Invitation to psychology 7th edition ebook pdf version

Invitation to Psychology 7th Edition ■ Ebook PDF Version Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://ebookmass.com/product/invitation-to-psychology-7th-edition-ebook-pdf-version /

Contents From the Authors From the Publisher About the Authors/Authors’ Acknowledgments Learning Outcomes and Assessment

1

What Is Psychology?

xi xv xvii xviii

1

1.1 Psychology, Pseudoscience, and Popular Opinion What Psychology Is and Is Not The Birth of Modern Psychology Major Perspectives in Psychology What Psychologists Do

2 3 4 6 8

1.2 Thinking Critically and Scientifically About Psychology What Is Critical Thinking?

Using Psychology to Study Psychology

11 11 17

1.3 Doing Research: Moving From Questions to Data Finding a Sample Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts

19 20 20

1.4 Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships Measuring Correlations Cautions About Correlations

25 25 26

1.5 The Experiment: Hunting for Causes Experimental Variables Experimental Conditions Advantages and Limitations of Experiments

28 28 30 32

1.6 Evaluating the Findings Describing the Data Interpreting the Data

34 34 35

Taking Psychology With You: Sharpening Your Critical-Thinking Skills

37

Shared Writing: What Is Psychology?

38

Summary

38

2

42

Neurons, Hormones, and the Brain

2.3 Mapping the Brain Manipulating the Brain and Observing Behavior Manipulating Behavior and Observing the Brain

57 58 58

2.4 A Tour Through the Brain The Brain Stem and Cerebellum The Thalamus The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland The Amygdala The Hippocampus The Cerebrum The Cerebral Cortex

62 63 63 63 64 64 65 65

2.5 The Two Hemispheres of the Brain Split Brains: A House Divided The Two Hemispheres: Allies or Opposites?

69 70 72

2.6 The Flexible Brain Experience and the Brain Culture and the Brain Are There “His” and “Hers” Brains?

74 74 75 76

Taking Psychology With You: Thinking Twice About Tinkering with the Brain

79

Shared Writing: Neurons, Hormones, and the Brain

80

Summary

80

3

84

Sensation and Perception

3.1 Our Sensational Senses The Riddle of Separate Sensations Measuring the Senses Sensory Adaptation Sensing without Perceiving

86 87 88 91 92

3.2 Vision What We See An Eye on the World Why the Visual System Is Not a Camera How We See Colors Constructing the Visual World

93 93 94 96 98 98

Monocular Cues to Depth

102

2.1 The Nervous System: A Basic Blueprint The Central Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System

44 44 46

3.3 Hearing What We Hear An Ear on the World Constructing the Auditory World

105 105 107 109

2.2 Communication in the Nervous System Types of Cells The Structure of the Neuron Neurogenesis: The Birth of Neurons How Neurons Communicate Chemical Messengers in the Nervous System

48 48 49 50 52 53

3.4 Other Senses Taste: Savory Sensations Smell: The Sense of Scents Senses of the Skin The Mystery of Pain The Environment Within

110 111 113 114 115 117

vii

viii Contents Taking Psychology With You: Why Perception Can Be More Than Meets the Eye

118

Shared Writing: Sensation and Perception

119

Summary

119

4

Consciousness and Sleep

123

4.1 Biological Rhythms: The Tides of Experience Circadian Rhythms Moods and Long-Term Rhythms

124 124 127

4.2 The Rhythms of Sleep The Realms of Sleep Why We Sleep

130 130 132

4.3 Exploring the Dream World Explanations of Dreaming Evaluating Dream Theories

136 136 139

4.4 The Riddle of Hypnosis The Nature of Hypnosis Theories of Hypnosis

141 141 143

4.5 Consciousness-Altering Drugs Classifying Drugs The Physiology of Drug Effects The Psychology of Drug Effects

147 147 150 151

Taking Psychology With You: Improving the Quality (and Quantity) of Your Sleep

152

Shared Writing: Consciousness and Sleep

153

Summary

154

5

157

Learning

6

Memory

194

6.1 In Pursuit of Memory Measuring Memory Models of Memory

196 196 198

6.2 The Three-Box Model of Memory The Sensory Register: Fleeting Impressions Working Memory: Memory’s Notepad Long-Term Memory: Memory’s Storage System

200 200 200 202

6.3 The Biology of Memory Changes in Neurons and Synapses Where Memories Are Made Hormones, Emotion, and Memory

206 206 207 209

6.4 How We Remember Encoding, Rehearsal, and Retrieval

212 212

6.5 Why We Forget Mechanisms of Forgetting Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years The Repression Controversy

215 215 219 220

6.6 Reconstructing the Past The Manufacture of Memory The Conditions of Confabulation The Eyewitness on Trial

222 222 224 224

Taking Psychology With You: Making Memory Work for You

227

Shared Writing Prompt: Memory

228

Summary

228

7

Thinking and Intelligence

231

7.1 Thought: Using What We Know The Elements of Cognition How Conscious Is Thought?

Problem Solving and Decision Making Reasoning Rationally

232 233 235 236 237

7.2 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally Exaggerating the Improbable Avoiding Loss Biases and Mental Sets Overcoming Our Cognitive Biases

239 240 240 242 244

7.3 Measuring Intelligence Measuring the Invisible The IQ Test Elements of Intelligence Motivation, Hard Work, and Intellectual Success

245 246 247 250 252

7.4 Animal Minds Animal Intelligence Animals and Language Thinking About the Thinking of Animals

254 254 256 257

5.1 Classical Conditioning New Reflexes from Old Principles of Classical Conditioning What Is Actually Learned in Classical Conditioning?

158 159 160 162

5.2 Classical Conditioning in Real Life Learning to Like Learning to Fear Accounting for Taste Reacting to Medical Treatments

164 164 165 167 168

5.3 Operant Conditioning The Birth of Radical Behaviorism The Consequences of Behavior

169 169 170

5.4 Principles of Operant Conditioning The Importance of Responses Skinner: The Man and the Myth

174 175 178

5.5 Operant Conditioning in Real Life The Pros and Cons of Punishment The Problems With Reward

180 180 183

5.6 Learning and the Mind Latent Learning Social-Cognitive Learning Theories

185 186 186

Taking Psychology With You: Changing Your Behavior

189

Taking Psychology With You: Bolstering Your Mental Focus and Creativity

259

Shared Writing: Learning

190

Shared Writing: Thinking and Intelligence

260

Summary

190

Summary

260

Contents

8

The Major Motives of Life: Food, Love, Sex, and Work

264

8.1 Motivation and the Hungry Animal Defining Motivation The Biology of Weight Environmental Influences on Weight The Body as Battleground: Eating Disorders

266 266 266 269 270

8.2 The Social Animal: Motives to Love The Biology of Love The Psychology of Love Gender, Culture, and Love

272 272 274 276

8.3 The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex The Biology of Desire Biology and Sexual Orientation The Psychology of Desire Gender, Culture, and Sex

277 278 280 281 283

8.4 The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve The Effects of Motivation on Work

286 286

The Many Motives of Accomplishment

289

ix

10 Development Over the Lifespan

334

10.1 From Conception Through the First Year Prenatal Development The Infant’s World Attachment

336 336 338 340

10.2 Cognitive Development Thinking Language

343 344 348

10.3 Moral Development Stages of Morality Getting Children to Be Good

351 351 353

10.4 Gender Development Gender Identity Influences on Gender Development

356 356 358

10.5 Adolescence The Physiology of Adolescence The Psychology of Adolescence

362 362 364 366 366 368 370

The Effects of Work on Motivation Needs, Motives, and the Pursuit of Happiness

289 291

10.6 Adulthood Stages and Ages The Transitions of Life Old Age

Taking Psychology With You: Rethinking Motivation in the Modern Era

294

Taking Psychology With You: Remembering That Development Lasts a Lifetime

372

Shared Writing: The Major Motives of Life: Food, Love, Sex, and Work

295

Shared Writing Prompt: Development Over the Lifespan

373

Summary

373

Summary

295

9

298

11 Social Psychology

377

9.1 The Nature of Emotion Emotion and the Face Emotion and the Brain Emotion and the Mind

299 300 303 306

9.2 Emotion and Culture How Culture Shapes Emotions Communicating Emotions Gender and Emotion

309 309 310 311

11.1 Social Forces Rules and Roles The Obedience Study The Prison Study Why People Obey

379 379 381 384 385

9.3 The Nature of Stress Stress and the Body Stress and the Mind

313 313 317

11.2 Social Beliefs Attributions Attitudes Cognitive Dissonance Persuasion or “Brainwashing”? The Case of Suicide Bombers

387 387 390 391 392

9.4 Stress and Emotion Hostility and Depression: Do They Hurt?

Positive Emotions: Do They Help?

Emotional Inhibition and Expression

319 320 320 321

9.5 Coping with Stress Solving the Problem Rethinking the Problem Drawing on Social Support

324 325 326 327

11.3 Individuals in Groups Conformity Groupthink The Bystander Effect Altruism and Dissent

394 394 396 397 399

Taking Psychology With You: How Much Control Do We Have Over Our Emotions and Our Health?

11.4 Us Versus Them: Group Identity and Conflict Social Identity In-groups and Out-groups Stereotypes

401 401 402 403

329

Shared Writing Prompt: Emotion, Stress, and Health

330

11.5 Prejudice The Origins of Prejudice Measuring Prejudice

405 405 406

Emotion, Stress, and Health

Summary

330

x Contents The Many Targets of Prejudice Reducing Conflict and Prejudice

407 410

Taking Psychology With You: Becoming a More Thoughtful and Engaged Social Being

412

Shared Writing: Social Psychology

413

Summary

413

12 Theories of Personality

417

12.1 Psychodynamic Theories of Personality Freud and Psychoanalysis Other Psychodynamic Approaches Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories

419 419 422 423

12.2 The Modern Study of Personality Popular Personality Tests Core Personality Traits

425 425 426

Rate Your Traits

427

12.3 Genetic Influences on Personality Heredity and Temperament Heredity and Traits

429 430 431

12.4 Environmental Influences on Personality Situations and Social Learning Parental Influence—and Its Limits The Power of Peers

433 434 434 436

12.5 Cultural Influences on Personality Culture, Values, and Traits Evaluating Cultural Approaches

438 438 440

12.6 The Inner Experience Humanist Approaches Narrative Approaches Evaluating Humanist and Narrative Approaches

442 442 443 444

Taking Psychology With You: Thinking Scientifically About Personality

446

Shared Writing Prompt: Theories of Personality

446

13.5 Personality Disorders Borderline Personality Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder Psychopathy: Myths and Evidence

469 469 470 471

13.6 Addictive Disorders Biology and Addiction Learning, Culture, and Addiction

473 474 475

Test Your Motives for Drinking

477

13.7 Dissociative Identity Disorder A Controversial Diagnosis Thinking Critically About DID

478 478 479

13.8 Schizophrenia Symptoms of Schizophrenia Origins of Schizophrenia

480 481 483

Taking Psychology With You: Thinking More Clearly About Mental Disorders

485

Shared Writing: Psychological Disorders

487

Summary

487

14 Approaches to Treatment

491

14.1 Biological Treatments for Mental Disorders The Question of Drugs Direct Brain Intervention

493 493 498

14.2 Major Schools of Psychotherapy Psychodynamic Therapy Behavior and Cognitive Therapy Humanist and Existential Therapy Family and Couples Therapy

501 502 502 506 507

14.3 Evaluating Psychotherapy The Scientist–Practitioner Gap When Therapy Helps When Interventions Harm Culture and Psychotherapy

510 510 512 514 517

447

13 Psychological Disorders

Taking Psychology With You: Becoming a Smart Consumer of Psychological Treatments

518

450

Shared Writing: Approaches to Treatment and Therapy

520

13.1 Diagnosing Mental Disorders Dilemmas of Definition Dilemmas of Diagnosis Psychological Testing

452 452 453 457

Epilogue: Taking This Text with You

520

13.2 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders Depression Bipolar Disorder Origins of Depression

Summary

Summary

520

Glossary

524

459 460 460 461

References

532

Name Index

578

Subject Index

591

13.3 Anxiety Disorders Anxiety and Panic Fears and Phobias

463 464 465

Credits

599

13.4 Trauma and Obsessive–Compulsive Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Obsessions and Compulsions

467 467 468

From the Authors From Carole Wade and Carol Tavris: From the very first edition of this book, our primary goal has been to weave critical and scientific thinking into the fabric of our writing, and today, in this era of fake news and “alternative facts,” this goal is more important than ever. Students must negotiate the Internet and social media, which contain vast amounts of information but which are also full of conspiracy theories and nonsense. Psychological science can offer students the tools they need to separate fact from fiction and pseudoscience—and to distinguish wishful thinking from thinking wisely. Therefore, a good textbook should not be a laundry list of definitions and studies, and its writers cannot simply be reporters. For us, the most important job of any textbook is to help students learn to think like psychologists, and to motivate them to enjoy the process.

