ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
For product information and technology assistance, contact us at emea.info@cengage.com
For permission to use material from this text or product and for permission queries, email emea.permissions@cengage.com
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-1-4737-5874-2
Cengage Learning, EMEA
Cheriton House, North Way Andover, Hampshire, SP10 5BE United Kingdom
Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at: www.cengage.co.uk
Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.
For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.co.uk.
Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com
To, Rob, Ash and Isla, Libby and Graham, Will, Rach and Margo.
Sylvia, Jonathan, Catherine, Simon, Ben and Edward
Steve, Peter, Sylvia and Tizzie
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xvii
About the authors xxiv
Acknowledgements xxv
PART I
ANALYSIS 1
1 AN INTRODUCTION TO
INTERNATIONAL MARKETING 2
The strategic importance of international marketing 3
What is international marketing? 5
International marketing defined 5
The international marketing environment 7
Social/cultural factors 8
Cultural factors 8
Social factors 10
Legal factors 12
Economic factors 15
The developed economies 16
The emerging economies 16
Least developed countries 16
Currency risks 17
Political factors 18
Technological factors 20
The Internet 20
The dual technological/cultural paradox 21
Sustainability factors 22
Differences between international and domestic marketing 23
The international competitive landscape 23
The international market planning process 25
The planning process 25
Major evolutionary stages of planning 26
The international marketing planning process 27
Situation analysis 29
Resources and capabilities 29
Knowledge management 29
Corporate objectives 30
Marketing strategies 30
Implementation of the marketing plan 31
The control process 31
Reasons for success 31
Characteristics of best practice in international marketing 32
Case study 1 Fast food: the healthy option goes global 34
Case study 2 Going international? You need a language strategy 35
2 THE WORLD TRADING ENVIRONMENT
38
External factors impacting governments and business 39
Environmental risks 40
Technology risks 40
World trading patterns 41
Future prospects 44
The reasons countries trade 47
The theory of comparative advantage 47
How comparative advantage is achieved 47
The international product life cycle 49
Barriers to world trade 49
Marketing barriers 49
Non-tariff barriers 51
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) 53
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 55
The World Trade Organization 56
The development of world trading groups 57
Forms of market agreement 57
Free trade area 57
Customs union 59
Common market 59
Economic union 59
Political union 59
The European Union 60
The Single European Market 60
European Monetary Union 61
Strategic implications 62
Widening European membership 62
The North American Free Trade Area 63
The Asian Pacific Trading Region 64
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation 64
ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA) 66
Case study 1 Export tourism increases host country’s GDP 68
Case study 2 The mobile/cell phone services market in Africa 69
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS IN INTERNATIONAL MARKETING
Social and cultural factors 72
What is culture? 72
Layers of culture 73
The components of culture 73
Language and culture 77
Culture and consumer behaviour 80
Does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs remain consistent across all cultures? 80
Is the buying process in all countries an individualistic activity? 81
Are social institutions and local conventions the same across all cultures? 81
Who, within the family, does the consumer buying process include?
