Natural Resource Utilization in the Boni-Lungi-Dodori Forest Areas, Lamu County, Kenya

KENYA SECURE PROJECT NATURAL RESOURCE UTILIZATION IN THE BONILUNGI-DODORI FOREST AREAS, LAMU COUNTY, KENYA

JUNE 2012 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Tetra Tech ARD.

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development by Tetra Tech ARD, through a Prosperity, Livelihoods and Conserving Ecosystems (PLACE) Indefinite Quantity Contract Task Order (USAID Contract No. EPP-I00-06-00008-00, TO #2), Property Rights and Resource Governance Program (PRRGP) Task 5.71, Securing Rights to Land and Natural Resources for Biodiversity and Livelihood in the North Coast (SECURE).

Tetra Tech ARD Principal Contacts:

Dr. Mark Freudenberger, Senior Technical Advisor/Manager (mark.freudenberger@tetratech.com) Sandy Stark, Project Manager (sandy.stark@tetratech.com)

Tetra Tech ARD Home Office Address: Tetra Tech ARD 159 Bank Street, Suite 300 Burlington, VT 05401 Tel: (802) 658-3890 Fax: (802) 658-4247 www.ardinc.com

KENYA SECURE PROJECT NATURAL RESOURCE UTILIZATION IN THE BONI-LUNGI-DODORI FOREST AREAS, LAMU COUNTY, KENYA

JUNE 2012

DISCLAIMER The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AOI

Area of Interest

AWER

Aweer Wildlife and Environmental Resources

CLRR

Community Lands Rights Recognition

COP

Chief of Party

DPGL

Development Partners Group on Land

EAWLS

East African Wild Life Society

Envir/NRM

USAID Kenya’s Environment and Natural Resource Management

GIS

Geographic Information System

GoK

Government of Kenya

GPS

Global Positioning System

KEFRI

Kenya Forestry Research Institute

KFS

Kenya Forest Service

KWS

Kenya Wildlife Service

KiBoDo

Kiunga Boni Dodori

LAPSSET

Lamu Port South-Sudan-Ethiopia Transport Corridor

LRSP

Land Reform Support Program

LRTU

Land Reform Transformation Unit

MoL

Ministry of Lands

NGO

Nongovernmental organization

NMK

National Museums of Kenya

SECURE

Securing Rights to Land and Natural Resources for Biodiversity and Livelihoods in the North Coast

SFM

Sustainable Forest Management

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

WWF

World Wildlife Fund

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded Kenya Securing Rights to Land and Natural Resources for Biodiversity and Livelihoods in the North Coast (SECURE) Project and its partner, the Kiunga Boni Dodori (KiBoDo) Trust, conducted a participatory exercise in late 2011 and early 2012 to identify, document, and map the natural resource uses of the communities living in the mostly forested area of between and adjacent to the Boni and Dodori National Reserves in Lamu County on Kenya’s north coast. The area of study encompassed five villages situated along the main road from Hindi to Kiunga at intervals of up to 20 km: Milimani, Basuba, Kiangwe, Manga, and Mararani. The area is inhabited by predominantly the Aweer: a minority, hunter/gatherer group (sometimes also referred to as Boni), and is towards the northern limit of the East African Coastal Forest.

The SECURE Project and KiBoDo Trust worked with members of the five communities using participatory mapping techniques to seek answers about which natural resources they use, how they use them, and to what extent they use them. Community Scouts from KiBoDo Trust, along with rangers from the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), worked with community members to map the location of the various resources using handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) devises and to document their uses and other relevant data. This data was then translated into a comprehensive Geographic Information System (GIS) map, from which analyses were carried out and observations were made on the distribution and clustering of data.

Having completed the data analysis, a number of important observations were made on the implications of the utilization of resources: 1. Hot Spot analysis (a GIS tool), identified statistically significant spatial clusters of high values (i.e., hot spots) in close proximity to villages, roads, and rivers. Using Distance Analysis, it was revealed that the Aweer travel far to access their resources, the distance of which averages a radius of 6.8 km around each village, but extending as far as Ijara District in Garissa County, and up to the Somalia border.

2. Although the five villages are mostly autonomous, some resources are accessed jointly through customary arrangements due to their similar livelihood strategies and cultural practices. Most resources are shared amongst the villages such that boundaries between the villages are difficult to define. For example, one of the sacred sites in the Dodori National Reserve, Dongi, is shared

by Milimani, Basuba, and Kiangwe villages.

3. It was confirmed that the Aweer access a number of resources in the Boni and Dodori National Reserves including, but not limited to: a. Gathering of honey, fruits, medicinal plants, and water collection, among others; b. Four sacred sites in Boni National Reserve and another four in Dodori National Reserve; and c. Two salt lakes in Dodori National Reserve: Chaurenga and Warile.

4. The region has a high number of water points, including rivers; wells; and temporary and permanent lakes, the largest of which is Lake Hadhi, within Boni National Reserve.

5. The most commonly identified resource use was trees for subsistence, which are mainly used for medicinal purposes, firewood, timber for furniture, construction material, hand crafts, and as a source of fruits and foods.

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6. While grazing along the Mokowe-Kiunga road and permanent farming in Kiangwe village is prevalent, it was noted that these were mainly not by Aweer communities but by Somali Kenyans and Bajuni, respectively.

7. There were 15 sacred forest sites identified, of which Dongi in Dodori National Reserve and Lungi in Lungi forest, south of Milimani, were considered to be the most culturally important.

8. Other than Kiangwe village, farms are located very close to the village centres or major roads.

9. Fishing activities were noted in Kiangwe (saltwater) and Mangai (freshwater), and minimally in Milimani (freshwater).

10. The distribution of former settlement areas reveals the history of migration of the Aweer into the existing villages from as far as Ijara. Lake Hadhi was particularly identified as the place of origin for three Aweer clans.

11. Place names provide insights into the resource uses of former settlement areas, as well as historical movement patterns of the Aweer.

12. There is a significant difference in identification of resource uses and the location of resources and features between the genders.

By translating the traditional knowledge and history of the community into a pictorial image, the map tells of a dependent relationship and coexistence between the Aweer and their environment.