That is why we could not be happier to welcome Sam Sommers and Lisa Shin to this book. They are consummate scientists; their particular areas of expertise (social, cognitive, and applied for him; neuroscience, emotion, and clinical psychology for her) provide a perfect balance across the spectrum of psychological research; and they are gifted teachers and writers who know how to inspire and connect with students. We are grateful to them for bringing our vision of psychology forward, along with incorporating new teaching methods and learning dynamics for today’s classrooms. They have retained what loyal users have cared about for so many editions while spearheading the book’s evolution into the future. We hope you will enjoy this new and exciting incarnation of our book.

From Sam Sommers and Lisa Shin: In our department, Introduction to Psychology is a team-taught course. Given that psychology is such a diverse field, a teambased approach is an ideal way to introduce students to a wide range of perspectives with expertise as well as balance. In fact, the two of us have taught this course together on several occasions. And now we are so very excited to be joining a new team, the textbook team that Carole Wade and Carol Tavris have created. The Carol(e)s have written a book long known for making science accessible. Its hallmarks have always been to maintain a solid research base and promote critical thinking, all the while offering engaging prose and analysis of contemporary events. This book is designed to be accessible to students learning psychology at any institution. It is a book intended to reveal to readers that psychology is the scientific study of their daily lives. These, too, have been our objectives in our years as a teaching team.

For those of you who have used the Wade and Tavris text in the past, we trust that you will find its calling cards still intact: detailed reviews of study design and findings; an emphasis on critical thinking and active learning; the willingness to confront

controversial topics; and themes of culture and gender infused throughout. We’re confident that returning as well as new users will also find benefit in our additional strategies for making science accessible. Each chapter in our interactive Revel text opens with a survey question that prompts students to explore the applicability of the topic at hand to their own lives. We’ve punched up the popular culture analyses, enabling readers to consider the ways in which broader cultural forces both shape and reflect individual cognitive and behavioral tendencies. We’ve created a new video series—embedded directly into the Revel text—in which we try to bring the details of research to life through study reenactments, clinical interviews, and engaging demonstrations. And we’ve tried to capitalize on the expertise born of our mutual decades of active research in the field—it has always been our belief that teaching makes us better researchers and research makes us better teachers. We’re thrilled to be on board, and we look forward to sharing the coming semester with you.

Changes in the 7th Edition In the 7th edition of Invitation to Psychology, we have retained the core concepts that characterized previous editions—an emphasis on critical thinking, applications to culture and human diversity, insights from research ranging from the biological and neuroscientific to the more clinically and social science oriented—and added opportunities for students to test themselves on the material as they’re learning it. Each chapter also ends with a “Taking Psychology With You” section, devoted to various lessons that we hope readers will be able to apply to their own lives, whether in terms of how to improve critical-thinking skills, how to get better (and more) sleep, how to become a more conscientiously engaged member of social groups, or how to think more clearly about mental disorders. We reordered the chapters of the 7th edition to be more in line with the most common course syllabi; however, we’ve also taken care to present them in such a way that they can be easily reordered in REVEL or however you teach your course.

As always, in every chapter, we have updated the research to reflect progress in the field and cutting-edge discoveries. Here are a few highlights: • Discussion of psychology as a “hub science.”

• Research regarding the cognitive advantages of taking notes by hand rather than with a laptop, as well as the consequences of multitasking in the classroom.

• Emerging techniques for manipulating brain function, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation (DBS).

xi

xii From the Authors • Critical analysis of the notion of a “hook-up culture” among young adults, as well as new data on the use of speed dating to study the science of relationships.

• New discussion of sexual orientation and the experiences (and popular culture depictions of) transgender individuals.

• Research on multiracial identity, including its relationship to cognitive outcomes.

• New coverage of potential diagnostic inaccuracy of the DSM and the shift to study psychopathology dimensionally.

• Expanded focus on recent real-world events and popular culture to illustrate psychological principles and spark students’ curiosity.

In addition, all content is mapped to revised learning objectives, which highlight the major concepts throughout each chapter. The complete list of learning objectives for each chapter can be found in the Instructor’s Resource Manual. The Test Bank items are also keyed to these learning objectives.

Goals and Principles Five goals and principles have guided the writing of this book from the first edition. Here they are:

1. Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking In a textbook, true critical thinking cannot be reduced to a set of rhetorical questions or a formula for analyzing studies; it is a process that must be woven seamlessly into the narrative. The primary way we “do” critical and creative thinking is by applying a three-pronged approach: We define it, we model it, and we give students a chance to practice it.

The first step is to define what critical thinking is and what it is not. Chapter 1 introduces Eight Guidelines to Critical Thinking, which we draw on throughout the text as we evaluate research and popular ideas.

The second step is to model these guidelines in our evaluations of research and popular ideas. Throughout the textbook you’ll find discussions of these critical-thinking guidelines as we challenge the reader to evaluate what the evidence reveals—and importantly, does not reveal—about a particular phenomenon.

Photo captions, writing prompts, and of course the narrative itself offer opportunities for students to sharpen their criticalthinking skills to become active readers (and active learners) of psychology.

The third step is to give students opportunities to practice what we’ve preached in the form of end-of-module and end-ofchapter assessments. These tests require more than memorization of definitions; they help students check their progress, measure their understanding of the material, and encourage them to go back and review what they don’t recall or comprehend. Many quiz questions include critical-thinking items that invite the students to reflect on the implications of findings and consider how psychological principles might illuminate real-life issues.

2. Exploring New Research in Biology and Neuroscience Findings from the Human Genome Project, studies of behavioral genetics and epigenetics, discoveries about the brain, technologies such as fMRI, and the proliferation of medications for psychological disorders—all of these developments have had a profound influence on our understanding of human behavior and on interventions to help people with chronic problems. We report new findings from biology and neuroscience wherever they are relevant throughout the book: in discussions of neurogenesis in the brain, memory, emotion, stress, child development, aging, mental illness, personality, and many other topics.

Although we caution students about the dangers of ignoring biological research, we also caution them about the dangers of reducing complex behaviors solely to biology by overgeneralizing from limited data, failing to consider other explanations, and oversimplifying solutions. Our goal is to provide students with a structure for interpreting research they will hear or read about to an even increasing degree in the future.

3. Focus on Culture and Gender At the time of this book’s first edition, some considered the goal of incorporating research on gender and culture into introductory psychology to be quite radical, either a bow to political correctness or a fluffy fad. Today, the issue is no longer whether to include these topics, but how best to do it. From the beginning, our own answer has been to include studies of gender and culture throughout the text. We discuss gender differences—and similarities—in many areas, from the brain, emotion, and motivation to heroism, sexuality, love, and eating disorders.

Over the years, most psychologists have come to appreciate the influence of culture on all aspects of life, from nonverbal behavior to the deepest attitudes about how the world should be. We present empirical findings about culture and ethnicity throughout the book. In addition, Chapter 11 highlights the sociocultural perspective in psychology and includes extended discussions of intergroup conflict, prejudice, and cross-cultural relations.

4. Facing the Controversies Psychology has always been full of lively, sometimes angry, debates, and we feel that students should not be sheltered from them. They are what make psychology so interesting! In this book, we candidly address controversies in the field of psychology, try to show why they are occurring, and suggest the kinds of questions that might lead to useful answers in each case. For example, we discuss the controversies about oversimplification of brain-scan technology (Chapter 2); the disease versus learning models of addiction (Chapter 13); the extent of parents’ influence on their children’s personality development (Chapter 10); and conflicts of interest in research on medication for psychological disorders (Chapter 14).

From the Authors

5. Applications and Active Learning Finally, throughout this book, we have kept in mind one of the soundest findings about learning: It requires the active encoding of material. Several pedagogical features in particular encourage students to become actively involved in what they are reading, including chapter opening survey questions that allow students to compare their own perceptions about psychological topics with those of other students taking the course; interactive review tables; a running glossary that defines boldfaced technical terms where they occur for handy reference and study; carefully selected videos in each chapter, including a new series created by the authors; chapter outlines; and chapter summaries in paragraph form to help students review.

And as noted above, Taking Psychology With You is a feature that concludes each chapter by illustrating the practical implications of psychological research for individuals, groups, institutions, and society.

The Importance of Testing Yourself on What You’ve Studied In our years of teaching, we have found that certain study strategies can greatly improve learning, and so we’d like to offer you, our reader, the following suggestions. Do not try to read this textbook the way you might read a novel, taking in large chunks at a sitting. If you are like most students, your favorite strategy is to read the textbook and your notes, and then simply read them again, but this is not really the best way to learn.

If you could do just one thing that would improve your learning and improve your grades it is this: Test yourself on what you’ve studied early, often, and repeatedly. Ask yourself questions, answer them, and then go back and restudy what you didn’t know. Test yourself again and again until you learn the material. Even when you have learned it, you need to keep testing yourself regularly over the semester so that what you’ve learned stays learned. Within Chapter 1, we provide you with some other proven techniques to help you learn.

To get the most from your studying, we recommend that you read only a part of each chapter at a time. Instead of simply reading silently, nodding along saying “hmmmmm” to yourself, try to restate what you have read in your own words at the end of each section. At specific points in each chapter, you will find several Journal Writing Prompts that challenge you to not just recall what you’ve learned, but actively develop your understanding of the material. These exercises will help you to discover what you know or still don’t understand.

We have never gotten over our own initial excitement about psychology, and we have done everything we can think of to make the field as lively and absorbing for you as it is for us.

However, what you bring to your studies is as important as what we have written. This text will remain only a collection of paragraphs unless you choose to read actively, using the many activelearning and critical-thinking features we have provided.

xiii

Psychology can make a real difference in your own life, and we hope you will enjoy studying it in this book. Welcome to psychology!

