A Handbook on
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE BALRAM PANIGRAHI Professor and Head Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha
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Foreword The ever increasing population is ushering tremendous pressure on water resources resulting in a rapid declination of per cepita water availability day by day. The water resources in the country are also not being efficiently utilized resulting a large mismatch between the irrigation potential created and that actually utilized. There is fast depletion of underground water on one side, while there is huge wastage of costly irrigation water due to faulty management practices on the other side. In this context, a thorough research is required with emphasis on optimum utilization of water resources of the country. It is worthy to mention that both irrigation and drainage play crucial role in judicious utilization of the scarce water resources and enhancing production and productivity of different crops. The book on “A Handbook on Irrigation and Drainage� written by the author contains useful information on both aspects of irrigation and drainage. The content of this book has a very broad coverage especially in different aspects of irrigation. The book contains a chapter on drainage also which broadly describes design of both surface and sub-surface drainage. As groundwater forms an important part of irrigation, the book contains two chapters for exploring the groundwater through tubewells and open wells. The book will be useful to the students at both undergraduate and post graduate level, especially in the field of Agriculture and Civil Engineering. The book is an invaluable resource for academicians, practicing engineers and persons working in the department of agriculture, soil and water conservation, irrigation and command area development. The information compiled in the book would be of great help to the teachers, researchers, extension workers, students as well as farming communities in the country I complement the commendable endeavour of the author and wish the publication a great success.
M. Kar Vice Chancellor OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Preface
This is a text book for Agriculture and Agricultural and Civil Engineers and will be very much helpful for the beginning students in irrigation. It is designed to guide students from a basic knowledge of soil, water and plant, hydrologic and hydraulics to the state-of-the-art of irrigation system design and management. The goal of the author is to present the principles and concepts of farm irrigation in a simple manner to maximize the students learning, understanding and motivation. The method and order of presentation have been carefully developed and classroom tested to make this book a useful and effective teaching tool. The book will not only be a helping tool to the students and teachers in Agricultural and Civil Engineering but also to all the practicing irrigation engineers, agriculturists, soil conservationists and agricultural extension workers who deal directly or indirectly with water management and other associated farm development works. The book is written covering syllabus of irrigation engineering which is taught in different State Agricultural Universities as well as in the department of Civil Engineering of different Engineering colleges. However, the design of complex hydraulic structures including dams and reservoirs are beyond the scope of this book. The book contains 95 solved problems, 638 short and long type questions, 95 tables, 188 figures and more than 180 references which will be immensely helpful to the students and design engineers. Several field experimental results have also been incorporated in the book at appropriate sections to make the book interesting for the readers. The book contains 16 chapters and each chapter contains several sections and sub-sections. The title of the various chapters and the contents of each chapter are as follows. Chapter 1: Irrigation and Water Resources Development in India: This chapter deals with necessities, advantages and disadvantages of irrigation on crop production and productivity and on environment. It also gives an overview of large scale investment incurred on irrigation sector and the mismatch between the irrigation potential created and that utilised in different places in the country in different plan periods. Irrigation development in pre-plan, plan and post-plan periods are briefly mentioned in this chapter. Scope and various techniques of augmentation of water resources are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 2: Sources of Irrigation Water: Chapter two deals with hydrologic cycle and different components of hydrologic cycle including rainfall, its measurement and computation of average depth of rainfall by various methods. Runoff is a major part of hydrologic cycle which has been discussed here. Factors affecting runoff, estimation of runoff by different methods, estimation
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Preface
of peak runoff rate by rational and S.C.S. Curve Number method are also presented in this chapter. Chapter 3:Storage of Irrigation Water: Dams and reservoirs form major storage for irrigation water. Selections of dam site with different surveys are required for construction of the dam and reservoir. All these aspects have been covered in this chapter. Further, the chapter includes areacapacity determination of the reservoir, different storage zones of the reservoir, design capacity of the reservoir including mass curve method and procedures for estimation of seepage and evaporation loss of water in the reservoir including the means to reduce these losses. Finally sedimentation of reservoir including factors affecting sedimentation and various preventive and curative measures required for reducing reservoir sedimentation are all presented in this chapter. Chapter 4: Discharge Measurement: Chapter 4 discusses various methods of discharge measurement that includes volume, velocity-area, slope-area, gauge-discharge relationship, weirs including rectangular, trapezoidal and triangular weirs, spillway and siphon spillway, proportional weir, orifices and