71
And is this consistent across cultures? 81
Analyzing cultures and the implications for consumer behaviour 83
Self-reference criterion 84
Cross-cultural analysis 85
The high/low context approach 85
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions 86
Culture/communication typologies 89
Globe programme 90
Social and cultural influences in B2B marketing 91
Organizational buyers 91
Government buyer behaviour 92
The B2B buying process 92
The role of culture in negotiation styles 92
Ethical issues in cross-cultural marketing 94
Bribery and corruption 96
Piracy 97
Case study 1 Building an international ethical brand: coffee 99
Case study 2 Cultural challenges of the Brazilian market 100
4 INTERNATIONAL MARKETING RESEARCH AND OPPORTUNITY ANALYSIS 102
The role of marketing research and opportunity analysis 103
The role of international marketing research 103 What big data is telling us 104
Opportunity identification and analysis 106
Scanning international markets 106
Demand pattern analysis 109
Multiple factor indices 109
Analogy estimation 110
Macro-survey technique 110
Risk evaluation 110
World Economic Forum 111
The Knaepen Package 111
Business Environment Risk Index (BERI) 112
International marketing segmentation 112
Geographical criteria 112
The business portfolio matrix 112
Infrastructure/marketing institution matrix 114
Transnational segmentation 115
Mosaic Global 115
Hierarchical country: consumer segmentation 117
The market profile analysis 118
Analyzing foreign country markets 118
Sources of information 118
Online databases 120
Problems in using secondary data 122
Primary research in international markets 123
Problem discovery and definition report 124
Developing an innovative approach 125
Networking 125
Consortia 126
The collection of primary data 126
Organizing the research study 126
Centralization vs decentralization 127
In-house or agency 128
Research design 129
Qualitative research 129
Survey methods 130
Questionnaire design 130
Sample frame 133
Fieldwork 133
Report preparation and presentation 134
Case study 1 Global brands use of big data 136
Case study 2 Cultural segmentation map 137
Directed Study Activities 140
Directed Study Activity International marketing planning: analysis 141
PART II
STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT
5 INTERNATIONAL NICHE MARKETING STRATEGIES FOR SMALL- AND MEDIUM-SIZED
ENTERPRISES 148
The SME sector and its role within the global economy 149
The role of SME internationalization in economic regeneration 151
The challenges for SMEs from LDCs 151
Government support 153
The nature of SME international marketing strategies 155
Exporting 155
Motivation 155
Barriers to internationalization 156
Niche marketing of domestically delivered services 159
Importing and reciprocal trading 160
Direct marketing and electronic commerce 160
The nature of international development 163
Geographic development of SMEs 164
Market concentration and expansion 165
Where the domestic market is redefined 165
Where the SME international development is the result of networking 165
Entrepreneur and family networks 165
Where the SME is born global 167
Supply chain internationalization 168
Developing relationships 170
International strategic marketing management in SMEs 170
The McKinsey 7S framework 170
The generic marketing strategies for SME internationalization 171
The factors which affect the choice of an SME’s international marketing strategy 173
Market factors 173
Company factors 174
Country selection 174
Organization structure 176
International entrepreneurship and fast growth 181
The secret of high growth 181
The future of SME internationalization 184
Case study 1 Telensa: a shining light in smart cities 186
Case study 2 Pin it, share it, desire it, sell it 187
6 GLOBAL STRATEGIES 190
The alternative views of globalization 191
Globalization and standardization 194
The drivers of globalization 195
Alternative strategic responses 200
The international competitive posture 201
Global strategy drivers 202
Standardization and adaptation 204
Globally standardized strategy 205
Regional strategy 208
International marketing management for global firms 210
Global strategy implementation 211
Opportunities in emerging markets for global firms 211
The emergence of MNEs from emerging markets 212
Global appeal and the changing basis of competitive advantage 213
Increasing global appeal by building the global brand 214
Global brand management 214
Creating a global presence by achieving global reach 215
Managing diverse and complex activities across a range of similar but often disparate markets and cultures 217
Organization structure for transnational firms 218
Systems, processes and control 218
Control 218
Return on marketing investment 219
Planning systems and processes 219
Building skills in transnational organizations 220
Staff and the problems of international management 221
What makes a good international manager? 221
Management culture 222
Management style and shared values 223
Case study 1 Huawei: overcoming market obstacles 224
Case study 2 Reshoring: rethinking global reach 225
7 MARKET ENTRY STRATEGIES 228
The alternative market entry methods 229
Risk and control in market entry 232
Indirect exporting 233