Carole Wade Carol Tavris Sam Sommers Lisa Shin

Overview of Critical Thinking One of the greatest benefits of studying psychology is that you learn not only about the findings of the field but also how to think critically. The following eight guidelines, which are emphasized throughout this book, will help you separate good psychology from pseudoscience. (For a full description, see Chapter 1.)

Eight Essential Guidelines to Critical and Creative Thinking 1. Ask questions; be willing to wonder.

• Why has obesity reached epidemic proportions all over the world? (Chapter 8) • Do most adolescents really go through adolescent turmoil? (Chapter 10)

2. Define your terms.

• How should we define “prejudice”? Is feeling uncomfortable around unfamiliar members of another group the same as being prejudiced against them? Is having an unconscious negative association with a stereotyped group the same as being overtly bigoted? (Chapter 11) • In general, it’s good to feel “in control” of your life, but what does control mean, exactly? Is it good to believe that you can control everything? (Chapter 9)

3. Examine the evidence.

• After disasters such as hurricanes and acts of terrorism, survivors are often offered “posttraumatic therapy” sessions. Do these interventions help, make no difference, or sometimes make matters worse? (Chapter 14) • Under hypnosis, Jim remembers that he was a fourteenthcentury French prince in a former life. Does the evidence support his memory? Can Jim speak fourteenth-century French and report accurate details of a life in a Parisian palace? (Chapter 4)

4. Analyze assumptions and biases.

• How do psychological scientists and psychotherapists differ in their assumptions about the relevance of research to clinical practice? (Chapter 14)

xiv From the Authors • Many people assume that women are the more “emotional” sex. Are they right? (Chapter 9)

5. Avoid emotional reasoning.

• Most people have strong beliefs about religious and political issues. How might their emotions and differing values affect their ability to assess the evidence for or against those beliefs? (Chapter 11) • Many people are emotionally committed to their beliefs in psychic powers and ESP. Are they kidding themselves?

(Chapter 3)

6. Don’t oversimplify.

• Many people are enthusiastic about using brain scans as windows into the brain’s workings. But if a scan shows that a brain area is active when a person is doodling, does that mean we’ve found the brain’s “doodling center”? (Chapter 2) • What’s wrong with asking “Do children always lie (or always tell the truth) about sexual abuse?” (Chapter 6)

7. Consider other interpretations.

• Many people believe that brain abnormalities cause alcoholism. But might excessive alcohol cause brain abnormalities? (Chapter 13) • Does watching TV make kids aggressive, or do aggressive kids watch more TV? Or could a third factor be involved?

(Chapter 5)

8. Tolerate uncertainty.

• What do dreams mean? Do they have deep hidden meanings or are they random signals of a sleeping brain?

(Chapter 4) • If you think you remember your fourth birthday party perfectly, can you ever really be sure your memory is right? (Chapter 6)

From the Publisher Teaching and Learning: Integrated, Meaningful, Easy-to-Use Activities As valuable as a good textbook is, it is one element of a comprehensive learning package. We at Pearson Publishers have made every effort to provide high-quality instructor and student supplements that will save you preparation time and will enhance the classroom experience.

For access to all instructor supplements for Wade, Tavris, Sommers, and Shin’s Invitation to Psychology, 7th edition, simply go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc and follow the directions to register (or log in if you already have a Pearson user name and password). After you have registered and your status as an instructor is verified, you will be emailed a login name and password.

Use your login name and password to access the catalogue. Click on online catalog and then > Psychology > General Psychology > Introductory Psychology > Wade/Tavris/Sommers/Shin Invitation to Psychology 7th edition. Under the description of each supplement is a link that allows you to download and save it to your computer.

You can request hard copies of the supplements through your Pearson sales representative. If you do not know your sales representative, go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com/replocator/and follow the directions. For technical support for any of your Pearson products, you and your students can contact 247.pearsoned.com.

Wade/Tavris/Sommers/Shin Invitation to Psychology, 7th edition, is available in these formats: • Paperback: 0134550102/9780134550107 • Revel: 0134635876/9780134635873 • Books a la Carte: 0134636007/9780134636009

REVEL™ Educational Technology Designed for the Way Today’s Students Read, Think, and Learn When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and students nationwide, REVEL

is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected Pearson content.

REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative— that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.

Learn more about REVEL http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/ MYPSYCHLAB MyPsychLab is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program that truly engages students in learning.

It helps students better prepare for class, quizzes, and exams— resulting in better performance in the course—and provides educators with a dynamic set of tools for gauging individual and class progress. MyPsychLab comes from Pearson, your partner in providing the best digital learning experience.

WRITING SPACE Writing Space Better writers make great learners—who perform better in their courses. To help you develop and assess concept mastery and critical thinking through writing, we created Writing Space in MyPsychLab. It’s a single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students, quickly and easily, including auto-scoring for practice writing prompts. Plus, Writing Space has integrated access to Turnitin, the global leader in plagiarism prevention.

LEARNING CATALYTICS Learning Catalytics is a “bring your own device” student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system. It allows instructors to engage students in class with real-time diagnostics. Students can use any modern, webenabled device (smartphone, tablet, or laptop) to access it.

PEARSON WRITER Good writing is an important skill that opens doors for you, whether at school or in the workplace.

Pearson Writer offers writing support for anyone—regardless of skill level, subject, or discipline. It’s affordable, built for mobile devices, and easy to use, so rather than spending time learning new software, you can just focus on your ideas. Pearson Writer takes care of the labor-intensive details of writing—gathering and citing sources, proofreading for grammar and usage, and staying organized—so you can concentrate on what matters to you. Your grades will improve, your thoughts will be clearer, and you will become a better writer.

xv

xvi From the Publisher

Presentation and Teaching Resources

Instructor’s Resource Manual (ISBN 0134635949)

The Instructor’s Resource Center (www.pearsonhighered.com/ irc) provides information and the following downloadable supplements:

The Instructor’s Resource Manual includes a detailed Chapter Lecture Outline, Lecture Launcher suggestions that draw on classic and current research findings, classroom-tested Student Activities, learning objectives for each chapter, and more resources to improve your classroom presentations

Test Bank (ISBN 0134635965) This test bank contains approximately 2,700 multiple-choice, true/ false, matching, short-answer, and essay questions, each referenced to the relevant page in the textbook. An additional feature for the test bank is the inclusion of rationales for the conceptual and applied multiple-choice questions. The rationales help instructors to evaluate the questions they are choosing for their tests and give instructors the option to use the rationales as an answer key for their students.

A Total Assessment Guide chapter overview makes creating tests easier by listing all of the test items in an easy-to-reference grid. All multiple-choice questions are categorized as factual, conceptual, or applied, and are correlated to each of the chapter’s learning objectives. The Test Bank is available for download from the Instructor’s Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc.

Interactive PowerPoint Slides (ISBN 0134733517)

Pearson MyTest (ISBN 0134625714)

Art PowerPoint Slides (ISBN 0134733525)

The 7th edition test bank is also available through Pearson MyTest (www.pearsonmytest.com), a powerful assessment-generation program that helps instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Instructors can write questions and tests online, allowing them flexibility and the ability to efficiently manage assessments at any time, anywhere. Instructors can easily access existing questions and edit, create, and store using simple dragand-drop and Word-like controls. Data on each question provide answers, textbook page number, and question types, mapped to the appropriate learning objective.

These slides contain only the photos, figures, and line art from the text.

Bring design into the classroom, drawing students into the lecture and providing appealing interactive activities, visuals, and videos. The slides are built around the text’s learning objectives and offer many direct links to interactive exercises, simulations, and activities.

Standard Lecture PowerPoint Slides (ISBN 0134635868) These ADA PowerPoint slides provide an active format for presenting concepts from each chapter and feature relevant figures and tables from the text.

Psychobabble and Biobunk Using psychological science to think critically about popular psychology, 3rd edition (ISBN 978-0-205-01591-7)

By Carol Tavris: This updated collection of book reviews and essays is tailored to the critical-thinking guidelines described in the 7th edition.

About the Authors Carole Wade earned her Ph.D. in cognitive psychology at Stanford University. She began her academic career at the University of New Mexico, where she taught courses in psycholinguistics and developed the first course at the university on the psychology of gender. She was professor of psychology for 10 years at San Diego Mesa College and then taught at College of Marin and Dominican University of California. Dr. Wade has written and lectured widely on critical thinking and the enhancement of psychology education. In addition to this text, she and Carol Tavris have written Psychology; Psychology in Perspective; and The Longest War: Sex Differences in Perspective.

Carol Tavris earned her Ph.D. in the interdisciplinary program in social psychology at the University of Michigan. She writes and lectures extensively on diverse topics in psychological science and critical thinking. Dr. Tavris is coauthor with Elliot Aronson of Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts. She is also author of The Mismeasure of Woman and Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion. Many of her book reviews and opinion essays have been collected in Psychobabble and Biobunk: Using Psychology to Think Critically About Issues in the News.

Samuel R. Sommers earned his Ph.D. in psychology at the University of Michigan and has been a professor of psychology at Tufts

University since 2003. He is a social psychologist whose research examines issues related to intergroup relations, group composition and diversity, stereotyping and bias, and the intersection of psychology and law. Dr. Sommers teaches courses in Experimental Psychology, Social Psychology, and Psychology and Law, and also team-teaches Introduction to Psychology with Dr. Shin. In addition to this text, he is a co-author of the Aronson et al. Social Psychology textbook and has written two general-audience books, Situations Matter: Understanding How Context Transforms Your World, and This Is Your Brain on Sports: The Science of Underdogs, the Value of Rivalry, and What We Can Learn from the T-Shirt Cannon.

Lisa M. Shin earned her Ph.D. in psychology at Harvard University, and completed a postdoctoral fellowship in the Department of Psychiatry at The Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School. She has been on the faculty at Tufts University since 1998, where she is currently Chair of the Psychology Department. Dr. Shin’s research involves examining brain function and cognitive processing in patients with anxiety disorders, particularly posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Dr. Shin teaches courses in Research Methods in Clinical Psychology, Biological Bases of Psychopathology, and Emotion and Memory, and also team-teaches Introduction to Psychology with Dr. Sommers.

Authors’ Acknowledgments Like any cooperative effort, writing a book requires a support system. We are indebted to the reviewers of the 7th edition of Invitation to Psychology for their many insightful and substantive suggestions and for their work on supplements.

We are also grateful to the members of our superb editorial and production teams at Pearson, who have unfailingly come through for us on every edition of this complex project. With regard to this edition, from our first meeting in Hoboken to everything that has followed since, this new collaboration has been a distinct pleasure and one that we look forward to for many years to come. We recognize and appreciate how lucky we are to be part of such a nonpareil team; thank you for that.

Thank you to our editors: Erin Mitchell, for bringing together this configuration of authors and always giving us what we needed to produce a great book; and Julie Kelly, who kept things running smoothly, helped shaped the content and all of the text’s features, and never drowned in our email barrage. Consider this: it’s been terrific working with you and the entire Pearson family, including (but not limited to) Chris Brown, Debi Doyle, Caroline

Fenton, Sharon Geary, Amber Mackey, Margaret McConnell, Lisa Mafrici, Pam Weldin, Liz Kincaid, Stephanie Laird, and Lindsay Verge.