Unfortunately, the forests in the Boni-Lungi-Dodori area are particularly vulnerable to the increasing direct and indirect external threats from illegal logging, poaching, slash and burn and shifting agricultural practices, irregular land acquisition, and large-scale development projects. Thus there is an urgent need to implement strategies that will ensure that the identified resources within the area are sustainably utilized, managed, and conserved. More important is the urgent need of securing the land tenure rights of the communities, as guaranteed in the Constitution, through the available legal instruments and developed models such as the Community Land Rights Recognition (CLRR) Model, as well as securing the resource use and access rights of the Aweer through co-management arrangements between the community and the Government.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION Participatory resource mapping is carried out by communities to map their territories and indicate which places and which resources are used for which purposes (customary uses). The resulting maps demonstrate the scope of indigenous territories and illustrate the significance and importance of the territories and associated resources for the lives of indigenous and local communities. Community members are trained to use Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) technology and then employ these skills in the field in combination with the knowledge of resource users or elders who know the territory or specific parts of it very well. Data and locations are collected and all information is compiled into digital maps.

In combination with village-level capacity building in land and resource rights issues, participatory mapping can provide the basis for an effective territorial defense strategy. An increasing number of forest peoples consider community maps as a useful tool that they can use at the local and national levels to assert more secure land and resource rights in their traditional territories. This is especially important in cases where outside actors aim to access their forests, such as government authorities, companies (logging, mining, plantations), and individuals. The maps can support communities in dialogue and negotiation processes.

Using participatory resource mapping, the Securing Rights to Land and Natural Resources for Biodiversity and Livelihoods in the North Coast (SECURE) Project and partner Kiunga Boni Dodori (KiBoDo) Trust aimed to obtain detailed information about forest uses by the Aweer and other nearby communities in the Boni-Lungi-Dodori forest areas, including the current extent of the forest, its health and state of biodiversity, cultural heritage sites, and social mapping. This was done with the intention to help identify human activities, depict mobility patterns, and identify utilization of the resources and resource use patterns (e.g., honey harvesting, gathering fruits, firewood, etc.). It is hoped that this information will help inform the process of improving the protection and management of this biologically sensitive area and securing the community land and resource rights of the Aweer.

The resource mapping exercise was centred on the Boni-Dodori Corridor, the area located between the Boni and Dodori National Reserves toward the northern limit of the East African Coastal Forest, classified by Conservation International as a “biodiversity hotspot.� The corridor encompasses five villages situated along the main road from Hindi to Kiunga at intervals of up to 20 km: Milimani, Basuba, Kiangwe, Mangai, and Mararani. The area is inhabited by predominantly Aweer, with Kiangwe village also being home to some ethnic Bajuni.

In order to assist the local communities better to secure their land and resource rights, help them protect the forest and forest resources on which their livelihoods and culture, and advocate for more effective management regimes for conservation, SECURE and KiBoDo required more detailed knowledge of the location and uses of those resources. The requirement for this within the BoniDodori Corridor is all the more pressing since the claims of the local communities to customary land and resource-use rights have yet to be recognized formally by the Kenyan government. The ensuing ambiguity concerning land tenure and access to resources has made the Boni-Dodori Corridor and adjacent areas particularly vulnerable to the increasing external threat from illegal logging, poaching, and land acquisition, as well as large-scale development projects such as the construction of the proposed Lamu Port South-Sudan-Ethiopia Transport Corridor (LAPSSET). Fortunately, a process for securing the recognition of communal land rights was jointly developed by the SECURE Project, Ministry of Lands (MoL) and the Community Lands Rights Recognition (CLRR) Model. The model was approved by the Minister for Lands in September 2011, and is soon to be implemented.

By identifying, documenting, mapping, and articulating current and customary land and resource-use by the communities in the Boni-Dodori Corridor and its adjacent areas, it is hoped that this exercise will help inform the process of advocating for and securing legal recognition of land tenure and

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resource-use rights, and the formulating collaborative conservation plans which promote support for the sustainable management of natural resources in the area.

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2.0 BACKGROUND Northern coastal Kenya is home to three biologically rich protected areas of great local, national, and global significance: the terrestrial Boni and Dodori National Reserves, and the Kiunga Marine National Reserve, all under the management authority of the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). The area is a mosaic of closed-canopy forest, savannah woodland, thickets, and farmland that supports significant populations of mammals such as buffalo, coastal topi, African wild dog, Aider’s duiker, and a host of other species. The Boni and Dodori National Reserves have experienced significant depletion of wildlife, mostly due to poaching over the past three decades. In the early 1970s, the area had some of the highest concentrations of elephants and other game in Kenya. Today, the elephant population is estimated to be between 100–300, down from an estimated 30,000.

The Boni and Dodori National Reserves, and the area in between them and adjacent to them, comprise the ancestral homeland of the indigenous Aweer. The Aweer, or Boni as they sometimes refer to themselves, number about 7,602 individuals in all of Kenya according to the 2009 census, are traditionally hunters and gatherers, but have had their lives drastically impacted by governmental decree that reduced their traditional migrations and forced them to live in villages, ostensibly under the justification of national security. The Aweer mainly settled along the Boni-Dodori Corridor where they continue to practice hunting and gathering activities, as well as subsistence agriculture and shifting cultivation.

In March 2008, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Tetra Tech ARD undertook a land tenure and property rights assessment of USAID’s natural resource management and conservation programs in this region. The assessment documented long-standing irregularities and inequities in land and property rights; economic marginalization of resident communities; and conflict between communities and stakeholders, undermining resource management and economic opportunities. The assessment provided recommendations for specific program interventions from which the “Securing Rights to Land and Natural Resources for Biodiversity and Livelihood in the Kiunga Marine, Boni, and Dodori National Reserves and Surrounding Areas in North Coastal Kenya” (the Kenya SECURE Project) was borne.

SECURE is aimed at assisting at securing land and resource rights of indigenous coastal communities to improve livelihoods and support biodiversity conservation and sustainable natural resource management in the north coast. SECURE will pilot test local level interventions and mechanisms in land administration and management in support of the MoL’s Land Reform Support Program (LRSP), an initiative to strengthen the principles of the Kenya’s National Land Policy and to promote efficient, sustainable, and equitable land use in Kenya.