Domestic purchasing 233
Export management companies or export houses 233
Piggybacking 234
Trading companies 234
Direct exporting 235
Factors for success in exporting 236
Selection of exporting method 237
Agents 238
Achieving a satisfactory manufacturer–agent relationship 238
Distributors 238
Other direct exporting methods 239
Management contracts 239
Franchising 239
Direct marketing and online purchasing 240
Foreign manufacturing strategies without direct investment 241
Reasons for setting up overseas manufacture and service operations 241
Contract manufacture 242
Licensing 242
Foreign manufacturing strategies with direct investment 244
Assembly 244
Wholly owned subsidiary 246
Company acquisitions and mergers 247
Cooperative strategies 248
Joint ventures 248
Strategic alliances 250
Minority stake share holdings 252
Case study 1 Wagamama’s international expansion 254
Case study 2 IKEA in China: market entry flat packed? 256
8 INTERNATIONAL PRODUCT AND SERVICE MANAGEMENT
259
The nature of products and services 260
International product and service marketing 260
The international marketing of service 263
The components of the international product offer 264
Products, services and value propositions 266
Factors affecting international product and service management 267
Reasons for adaptation of the product 269
Product acceptability 270
Shortening product life cycles 270
Franchising, joint ventures and alliances 270
Marketing management 271
Environmental and social responsibility issues 271
Product policy 273
Product strategies 273
Managing products across borders 275
The product life cycle 275
Product portfolio analysis 276
Introduction and elimination activities 277
Image, branding and positioning 278
Country of origin effects 278
International branding 279
Brand categories 280
Brand value 281
Branding strategies 283
Brand piracy 283
Positioning 285
Innovation and new product development 285
The most innovative companies 286
The nature of new product development 286
The new product development process 288
Approaches to technology transfer and the benefits for marketing 289
R&D strategies 289
Success and failure in new product development 290
Case study 1 Autonomous cars: looking for a driver! 293
Case study 2 Accor inseparable services: online and face-to-face 294
Directed Study Activity International marketing planning: strategy development 297
PART III
IMPLEMENTATION
301 9 INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS 302
The role of marketing communications 303
Internal marketing 303
Interactive marketing 304
External marketing 304
Communicating product and service differentiation 305
Communicating the corporate identity to international stakeholders 305
The fundamental challenges for international marketing communications 306
International marketing communications, standardization and adaptation 309
Towards standardization 310
Towards adaptation 310
International marketing communications strategy 312
Communicating with existing and potential customers 314
The integration of communications 315
Coordination and planning of the international marketing communications strategy 317
The marketing communications tools 317
Word-of-mouth and personal selling 318
Exhibitions, trade fairs and experiential marketing 320
Trade missions 321
Advertising 321
Television advertising 322
Press advertising 323
The use of agencies and consultancies 323
Sales promotions 325
Direct marketing 325
Communicating with the wider range of stakeholders 325
4.4 The 12C framework for analyzing international markets 119
4.5 Online databases 121
4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of different survey approaches 131
Chapter 5
5.1 Enterprise size and exporting activity 155
5.2 The difference between exporting and international niche marketing 158
5.3 International niche marketing: development opportunities 159
Chapter 6
6.1 Top ten companies in the world by revenues 191
6.2 The top 20 non-financial multinational companies ranked by foreign assets 2016 192
6.3 The top 20 non-financial multinational companies from developing and transition economies, ranked by foreign assets 2015 193
6.4 Drivers of globalization 195
6.5 The global pyramid of wealth 211
Chapter
7
7.1 Who provides what in partnerships between firms from developed and developing countries? 249
7.2 Wagamama restaurant chain composition 255
Chapter
8
8.1 The 30 best global brands 2014 and 2017 282
Chapter
9
9.1 Drivers for online communications 306
9.2 Global advertising expenditure 2007–2021 (US$ billion) 322
9.3 Number of hours spent on the Internet by consumers from different countries via any device 331
9.4 E-commerce penetration: % of population by country that bought something online (via any device) in one particular month during 2017 331
Chapter 10
10.1 Retailers: typical differences between developing and developed countries 355
10.2 Top ten global powers of retailing 359
Chapter
11
11.1 Factors influencing the pricing strategy 379
11.2 The effect of additional export sales on contribution 382
11.3 Escalation of costs through exporting using the ‘cost plus’ export pricing model 385
11.4 ‘Top down’ export pricing model: wine sold from an Australian vineyard to retail outlets in Hong Kong 386