We would also like to thank all those individuals whose contributions to this endeavor were more personal than professional.

They know who they are, but they should still be reminded of our appreciation in print. From all four of us, the deepest of thanks and appreciation to the following motley crew: Abigail, Dee, Gianna, Howard, Jeff, Lou, Luisa, Lynn, Marilyn, Pat, Ronan, and Sophia. Thanks to our colleagues for their support, stimulation, and welcomed diversions (yes, we’re talking to you, Heather and Keith). And last but not least, we recognize several decades of students, for making it fun for us to come to work each day and for teaching us just as much as we teach them.

Carole Wade Carol Tavris Sam Sommers Lisa Shin

xvii

Learning Outcomes and Assessment Goals and Standards

I

n recent years many psychology departments have been focusing on core competencies and how methods of assessment can better enhance students’ learning. In response to this need, in 2008, the American Psychological Association (APA) established 10 recommended goals for the undergraduate psychology major. These goals were revised in 2013 and currently cover five goals. Specific learning outcomes have been established for each goal and suggestions are provided on how best to tie assessment practices to these goals. In writing this text, we have used the APA goals and assessment recommendations as guidelines

for structuring content and integrating the teaching and homework materials. For details on the APA learning goals and assessment guidelines, please see www.apa.org/.

Based on APA recommendations, each chapter is structured around detailed learning objectives. All of the instructor and student resources are also organized around these objectives, making the text and resources a fully integrated system of study. The flexibility of these resources allows instructors to choose which learning objectives are important in their courses as well as which content they want their students to focus on.

APA Correlation for Wade, Tavris, Sommers, Shin 7e The APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major, Version 2.0 APA Learning Outcomes and Objectives

Text Learning Objectives and Features

Goal 1: Knowledge Base in Psychology Demonstrate fundamental knowledge and comprehension of major concepts, theoretical perspectives, historical trends, and empirical findings to discuss how psychological principles apply to behavioral problems.

1.1 Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in psychology.

1.1a Use basic psychological terminology, concepts, and theories in psychology to explain behavior and mental processes

Learning Objectives: 1.1b, 1.1c, 2.1a, 2.1b, 2.4a, 2.4b, 2.4c, 2.4d, 2.4e, 2.4f, 2.4g, 3.1a, 3.1b, 3.2b, 3.3b, 3.4a, 3.4b, 3.4c, 3.4e, 4.1a, 4.3a, 4.4a, 4.5a, 5.1a, 5.1b, 5.1c, 5.2a, 5.2b, 5.2c, 5.2d, 5.3b, 5.4a, 5.5a, 5.6a, 5.6b, 6.1b, 6.2a, 6.2b, 6.2c, 6.4a, 6.5a, 6.6a, 7.1a, 7.1d, 7.2d, 7.3a, 7.3b, 7.3c, 8.1a, 8.2b, 8.3b, 8.4a, 9.1a, 9.2a, 9.3a, 10.1b, 10.1c, 10.2a, 10.3a, 10.4a, 10.6a, 11.1b, 11.1c, 11.2a, 11.2c, 11.3a, 11.3b, 11.3c, 11.3d, 11.4a, 11.4b, 11.5a, 12.1a, 12.1b, 12.1c, 12.2b, 12.3a, 12.3b, 12.4a, 12.5a, 12.6a, 12.6c, 13.1a, 13.1b, 13.2a, 13.2b, 13.2c, 13.3a, 13.3b, 13.4a, 13.4b, 13.5c, 13.6a, 13.6b, 13.8a, 13.8b, 14.1a, 14.1b, 14.2a, 14.2b, 14.2c, 14.2d, 14.3a, 14.3b

1.1b Explain why psychology is a science with the primary objectives of describing, understanding, predicting, and controlling behavior and mental processes

Learning Objectives: 1.1a, 1.1b, 1.1c, 4.3b, 4.4b, 5.4b, 12.1c, 12.6c

1.1c Interpret behavior and mental processes at an appropriate level of complexity

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 3.1c, 3.1d, 3.2c, 4.5a, 4.5b, 4.5c, 5.1a, 5.1b, 5.3b, 5.4a, 5.6a, 5.6b, 6.3a, 6.3b, 6.5b, 6.5c, 6.6b, 6.6c, 7.3b, 8.1d, 8.3a, 8.3b, 8.3c, 8.3d, 9.1b, 9.3a, 10.1b, 10.4a, 10.4b, 11.1a, 11.1d, 11.2b, 11.2d, 12.1a, 12.2a, 12.4a, 12.5b, 12.6c, 13.1a, 1.36a, 13.6b, 13.7a, 13.7b

1.1d Recognize the power of the context in shaping conclusions about individual behavior

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 2.2d, 2.2e, 6.5c, 6.6a, 6.6b, 6.6c, 7.3b, 8.3d, 9.2b, 11.1b, 11.1c, 11.1d, 11.2a, 11.3a, 11.4b, 11.4c, 11.5a, 11.5c, 12.4a, 12.4b, 12.4c, 12.5a, 12.5b, 14.3d

1.1e Identify fields other than psychology that address behavioral concerns

Learning Objectives: 1.1d, 2.2c, 4.2b, 5.2a, 5.2b, 5.2c, 5.2d, 5.5a, 5.5b, 5.6b, 6.5c, 6.6b, 6.6c, 7.3d, 7.4a, 7.4b, 7.4c, 8.1b, 8.1c, 8.1d, 9.3b, 9.4a, 9.4b, 9.4c, 9.5a, 9.5b, 10.1a, 10.2b, 10.3b, 10.5a, 10.5b, 14.1a, 14.1b

1.2 Develop a working knowledge of the content domains of psychology 1.2a Identify key characteristics of major content domains in psychology (e.g., cognition and learning, developmental, biological, and sociocultural)

Learning Objectives: 1.1b, 1.1c, 2.1a, 2.1b, 3.2a, 3.2b, 3.2d, 3.2e, 3.3a, 3.3b, 3.3c, 3.4a, 3.4b, 3.4c, 3.4d, 3.4e, 4.2a, 4.4a, 4.5a, 5.1a, 5.1b, 5.3b, 5.4a, 5.5a, 5.6a, 5.6b, 6.1a, 6.1b, 6.2a, 6.2b, 6.2c, 6.4a, 7.1a, 7.1b, 7.1c, 7.1d, 8.1a, 8.4a, 9.1a, 9.2a, 10.1c, 10.2a, 10.4b, 11.1a, 11.2a, 11.2c, 11.3a, 11.5a, 12.1a, 12.2b, 12.3b, 12.4a, 12.6a, 13.2a, 13.2b, 13.2c, 13.3a, 13.3b, 13.4a, 13.4b, 13.5c, 13.8a, 13.8b, 14.1a, 14.1b, 14.2a, 14.2b, 14.2c, 14.2d, 14.3a, 14.3b

1.2b Identify principle research methods and types of questions that emerge in specific content domains

Learning Objectives: 1.3b, 1.4a, 1.5c, 1.6b, 2.3a, 2.3b, 2.5a, 3.1b, 3.1c, 3.1d, 5.3a, 5.4b, 6.5c, 8.3a, 9.1a, 9.2a, 9.2b, 10.2a, 11.5b, 12.2a, 13.1c

1.2c Recognize major historical events, theoretical perspectives, and figures in psychology and their link to trends in contemporary research

Learning Objectives: 1.1b, 1.1c, 2.2c, 2.3a, 2.3b, 2.6a, 3.1b, 3.2d, 3.3c, 4.3a, 5.3a, 5.4b, 7.3b, 8.3a, 9.1a, 10.2a, 11.1b, 11.1c, 11.3a, 12.1a, 12.1b, 12.6a, 13.1b, 14.1a, 14.1b, 14.2a

xviii

Learning Outcomes and Assessment

xix

APA Learning Outcomes and Objectives

Text Learning Objectives and Features

1.2d Provide examples of unique contributions of content domain to the understanding of complex behavioral issues

Learning Objectives: 1.2b, 2.5a, 2.5b, 2.6a, 2.6b, 2.6c, 4.4b, 4.5a, 5.2a, 5.2b, 5.2c, 5.2d, 6.5c, 6.6c, 7.3c, 8.3b, 9.3a, 10.4a, 10.4b, 11.1b, 11.1c, 11.2c, 11.3a

1.2e Recognize content domains as having distinctive sociocultural origins and development

Learning Objectives: 2.6b, 4.1b, 6.5c, 7.3b, 9.2b, 9.2c, 10.4b, 11.4a, 11.4b, 11.4c, 12.5a, 12.5b, 13.7a, 13.7b, 14.3d

1.3 Describe applications that employ discipline-based problem solving 1.3a Describe examples of relevant and practical applications of psychological principles to everyday life

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 1.2b, 2.2c, 2.2e, 2.3a, 2.3b, 2.6a, 2.6b, 2.6c, 3.1d, 3.2c, 3.2e, 3.3c, 3.4d, 4.2b, 4.4a, 4.5a, 4.5c, 5.1c, 5.2a, 5.2b, 5.2c, 5.2d, 5.4b, 5.5a, 5.5b, 5.6a, 5.6b, 6.3c, 6.4a, 6.6b, 6.6c, 7.1c, 7.2b, 7.3c, 8.1b, 8.1c, 8.1d, 8.2a, 8.2c, 8.4b, 8.4c, 9.1c, 9.3b, 9.4a, 9.4b, 9.4cc, 9.5a, 9.5b, 9.5c, 10.3b, 10.6b, 10.6c, 11.1d, 11.2a, 11.2b, 11.2d, 11.3a, 11.3b, 11.3c, 11.3d, 11.4b, 11.4c, 11.5a, 11.5c, 12.2a, 12.3b, 12.4b, 12.4c, 13.2c, 13.3a, 13.3b, 13.4a, 13.4b, 13.6a, 13.6b, 13.8b, 14.1a, 14.2b, 14.2d, 14.3b, 14.3c, 14.3d

1.3b Summarize psychological factors that can influence the pursuit of a healthy lifestyle

Learning Objectives: 4.1a, 4.2b, 4.5a, 8.1b, 8.1c, 8.1d, 9.3a, 9.3b, 9.4a, 9.4b, 9.4c, 9.5a, 9.5b, 9.5c

1.3c Correctly identify antecedents and consequences of behavior and mental processes

Learning Objectives: 4.3b, 4.4b, 6.5b, 6.5c, 6.6a, 7.3d, 8.3c, 8.4c, 9.3a, 11.1b, 11.2c, 12.1a, 12.4a, 12.6a, 13.7a, 13.7b, 14.3a, 14.3b, 14.3c

1.3d Predict how individual differences influence beliefs, values, and interactions with others, including the potential for prejudicial and discriminatory behavior in oneself and others

Learning Objectives: 11.4a, 11.4b, 11.4c, 11.5a, 11.5b, 11.5c, 12.5a

Major concepts are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experimental Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. Text features such as Evaluating Claims and Fact Versus Fiction also reinforce learning objectives.

Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking Understand scientific reasoning and problem solving, including effective research methods.