The project is being implemented by the MoL with facilitation by Tetra Tech ARD, in collaboration with government natural resource agencies; a number of civil society organizations and communitybased organizations, including the KiBoDo Trust; and the members of the targeted communities themselves.

To achieve the above objectives, the SECURE Project was designed with three components: 1. Improve land and natural resource tenure security and reduce conflict over natural assets; 2. Improve management of protected and biologically sensitive areas; and 3. Provide lessons learned to inform the development and implementation of relevant policy.

The SECURE Project is funded by USAID/Kenya and forms a part of the Development Partners Group on Land (DPGL) Land Reform Support Program II (LRSP II) for Kenya, being implemented by the Kenya MoL, specifically the Land Reform Transformation Unit (LRTU). The overall goal of

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the LRSP II is to help Kenya achieve efficient, sustainable, and equitable land use. In particular, Component 3 of the LRSP II intends to support land administration and management by creating local-level mechanisms for sustainable land rights administration and management, and strengthen land administration through demonstration intervention, capacity building, and guidelines for effective and accountable management in urban and rural areas. The SECURE Project contributes to Component 3 of the LRSP II by undertaking a land tenure demonstration intervention in the northeast coast.

The SECURE Project directly contributes to USAID Kenya’s Environment and Natural Resource Management (Envir/NRM) Program Strategic Objective of improved environment and NRM in targeted biodiverse areas. The SECURE Project is aimed at assisting the securing of land resource rights of indigenous coastal communities to improve livelihoods and support biodiversity conservation and sustainable natural resource management in the northeast coast. In addition, the SECURE Project contributes to the land reform section of Reform Agenda 4 of the Kenya National Accord and Reconciliation Act. The SECURE Project has partnered with the KiBoDo Trust on its Component 2 objectives (Improve management of protected and biologically sensitive areas). The KiBoDo Trust is a community conservation and development trust situated on Kenya’s north coast. The Trust area encompasses the three national reserves in the region, namely the Kiunga Marine, Boni National, and Dodori National Reserves, thus the acronym for KiBoDo. The combined total area exceeds 2,300 km2 and consists of forest, coastal and marine ecosystems, making KiBoDo a unique project within Kenya. The Bajuni and Aweer communities who are the principal inhabitants of this area have depended on its natural resources for their livelihoods for generations, however pressures from outside are increasing and these resources are being rapidly depleted. The KiBoDo Trust was formed to conserve these unique natural resources, enhance local livelihoods, and improve security within the area. The Trust seeks to do this through full integration of local communities in effective management of the KiBoDo reserves and adjacent areas. The emphasis is on mitigating threats to biodiversity via awareness-raising and advocacy, promoting sustainable natural resource use, and improving protection in co-operation with the relevant government agencies.

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3.0 METHODOLGY Participatory mapping is a general term used to define a growing toolbox of techniques that can help communities and other stakeholders make land and resource use decisions. These maps go beyond the physical features portrayed in traditional maps; nearly everything valued by the community can be expressed in spatial terms and represented on a participatory map, including social, cultural, and economic features. This tool therefore provides an excellent mechanism for translating local spatial knowledge into more formal maps and takes the initial step to securing property rights for the Aweer.

To achieve this, a number of processes had to be followed to ensure accuracy and best possible output. The following sections detail these processes.

Participatory mapping is comprised of two main components: GPS surveys and “sketch mapping.� Sketch mapping is a method of creating maps whereby stakeholders can draw actual lines and points on a map which represents their interests. Community members are then presented with a base map showing a representation of each village using satellite images and other identifiable features (roads, rivers, lakes etc.). Once orientated to the base map, discussions centered on identifying each unique resource use commence. The results of these are then drawn using identifiable colors, codes, and/or icons, to create a legend. Each location is then physically visited, recorded and coded into the GPS device. The results are then uploaded onto a map, which is validated by the community one final time before a final map is produced.

3.1

What Is Participatory Mapping?

Participatory mapping is a map-making process that attempts to make visible the association between land and local communities by using the commonly understood and recognized language of cartography. In contrast to the common view of planners and managers responsible for a certain development process, participatory mapping provides the opportunity to represent a socially and culturally distinct understanding of landscape and include information that is excluded from mainstream maps. Therefore, it can become a medium of empowerment by allowing the local community to represent themselves spatially (IFAD 2009).

PLANNING FOR THE ACTIVITY

Planning for the mapping process involved a variety of other stakeholders where both a national meeting in Nairobi and local planning meeting in Lamu were held. Stakeholders involved and consulted included KWS, the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and its Forest Conservation Committee members, Ministry of Agriculture, National Museums of Kenya, the BP Conservation Leadership Project, the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Aweer Wildlife and Environmental Resources (AWER) community group, ERMIS Africa, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the East African Wild Life Society (EAWLS), Save Lamu, and the Provincial Administration. The design of the resource mapping plan that was developed as a result of the meetings can be found in Appendix A. During the stakeholder meetings, it was also noted that there was an overlap between organization activities since WWF, the National Museums of Kenya (NMK), and KWS were also concurrently aiming to create resource maps for the area. This includes a management plan by KWS, the BoniDodori Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) Project by WWF, and the BP Conservation Leadership Project. To avoid the duplication of efforts in the future, the participants agreed to open sharing of information.

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3.2

DEFINING THE STUDY AREA

The first phase of a participatory mapping exercise involved defining the extent of the area that will be mapped. This study area, or Area of Interest (AOI), provides a template which will help quantify the extent of the required data and resources needed to complete the exercise. Although the geographical location of the Boni-Dodori Corridor was known, the boundaries of the AOI had to be defined. With very little GIS data in hand, Google Maps (maps.google.com) was used, which provided basic base maps onto which boundaries could be drawn. In addition, this web-based tool allowed for live (online) collaboration between the GIS specialist, the Chief of Party (COP), and project staff. Through an interactive process, a final boundary was decided.