mouthpieces, meter gate, water meters, parshall flume, cutthroat flume, chemical dilution and radioisotope methods. Measurement of velocity by float method and current meter are presented in this chapter. Discussions on discharge site selection, types of gauges are also presented in chapter 4. Chapter 5: Water Requirement of Crops: This chapter deals with many important terms like duty, delta, relationship between duty and delta, factors affecting duty and measures to improve duty of water. Various methods to measure crop water requirement like lysimeter method, field experimental plots, soil moisture depletion studies and water balance method have been discussed in this chapter. Estimation methods including aerodynamic method, combination method, and empirical methods like Thornwaite, modified Blaney-Criddle and Pan evaporation method are also presented in Chapter 5. Finally, estimation of actual crop evapotranspiration from potential evapotranspiration using values of crop coefficient, Kc are discussed. Chapter 6: Basic Soil Water Relationship: Chapter 6 contains different terms related to soilwater like density, unit weight, water content, porosity, void ratio, degree of saturation and their interrelation. Physical properties and classification of soil are also mentioned in this chapter. Determination of soil moisture content by various methods like oven dry, sand bath, alcohol, neutron probe, resistance block, tensiometer, calcium carbide, pycnometer, radiation and torsion balance method are presented in this section. Other important topics like soil moisture suction, soil moisture potential curve, measurement of soil water potential, field capacity, wilting point, readily available soil moisture, flow through soils in horizontal and vertical direction in unsaturated condition and soil water v/s yield of crops relationship are briefly discussed in this chapter. Chapter 7: Irrigation Scheduling: Irrigation scheduling and methods of irrigation (Chapter 8) are the two major chapters of this book. Chapter 7 discusses when to irrigate a crop and how much to irrigate the crop whereas Chapter 8 discusses how to irrigate i.e. methods of irrigation of the crop. Different approaches like plant indicators, physiological growth stages, soil moisture regime concept, water balance technique and climatological approach based on IW:CPE method are well discussed in this section. Water management practice of rice including water saving
Preface
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irrigation technique presented in this chapter will help the rice growers to adopt the right technique of irrigation that will save a lot of costly irrigation water and at the same time will enhance its water productivity. Chapter 8: Methods of Irrigation: Methods of irrigation is very important in irrigation scheduling. The right crop is to be irrigated by the right method of irrigation. Different types of irrigations like uncontrolled flooding, controlled flooding including free flooding, contour laterals, border strip method, check basin, ring method, furrow irrigation, micro irrigation like sprinkler and drip methods are all discussed in this chapter. Hydraulics of border, check basin and furrow irrigation and design of border, check basin and furrow irrigation are presented in this section. Adaptability of sprinkler and drip irrigation, their components, layout and design are all discussed in this chapter. Moreover, the chapter includes evaluation methods of both sprinkler and drip irrigation that will help in estimating the efficiency of the system in the fields and adjustment of the system if required any in the practical field conditions. Chapter 9: Conveyance of Irrigation Water: Chapter 9 discusses various types of canal systems and canal alignments, distribution system for canal irrigation, inundation and perennial irrigation, bandhara irrigation with advantages and disadvantages, various types of canal sections etc. Computation of discharge capacity of the channels along with Manning’s, Chezy’s and Kutter’s formulae is described. Derivation of conditions for the most economical channel section is also a part in this chapter. Design conditions for unlined and lined channels under both alluvial and non-alluvial cases, design of regime channel including Kennedy and Lacey’s theory are also discussed in Chapter 9. Garret’s and Lacey’s diagram are presented for design of channel sections. Moreover underground conveyance system, pipeline systems along with materials of pipes, testing of irrigation pipes, structures for underground pipeline, design of underground pipeline irrigation systems, are presented in this chapter. Finally, the various structures in conveyance systems, including drop and chute spillway, and cross-drainage works are described in chapter 9. Chapter 10: Water Lifting Device: Various types of water lifting devices both indigenous and pumps are included in this chapter. Both manually operated and animal operated water lifts with low, medium and high head types including sedua, don, swing basket, Archimedean screw, water/pedal wheels, counter poise bucket, tenda, chain pump, rope and bucket lift, circular mot, sakia and Persian wheel are discussed in this section. In addition, water lifts powered by other sources like, wind, solar, hydraulic ram are also presented in this chapter. Different pumps like reciprocating, centrifugal, rotary type, vertical turbine, submersible, jet type, air lift, propeller and mixed flow pump and low lift hand pumps are discussed and included in Chapter 10. Various classifications of centrifugal pump, principles and operation of centrifugal pumps, installation of pumps and operation, maintenance and common trouble shooting of centrifugal pumps are also presented in this chapter. Further, the chapter includes procedures for estimation of power requirements and characteristics of pumps, criteria and procedure for selection of pumps and techniques to compute the irrigation pumping costs. Chapter 11: Losses of Water in Canal and Control: The two major losses of water in canal and reservoirs are seepage and evaporation which have been discussed in this chapter. Measurement of seepage loss by ponding, inflow-outflow and seepage meter are presented.