11.5 (A) Incoterms stages and services at each stage of the export sales process – rules for any mode of transport 409
11.5 (B) Incoterms stages and services at each stage of the export sales process – rules for sea and inland waterway transport 410
Chapter 12
12.1 Checklist for international strategic planning 442
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter 1
1.1 Megacities or mega digital: which will dominate in the future? 12
1.2 Product placement laws in films 13
1.3 Sproxil born global to help us live longer 19
1.4 Four Seasons Hotel Amman embracing the traditions of Jordan 24
Chapter 2
2.1 McDonald’s reducing environmental risk 41
2.2 South Africa’s manufacturing export for busy people 44
2.3 Regulations frustrate importers of alcohol 50
2.4 Škoda: from shameful to stardom 63
2.5 North Korea: open or closed? 64
2.6 China and India: the technology challenge 65
Chapter 3
3.1 Nose piercing and culture 75
3.2 Language and meaning: lost in translation 77
3.3 Who is speaking your language? 79
3.4 Cultural dimensions for international sport advertising 82
3.5 What does the international language of emojis tell us? 90
3.6 Blockchain: pure ethically sourced diamonds 95
Chapter 4
4.1 Worldwide online shopping behaviour 105
4.2 Global and glocal segmentation research 116
4.3 Research suggested India was full of potential. But sometimes reaping returns is slow business 123
4.4 Omnibus telephone survey: what do you want to ask the experts? 127
4.5 The use of social networks to understand global consumer opinion 135
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The alligator and its allies
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: The alligator and its allies
Author: A. M. Reese
Release date: December 30, 2023 [eBook #72548]
Language: English
Original publication: New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1915
Credits: deaurider, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ALLIGATOR AND ITS ALLIES ***
Please see the Transcriber’s Notes at the end of this text.
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.
Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Company
ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS. (After Ditmars.)
(Reproduced by Permission of Doubleday, Page & Company.)
The Alligator and Its Allies
By Albert M. Reese, Ph.D. Professor of Zoölogy
in West Virginia University
Author of “An Introduction to Vertebrate Embryology”
With62Figuresand28Plates
G. P. Putnam’s Sons
New York and London
The Knickerbocker Press
C
OPYRIGHT, 1915
BY ALBERT M. REESE
The Knickerbocker Press, New York
PREFACE
The purpose of this volume is to bring together, in convenient form for the use of students of zoölogy, some of the more important details of the biology, anatomy, and development of the Crocodilia. For obvious reasons the American Alligator is the species chiefly used.
In the first chapter the discussion of the alligator is largely the result of the personal observations of the author; the facts in regard to the less familiar forms are taken from Ditmars and others. The description of the skeleton, with the exception of short quotations from Reynolds, is the author’s.
The chapter on the muscular system is a translation from Bronn’s Thierreich, and the author has not verified the descriptions of that writer.
The description of the nervous system is partly the author’s and partly taken from Bronn and others.
The chapters on the digestive, urogenital, respiratory, and vascular systems are practically all from descriptions by the author.
The chapter on “The Development of the Alligator” is a reprint, with slight alterations, of the paper of that title published for the author by the Smithsonian Institution.
The bibliography, while not complete, will be found to contain most of the important works dealing with this group of reptiles.
The author is grateful to Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars and to his publishers, Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Co., and Messrs. Sturgis & Walton, for the use of a number of plates; to the Macmillan Company and to the United States Bureau of Fish and Fisheries for the same privilege; to the National Museum for photographs of the skull of the gavial; and to the Smithsonian Institution for the use of the plates from researches published by them and included herein.
Proper acknowledgment is made, under each borrowed figure, to the author from whom it is taken.
MORGANTOWN, W. VA. May1,1915.
A. SKULL OF BELODON
1. MAP SHOWING THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF CROCODILIA 6
2. HEADS OF AMERICAN ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILE Facing7
3. ALLIGATOR JOE IN THE EVERGLADES Facing10
4. ALLIGATOR HUNTER IN THE OKEFINOKEE Facing10
5. NEST OF C. POROSUS Facing21
6. JACKSON SLOUGH Facing21
7. A TYPICAL ALLIGATOR HOLE Facing23
8. ALLIGATOR NEST, MADE CHIEFLY OF GRASS Facing25
9. ALLIGATOR NEST, MADE CHIEFLY OF FLAGS Facing27
10. TWO SPECIES OF CAIMAN: BROAD-NOSED CAIMAN, SPECTACLED CAIMAN Facing35
11. TWO AFRICAN CROCODILES: NILE CROCODILE, WEST AFRICAN CROCODILE Facing39
12. SALT WATER CROCODILE Facing41
13. SKULL OF GAVIAL, VENTRAL VIEW Facing43
14. SKULL OF GAVIAL, LATERAL VIEW Facing43
15.