Figure 3.1: The Final Project Area Shown in Google Maps

3.3

SATELLITE IMAGERY

Satellite imagery provides a good base for mapping exercises as it allows for easy identification of features on the ground and allows community members and project staff to orientate themselves to the area. This becomes particularly important during field work where community members need to point out and identify key features.

The definition of the AOI revealed that the freely available satellite imagery available in Google Maps would not be sufficient to be used in the participatory mapping exercise, mainly due to the high cloud cover (30–40 percent) and the low resolution of the image. Additional searches based on highest resolution, low cloud cover, and cost revealed that the best available imagery for the area was proprietary images provided by SPOT image.

Figure 3.2: Satellite Imagery Extracts for Area Surrounding Mangai Village–BoniDodori Corridor, Kenya

Left: 2011 SPOT Image (2.5m Resolution) 2010. Right: Landsat image (30m Resolution) www.maps.google.com

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AOI

Area of Interest

AWER

Aweer Wildlife and Environmental Resources

CLRR

Community Lands Rights Recognition

COP

Chief of Party

DPGL

Development Partners Group on Land

EAWLS

East African Wild Life Society

Envir/NRM

USAID Kenya’s Environment and Natural Resource Management

GIS

Geographic Information System

GoK

Government of Kenya

GPS

Global Positioning System

KEFRI

Kenya Forestry Research Institute

KFS

Kenya Forest Service

KWS

Kenya Wildlife Service

KiBoDo

Kiunga Boni Dodori

LAPSSET

Lamu Port South-Sudan-Ethiopia Transport Corridor

LRSP

Land Reform Support Program

LRTU

Land Reform Transformation Unit

MoL

Ministry of Lands

NGO

Nongovernmental organization

NMK

National Museums of Kenya

SECURE

Securing Rights to Land and Natural Resources for Biodiversity and Livelihoods in the North Coast

SFM

Sustainable Forest Management

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

WWF

World Wildlife Fund

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Figure 3.3: Extract of Base Maps Showing Rivers, Roads, Reserve Boundaries, and Villages

A single overview base map was produced with an additional five village-level base maps for each of the villages. The extent of potential resource gathering areas was calculated at approximately a 30km radius from the center point of each village, which was considered as the furthest distance (on foot) that resources would be gathered.

3.5

MAPPING TEAM TRAINING

After printing and laminating the overview and village-level base maps, a total of 17 KiBoDo Trust Community Game Scouts, 3 community members, and 4 KiBoDo Trust and SECURE staff members were trained. The aim of the training was to renew and refresh GPS skills on marking points, tracks, sketch mapping, and using a coding system and data entry forms developed particularly for the mapping exercise. The practical training on sketch mapping was carried out on the first day; GPS coding training was on the second day. When in the field, one-day practical training was carried out in Kiangwe village in noting that the scouts had not adequately refined their GPS skills.

3.6

MAP LEGEND

The map legend generally refers to symbolism used on a map, but can also be used to describe the list of features intended to be mapped prior to the creation of the map. For the Boni-Dodori mapping exercise, a list of resources was compiled initially among project staff who had some familiarity with the community and typical resource collection practices of the Aweer. This list was presented, improved, and approved by community members. Resource uses were defined in both English and Swahili languages and were assigned unique codes for each resource type. See Figure 3.4 on the following page for the final map legend.

Appendix C is the resource types and codes which became known as the GPS Dictionary as it provided integral inputs and definitions for GPS point collection, described in the next section.

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Figure 3.4: Final Map Legend

3.7

SKETCH MAPS

Sketch mapping provides community members with a blank canvas, unrestricted by previous maps, concepts, place names, and features. This allows participants to develop concepts freely that truly reflect their environment. The first step in sketch mapping entailed community members drawing maps on the ground, which were later transferred to paper sketches with the addition of resource uses and physical features. Discussions then began with the facilitators describing how the satellite image was arrived at, and the physical features represented so as to help the community members orient to the base maps. These concepts were easily adopted by community members who could immediately identify places and features of interest on the map.

Using the predefined list of resource uses, discussions were held with selected community members in each of the villages to identify the resources on the base map (Appendix D). The satellite image provided a reference to which the approximate location of each resource use could be found, which were then physically drawn on the maps, Sketch Mapping with community members represented with different colors for each distinct resource use or resource category (Appendix E). In addition to resource uses, local place names were captured. The place names as known by the community are not necessarily identical to the “official names� gazetted in governmental topographic maps. By capturing the traditional place names, the ownership of the land by the Aweer community will be emphasized if these names are adopted for official use.

Although the Aweer are a rural community and have little exposure to modern mapping technologies, they have an incredible spatial knowledge of their environment; with this knowledge, they were accurately able to identify and locate many features that could not be discovered using conventional mapping techniques.

3.8

GPS SURVEYS

GPS is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Small handheld GPS devices were provided by KiBoDo Trust, which made it possible to capture various locations and resource uses during the mapping process.

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The GPS team consisted of 18 individuals, trained prior to the exercise: 3 team leaders, 10 KiBoDo scouts from Bonni-Dodori villages, 5 Kiunga Marine National Reserve Scouts, and KiBoDo Field Officer. In addition, the teams scouted with KWS Rangers and Home guards. The teams were tasked with the responsibility of collecting GPS data and filling the information into predefined forms. This information was later transferred to a digital format which was then fed into a GIS and used in developing the maps. Using the pre-defined coding system (Appendix C), each resource within in each village range was uniquely coded and referenced within a database. As a means of crosschecking and aiding in better accuracy, all information for each point was captured twice: digitally in the GPS device and in hardcopy in a pre-designed form (Appendix F). Both formats were brought back to the team leaders, who would check for errors and re-send scouts out to problem areas. The final results were then received by the GIS specialists for vetting, conversion, and mapping.

3.9

MAPPING

All data from the 13 GPS devises, sketch maps, and hard copy data collection forms were entered into a spatial database after which had to be double-checked in order to: 

Remove duplicated entries;



Check and update null (blank) entries;



Check and cross-reference all entries for accurate coding; and



Ensure that all entries had been downloaded and were complete.