2.1 Use scientific reasoning to interpret behavior 2.1a Identify basic biological, psychological, and social components of behavioral explanations (e.g., inferences, observations, operational definitions, interpretations)

Learning Objectives: 1.6a, 2.2a, 2.2b, 4.1b, 5.1c, 5.3a, 6.3a, 6.3b, 7.3b, 7.4c, 8.1d, 8.3a, 8.3b, 9.1a, 10.1a, 10.1c, 11.1a, 12.1c, 12.6c, 13.2c, 13.5b, 13.5c, 13.6a, 13.6b, 13.8b, 14.1a, 14.1b

2.1b Use psychology concepts to explain personal experiences and recognize the potential for flaws in behavioral explanations based on simplistic, personal theories

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 1.5a, 1.5b, 5.5b, 7.2a, 7.2b

2.1c Use an appropriate level of complexity to interpret behavior and mental processes

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 1.3a, 4.4a, 5.6a, 5.6b, 7.3d, 8.3b, 9.2a, 10.4b, 11.2d, 12.1c, 12.4a, 12.6c, 13.7b, 14.1a, 14.1b, 14.3a, 14.3c

2.1d Ask relevant questions to gather more information about behavioral claims

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 4.1b, 4.4a, 13.4a, 13.7a, 13.7b, 14.3c

2.1e Describe common fallacies in thinking (e.g., confirmation bias, post hoc explanations, implying causation from correlation) that impair accurate conclusions and predictions

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 1.4b, 3.2c, 7.2a, 7.2b, 7.2c, 7.2d, 11.2a

2.2 Demonstrate psychology information literacy 2.2a Read and summarize general ideas and conclusions from psychological sources accurately 2.2b Describe what kinds of additional information beyond personal experience are acceptable in developing behavioral explanations (i.e., popular press reports vs. scientific findings) 2.2c Identify and navigate psychology databases and other legitimate sources of psychology information 2.2d Articulate criteria for identifying objective sources of psychology information 2.2e Interpret simple graphs and statistical findings

Learning Objectives: 1.6a, 1.6b

2.3 Engage in innovative and integrative thinking and problem-solving 2.3a Recognize and describe well-defined problems

Learning Objectives: 1.2a

2.3b Apply simple problem-solving strategies to improve efficiency and effectiveness 2.3c Describe the consequences of problem-solving attempts

2.4 Interpret, design and conduct basic psychological research 2.4a Describe research methods used by psychologists including their respective advantages and disadvantages

Learning Objectives: 1.3b, 1.4a, 1.4b, 1.5c, 1.6b, 2.3a, 2.3b, 3.1b, 7.3b, 9.1a, 10.2a, 12.2a, 14.3a, 14.3b, 14.3c

2.4b Discuss the value of experimental design (i.e., controlled comparisons) in justifying cause-effect relationships

Learning Objectives: 1.3a, 1.5a, 1.5b, 1.5c, 14.3c

xx Learning Outcomes and Assessment APA Learning Outcomes and Objectives

Text Learning Objectives and Features

2.4c Define and explain the purpose of key research concepts that characterize psychological research (e.g., hypothesis, operational definition) 2.4d Replicate or design and conduct simple scientific studies (e.g., correlational or two-factor) to confirm a hypothesis based on operational definitions 2.4e Explain why conclusions in psychological projects must be both reliable and valid

Learning Objectives: 1.6a, 1.6b, 13.1a, 13.1b, 13.1c, 12.2a, 14.3a, 14.3c

2.4f Explain why quantitative analysis is relevant for scientific problem solving 2.4g Describe the fundamental principles of research design

Learning Objectives: 1.3a, 1.3b, 1.4a, 1.4b, .15a, 1.5b, 1.5c, 1.6a, 1.6b

2.5 Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific inquiry 2.5a Relate examples of how a researcher’s value system, sociocultural characteristics, and historical context influence the development of scientific inquiry on psychological questions

Learning Objectives: 4.1b, 5.4b, 6.5c, 7.3b, 8.3a, 10.3a, 12.1a, 12.1b, 12.1c, 12.6a, 12.6c, 13.6a, 13.6b, 13.7a, 13.7b, 14.3d

2.5b Analyze potential challenges related to sociocultural factors in a given research study

Learning Objectives: 2.6b, 4.1b, 12.5a, 12.5b, 14.3d

2.5c Describe how individual and sociocultural differences can influence the applicability/generalizability of research findings

Learning Objectives: 4.1b, 6.3c, 7.3b, 10.3a, 10.6b, 12.5a, 12.5b, 14.3d

2.5d Identify under what conditions research findings can be appropriately generalized

Learning Objectives: 1.6b

Scientific inquiry is reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experimental Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. Text features such as Evaluating Claims and Fact Versus Fiction also reinforce learning objectives.

Goal 3: Ethical and Social Responsibility Develop ethically and socially responsible behaviors for professional and personal settings.

3.1 Apply ethical standards to psychological science and practice 3.1a Describe key regulations in the APA Ethics Code for protection of human or nonhuman research participants

Learning Objectives: 11.1b, 11.1c, 14.3c

3.1b Identify obvious violations of ethical standards in psychological contexts

Learning Objectives: 6.5c, 14.3c

3.1c Discuss relevant ethical issues that reflect principles in the APA Code of Ethics

Learning Objectives: 11.1b, 11.1c, 14.3c

3.1d Define the role of the institutional review board

3.2 Promote values that build trust and enhance interpersonal relationships 3.2a Describe the need for positive personal values (e.g., integrity, benevolence, honesty, respect for human dignity) in building strong relationships with others

Learning Objectives: 12.6a

3.2b Treat others with civility 3.2c Explain how individual differences, social identity, and world view may influence beliefs, values, and interaction with others and vice versa

Learning Objectives: 11.4a, 11.4b, 12.5a, 14.3d

3.2d Maintain high standards for academic integrity, including honor code requirements

3.3 Adopt values that build community at local, national, and global levels 3.3a Identify human diversity in its many forms and the interpersonal challenges that often result from the diversity

Learning Objectives: 2.6b, 9.2a, 9.2b, 11.4a, 11.4b, 11.4c, 11.5a, 11.5b, 11.5c, 12.5a, 13.1a, 14.3d

3.3b Recognize potential for prejudice and discrimination in oneself and others

Learning Objectives: 11.4c, 11.5a, 11.5b, 11.5c

3.3c Explain how psychology can promote civic, social, and global outcomes that benefit others

Learning Objectives: 1.1d, 6.6b, 6.6c, 10.4a, 10.4b, 11.5c

3.3d Describe psychology-related issues of global concern (e.g., poverty, health, migration, human rights, international conflict, sustainability)

Learning Objectives: 8.1b, 8.1c, 8.1d, 9.3a, 9.4a, 9.4b, 9.4c, 9.5a, 9.5b, 11.4a, 11.4b, 11.4c, 13.1b

3.3e Articulate psychology’s role in developing, designing, and disseminating public policy

Learning Objectives: 1.1d, 6.5c, 6.6c, 8.1c, 13.1b

3.3f Accept the opportunity to serve others through civic engagement, including volunteer service Ethics and social responsibility are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experimental Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. Text features such as Evaluating Claims and Fact Versus Fiction also reinforce learning objectives.

Learning Outcomes and Assessment

APA Learning Outcomes and Objectives

xxi

Text Learning Objectives and Features

Goal 4: Communication Demonstrate competence in written, oral, and interpersonal communication skills and be able to develop and present a scientific argument.

4.1 Demonstrate effective writing in multiple formats 4.1a Express ideas in written formats that reflect basic psychological concepts and principles 4.1b Recognize writing content and format differ based on purpose (e.g., blogs, memos, journal articles) and audience 4.1c Use generally accepted grammar 4.1d Describe how writing using APA writing style is different from regular writing or writing in other conventions 4.1e Recognize and develop overall organization (e.g., beginning, development, ending) that fits the purpose 4.1f Interpret quantitative data displayed in statistics, graphs, and tables, including statistical symbols in research reports

Learning Objectives: 1.6a, 1.6b

4.1g Use expert feedback to revise writing of a single draft

4.2 Exhibit effective presentation skills in multiple formats 4.2a Construct plausible oral argument based on a psychological study 4.2b Deliver brief presentations within appropriate constraints (e.g., time limit, appropriate to audience) 4.2c Describe effective delivery characteristics of professional oral performance 4.2d Incorporate appropriate visual support 4.2e Pose questions about psychological content

4.3 Interact Effectively with Others 4.3a Identify key message elements in communication through careful listening 4.3b Recognize that culture, values, and biases may produce misunderstandings in communication 4.3c Attend to language and nonverbal cues to interpret meaning 4.3d Ask questions to capture additional detail 4.3e Respond appropriately to electronic communications Communication goals are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experimental Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. Text features such as Evaluating Claims and Fact Versus Fiction also reinforce learning objectives.

Goal 5: Professional Development Apply psychology-specific content and skills, effective self-reflection, project management skills, teamwork skills and career preparation to support occupational planning and pursuit.

5.1 Apply psychological content and skills to professional work 5.1a Recognize the value and application of research and problem-solving skills in providing evidence beyond personal opinion to support proposed solutions

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 1.3a, 1.3b, 1.4a, 1.4b, .15a, 1.5b, 1.5c, 1.6a, 1.6b, 6.5c, 6.6a, 10.4a, 12.1c, 12.6c, 14.3a, 14.3b, 14.3c

5.1b Identify a range of possible factors that influence beliefs and conclusions

Learning Objectives: 1.2a, 4.4a, 6.6b, 7.4c, 10.4b, 11.4b, 11.4c, 11.5a, 11.5b

5.1c Expect to deal with differing opinions and personalities in the college environment

Learning Objectives: 11.4a, 11.4b, 11.4c, 11.5a, 11.5b, 11.5c

5.1d Describe how psychology’s content applies to business, healthcare, educational, and other workplace settings

Learning Objectives: 1.1d, 4.1a, 4.2b, 5.1b, 5.2a, 5.2b, 5.2c, 5.2d, 5.3b, 5.4a, 5.5b, 6.6c, 7.3c, 8.1b, 8.1c, 8.1d, 8.4b, 8.4c, 9.3a, 9.3b, 9.4a, 9.4b, 9.4c, 9.5a, 9.5b, 9.5c, 14.3a, 14.3b

5.1e Recognize and describe broad applications of information literacy skills obtained in the psychology major 5.1f Describe how ethical principles of psychology have relevance to non-psychology settings

xxii Learning Outcomes and Assessment APA Learning Outcomes and Objectives

Text Learning Objectives and Features

5.2 Exhibit self-efficacy and self-regulation 5.2a Recognize the link between effort and achievement

Learning Objectives: 7.3d, 8.4a, 8.4b

5.2b Accurately self-assess performance quality by adhering to external standards (e.g., rubric criteria, teacher expectations) 5.2c Incorporate feedback from educators and mentors to change performance 5.2d Describe self-regulation strategies (e.g., reflection, time management)

Learning Objectives: 9.4c, 9.5a, 9.5b

5.3 Refine project management skills 5.3a Follow instructions, including timely delivery, in response to project criteria 5.3b Identify appropriate resources and constraints that may influence project completion 5.3c Anticipate where potential problems can hinder successful project completion

Learning Objectives: 11.3b

5.3d Describe the processes and strategies necessary to develop a project to fulfill its intended purpose

5.4 Enhance teamwork capacity 5.4a Collaborate successfully on small group classroom assignments

Learning Objectives: 11.3b

5.4b Recognize the potential for developing stronger solutions through shared problem-solving

Learning Objectives: 11.3b

5.4c Articulate problems that develop when working with teams

Learning Objectives: 11.3b

5.4d Assess one’s strengths and weaknesses in performance as a project team member 5.4e Describe strategies used by effective group leaders

Learning Objectives: 11.3b

5.4f Describe the importance of working effectively in diverse environments

5.5 Develop meaningful professional direction for life after graduation 5.5a Describe the types of academic experiences and advanced course choices that will best shape career readiness 5.5b Articulate the skills sets desired by employers who hire people with psychology backgrounds 5.5c Recognize the importance of having a mentor 5.5d Describe how a curriculum vitae or resume is used to document the skills expected by employers 5.5e Recognize how rapid social change influences behavior and affects one’s value in the workplace Professional development goals are reinforced with learning tools: Writing Space, Experimental Simulations, MyPsychLab Video Series, Visual Brain, and instructor’s teaching and assessment package. Text features such as Evaluating Claims and Fact Versus Fiction also reinforce learning objectives.