18. THORACIC AND SACRAL VERTEBRÆ OF CROCODILE
19. DORSAL VIEW OF SKULL OF ALLIGATOR Facing60
20. VENTRAL VIEW OF SKULL OF ALLIGATOR Facing63
39.
42.
43.
44.
45.
47.
48.
49.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
60.
61. ARTERIES OF THE POSTERIOR REGION OF THE ALLIGATOR
62. ARTERIES OF THE ANTERIOR REGION OF THE ALLIGATOR
VI.XXVIII. PLATES VI TO XXVIII. A SERIES OF FIGURES TO ILLUSTRATE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN ALLIGATOR
THE ALLIGATOR AND ITS ALLIES
CHAPTER I
THE BIOLOGY OF THE CROCODILIA
CLASSIFICATION
As in most groups of animals, there is considerable difference of opinion as to the proper classification of the Crocodilia.
One of the older textbooks (Claus and Sedgwick) divides the order Crocodilia into three sub-orders: the Teleosauria, Steneosauria, and Procœlia, the last only being represented by living forms. The Procœlia or Crocodilia proper are divided into three families,—the Crocodilidæ, the Alligatoridæ (including the caiman as well as the alligator), and the Gavialidæ.
This division into families seems to be based mainly on the shape of the head, or, at any rate, it throws those forms together that have heads of the same outline.
It is this outline of the head that Ditmars (Reptiles of the World) uses in classifying the Crocodilia, which, he says, are all included in the single family—Crocodilidæ. The following list, taken from his Reptiles of the World (pp. 68-69), will give a clear idea of the number, distribution, and maximum size of the members of the order Crocodilia. More will be said of some of the members of this list later. Habitat
A. Snout extremely long and slender, extending from the head like the handle of a frying pan
Gavialisgangeticus, Indian Gavial Northern India 30 ft. Tomistoma schlegeli, Malayan Gavial Borneo and Sumatra 15 ft.
B. Snout very sharp and slender; of triangular outline
Crocodilus cataphractus, Sharp-nosed Crocodile W. Africa 12 ft.
Crocodilusjohnstoni, Australian Crocodile Australia 6-8 ft.
Crocodilus intermedius, Orinoco Crocodile Venezuela 12 ft.
C. Snout moderately sharp; outline distinctly triangular
Crocodilus americanus, American Crocodile Fla.; Mexico; Central and S. America 14 ft.
Crocodilus siamensis, Siamese Crocodile Siam; Java 7 ft.
Crocodilus niloticus, Nile Crocodile Africa generally 16 ft.
Crocodilusporosus, Salt-water Crocodile India and Malasia 20 ft.
D. Snout more oval; bluntly triangular
Crocodilus robustus, Madagascar Crocodile Madagascar 30 ft.
Crocodilus rhombiferus, Cuban Crocodile Cuba only 7 ft.
Crocodilus moreletti, Guatemala Crocodile Guatemala; Honduras 7 ft.
E. Snout short and broad; conformation barely suggesting a triangular outline
Crocodiluspalustris, Swamp Crocodile India and Malasia 12 ft.
Osteolæmus tetrapis, Broad-nosed Crocodile W. Africa 6 ft.
D′. Outline of head similar to that of Section D
Caiman trigonotus, Rough-backed Caiman Upper Amazon 6 ft.
Caiman sclerops, Spectacled Caiman Central and S. America 7-8 ft.
Caimanpalpebrosus, Banded Caiman Tropical South America 7-8 ft.
F. Snout very broad; bluntly rounded at tip
Caiman latirostris,[1] Round-nosed Caiman Tropical South America 7-8 ft.