Once a good level of accuracy was achieved, a cartographic symbol was assigned to each resource use. The symbology aimed at providing a recognizable but unique symbol for each use and had to ensure a relative amount of simplicity so that the map could be understood by a wide variety of audiences.

To reference and contextualize these points, a base map was developed that would provide additional mapping information and set these points into a realistic representation of the area. Initial ideas were to use the satellite image as the base; however, this backdrop tended to drown out the points and did not enhance the aesthetics of the map. Instead, a generic land cover data set was used that identified various types of vegetation on the ground (forest, woodland, shrub land, sand, etc.). This was overlaid onto an elevation layer which emphasized the topography (hills, slopes, valleys, etc.) of the area.

Roads, rivers, lakes, and place names where then added to produce the final map.

Left: Kibodo Team Leader, John Bett, cross-checking GPS points. Right: Kibodo Scout, a community member, and KWS Rangers during the GPS Field Survey.

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Map 3.1: Extract of the Overview Map

3.10

VALIDATION

After the draft map was finalized, the five Aweer villages were revisited and the map was presented to the community members for validation. The resource uses and place names were ratified at community meetings where the participants signed their names on a participant list confirming their approval of the map (Table 3.3). Participants were also given the opportunity to provide additional information that was left out during the first mapping process.

Table 3.3: Map Validation Participants Village Basuba Kiangwe Mangai Mararani Milimani Total Percentage

Men 13 19 11 19 12 74 52%

Women 7 5 12 19 25 68 48%

Total 20 24 23 38 37 142 100%

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The corrections made by the community were consolidated so as to obtain the most complete and accurate resource use points for each village.

Validation of map with community members in Milimani village

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4.0 DATA ANALYSIS 4.1

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCE USES

Once all resource uses have been mapped and referenced to other features like roads and rivers, observations can be made on how these resource uses occur spatially. Spatial patterns like clustering or dispersal may provide some additional understanding to why resources are gathered in certain areas and not in others. In addition, these observations may provide some insight into future patterns and predictive planning for resource use management and tenure rights.

4.1.1

Hot Spots

To assess the clustering of the resource uses, a Hot Spot Analysis was performed using a GIS tool that identifies statistically significant spatial clusters of high values (hot spots) and low values (cold spots).

This tool works by looking at each feature within the context of neighboring features. A feature with a high value is interesting but may not be a statistically significant hot spot. To be a statistically significant hot spot, a feature will have a high value and be surrounded by other features with high values as well.

The Hot Spot Analyses indicate where similar resources occur and how intensely they occur in an area. An area is considered a hot spot when many resources occur in a small area. In Map 4.1 below, resource use hot spots are depicted in red, while less intense hot spots or cooler spots are shown in orange and yellow. The most significant observations about the hot spots are that they occur in close proximity to villages, roads, and rivers.

Road Infrastructure and Resource Use: There is a close relationship between the road infrastructure and resource use as roads allow for improved accessibility to forest or wooded areas. Communities will tend to take these more established routes rather than existing footpaths or cutting new trails to gather or use resources. Roads allow for the easier transportation (on foot or by vehicle) of goods and resources over longer distances.

Villages and Resource Use: The Hot Spot Analysis reveals that resource use is intensified in close proximity to villages (e.g., the Milimani hot spot or the Mararani hot spot); this could either indicate that short distances are being traveled to reach resources for each village community, or that the resources are more abundant near villages and therefore led to the community members settling in the area. This relationship will be detailed further in following sections.

Rivers and Resource Use: Resource use increases in intensity with close proximity to rivers. Rivers are sources of water and food; in addition, areas surrounding rivers provide good habitat for flora and fauna which in turn are used as resources by both human and wildlife.

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Map 4.2: Resource Use Hot Spots

4.1.2

Village to Resource Use Distance Analysis

This analysis looked at the distances that were travelled from each village to the resources identified by that village during GPS surveys and sketch mapping exercises. The analysis measured the Euclidean distance or straight line distance between the village point and all its associated resource uses. From these measurements, statistics can be generated that help provide specifics about the range of distances travelled to resources and context for these distances. The map below (Map 4.2) illustrates the approximate distance analysis and table (Table 4.1) provides statistics related to the analysis. Looking at the distance analysis, it is clear that Milimani has the greatest distance travelled to access resources, while Mararani has the shortest. This was noted even during the mapping exercise, where it took an extra day to map the field data in Milimani, and there were more points in Milimani that were inaccessible due to long distances. In general, the Aweer travel far to access their resource uses, which averages to a radius of 6.8 km for all villages.

Table 4.1: Statistics for Distance Analysis Village Total Resource Uses Longest distance to Resource (km*) Resource at destination Shortest distance to Resource (km*) Resource at destination

14

Basuba

Kiangwe

Mangai

Mararani

Milimani

161

165

176

159

414

19.76

15.05

20.55

15.81

23.21

Honey source

Boat landing site

Wildlife

Wildlife

Wildlife

0.51

0.78

0.43

0.45

0.45

Firewood

Fishing

Tree

Farming

Tree

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Village Average Distance to resources (km*) Sum of all distances (km*) Most used resource Count

Basuba

Kiangwe

Mangai

Mararani

Milimani

7.01

6.74

6.73

5.7

7.73

1,129.04 Tree

1,112.62 Tree

1,185.54 Tree

907.12 Tree

3,411.12 Wildlife

50

47

60

60

52

*All distances are approximate and measurements in kilometers.

Map 4.2: Distance Analysis

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5.0 OBSERVATIONS 5.1

RESOURCE USES

Having completed the data collection and analysis, a number of observations were made on the implications of the utilization of resources and the location of those resource uses. As previously noted, most of the resources used were located in proximity to the Hindi-Kiunga road and frequently used footpaths around the village areas. However, it cannot be determined if the close proximity to resources to the villages is a result of community members selecting nearby resources to utilize, or if the communities chose to settle in areas that had high concentration of resources. It could be a case of both. It also became apparent some resource uses extended all the way into Ijara County and close to the Kenya-Somalia border. This raises a question on the possible conflict that can arise when defining boundaries between the two communities.

