total:

3. CRT (controlled reduced tide areas):

66,605

472 ha

Stakeholders

€ mln - Broekx et al., 2010 - Broekx et al., 2010 - Grave & Baarse, 2011:115 - Expert from Van Oord judgement - Broekx et al., 2010 - Broekx et al., 2010

total:

2. FCA (flood control areas):

total

2-3 years (Source: case of sand motor)

1. depoldering:

source

4 years for construction of floodplains and adapting the dikes (Source: Broekx et al., 2010)

unit

5 years

Project I. Safety against flooding

8 87

395-595

- Rijkswaterstaat - Waterboards - Fishers - Oyster industry participants - Divers - Recreational boaters - Holidaymakers - Recreation entrepreneurs - Nature organizations - Energy consumers

1. Strukton civiel (engineering) 2. NZO (Dutch Zeejachthaven development) 3. Ministerie I&M, provinces Zeeland and Zuid-Holand - Rijkswaterstaat (government) - Waterboards - Board Grevelingen - Energy consumers

138

I Forward

appendix B

Cost analysis (table 2) III. Green energy

turbines

€/turbine

+13

3 mln

1. Wind energy (turbines)

source

€ mln windindustry.org

39

source

30 ++ € mln

?

2. Biomass production research center total:

m

€/m

1. Haalskanal

4200

35700

2. SD canal

5400

35700

IV. New canals

total

Enno Zuidema Stedebouw, 2012

150 192

Stakeholders - Rijkswaterstaat - Water Boards - Residents around the area - Biomass researchers

Project developers - Delta wind - HVC - Eneco - Local residents - The government

Possible funding programmes

EU level: Leader+ (rural development, promo-

- Municipalities of Goeder- - Municipalities of eede, Middelharnis and Goedereede, MiddelharDirksland nis and Dirksland - Residents

tion of socio-economic vitality of the countryside, such as village development, recreation and tourism, and strengthen the local economy.

National level: Nota ruimte Budget, Natuurpakket Westerschelde (NPW)

(strengthening the Dutch economy and competitiveness Promoting strong cities).

Rural Investment Budget (ILG) (develop-

ment of the rural area).

m

€/m

source

€ mln

83680

1000

Sam de Haan, Secretary RTM Ouddorp

84

59000

1000

Sam de Haan, Secretary RTM Ouddorp

1. Tram line a) main b) addition

59

m/pieces

€/m/piece

source

€ mln

78000

€ 20 m

Bouwdienst Projectteam ProSes, 2004

1,56

b) nature center

1

750000

Bouwdienst Projectteam ProSes, 2004

0,75

c) viewpoints

2

20000

Bouwdienst Projectteam ProSes, 2004

0,04

79000 m

€ 80 m €/m

Bouwdienst Projectteam ProSes, 2004

€ 6,3 mln

source

€ mln

52000

€ 121 m

Bouwdienst Projectteam ProSes, 2004

6,3

m

€/m

source

€ mln

29500 ha

700 €/ha

CE Delft, 2008: Figure 5

20,65 € mln 74

a) paths

2,35

total:

3. Cycling paths 4. Possible fast connection to Rotterdam a) fast-lane bus (3,5 m width)

working and living environment with a balanced growth of the economy of Zeeland).

- Municipalities - Provinces of Zeeland and Zuid-Holland - Residents - Visitors/tourists

- Municipalities - Provinces of Zeeland and Zuid-Holland - The Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment

- Municipalities - Visitors/tourists - Residents - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen - Nature organizations - Rijkswaterstaat

- Municipalities - Natuur en Recreatieschap de Grevelingen

- Provinces of Zeeland and Zuid-Holland - Residents

- Connexxion - RET - NS - ANWB

- Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment - Tourists - Residents

- Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment

- ANWB - Rabobank Goeree-Overflakkee - Nota ruimte Budget, Natuurpakket Westerschelde (NPW)

143

total:

2. Hiking paths

Provincial level: Provincial Socio-Economic Policy (PSEB) (a pleasant residential,

342

total:

V. Connections

b) tram c) metro

Time

- Involvement of local residents to invest in green energy.