Caiman niger,[2] Black Caiman Tropical South America 20 ft.
Alligator mississippiensis, American Alligator Southeastern United States 16 ft.
Alligator sinensis, Chinese Alligator China 6 ft.
[1] These species are exceptions in their genus. The snout is blunt like that of the genus Alligator.
[2] Alleged to grow to this size by competent observers.
Gadow in the Cambridge Natural History (p. 450) agrees with Boulanger in believing that the recent Crocodilia cannot be separated into different families, yet he describes seven families of Crocodilia, two of which, the Gavialidæ and Crocodilidæ, include the living members of the order; the former includes the gavials, of course, and the latter the crocodiles, alligators, and caimans.
Though “doctors disagree” thus in regard to the scientific classification of this small group of animals, this fact does not in the least diminish the intense interest in the individual members of the order.
ANCESTRY
Although the huge dragon-like dinosaurs or “terrible reptiles,” some of which were probably more than one hundred feet long, became extinct during the Mesozoic epoch, perhaps millions of years before man made his appearance upon earth, we have one group of reptiles still living in certain parts of the earth of which the Mesozoic lords of creation need not feel ashamed. While most of the living Crocodilia are mere pigmies in size, compared to the Atlantosaurus, there are a few representatives of the living group, to be discussed later, that are said to reach a length of thirty feet, which length makes pigmies, in turn, of most of the other living reptiles.
Considering the extinct as well as the living Crocodilia, Gadow says it is very difficult to separate them from the Dinosauria. In the Mesozoic Crocodilia the fore limbs were much shorter and weaker than the hind limbs, as was often the case with the dinosaurs; they were almost entirely marine, but gave indications of descent from terrestrial forms.
Various facts point, thinks Gadow, “to some Theropodous Dinosaurian stock of which the Crocodilia may well form an aquatic, further developed branch” (CambridgeNaturalHistory, p. 432).
Skull of Belodon. A, from above; B, from below. A, orbit; Bo, basi-occipital; Ch, internal nares; D, pre-orbital fossa; Exo. exoccipital; Fr. frontal; Ju. jugal; La. lacrymal; Mx. maxilla; Na. nasal; Pa. parietal; Pl. palatine; Pmx. pre-maxilla; Por. post-orbital; Prf. pre-frontal; Pt. pterygoid; Qu. quadrate; S, lateral temporal fossa; S′, superior temporal fossa; Sq. squamosal; Vo. vomer. (From Zittel.)
FIG. A. A TRIASSIC ANCESTOR OF THE CROCODILIA. From Parker & Haswell, TextbookofZoölogy.
The direct ancestors of the Crocodilia, Gadow says, are still unknown.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
As will be seen by examination of the table (p. 2) from Ditmars, and of Figure 1, the recent Crocodilia are found in all of the great continental areas except Europe; mainly in the tropical or subtropical regions.
The alligator is found in the southwestern United States and in China.
The crocodile is the most numerous in species and is the most widely distributed of the group. It is especially characteristic of Africa and Madagascar, but is found also in Florida, Mexico, Central and
FIG. 1. MAP SHOWING PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF CROCODILIA. (After Gadow.)
South America, the West Indies, South Asia, the East Indies, and Australia.
The gavial is found in India and some of the islands of the Orient, especially Borneo and Sumatra.
The caiman occurs in southern Mexico, Central and South America.
(Reproduced by Permission of Sturgis & Walton Co.)
The distribution of individual forms will be mentioned again when they are discussed in detail.
FIG. 2. HEADS OF AMERICAN ALLIGATOR AND AMERICAN CROCODILE; ALLIGATOR ON LEFT. (After Ditmars.)
ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS
Since this animal, generally known as the American or the Florida alligator (formerly A.lucius), is the one upon which most of the facts of this book are based, it will be discussed first.
At this point it may be well to answer the question that is sure to be asked by someone early in any conversation upon the Crocodilia. The writer, and doubtless every other zoölogist, has been asked countless times, “What is the difference between an alligator and a crocodile?” As a matter of fact there is, perhaps, no absolute distinction between the two groups, but there are certain features that make it easy to distinguish, say, between the American alligator and the American crocodile.