This was also noted in the shared resource use between the five Aweer villages where village boundaries are not as distinct. Of significant note, the mapping process confirmed that there is a very high use of resources within the Boni and Dodori National Reserves, including the gathering of honey, fruits, medicinal plants, and water, amongst others.

Top: Community member using some of the The most commonly identified resource use handcrafts made from the Doum palm. was trees, which are summarized in Table Bottom: One of the mapping team members 5.1with their respective uses indicated. Trees displaying a wild fruit from Ong, known as were mainly used for medicinal purposes, Mtwapa in Swahili. firewood, timber for furniture, construction material, hand crafts, and as a source of fruits and food. While most of the local uses for the trees were for basic sustenance and household use by local communities, the highest use of timber was for export out of the area, such as Ngambo and Nguvi for boats and Mbambakofi for furniture. Although only 29 types of trees were mapped, the community noted that there are many more species that they use which were not mapped during the exercise due to the difficultly in accessing them.

Resource use sites for honey collection and hunting were noted to be typically around water collection points such as well and lakes. Fishing was predominant in Mangai (adjacent to the Dodori River) and Kiangwe (on the shores of the Dodori Creek, where the Dodori River meets the Indian Ocean), with some minor fishing activities taking place in a small freshwater tributary in Milimani. Except for Kiangwe, farming activities were carried out mainly in close proximity to the village settlement areas.

The farms in Kiangwe were much larger in size such that they were easily observed in the satellite images, and they were also more likely to be permanent farms. This is due to the higher reliance on

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large-scale farming by the Bajun, some of whom have become inhabitants of Kiangwe village, along with the influx of other Bajun farmers from the neighboring Pate Island.

Community members also noted that the plains south of the Hindi-Kiunga road between Milimani and Mangai (including areas within the Dodori National Reserve) are frequently used for grazing by the neighboring Kenyan Somali community during the drought period. This may be attributed to the fact that a number of rivers run parallel to these areas and thereby provide a good source of water. The animals that typically graze in the area are cows reared by the pastoralist Somalis, with limited goats and sheep. The Aweer claim that the main reason why the Boni-Dodori Corridor is not more popular for grazing during the rainy season is the high number of tsetse flies.

While it was challenging to map out all wildlife in the area, the community members noted some popular migratory corridors that passed near the villages. This signified a remarkable coexistence between the communities and the wildlife. Although hunting is illegal throughout Kenya per the Wildlife (Conservation Management) Act of 1985, the community openly discussed some periodic hunting of game meat, which mainly occurs near the temporary and permanent lake.

For the identification of the resource uses, it is important to highlight that there was a difference in the identification of resources between women and men participants. Since the sketch mapping process was separated into two groups by gender, clear differences could be noted. The women typically identified resources within the villages with good accuracy; however, identification of resources that were far from the village was much more difficult for them. In some cases, when there was contention on distant resources and the study team requested young women to contribute, the male participants brushed off their inclusion, reason being that the women do not traditionally venture far out into the forest for hunting and gathering. On the contrary, elderly women were encouraged by the male participants to contribute in regard to former settlement areas, since they were some of the few original settlers of the abandoned villages that remain alive. In addition to differences in distances, there was also a difference on the discussion of resource uses between the genders. Women dominated the discussion on resources that are commonly used in the homes such as fruits, thatches, and water, whereas men dominated discussions on the identification of wildlife sites and the collection of forest products such as medicinal plants and honey.

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Table 5.1: Tree Types and Their Uses Aweer/Swahili Dig/Marigi Gomoji Hurob Ichel

Medicinal

Firewood

Food X

Timber

Construction

Handcrafts Henna

X X Toothbrush and colouring for mats

Maudh Mbala Mbala Mbambakofi Meek Mikoko Mkakava Mku Mkongee Mkwaju (Tamarind) Mpingo Mpira/Dabe Mteweju Ong/Mtwapa Muhuhu Mungules Mwanga Jini Mwangachi Mwereko Ngambo Nguvi Oni/Mkoma (Doum Palm) Pepetu Sina/Chumbukua Tumur

Wounds & colds

X X

Furniture

Beams

Wounds X X X X X

X

Walking stick Walking stick/Baton X

X X Swellings

X X

X X

Ritual Dental X X X X

Colouring Shade

Roof Rope

X X Boat Boat

Rubber

Wedding ceremonial wear X Food grinder

X

X

Mats

Vinegar and traditional brew

X X X

Warakone/Pefu

18

Other

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Water, ceremonial for girls reaching puberty Incense for prayers

5.2

SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES

The mapping activity revealed a number of culturally significant features in the region. Similar to the other resource uses, culturally important sacred sites were also found within the national reserves.

Fifteen sacred sites were identified during the mapping process, of which four are located in Dodori National Reserve, and another four in the Boni National Reserve.

Women, it was noted, have separate sacred sites from the men. The women tend to use sacred sites, known as Geedh, that are close to their respective villages. The most distant one identified was only about 200 meters from the vicinity of Mangai village. While witnessing some of the prayers during the resource mapping process, we noted that the women observed strict rules of removing shoes and covering their hair at the sites. Women who are menstruating were not allowed to enter the area. An offering of coffee beans and the lighting of incense was a prerequisite to visit the sites; however, the regulation of these rules has become much less strict over time.

The women’s sacred site (Geedh) at Mangai.

One of the sacred sites in the Dodori National Reserve, Dongi, was identified as a shared site between the villages of Milimani, Basuba, and Kiangwe. Three of the sacred sites in the Boni National Reserve lie around Lake Hadhi (Bireitima, Mdoyo, and Nyurto) where community members claim three of their clans originated from. The area is now inhabited by Kenyan Somalis from the neighboring Ijara district. Other sacred sites considered to be of great importance are those in Lungi forest near Milimani.

The map also reveals a number of changes that took place in the past. The high number of former settlement areas confirms the tale of resettlement of the Aweer into the existing villages as they are known today. Most of the old settlement areas have deserted wells and sacred sites near them. Some areas still have remnants of farms and settlements, as well as grave sites. A former Bajun settlement area in Kiangwe was also noted by the presence of historical ruins at Wange.