x Preface
Various methods to reduce seepage losses in canals are described. Discussions on various methods of seepage control including different sealants like clay, cement concrete, pre-cast, cement mortar, lime concrete, soil cement, asphalt, shotcrete, boulder, brick, bentonite and polythene lining are set forth. Economics of lining and its justification are also discussed in this section. Chapter 12: Salt Problem in Irrigated Agriculture: Descriptions on water quality problems, causes of formation of saline and alkaline soils, factors affecting soil salinity and alkalinity, effects of salinity on crop, soil and environment, tolerance of crops, vegetables, fruits and forest species to salinity etc. are some of the principal components in this chapter. Methods to reclaim salt affected soils including soil amendments, leaching, cultivation practices etc, are also presented in this section. Major and minor dissolved constituents in water and their functions are also discussed. Different water quality standard for irrigation and water quality guidelines of irrigation water and trace elements present in water also form parts of this chapter. Finally, the chapter includes the ways how to use the poor quality irrigation water in crop fields that includes reclamation by amendments of soil, selection of salt tolerant crops, using optimum dose of fertilisers and manures, proper irrigation and soil management practice and proper seed placement technique. Chapter 13: Waterlogging and Drainage: The chapter contains causes and effects of waterlogging and various measures; both preventive and curative to control it. Land drainage including planning, layout and classifications are presented in this section. Both surface and sub-surface drainage; their various classifications and design procedures are discussed. Open ditches; their design discharge, capacity calculation, design criteria, construction and maintenance are also dealt in this section. Methods of sub-surface drainage; especially tile drains, their layout and design procedures based on Hooghoudt’s equation and installation techniques in fields are also set forth. Chapter 14: Groundwater and Wells: Like canal water groundwater forms a major part in irrigation. Geologic formations for groundwater supply, different types of aquifers including confined, unconfined and semi confined are dealt in this section. Well irrigation, their advantages, disadvantages, various types of wells, site selection for installation of wells and yield tests are presented in this chapter. The chapter also includes tubewell irrigation, site selection for installation of tubewells, various classifications of tubewells like cavity type and strainer type tubewells. Different types of strainers used in strainer type tubewells are discussed. Design of tubewells including gravel packing and pumping arrangements are also presented in chapter 14. The chapter further, contains various investigations for groundwater development, procedures for construction of tubewells, and methods of tubewell development. Moreover, life of tubewell and causes of failures of tubewells are discussed in this chapter. Chapter 15: Well Hydraulics: Chapter 15 contains descriptions of groundwater movement, groundwater flow directions, general flow equations under both transient and steady state saturated flow conditions and procedures for construction of flow nets. Well hydraulics including steady radial flow to a well in unconfined and confined aquifers and unconfined aquifer with uniform recharge are dealt in this section. Discharge of wells and combined drawdown under interference case are also discussed and presented in Chapter 15. Moreover, the chapter includes discussions on well loss, specific capacity and efficiency of wells.