Chapter 1

What Is Psychology?

Learning Objectives LO 1.1.A

Define psychology, describe how it addresses topics from a scientific perspective, and differentiate it from pseudoscience and common sense.

LO 1.4.A

Illustrate with an example how a correlation coefficient gives both the size and direction of the relationship between two variables.

LO 1.1.B

Discuss some of the early perspectives and individuals that were influential forerunners of modern psychology.

LO 1.4.B

LO 1.1.C

List and describe four major perspectives in modern psychology.

Explain why a correlation between two variables does not establish a causal relationship between those variables.

LO 1.5.A

LO 1.1.D

Describe the roles that psychologists play in research, practice, and the community.

Distinguish an independent variable from a dependent variable and give an example of each.

LO 1.5.B

Explain how random assignment helps create conditions in an experiment, and explain the difference between an experimental group and a control group.

LO 1.5.C

Discuss the methodological advantages, limitations, and ethical considerations related to experimental research design.

LO 1.6.A

Explain how descriptive statistics can be used to compare the performance of groups of research participants.

LO 1.6.B

Explain what a statistically significant research result does and does not mean.

LO 1.2.A

Explain what critical thinking is, discuss important critical-thinking guidelines, and give an example of how each applies to the science of psychology.

LO 1.2.B

Discuss how students can use the principles and methods of psychology to more effectively study psychology.

LO 1.3.A

Describe the major ways participants are selected for psychological studies and how the method of selection might influence interpretations of a study’s outcomes.

LO 1.3.B

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using different descriptive methods such as case studies, observational methods, tests, and surveys.

1

2 Chapter 1

Ask questions . . . be willing to wonder How does “pop psychology” and “self-help” as seen on TV and online differ from the psychological science described in this book?

•

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a clinical psychologist, and a psychiatrist?

•

If you want to be a psychologist so that you can help people, why do you need to study statistics and research methods?

•

If you wanted to test a research question related to human behavior—say, something like “Does too much time on a smartphone impair the quality of the social interactions you have with others?”—what different study types might you consider using?

Interactive

•

Do you consider youself good at predicting how people around you will behave and react under different circumstances?

YES NO

Every day, the world witnesses tales of cowardice and heroism, triumph and failure, playfulness and terror, creativity and folly, love and hate. Human nature runs a broad continuum, from the terrific to the horrific. And the scientific study of why we think, feel, and act the way we do?

That’s psychology.

When your authors tell people that we are psychologists, the first response is usually a variation on, “Ooh, are you analyzing me right now?” (We always say yes.) Sometimes this is followed by, “Are you reading my mind?” (Again, just for fun, we always say yes.) While it is true that some psychologists see patients (and only a fraction of these professionals make use of psychoanalysis), many of us do not. And when we’re being honest, we ultimately have to admit that we can’t read minds either.

Even though people often associate psychology with mental disorders, personal problems, and psychotherapy, psychologists take as their subject the entire spectrum of beautiful and brutish things that human beings do—the kinds of things you see and read and hear about every day. Psychologists want to know why some people seem to be outgoing extraverts, whereas others prefer to blend in quietly. They ask why some people cheat and lie in the pursuit of success, and how those who do so rationalize their dishonesty to themselves and others. They explore the reasons that nations and ethnic groups so often see

the world in terms of “us versus them” and resort to armed conflict to settle their differences. They investigate the mysteries of human memory, from people who can learn in mere minutes the sequence of an entire deck of playing cards to why it is that some of us can’t remember the four things we need to buy at the grocery store.

In short: Psychologists are interested in how ordinary human beings learn, remember, solve problems, perceive, feel, and get along or fail to get along with friends and family members. They are therefore as likely to study commonplace experiences—rearing children, gossiping, the stress of rush hour traffic, daydreaming, making love, and making a living—as exceptional ones.

If you have ever wondered what makes people tick, or if you want to gain insight into your own behavior, then you are in the right course. As demonstrated by the survey question we began this chapter with, most of you already believe you are good at predicting how people around you will behave. That’s great. But we promise that after taking this course, you’ll be even better at it. And we also promise that at least one—and probably more!— assumptions about human nature that you’ve previously relied upon will be proven to be more myth than truth by the end of this text.

Without further ado, we invite you now to step into the world of psychology, the discipline that dares to explore the most complex topic on earth: you.

1.1 Psychology, Pseudoscience, and Popular Opinion The Greek letter psi (pronounced like the word sigh) is often used to represent the discipline of psychology.

To get a clear picture of the field, you need to know about its methods, its findings, and its ways of interpreting information. We will get to all this; we promise. But first, let’s look more closely at what psychology is, and equally importantly, what it is not.

What Is Psychology?

What Psychology Is and Is Not LO 1.1.A Define psychology, describe how it addresses topics from a scientific

perspective, and differentiate it from pseudoscience and common sense.

Interactive

Psychology can be defined generally as the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment. Perhaps just as informatively, let’s consider what psychology is not.

First, the psychology that you are about to study bears little relation to the popular psychology (“pop psych”) often found in self-help books or on talk shows. In recent decades, the public’s appetite for psychological information has created a huge market for “psychobabble”: pseudoscience covered by a veneer of psychological language. Pseudoscience (pseudo means “false”) promises quick fixes to life’s problems, such as resolving your unhappiness as an adult by “reliving” the supposed trauma of your birth, or becoming more creative on the job by “reprogramming” your brain. Serious psychology is more complex, more informative, and far more helpful than such psychobabble because it is based on rigorous research and empirical evidence—evidence gathered by careful observation, experimentation, or measurement.

Second, serious psychology differs radically from nonscientific competitors such as fortune-telling, numerology, and astrology. Yes, promoters of these systems—like psychologists—try to explain people’s problems and predict their behavior: If you are having romantic problems, an astrologer may advise you to choose an Aries instead of an Aquarius as your next love. Yet whenever the predictions of psychics, astrologers, and the like are put to the test, they turn out to be so vague as to be meaningless (for example, “Your spirituality will increase next year”) or just plain wrong, as in the case of all the doomsday predictions that have occurred for centuries, especially during times of great social change and anxiety (Shaffer & Jadwiszczok, 2010). Contrary to what you might think from watching TV shows or going to psychic websites, psychics don’t regularly find missing children, identify serial killers, or help police solve any other crime by using “psychic powers” (Radford, 2011). Usually, their “help” merely adds to the heartbreak felt by the victim’s family.

Third, psychology is not just another name for common sense. Often, psychological research produces findings that directly contradict prevailing beliefs, and throughout this book you will be discovering many of them. Are unhappy memories really repressed and then accurately recalled years later, as if they had been recorded in perfect detail in the brain? Do policies of abstinence from alcohol reduce rates of alcoholism? If you play Beethoven to your infant, will your child become smarter? Can hypnosis help you accurately remember your third birthday or allow you to perform feats that would otherwise be impossible? Many people would answer these questions with a “yes,” but they would be wrong. Watch the video Debunking Myths 1 to see other common but mistaken beliefs.

psychology The discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment.

empirical Relying on or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement.

3

4 Chapter 1

“Common Sense”

On the first day of class, students in an introductory psychology course actually did worse than chance on a true–false psychological information questionnaire. But by the end of the semester, after they had learned to examine the scientific evidence for their beliefs, their performance had greatly improved (Taylor & Kowalski, 2004).

100

Percent items correct

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Before psychology course

After psychology course

Indeed, at the start of an introductory psychology course, many students hold beliefs that have been promoted in the popular culture, or are based on “common sense,” but that are not scientifically supported. When two instructors gave their 90 introductory psychology students a true/false “Psychological Information” questionnaire on the first day of class—a questionnaire consisting entirely of false statements—the students were accurate only 38.5 percent of the time, which is actually worse than chance (Taylor & Kowalski, 2004). By the last week of class, however, when the students took a test containing all of the earlier items, their overall accuracy was much better: 66.3 percent (see Figure 1.1). Although there was still room for improvement, the students had lost confidence in their remaining misconceptions, suggesting that they had learned one of the most important lessons in science: Uncertainty about untested assumptions and beliefs is a good thing.

Psychological findings need not be surprising to be important. Sometimes they validate common beliefs and then explain or extend them. Like all scientists, psychological researchers strive not only to discover new phenomena and correct mistaken ideas but also to deepen our understanding of an already familiar world—for example, by identifying the varieties of love, the origins of violence, or the reasons that a great song can lift our hearts. Fully understanding basic human processes that most people take for granted often involves examining them in a new light; turning common wisdom on its head for a different perspective, or shaking up cherished beliefs to see why and when they hold true. In fact, psychology not only has this potential to shape how ordinary people view human nature, but also to influence the thinking of researchers in other fields. We learn from analyses of how often scientists in one discipline cite the work of scientists in other disciplines, that psychology is a “hub science,” in that it serves as central link to surrounding research in many other fields (Cacioppo, 2013).

If you don’t want to take our word for the importance and potential influence of psychology—after all, we’re psychologists ourselves, so we might be just a tad biased here—maybe you’ll be more persuaded by former U.S. president Barack Obama, who wrote in an executive order in 2015 that “research findings from fields such as behavioral economics and psychology . . . can be used to design government policies to better serve the American people.” You can learn more about the many ways psychology impacts daily lives in the following video, Asking the Tough Questions.

Interactive

Figure 1.1 Psychology: It’s Not Just

The Birth of Modern Psychology LO 1.1.B Discuss some of the early perspectives and individuals that were

influential forerunners of modern psychology.

Many of the great thinkers of history, from Aristotle to Zoroaster, raised questions that today would be called psychological. They wanted to know how people take in information through their senses, use information to solve problems, and become motivated to act

What Is Psychology?

in brave or villainous ways. They wondered about the elusive nature of emotion, and whether it controls us or is something we can control. Like today’s psychologists, they wanted to describe, predict, understand, and modify behavior to add to human knowledge. But unlike modern psychologists, scholars of the past did not rely heavily on empirical evidence. Often, their observations were based on anecdotes or descriptions of individual cases.

This does not mean that psychology’s forerunners were always wrong.

Hippocrates (c. 460–377 b.c.e.), the Greek physician known as the founder of modern medicine, observed patients with head injuries and inferred that the brain must be the ultimate source of “our pleasures, joys, laughter, and jests as well as our sorrows, pains, griefs, and tears.” And so it is. In the seventeenth century, the English philosopher John Locke (1643–1704) argued that the mind works by associating ideas arising from experience, and this notion continues to influence many psychologists today.