In regard to human-made features, infrastructure and permanent homes were only found in the five existing villages. The only permanent structure outside of the villages was at Sankuri, where a cellphone tower and an office for KiBoDo Trust are situated. Each village has a mosque, primary school, religious schools (madrasa), and water well. A functioning health facility can only be found in Mangai. However, there are newly constructed dispensaries at Basuba and Milimani, not yet in operation. The community members stated that they were forced to move from their old settlement areas to the five villages following the insecurity posed by the 1960s Shifta War. During the implementation of the resource mapping exercise, insecurity also greatly restricted the movement of the village members into the forest to map the area, due to two kidnappings purportedly by Somalian pirates and/or al Shaabab terrorists, and the subsequent military insertion into Somalia by Kenya. One could surmise that one of the greatest impacts on land use in the area has been insecurity; explaining why despite the beauty and rich culture of the area, only one popular tourist site was identified in Mangai, known as Kibokoni.

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Figure 3.3: Extract of Base Maps Showing Rivers, Roads, Reserve Boundaries, and Villages

A single overview base map was produced with an additional five village-level base maps for each of the villages. The extent of potential resource gathering areas was calculated at approximately a 30km radius from the center point of each village, which was considered as the furthest distance (on foot) that resources would be gathered.

3.5

MAPPING TEAM TRAINING

After printing and laminating the overview and village-level base maps, a total of 17 KiBoDo Trust Community Game Scouts, 3 community members, and 4 KiBoDo Trust and SECURE staff members were trained. The aim of the training was to renew and refresh GPS skills on marking points, tracks, sketch mapping, and using a coding system and data entry forms developed particularly for the mapping exercise. The practical training on sketch mapping was carried out on the first day; GPS coding training was on the second day. When in the field, one-day practical training was carried out in Kiangwe village in noting that the scouts had not adequately refined their GPS skills.

3.6

MAP LEGEND

The map legend generally refers to symbolism used on a map, but can also be used to describe the list of features intended to be mapped prior to the creation of the map. For the Boni-Dodori mapping exercise, a list of resources was compiled initially among project staff who had some familiarity with the community and typical resource collection practices of the Aweer. This list was presented, improved, and approved by community members. Resource uses were defined in both English and Swahili languages and were assigned unique codes for each resource type. See Figure 3.4 on the following page for the final map legend.

Appendix C is the resource types and codes which became known as the GPS Dictionary as it provided integral inputs and definitions for GPS point collection, described in the next section.

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6.0 CONCLUSION By translating the traditional knowledge and history of the Aweer community into a map, the image which emerged from the participatory mapping exercise detailed in this report tells of a fairly dependent relationship between the Aweer and the forest around them. Although their resource access and settlement has been disrupted due to insecurity in the region and attempts to “civilize” them, the map nonetheless provides a tool to recognize the important relationship between the Aweer and the ecosystem in which they live, and provides an insight into their capacity to adapt despite the changing conditions.

Throughout the mapping exercise, the mapping team was able to work successfully with the relatively small, rural community of traditional hunter/gatherers using sophisticated technologies and techniques to answer questions about how and to what extent the land and other resources are being utilized. The results of the community-led, participatory meetings and field work have been translated into comprehensive maps that provide an important set of data which will, hopefully, inform a process of securing the land and other natural resource use rights of the Aweer.

Significantly, the mapping process confirmed that there is a very high use of resources within the Boni and Dodori National Reserves, including the gathering of honey, fruits, medicinal plants, and water collection, as well as the use of forest shrines, amongst other uses. However, these customary uses are not formally sanctioned by the Government and there has reportedly been considerable friction between the managers of the Reserve and the Aweer community from time to time. This situation emphasizes the need to address the resource access and use rights for the Aweer inside the national reserves that the Constitution presumably provides. The circumstances also create an opportunity to find ways to engage the Aweer community in the co-management of the two reserves with KWS. Based on earlier studies, the SECURE Project learned about the policy, legal, social, and organizational conditions that need to be present if community management of forests and other natural resources is to succeed. From these, four general factors emerge as being particularly important: 1. A significant array of resource rights have been devolved to communities; 2. Communities have developed effective arrangements–formal and informal–for governing resource use; 3. Positive economic and other benefits accrue to communities as a result of their investment of time and labor in managing resources; and 4. Resource agencies demonstrate a strong and consistent commitment to rights devolution and shared governance.

An assessment of the presence of these co-management pre-conditions conducted by the SECURE Project in mid-2011 hold true today: co-management will only work in the area with robust cooperation and coordination between the community and state agencies.

Notwithstanding their capacity to adapt, the Aweer remain vulnerable and under threat of displacement if ongoing efforts to secure their land rights by the MoL are not successful. Furthermore, the rich natural resources and biodiversity of the area will be under increasing pressure without bonafide management planning, which should include the devolution of management powers to the community (co-management), with clear resource access and use rights, and a framework for benefit sharing. Lastly, the risks and benefits should be weighed to determine the feasibility of increasing the

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21

protected forest cover through gazettement of portions of the Boni-Lungi forest that would fall outside the boundaries of the land area that will be delineated as community land.

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APPENDIX A: MAPS AND PHOTOGRAPHS OF SUBCATCHMENTS A. Data Layers 1. Base data congratulations a. Images: Satellite, Topographic maps b. Infrastructure: administrative boundaries, roads, protected areas c. Drainage: rivers and other hydrological features d. Names of places 2. Vegetation a. Expert general classifications b. Community classification 3. Sacred sites/culturally sensitive areas 4. Resource use a. Honey use b. Herbal medicine c. Firewood d. Construction material e. Illegal/legal logging f. Farming g. Charcoal h. Wild fruits i. Grazing areas j. Fishing k. Water source/watering points l. Handcrafts materials 5. Land use a. Settlement (existing and historical) b. Farming: permanent vs. temporary, types of permanent crops‌ 6. Ecological a. Wildlife locations b. Migration of wildlife c. Dispersal areas 7. Historical sites 8. Conflict areas, e.g., human wildlife conflict B. Analysis (Spatial-temporal) 1. Land use change 2. Resource use trends, intensity, and frequency 3. Resource abundance and off take 4. Action Plan for land use planning, conservation, and natural resource management

