offices. All these were called the benefices (beneficium) or župa, which was the salary of the župa or administrator. Originally the ruler provided the benefices only for a fixed period; by the end of the 12th century however these offices were hereditary for certain families. Rulers were replaced, each dependent on the magnates, and they lost control over the župas, which became the property of the administrators. However they did not own them outright, and they constantly faced the threat that the next, and perhaps stronger, ruler, would take them away. This was the reason that they exploited their resources in the worst possible manner. They abused their judicial powers in order to maximize their court fines; taxes were extorted not collected. The arrival of the bailiffs of the castle administrators in a village was not dissimilar to that of a marauding army. Free farmers, “heirs” and guests thus preferred to seek protection from various lords and gave up their freedoms (which were of little advantage to them in any case as they only exposed them to the despotism of the župas). Uncertainty resulted from this. The aristocracy was not yet an aristocracy. It held farmlands which it did not own. Freemen paid dearly for their freedom, and the number of free farmers decreased. Although the ruler governed, he had ever fewer resources for this, because the administrators took control of them. Nevertheless society improved, and was ever more autonomous and less dependent on the state. The church now came to play an increasingly important role. Not only did the number of priests and ecclesiastical institutions rise, but their significance did also. Up to 1100, only seven monasteries were founded in Bohemia and Moravia, and these through the offices of the ruler. However between the years 1100–1205, twenty-seven rich monasteries funded by the magnates were established. Above all a large number of churches sprang up in the countryside distant from the castles. There were many more priests and monks, all of whom however were dependent on the founders of their churches. The latter considered the churches and monasteries as their property and made claims on their revenues, most importantly on the tithes. The bishops of Prague and Olomouc had the right to educate and ordain priests, as well as consecrate churches, but they had no influence over the appointment of priests to churches or even over the tithes arising from them. Even the churches with castle parishes were dependent rather on the prince and his administrators rather than on the bishop. An independent organization subordinate to no external power was built up by the Bishop of Olomouc, Jindřich Zdík (in office, 1126–1150), one of the most important personalities of Czech history in the 12th century; the Bishop of Prague joined him in his efforts in the sixth decade of the century. The bishop selected his special administrators and archdeacons from the chapters, and assigned regions to them for the oversight of the lower clergy. They resided for the most part in the bishops’ courts and received their salaries from the same. The old, large castle parishes went into decline and from some colleges of priests there emerged rural chapters. Increasing numbers of priests were required – both spiritual pastors for the ordinary rural churches and educated priests capable of occupying important positions at the court of the bishop or the ruler. The education of simple priests was not that sophisticated: they could read and write, and they had basic knowledge of Latin and the practical liturgy. Frequently they came from the lower levels of society, in some cases from the ranks of the serfs, and thus they were all the more connected with the life of the people. In earlier times, the higher offices
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D ušan T řeštík
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