But without empirical methods, the forerunners of psychology also committed terrible blunders. One was phrenology (Greek for “study of the mind”), which became wildly popular in Europe and the United States in the early 1800s.

Phrenologists argued that different brain areas accounted for specific personality traits, such as stinginess and religiosity, and that such traits could be read from bumps on the skull. Thieves, for example, supposedly had large bumps above the ears. So how to account for people who had these “stealing bumps” but who were not thieves? Phrenologists explained this away by saying that the person’s thieving impulses were being held in check by other bumps representing positive traits. In the United States, parents, teachers, and employers flocked to phrenologists for advice and self-improvement (Benjamin, 1998). But phrenology was a classic pseudoscience—sheer nonsense.

At about the time that phrenology was peaking in popularity, several pioneering men and women in Europe and the United States were starting to study psychological issues using scientific methods. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt (VIL-helm Voont) officially established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt (1832–1920), who was trained in medicine and philosophy, promoted a method called trained introspection, in which volunteers were taught to carefully observe, analyze, and describe their own sensations and emotional reactions. Wundt’s introspectors might take as long as 20 minutes to report their inner experiences during a 1.5-second experiment. The goal was to reduce behavior into its most basic elements, much as a chemist might break down water into hydrogen plus oxygen.

Most psychologists eventually rejected trained introspection as too subjective, but Wundt is still usually credited for formally initiating the movement to make psychology a science.

Another early approach to scientific psychology, called functionalism, emphasized the purpose (or function) of behavior, as opposed to its description. One of its leaders was William James (1842–1910), an American philosopher, physician, and psychologist.

Attempting to grasp the nature of the mind through introspection, wrote James (1890–1950), is “like seizing a spinning top to catch its motion.” Inspired in part by the evolutionary theories of British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), James and other functionalists instead asked how various actions help a person or animal adapt to the environment. This emphasis on the causes and consequences of behavior was to set the course of psychological science.

The nineteenth century also saw the development of psychological therapies. The one that would have the greatest impact for much of the twentieth century had roots in Vienna, Austria. While researchers were at work in their laboratories, struggling to establish psychology as a science, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), an obscure physician, was in his office listening to his patients’ reports of depression, nervousness, and obsessive habits. Freud became convinced that many of these symptoms had mental, not bodily, causes. His patients’ distress, he concluded, stemmed from childhood conflicts and traumas that were too threatening to be remembered consciously, such as forbidden sexual feelings for a parent. Freud’s ideas eventually evolved into a broad theory of personality,

5

What stands out to you about this nineteenthcentury phrenology “map”? Are you surprised by any of the aptitudes, emotions, and characteristics included here? Surprised by anything major that seems to be missing? Does there seem to be any rhyme or reason to which labels are assigned to which regions of the skull? Sure, phrenology has long since been debunked, but as you read the rest of this chapter, consider whether there might be any ways in which the same motivations and assumptions that can be seen in this diagram continue to influence contemporary ways of thinking about human nature.

phrenology The now-discredited theory that different brain areas account for specific character and personality traits, which can be “read” from bumps on the skull.

functionalism An early psychological approach that emphasized the purpose of behavior and consciousness.

6 Chapter 1 and both his theory and his method of treating people with emotional problems became known as psychoanalysis. Today, the majority of empirically oriented psychologists reject many Freudian concepts, but some schools of psychotherapy still draw on psychoanalytic ideas, and Freud’s more general emphasis on the importance of the unconscious remains influential in many research areas in contemporary psychology.

Major Perspectives in Psychology LO 1.1.C List and describe four major perspectives in modern psychology.

psychoanalysis A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, originally formulated by Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

biological perspective A psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts.

evolutionary psychology A field of psychology emphasizing evolutionary mechanisms that may help explain human commonalities in cognition, development, emotion, social practices, and other areas of behavior.

learning perspective A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect an individual’s actions.

Interactive

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).

If you had a noisy and rude neighbor, and you asked a group of psychologists to explain why he was such a miserable jerk, you would likely get different answers: It’s because of his biological makeup, his belligerent attitude toward the world, the way he has learned to use his nasty temper to get his way, an unhappy family situation, or the customs of his culture. Modern psychological scientists typically approach their investigations from one of four different, although overlapping, approaches: biological, learning, cognitive, and sociocultural. Each perspective reflects different questions about human behavior, different assumptions about how the mind works, and, most important, different ways of explaining why people do what they do. You can learn more about these approaches in the video Diverse Perspectives.

The biological perspective focuses on how bodily events affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts. Electrical impulses shoot along the intricate pathways of the nervous system. Hormones course through the bloodstream, telling internal organs to slow down or speed up. Chemical substances flow across the tiny gaps that separate one microscopic brain cell from another. Psychologists who take a biological perspective study how these physical events interact with events in the external environment to produce perceptions, memories, emotions, and vulnerability to mental disorder. They also investigate the contribution of genes and other biological factors to the development of abilities and personality traits. One popular specialty, evolutionary psychology, follows in the footsteps of functionalism by focusing on how genetically influenced behavior that was functional or adaptive during our evolutionary past may be reflected in many of our present behaviors, mental processes, and traits. The message of the biological approach is that we cannot really know ourselves if we do not know our bodies.

The learning perspective is concerned with how the environment and experience affect an individual’s actions. Within this perspective, behaviorists focus on the environmental rewards and punishments that maintain or discourage specific behaviors. Behaviorists do not invoke the mind to explain behavior; they prefer to stick to what they can observe and measure directly: acts and events taking place in the environment. Do you have trouble sticking to a schedule for studying? A behaviorist would analyze the environmental

7

Interactive

What Is Psychology?

Why do other people bravely come to the aid of their fellow human beings, even when it’s not their official duty?

Psychologists study many puzzles of human behavior and mental processes. What could motivate ordinary individuals to torture and humiliate prisoners, as soldiers did at the notorious Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?

How do some people become champion athletes despite having physical disabilities?

factors that might account for this common problem, such as the pleasure you get from hanging out with your friends instead of hitting the books. Social-cognitive learning theorists combine elements of behaviorism with research on thoughts, values, and intentions. They believe that people learn not only by adapting their behavior to the environment, but also by imitating others and by thinking about the events happening around them.

The cognitive perspective emphasizes what goes on in people’s heads—how people reason, remember, understand language, solve problems, explain experiences, and acquire moral standards. (The word cognitive comes from the Latin for “to know.”) Using clever methods to infer mental processes from observable behavior, cognitive researchers have been able to study phenomena that were once only the stuff of speculation, such as emotions, motivations, insight, and the kind of “thinking” that goes on without awareness. They are designing computer programs that model how humans perform complex tasks, discovering what goes on in the mind of an infant, and identifying types of intelligence not measured by conventional IQ tests. The cognitive approach is one of the strongest forces in psychology and has inspired an explosion of research on the intricate workings of the mind.

The sociocultural perspective focuses on social and cultural forces outside the individual, forces that shape every aspect of behavior. Most of us underestimate the impact of other people, the social context, and cultural rules on nearly everything we do: how we perceive the world, express joy or grief, manage our households, and treat our friends

What causes someone to become anorexic, willing even to starve to death? Psychologists approach these and other questions from four major perspectives: biological, learning, cognitive, and sociocultural.

cognitive perspective A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior.

sociocultural perspective A psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior.

8 Chapter 1 and enemies. We are like fish that are unaware they live in water, so obvious is water in their lives. Sociocultural psychologists study the water—the social and cultural environments that people “swim” in every day. Because human beings are social animals who are profoundly affected by their different cultural worlds, the sociocultural perspective has made psychology a more representative and rigorous discipline.

Of course, not all psychologists feel they must swear allegiance to one approach or another; many draw on what they take to be the best features of diverse schools of thought. In addition, many psychologists have been affected by social movements and intellectual trends, such as humanism and feminism, that do not fit neatly into any of the major perspectives or that cut across all of them. Moreover, despite the diversity of psychological approaches, most psychological scientists agree on basic guidelines about what is and what is not acceptable in their discipline. Nearly all reject supernatural explanations of events—evil spirits, psychic forces, miracles, and so forth. Most believe in the importance of gathering empirical evidence and not relying on hunches or personal belief. This insistence on rigorous standards of proof is what sets psychology apart from nonscientific explanations of human experience.

What Psychologists Do LO 1.1.D Describe the roles that psychologists play in research, practice,

and the community.

The study of psychological issues for the sake of knowledge rather than with a particular practical application in mind.

applied psychology The study of psychological issues intended to have direct practical significance or application.

Interactive

basic psychology

The professional activities of psychologists generally fall into three broad categories: (1) teaching and doing research in colleges and universities; (2) providing mental health services, often referred to as psychological practice; and (3) conducting research or applying its findings in nonacademic settings such as business, sports, government, law, and the military (see Table 1.1). Some psychologists move flexibly across these areas. A researcher might also provide counseling services in a mental health setting, such as a clinic or a hospital; a university professor might teach, do research, and serve as a consultant in legal cases.

Most people who do psychological research have doctoral degrees (Ph.D., Ed.D.).

Some, seeking knowledge for its own sake, work in basic psychology; others, concerned with the practical uses of knowledge, work in applied psychology. A psychologist doing basic research might ask, “How does peer pressure influence people’s attitudes and

Table 1.1 What Is a Psychologist?

Not all psychologists do clinical work. Many do research, teach, work in business, or consult. The professional activities of psychologists fall into three general categories.

Academic/Research Psychologists

Clinical Psychologists

Psychologists in Industry, Law, or Other Settings

Specialize in areas of basic or applied research, such as:

Do psychotherapy and sometimes research; may work in any of these settings:

Do research or serve as consultants to institutions on such issues as:

Human development

Private practice

Sports

Cognition

Mental health clinics

Consumer issues

Health psychology

General hospitals

Advertising

Education

Mental hospitals

Organizational problems

Industrial/organizational psychology

Research laboratories

Environmental issues

Physiological psychology/ neuroscience

Colleges and universities

Public policy

Sensation and perception

Criminal justice system

Opinion polls

Social psychology

Military training

Design and use of technology

Legal issues Animal behavior

What Is Psychology?

behavior?” An applied psychologist might ask, “How can knowledge about peer pressure be used to reduce binge drinking by college students?” Of course, a researcher or research program can have both basic and applied objectives: Most basic psychology has the potential for application, and applied research is often most effective when grounded in basic psychological principles. Psychologists doing basic and applied research have made important scientific contributions in areas as diverse as health, education, child development, criminal justice, conflict resolution, marketing, industrial design, and urban planning.

Psychological practitioners, whose goal is to understand and improve people’s physical and mental health, work in mental hospitals, general hospitals, clinics, schools, counseling centers, the criminal justice system, and private practice. Since the late 1970s, the proportion of psychologists who are practitioners has steadily increased; practitioners now account for more than two-thirds of new psychology doctorates and members of the American Psychological Association. (The APA, despite its name, is international.)

Some practitioners are counseling psychologists, who generally help people deal with problems of everyday life, such as test anxiety, family conflicts, or low job motivation.