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Chapter 16: Water Productivity: Various methods to enhance the water productivity that includes irrigation management practice under deficit supply, provision of supplemental irrigation, farming system approach, correct methods of irrigation, land drainage, on-farm development, land levelling and grading etc. are presented in Chapter 16. Water productivity in rice is discussed in this section. Results of water productivity of some field investigations are presented. Study of performance of farm irrigation systems, various types of irrigation efficiencies including conveyance, storage, distribution, application and water use efficiencies are also discussed and presented in this chapter.
Balram Panigrahi
Acknowledgements The author is indebted to Dr. M. Kar, Hon’ble Vice-Chancellor, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar for his kind blessings and encouragement to write this book. The moral supports and encouragements provided by the Dean, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Dean PGF-Cum-DRI, Dean of Research, Dean of Extension, Director Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation and Chief Librarian of Central Library, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar for writing the book is duly acknowledged. The author is grateful to Dr. S.N.Panda, Professor, Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering and Coordinator School of Water Resources, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, Professor B.C. Mal, Hon’ble Vice-Chancellor, Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Chhattisgarh, Professor D.P. Ray, Dr. K. Pradhan and Dr. I.C. Mahapatra, Ex- Hon’ble Vice-Chancellors, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar for their moral supports and helps to write this book. The inspirations and encouragements of the Director, Directorate of Water Management, Bhubaneswar and all his scientists especially, Dr. A. Mishra, Dr. S.K. Jena and Dr. S. Mohanty to accomplish this hard job of writing the book is unforgettable and is acknowledged. It will be injustice if the author does not pay his heartfelt obligations to all the faculty members of the College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar especially to Dr. J.C. Paul, Dr. B.P. Behera, Dr. N Sahoo, Dr. A.P. Sahu and Dr. J.N. Mishra without whose helps this book would have not been published. A word of praise and forbearance is also due to my wife, Smita and daughters Kajal and Komal who have helped a lot and constantly encouraged to finish writing this book. The author is also woeful to his parents for their blessings to undertake this writing of the book. Special thanks are due to the New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, for kindly accepting my proposal to publish this book and for their tireless efforts in bringing out the book in the present shape in a short time. The author gratefully acknowledges the helps drawn from various publications and text books on the subject. Suggestions and constructive criticisms for the improvement of the book are most welcome and will be duly acknowledged. Balram Panigrahi
Conversion Table
Unit
Multiply by
To obtain
Acre Acre Acre Angstrom Atmosphere Bar British thermal unit Calorie Calorie per square centimeter / minute Centimeter per day (elongation rate) ms-1) Cubic feet Cubic inch Cubic inch Curie Degrees (angle) Dyne Erg Foot Foot-pound Bar Gallon (U.S) U.S. gallon per acre Gram per cubic centimeter Inch Micromole (H2O) per square centimeter second (transpiration) Unit Micron Mile Miles per hour Milli mhos per centimeter Ounce Ounce (FLUID) Pint (fluid)
4.05 x 103 0.405 4.05x 10-3 0.1 0.101 10-1 1.05 x 102 4.19 698 0.116
Square meter, m2 Hectare, ha (104 m2) Square kilometer, km2 Nanometer, nm (10-9 m) Mega pascal, M pa (106 Pa) Mega pascal, M pa (106 Pa) Joule, J Joule, J Watt per square meter, W m-2 Micrometer per second, Âľ ms-1 (10-6
0.028 1.64 x 10-5 16.4 3.7 x 1010 1.75 x 10-2 10-5 10-7 0.305 1.36 103 3.78 9.35 1.00 25.4 180
Cubic meter, m3 Cubic meter, m3 Cubic centimeter, cm3 (10-6 m3) Becquerel, Bq Radian , rad Newton, N Joule, J Metre,m Joule, J Kilo pascal, K pa Litre, L (10-3 m3) Liere per hectare, 1it ha-1 Mega gram per cubic metre, Mg m-3 Millimeter, mm (10-3 m) Milligram (H2O) per square metre per second, mg m-2 s-1 (10-3 g m-2 s-1) To obtain Micro metre, Âľm (10-6 m) Kilometer, km (103 m) Metre per second, m s-1 Deci siemens per metre, ds m-1 Gram, g (10-3 kg) Litre, (10-3 m3) Litre, (10-3 m3)
Multiply by 1.00 1.61 0.477 1.00 28.4 2.96 x 10-2 0.473
(Contd.)
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