- Corporate sponsorship from Rotterdam Port or other industrial comapanies in order to get a greener image of the comapny.

- SDE fundings (Encouraging Sustainable Energy programme)

II Framework

price/unit

III Research & Analysis

unit

from 2020 - 2025

Costs

Project

- Landschapsbeheer Zuid-Holland (made an inventory of RTM traces, historical objects of Hollandse Delta)

VI. Towns development

1258

1. Adaptive housing

47 households/ha €12500 per household

319

2. Normal housing

source Kind, 2013: D-4; National Records of Scotland, 2011: Table 3

74

total:

VII. Recreation facilities

piece

€/piece

source

€ mln 10

2. SPA on artificial island Enno Zuidema Stedebouw, 2012

4. Improvement of existing marinas 5. Water sports facilities

0,04 total:

Total:

139

- Private investors - Rotterdam Port (high quality residential areas for highly education port workers) - Second house developers

10

1. SPA and Wellness center in CRT area 3. Marinas on artificial islands

- Residents of provinces of Zeeland and Zuid-Holland - Municipalities

127 ++

1,8-2 billion

- tourists - local entrepreneurs

- private investors

V Afterword

5. Trunk road connecting with North Brabant

IV Design

d) train

appendix C

Benefit analysis (table 1) Ecosystem benefits

Project

Regulating Benefit

I. Safety against flooding 1. Depoldering 2. FCA and CRT areas (7823ha) 3. Sand replenishment

1. Water quantity 2. Habitat for nursery

Production

€/unit

Source

Cashing method

92 mln

Witteveen en Bos, 2011

Human lives saved and avoided economic damage

155-213,8 Costanza et al. (1997) €/ha/year

1,2-1,6 mln/€

2,5 €/kg/ year 0,14 €/mol/ year

Witteveen and Bos (2004)

0,01 mln/€

2,5 €/kg N

CIW (1999)

4,9 mln/€

CIW (1999)

2 mln/€

CIW (1999)

2 mln/€

5 €/m

Witteveen and Bos (2004)

7,8 mln/€

66 €/ton

Bickel and Friendrich (2005)

3,5 mln/€ 0,7 mln/€

8,5 €/kg N 3

1. Harvest from CRT areas: - saline cultivation (Salicornia) - bio-fuel from halophytes (850-950 l/ha; 1l - € 0.9)

3. Water quality - denitrification (107 kg N/ha/year) - aeration (10 mol O2/ha/year) - decrease in N (252 kg/ha/year) - decrease in P (31 kg/ha/year) - sedimentation (200m3/ha)

Benefit

- CO2 reduction (11900 tones) 2. Harvest from FCA areas: - from low value crops (corn, pasture) 3. Inland acquaculture

€/unit

P.M.

Source

- Licensing - Direct sale to resSmit, Blom, Warringa, taurants and other 2012 private customers

6 mln/€

http://www.hamariweb.com/ articles/article.aspx?id=20307 http://www.biofuels-platform. ch/en/infos/price.php

2,8 mln/€

Smit, Blom, Warringa, 2012

P.M.

Cultural Cashing method

Benefit 1. Landscape perceivement from the dike 2. Education

Selling to refinery CO2 reduction offsets: certified emission reduction certificates and voluntary CO2 compensation schemes

- Direct sale to resSmit, Blom, Warringa, taurants and other 2012 private customers

- entrance to nature center and viewpoints 3. Recreation: - recreational experience 4. Non-user value

Source

Cashing method

P.M.

Broekx et al., 2010

Avoided costs for the foundation of the pathways in a soft soil and altering them in order to get a better view.

P.M.