Others are school psychologists, who work with parents, teachers, and students to enhance academic performance and resolve emotional difficulties. The majority, however, are clinical psychologists who diagnose, treat, and study mental or emotional problems. Clinical psychologists are trained to do psychotherapy with severely disturbed people, as well as with those who are simply troubled or unhappy and want to learn to handle their problems better.

In almost all states, a license to practice clinical psychology requires a doctorate.

Most clinical psychologists have a Ph.D., but some have an Ed.D. or a Psy.D. (doctorate in professional psychology, pronounced sy-dee). Clinical psychologists typically do four or five years of graduate work in psychology, plus at least a year’s internship under the direction of a licensed psychologist. Clinical programs leading to a Ph.D. or Ed.D. are usually designed to prepare a person both as a scientist and as a practitioner; they require a dissertation, a major research project that contributes to knowledge in the field. Programs leading to a Psy.D. do not usually require a dissertation, although they typically require the student to complete an extensive theoretical paper or literature review.

People often confuse clinical psychologist with three other terms: psychotherapist, psychoanalyst, and psychiatrist. But these terms mean different things: • A psychotherapist is someone who does any kind of psychotherapy. The term is not legally regulated; in fact, in most states, anyone can say that he or she is a therapist without having any training at all.

• A psychoanalyst is a person who practices one particular form of therapy, psychoanalysis. To call yourself a psychoanalyst, you must have an advanced degree, get specialized training at a psychoanalytic institute, and undergo extensive psychoanalysis yourself.

• A psychiatrist is a medical doctor (M.D.) trained to diagnose and treat mental disorders. Like some clinical psychologists, some psychiatrists do research on mental problems, such as depression or schizophrenia, instead of, or in addition to, working with patients. Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists do similar work, but psychiatrists are more likely to focus on possible biological causes of mental disorders and to treat these problems with medication. (Unlike psychiatrists, most clinical psychologists at present cannot write prescriptions.)

Other mental health professionals include licensed clinical social workers (LCSWs) and marriage, family, and child counselors (MFCCs). These professionals ordinarily treat general problems in adjustment and family conflicts rather than severe mental disturbance, although their work may bring them into contact with people who have serious problems, such as victims of domestic violence or those with drug addictions. Licensing

9

10 Chapter 1

Psychological researchers and practitioners work in all sorts of settings, from classrooms to courtrooms. On the left, a police psychologist talks to a man threatening to jump from his hotel window. The psychologist succeeded in preventing the man’s suicide. On the right, a researcher studies a dolphin’s ability to understand an artificial language consisting of hand signals.

requirements vary from state to state but usually include a master’s degree in psychology or social work and supervised experience. As if this weren’t complicated enough, thousands of people claim to be specialists in treating all kinds of problems, from sexual abuse to alcoholism, however no uniform set of standards regulates their training. Some may have taken nothing more than a brief “certification” course.

Psychologists also contribute to their communities in about as many areas as you can think of. They advise utility companies on how best to promote energy conservation. They consult with companies to improve worker satisfaction and productivity. They establish programs to reduce ethnic tensions and resolve international conflicts. They advise commissions on how pollution and noise affect mental health. They do rehabilitation training for people who are physically or mentally disabled. They educate judges and juries about eyewitness testimony. They run suicide-prevention hotlines. They advise zoos on the care and training of animals. They help coaches improve the performances of their teams. And these are just for starters. Is it any wonder that people are often a little fuzzy about what a psychologist is?

JOURNAL 1.1

Thinking Critically—Ask Questions; Be Willing to Wonder

Psychological scientists often approach questions differently, depending on whether they take a biological, learning, cognitive, or sociocultural perspective. Consider how these influences interact to make us who we are. Take, for example, questions surrounding what type of student you are. Are you someone who is confident in your abilities or often has to overcome self-doubt? Do you like speaking up in class or prefer remaining quiet? Do you enjoy or worry about the pressure of taking tests? Do you prefer large lectures or smaller seminars? Answer one of these questions and then consider where this personal tendency of yours comes from. Do you think the explanation for what type of student you are is best provided by a biological, learning, cognitive, or sociocultural perspective? What makes you say so?

Quiz for Module 1.1 1. Psychology is defined as an area of study concerned with __________.

a. the factors that lead to flawed decision making in a social context b. behavior and mental processes, and how these are affected by physical, mental, and environmental states

c. the development, structure, and functioning of human society d. the biological bases of mental disorders and the interpersonal problems of adjustment faced by people who have poor coping skills

2. Empirical evidence refers to __________.

a. information that was gathered or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement.

b. the majority opinion adopted by most people when considering an issue.

c. the opinions of experts that are believed by nonexperts for a given issue.

d. the most straightforward explanation that can be offered for a particular phenomenon.

What Is Psychology?

3. Sid wants help dealing with his lack of motivation in school, so he enlists his roommate George, who is taking an introductory psychology course, to offer advice. “The problem is all in your brain,” George suggests. “You’ve got an imbalance of chemicals and hormones, which is causing you to feel lackluster and unfocused.” Which perspective on psychological science is George adopting?

a. learning perspective b. biological perspective

c. psychoanalytic perspective d. cognitive perspective

4. In one study you read about in the text, a group of introductory psychology students completed a test of “psychological information” on the first day of class. What was the general result of that initial survey?

a. Students were quite accurate in distinguishing factual state-

11

b. Students believed that many false statements regarding psychology were actually true.

c. Students performed better than chance at identifying correct findings from the psychological research literature.

d. Students showed a bias to believe that all statements on the survey were false.

5. Which of the following specialists has a medical doctor (M.D.) degree and tends to take a biological approach to mental health problems?

a. psychoanalyst b. clinical psychologist c. psychiatrist d. counseling psychologist

ments about psychology from incorrect ones.

1.2 Thinking Critically and Scientifically About Psychology The primary goal of this text is to introduce you to the basic methods, theories, and findings of psychology. But our hope (and, we imagine, the hope of your course instructor) is that your introduction to psychology will also provide you with thinking and analytical skills that transcend a particular academic discipline. For one, much of the research you will read about has direct relevance to your efforts to be the best student you can be. Furthermore, throughout this book, you will gain practice distinguishing scientific psychology from pseudoscience by thinking critically. As an approach to science, critical thinking forms the basis for all research methodologies. It can also serve as an excellent starting point for the way you approach the world in general. Separating fact from fiction, knowing what to believe and what to discard, and understanding how to evaluate evidence are important skills to have handy in your mental toolkit.

What Is Critical Thinking?

LO 1.2.A Explain what critical thinking is, discuss important critical-thinking

guidelines, and give an example of how each applies to the science of psychology.

One of the greatest benefits of studying psychology is that you learn not only how the brain works in general but also how to use yours in particular—by thinking critically. Critical thinking is the ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence, rather than emotion or anecdote. Critical thinkers look for flaws in arguments and resist claims that have no support. They realize that criticizing an argument is not the same as criticizing the person making it, and they are willing to engage in vigorous debate. Critical thinking, however, is not negative thinking. It includes the ability to be creative and constructive—the ability to come up with alternative explanations for events, think of implications of research findings, and apply new knowledge to social and personal problems.

Most people know that keeping your body in shape requires exercise, but they may not realize that clear thinking also requires effort and practice. All around us, we can see examples of flabby thinking. Sometimes people justify their mental laziness by proudly telling you they are open-minded. It’s good to be open-minded, but open-mindedness does not mean that all opinions are created equal and that one person’s beliefs are as good as everyone else’s (Hare, 2009). On matters of personal preference, that is true; if

critical thinking Assessing claims and making objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence rather than emotion or anecdote.

12 Chapter 1

Unfortunately, we often stop asking “why” questions as we get older. If you remember only one critical-thinking tip from this chapter, make it be that we should all ask “why?” more often.

hypothesis

Interactive

A statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena, specifying relationships among events or variables that can be empirically tested.

you prefer the look of a Chevy truck to the look of a Honda Accord, no one can argue with you. But if you say, “The Chevy truck is more reliable than a Honda and gets better mileage too,” you have uttered more than mere opinion. Now you have to support your belief with evidence of the vehicle's reliability, mileage, and safety record (Ruggiero, 2011). And if you say, “Chevy trucks are the best in the world and Hondas do not exist; they are a conspiracy of the Japanese government,” you forfeit the right to have your opinion taken seriously. Your opinion, if it ignores reality, is not equal to any other.

Critical thinking is not only indispensable in ordinary life, it is fundamental to all science. By exercising critical thinking, you will be able to distinguish serious psychology from the psychobabble that clutters your TV, radio, and newsfeed. Speaking of which, critical thinking can also help you use the Internet better. You may pride yourself on being able to get info quickly online, but a team of researchers found that most college students are less skilled than they think (Pan et al., 2007; Thompson, 2011). They tend to rely on whatever comes up at the top of the results list, without assessing its credibility: Was that profile of Martin Luther King, Jr. written by a scholar or by a blogger with questionable racial attitudes? Is that article really a paid advertisement for some product? The researchers found that the average high school and college student is unable to detect hidden agendas in what they read; they need, in the words of Internet pioneer and critic Howard Rheingold, a course in “crap detection 101.”

Critical thinking requires logical abilities, but other skills and dispositions are also important (Halpern, 2014; Levy, 2010; Stanovich, 2010). Here are eight essential criticalthinking guidelines that we will emphasize throughout this book.

What is one kind of question that most exasperates parents of young children? “Why” questions: “Why is the sky blue, Mommy?” “Why doesn’t the plane fall?” “Why don’t pigs have wings?” Unfortunately, as children grow up, they tend to stop asking “why” questions. (Why do you think this is?) But critical and creative thinking begins with wondering why. This educational program isn’t working; why not? I want to stop smoking or lose weight or improve my grades, but can’t seem to do it; why? Is my way of doing things the best way, or just the most familiar way? Critical thinkers are willing to question received wisdom—“We do it this way because this is the way we have always done it around here”—and ask, in essence, “Oh, yeah? Why?” In psychological science, knowledge begins with a question. What is the biological basis of consciousness? How are memories stored and retrieved? Why do we sleep and dream? What causes schizophrenia?

What are the cultural influences on addiction? Critical thinkers are not discouraged by the fact that questions like these have not yet been fully answered; they see them as an exciting challenge.

ASK QUESTIONS; BE WILLING TO WONDER

Once you have raised a general question, the next step is to frame it in clear and concrete terms. “What makes people happy?” is a fine question for a late-night conversation with friends, but it will not lead to answers until you have defined what you mean by “happy.” Do you mean being in a state of euphoria most of the time? Do you mean feeling pleasantly contented with life? Do you mean being free of serious problems or pain? Vague or poorly defined terms in a question can lead to misleading or incomplete answers. For example, are people becoming less prejudiced against other groups? The answer may depend in part on how you define “prejudice.” Is conscious dislike the same as discomfort with a group of people whose rules and beliefs differ from yours?

For scientists, defining terms means being precise about just what it is that they’re studying. Researchers often start out with a hypothesis,

DEFINE YOUR TERMS

Why do some people bravely come to the aid of their fellow human beings, even when it’s not their official job?

And, on the other hand, why do people often behave in ways that are selfish, cruel, or violent? Asking “why” questions like these plays an essential role in advancing scientific knowledge.

Another random document with no related content on Scribd:

DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have

two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise, come in for a blowing-up.

The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala, shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.

Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde bush:—