The most striking difference is in the outline of the head; the alligator has a broad, rounded snout, while that of the crocodile is narrower and more pointed (Fig. 2). Again, in the crocodile the fourth tooth from the front projects slightly outwards and fits into a notch in the side of the upper jaw, while in the alligator (also in the caiman) the corresponding tooth on each side fits into a socket in the upper jaw and hence is hidden, except in some old animals with very long teeth, in which it may pierce the upper jaw and show from above. According to Ditmars, the crocodile has, as a rule, larger and more exposed teeth than the alligator. Finally, as will be brought out later, the crocodile is usually more quick and active, and also more vicious, than the alligator.
Very young alligators are nearly black, with distinct, yellow cross bands; as they grow older these markings become less distinct until in maturity the animals are of a uniform gray or dirty black color. The American alligator is found in the rivers and swamps of the Southern States, from the southern part of North Carolina to the Rio Grande, though Florida is usually thought of as being the region in which they particularly abound. Years ago, before the rifle of the ubiquitous tourist and so-called sportsman had gotten in its deadly work, the alligators were probably very abundant in the Southern States; but they have been so ruthlessly destroyed by
Habitat.
native hunters for their skins, and by others for mere wanton sport, that one may travel, perhaps, for days along the rivers of the South without seeing a single ’gator.
The account quoted by Clarke from Bartram’s travels of more than one hundred years ago, while probably exaggerated, gives an idea of the abundance of the alligators at that time: “The rivers at this place from shore to shore, and perhaps near a half mile above and below me, appeared to be one solid bank of fish of various kinds, pushing through the narrow pass of San Juans into the little lake on their return down the river, and the alligators were in such incredible numbers, and so close together from shore to shore, that it would have been easy to have walked across their heads, had the animals been harmless.” At the present time it is usually necessary to travel far from the usual routes of the Northern tourists to find alligators in any abundance.
At Palm Beach, Florida, lived, a few years ago, and probably still lives, a well-known hunter and guide, “Alligator Joe.” Just what nationality he may be is difficult to determine, but that he knows that trackless waste, the Everglades, at least in the region of Palm Beach, is evident. He has an “alligator farm” near the great hotels of that famous winter resort, at which he keeps, or did a few years ago, a large number of alligators of all sizes, as well as a number of crocodiles. For a consideration (by no means a modest one) he would take out a party of tourists for a day into the Everglades, guaranteeing that he would find an alligator for them to shoot. It was rumored by the natives that an accomplice was always sent ahead to free the alligator at the psychological moment, after the hunters had been paddled by a devious course to the selected spot, but whether this were true or not the writer was not able to determine. It is true, however, that he and the writer paddled in a rather graceful canoe, dug out of a single cypress log, and waded through the Everglades for several days, searching for alligator eggs, and that we found only one nest and saw only one or two alligators (Fig. 3).
Doubtless in more remote parts of the Everglades the alligators are much more numerous.
During another summer the writer, with a guide, penetrated the very center of the State, to the region southeast of Lake Kissimmee, forty miles from the nearest railroad; here the alligators, and in consequence their nests, are fairly abundant, though the native hunters are, even in this remote region, rapidly thinning their ranks.
A still greater number of alligators was found, the following summer, in the Okefinokee Swamp in southern Georgia. In the center of this great waste, ten miles or more from dry land, nearly one hundred alligators, ranging from about four to eight feet in length, were killed within a week by a small party of native hunters with whom the writer was traveling (Fig. 4).
Whether this wholesale destruction by sportsman and native hunter will eventually exterminate our giant reptile, as has been the case with the buffalo and other game animals, it is impossible to say. Unless the Everglades and the Okefinokee are largely drained it seems probable that a few alligators will always remain in the most inaccessible regions.
(From a Photograph by the Author.)
FIG. 3. ALLIGATOR JOE IN THE EVERGLADES.
(From a Photograph by the Author.)