Smit, Blom, Warringa, 2012

Tours, excursions, learning materials

3 mln/year

€ 1,5 per visit

3,36 mln/ year

Broekx et al., 2010

Willingness to pay for intertidal quality € 1,68 per visit (2mln visits/ year)

€ 5,4 mln

Broekx et al., 2010 Witteveen and Bos, 2004

Willingness to pay €15,5/year/household without visiting

€/unit

4. Climate regulation - fixation of CO2 by photosynthesis (6.8 ton/ha/reed) - C-burial (1,5 ton/ha/year) - N-burial (148 kg/ha/year) - P-burial (25 kg/ha/year)

66 €/ton

Bickel and Friendrich (2005)

2,5 €/ton

CIW (1999)

2,8 mln/€

8,5 €/ton

CIW (1999)

0,16 mln/€ Total: 11,7 mln/€

Total: 8,8 ++ mln/€

Total: 25 - 25,5 mln/€

Total investment: € 334-522 mln Total retribution from ecosystem services: € 46,1 ++mln in 7-12 years

II. Reintroducement of tides 1. Passage in Brouwersdam with tidal energy plant (550m)

1. Water quantity

2. Overtoom (connection to North Sea)

2. Water quality:

3. Bridge Grevelingendam

-increase of oxygen

147 mln

P.M.

-reduced salinity

Witteveen en Bos, 2011

Water storage: relieving 120km of dike strengthening in Haringvliet and Hollands Diep

1. Tidal energy production - hevelturbines

140 mln

- bulbturbines

230 mln

2. Oyster and mussel farming and commercial fishing

Smit, Blom, Warringa, 2012

91 mln

Witteveen en Bos, 2011 Witteveen en Bos, 2011

- Issuing the guarantees of origin - Sale of electricity and ancillary products

Witteveen en Bos, 2011

- Licensing - Direct sale

1. Recreation: - divers -shore recreation

7mln/year

- recreational and sport fishing

-increased nutrients

2. Water sports

2 mln/year

3. Environmental quality

0,528/year

4. Innovation income

3,1mln/ year

5. Employment

31mln/ year

3. Ecology: -improved conditions for underwater soil animals -new intertidal areas

P.M.

Smit, Blom, Warringa, 2012

8-13 mln/ year

Smit, Blom, Warringa, 2012

Witteveen en Bos, 2011

Witteveen en Bos, 2011 Smit, Blom, Warringa, 2012

Entrance fees, permits, recreational fees, parking fees for cars and boats

Raise of property value (WOX tax)

Jobs in the tourism sector (restaurants, Smit, Blom, Warringa, hotels, campings, bike 2012 rentals, supermarkets, etc.)

-fish migration (mackerel, garfish, seabass and blennies) 4. CO2 reduction (33000-54000 tones)

CO2 reduction offsets: certified emission reduction certificates and voluntary CO2 compensation schemes

Total: 231-321 mln/€

Total: 155-160+ mln/€

Total: 43,6 mln/€

Total investment: € 395-595mln Total retribution from ecosystem services: € 429-524mln in 1 year

III. Green energy 1. 30 wind turbines

-

-

-

-

1. Image of sustainability

1. Wind energy Total: x mln/€

P.M. Total: P.M.

140

I Forward

appendix C

Benefit analysis (table 2) Ecosystem benefits Benefit

V. Connections 1. Tram line 2. Hiking paths 3. Cycling paths

VI. Towns development 1. Adaptive housing

€/unit

Source

Production Cashing method

Benefit

€/unit

Source

Cultural Cashing method

Benefit

€/unit

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1. Connecting into a net historical towns

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1. Accessibility to valuable and protected landscape

P.M.

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1. Hedonic value

P.M.

30 mln

VII. Recreation facilities 1. SPA and Wellness center in CRT area 2. SPA on artificial island 3. Marinas on artificial islands

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4. Improvement of existing marinas

Cashing method Selling tickets (2mln visitors annually, ticket price for the whole day - € 15)

Increased househould prices because of the natural scenery 1. Increased amount of visitors because of the improved natural environment and connectivity

1. Increased amount of visistors

-

Source

P.M.

2. Hedonic value

2. Willingness to pay more for the high quality services

5. Water sports facilities -

Total: 30 ++ mln/€

141

V Afterword

IV Design

-

II Framework

Regulating

III Research & Analysis

Project