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C. Resource Mapping Plan

   

Inventory of existing data Data- spatial existing with various agencies Reports Sketch maps Scout data

Design the spatial database collection techniques and training with team and stakeholders for comments





Training  Skills training Refining the data collection techniques

*Field data collection*  Sketch mapping (2 groups) Validation of sketch map (unified sketch map)  Transfer data in the satellite images  GPS data collection

Data validation

Data analysis

GIS Data Kml

Creation of Maps

Sharing community and partners

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*Field Data Collection Plan*



 Formation of a mapping teams (max 15)  Village Development Committee (9-10 members) Other community members to ensure gender and age balance  Select the community members

Divide team into 3 groups for sketch mapping

Triangulation of sketch maps of community and previous PRA sketch maps

Create unified sketch map

Transfer to satellite image printouts

GPS Survey of identified points  Track  Navigate  Way point

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APPENDIX B: MAPS AND PHOTOGRAPHS OF SUBCATCHMENTS

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APPENDIX C: GPS DICTIONARY Villages – Vijiji (Third letter) Kiangwe – A Basuba – S Mararani – R Mangai – N Milimani – L Resources: Rasilimali (First three letters) Swahili Asali Dawa Honde Kaburi Kijiji cha zamani Kijijini Kisima Mahala pa kutoa Chumvi Maji Maombini (Kiume) Maombini (Wake) Kaburi Mchanga wa Kujenga Mizozoni Mlima Ndege Mapito ya Wanyama Sehemu za kihistoria Sehemu za kuegesha Sehemu za utalii Sehemu za utamaduni Shamba Udongo wa Kujengea Uvuvi Wanyama Pori Malishoni pa wanyama pori Lishoni Ziwa

English Honey Medicinal plants Temporary Farm Grave Former Settlement areas Settlement Area Well Salt Lick Water Source Sacred site (men) Sacred site (women) Grave Sand for construction Conflict areas Hill Birds Migration corridors Historical sites/monuments Landing Site Tourism Sites Cultural sites Permanent Farm Building Mud Fishing Wildlife Dispersal area Grazing Areas Lake

Codes ASA DAW HON KAB KIZ KIJ KIS MCH MAJ MKI MAW KAB MCG MIZ MLI NDE MAP HIS BAH UTL UTA SHA MYK UVU WAN MAL LIS ZIW

New Resources: Rasilimali zisizo kwenye kamusi (X + first two letters) Swahili Machimbo ya mafuta Theluji

28

English Oil exploration site Snow

Code XMA XTH

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Types of Trees: Aina ya miti Swahili Mikoko If (Nyangwa) Kothichi (Ichukachuka) Durwii Raami/Bur Muhuhu Mbambakofi Ngambo Nguvi Mku Mpingo Mkungi Mwangachi MbalaMbala Akakarerei Meek Mwanga Jini Dig (Marigi) Ichel Mkakava Hurob Mteweju Tumur Pepetu Oni (Mkoma) Mpira (Dabe) Ade Afkudhudhio Maudh

English Mangrove Plains Shrub land Closed canopy forest Small forest

Doum Palm

Codes MIK IFN KOT DUR RAA MUH MBA NGA NGU MKU MPI MKG MWA MBL AKA MEE MWJ DIG ICH MKA HUR MTE TUM PEP ONI MPR ADE AFK MAU

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APPENDIX D: SKETCH MAPS OF THE AWEER VILLAGES

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Mararani

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5.3

PLACE NAMES

Place names in the region also give an insight into the resource use and movement patterns of the Aweer community over a long period of time. For example, a former settlement area outside of Basuba has been named Maembeni in Swahili, which translates to “the area with mangoes.” Without any additional information, one can deduce just from the name that the community used to plant mangoes in the area. An area in Basuba known as Judh Block and another known as BP Gas in Mararani tells of gas exploration in the area. Meanwhile numerous places that are named with the Swahili prefix Kwa which stands for “belonging to.” These place names indicate a Bajun individual who may have settled in the area (e.g., Kwa Shehe and Kwa Asha near Kiangwe). For those who understand Aweer and Swahili, the place names provide a very rich and useful means in which to relate the history of the area.

5.4

PHYSICAL FEATURES

The community members easily identified natural features including hills, forests, rivers, and lakes.

Some features that the community members used extend into Ijara District at Lake Hadhi. The most prominent physical feature in the area is Sankuri Ridge, which has been typically used to demarcate the southern-most boundary of the Aweer community, separating them from the coastal Bajuni communities.

During the planning process, the community participants noted different types of land cover with which they identify: plains, shrub land, closed canopy forest, and small forests. For instance, Durwii forest was identified as the thickest forest, for which reason it remains highly unexplored and harbors numerous wildlife species that the community cannot identify. While the community easily identified different forests, it was much more difficult for them to draw boundaries between them.

The mapped region has a high number of water points, including rivers, wells, and temporary and permanent lakes.

While some rivers appear prominent on the map, on the ground, many of the rivers are seasonal. In order to access water on these rivers, the community members dig shallow wells. Mararani and Milimani villages have particularly high number of permanent and temporary small lakes: during the sketch mapping process, numerous elders had to frequently remind each other about the location of some lakes.

Meanwhile, two salt lakes that are found in the Dodori National Reserve (Chaurenga and Warile) were identified.

20

One of the small lakes used by the communities for water.

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Mangai

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33

Basuba

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APPENDIX E: MARKED SATELLITE IMAGES OF THE AWEER VILLAGES

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C. Resource Mapping Plan

   

Inventory of existing data Data- spatial existing with various agencies Reports Sketch maps Scout data

Design the spatial database collection techniques and training with team and stakeholders for comments





Training  Skills training Refining the data collection techniques

*Field data collection*  Sketch mapping (2 groups) Validation of sketch map (unified sketch map)  Transfer data in the satellite images  GPS data collection

Data validation

Data analysis

GIS Data Kml

Creation of Maps

Sharing community and partners

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APPENDIX F: GPS CAPTURE FORM

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U.S. Agency for International Development 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20523 Tel: (202) 712-0000 Fax: (202) 216-3524 www.usaid.gov