The collection of eggs for sale and for hatching purposes, as well as their destruction for food by bears and other animals, will also tend towards the annihilation of the species in the course of time. The economic importance of the alligator will be discussed later.
While in the old days, as has been said, the alligator was common in the larger rivers and lakes, and may even have ventured short distances into salt water, he must now frequently be satisfied to hide his great body in a “’gator hole” that is scarcely more than a puddle. These “holes” (Fig. 7) are common in central Florida and are sometimes scarcely large enough to allow the alligator to dive into them to seek the underground cave in which he hides. It is on the edge of such a hole that the nest is built, as will be described later.
FIG. 4. ALLIGATOR HUNTER IN THE OKEFINOKEE.
Often from a small swamp or slough alligator “trails” lead off in different directions. These trails are narrow, winding gullies such as might be made by cattle in a damp pasture. If followed from the main slough the trail will usually be found to end in a “hole,” in which an alligator will probably be found (Fig. 7). In a great swamp like the Everglades or the Okefinokee such holes would naturally not be found.
On one side of the hole is usually a smooth place where the vegetation is worn away; it is here that the ’gator “pulls out” to sleep in the sun; and wary must the hunter be to approach within sight of the animal before being seen or heard by him. At the first alarm he slides quietly or plunges quickly into the muddy water, and the hunter must wait long if he expects to see the ’gator come to the surface.
The opening of the cave is always below the surface of the water, but it is possible that there may be a subterranean chamber that is not completely filled with water. How the animal is gotten from his cave will be described later. According to some writers the alligator retires to his cave to hibernate during the cooler winter months. This is possibly true in the more northerly limits of his range. It is well known that if kept in cool water the alligator will lie dormant and refuse all food for months at a time. The writer has had young alligators in captivity, under these conditions, that refused food from late in the autumn until nearly the first of April.
The proprietor of one of the largest alligator farms in the country says: “Our alligators stop eating the first week in October and do not begin to eat until the latter part of April. We have experimented with our stock to see if we could get them to eat in the winter, and found that by keeping the water in the tanks at a certain temperature they would eat, but we found out that the warm water would make their bowels move, and that they would not eat enough to keep themselves up, as in the summer, and as a result they would become very poor and thin, so we do not force them to eat any more.” The effect upon the growth of an animal of these two methods of feeding will be noted later when the age and rate of growth are discussed. The same writer says, in answer to a question
about hibernation: “In their wild state they go into their dens under water and remain dormant all winter.” Whether this statement is the result of actual observation the writer is not able to say, but, judging by some other statements from the same source, it is probably from hearsay. The writer, having visited the alligator haunts only in late spring and summer, has had no opportunity of studying the habits of the animal in its natural habitat during the winter season. During the heat of summer the animal does not seek the sun as he is said to do during cooler weather, but spends more time on the bank at night and during the cooler parts of the day.
That he sometimes wanders over dry land, perhaps going from hole to hole, is evident from the tracks that are sometimes seen crossing a dusty road or path. These trails are easily recognized by the clawed footprints with a line, made by the dragging tail, between them. Although most awkward on land, he can, if necessary, move very quickly. It is, however, in the water that he shows to best advantage; he is an active, powerful swimmer, his tail being used as a propeller as in the fishes. When swimming actively the legs are held close against the body in order that they may retard the animal’s motion as little as possible. While swimming in a leisurely way the top of the head is at the surface of the water, perhaps just the nostrils and eyes projecting above the surface, so that the size of the animal can be estimated by the distance between these projecting points. One afternoon the writer and a guide, while paddling along an old canal that was dug years ago into the Okefinokee Swamp, were preceded for perhaps half a mile by a large alligator that swam just fast enough to keep out of our reach until he came to the place where he wanted to turn off into the swamp.
Although so awkward on land, the alligator is said to be able to defend himself very effectively with his tail, which he sweeps from side to side with sufficient force, in the case of a large specimen, to knock a man off his feet. Although the writer has seen captured and helped to capture alive several alligators up to eight feet in length he has never seen this vigorous use of the tail as a weapon of defense.
While the alligator, like most other wild animals, will doubtless defend itself when cornered, it will always flee from man if possible,
