equestrianism
(insert knowledge) great depression
equestrianism Equestrianism (from Latin equester, horseman, horse) more often known as riding, horseback riding (American English) or horse riding (British English) referring to the skill of riding, driving, steeplechasing or vaulting with horses. This broad description includes the use of horses for practical working purposes, transportation, recreational activities, artistic or cultural exercises, and competitive sport. Horses are trained and ridden for practical working purposes such as in police work or for controlling herd animals on a ranch. They are also used in competitive sports including, but not limited to, dressage, endurance riding, eventing, reining, show jumping, tent pegging, vaulting, polo, horse racing, driving, and rodeo. Some popular forms of competition are grouped together at horse shows, where horses perform in a wide variety of disciplines. Horses (and other equids such as mules and donkeys) are also used for non-
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competitive recreational riding such as fox hunting, trail riding or hacking. Horses are also used for therapeutic purposes, both in specialized paraequestrian an competition as well as non-competitive riding to improve human health and emotional development. Horses are also driven in harness racing, at horse shows and in other types of exhibition, historical reenactment or ceremony, often pulling carriages. In some parts of the world, they are still used for more practical purposes. Horses continue to be used in public service: in traditional ceremonies (parades, funerals), police and volunteer mounted patrols, and mounted search and rescue. Riding halls enable the training of horse and rider in all weathers as well as indoor competition riding.
RR=
P event when non-exposed P event when exposed
relative risk In statistics and epidemiology, relative risk (RR) is the ratio of the probability of an event occurring (for example, developing a disease, being injured) in an exposed group to the probability of the same event occurring in a comparison, non-exposed group. Relative risk includes two important features: (i) a comparison of risk between two “exposures” puts risks in context, and (ii) “exposure” is ensured by having proper denominators for each group representing the exposure. Relative risk is used frequently in the statistical analysis of binary outcomes where the outcome of interest has relatively low probability. It is thus often suited to clinical trial data, where it is used to compare the risk of developing a disease, in people not receiving the new medical treatment (or receiving a placebo) versus people who are receiving an established (standard of care) treatment. It can be calculated by hand in the simple case, but is also
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amenable to regression modelling, typically in a Poisson regression framework. In a simple comparison with an experimental group and a control group: A relative risk of 1 means there is no difference in risk between the two groups. An RR of < 1 means the event is less likely to occur in the experimental group than in the control group. An RR of > 1 means the event is more likely to occur in the experimental group than in the control group. Whether a given relative risk can be seen astatistically significant is dependent on the relative difference between the conditions compared, the amount of measurement and the noise associated with the measurement (of the events considered).
clinical trial Clinical trials are prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human subjects designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions (novel vaccines, drugs, treatments, functional foods, dietary supplements, devices or new ways of using known interventions), generating safety and efficacy data.They are conducted only after satisfactory information has been gathered that satisfies health authority and ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers and/or patients into small pilot studies, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies.
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As positive safety and efficacy data are gathered the number of patients tends to increase. Clinical trials can vary in size, and can involve a single research entity in one country or multiple entities in multiple countries. A full series of trials may cost hundreds of millions of dollars. The burden of paying is usually borne by the sponsor, which may be a governmental organization or a pharmaceutical, biotechnology or medical device company. When the required support exceeds the sponsor's capacity, the trial may be managed by an outsourced partner, such as a contract research organization or an academic clinical trials unit.
placebo A placebo is a simulated or otherwise medically ineffectual treatment for a disease or other medical condition intended to deceive the recipient. Sometimes patients given a placebo treatment will have a perceived or actual improvement in a medical condition, a phenomenon commonly called the placebo effect. This effect consists of several different effects woven together, and the methods of placebo administration may be as important as the administration itself. In medical research, placebos are given as control treatmentsand depend on the use of measured suggestion. common placebos include inert tablets, vehicle infusions, sham surgery, and other procedures based on false information. However, placebos may also have positive effects on a patient's subjective experience who knows that the given treatment is without any active drug, as compared with a control group who knowingly did not get a placebo. Placebo effects are subject of recent scientific research aiming to understand underlying neurobiological mechanisms of action in pain relief, immunosuppression, Parkinson's disease, and depression.
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Brain imaging techniques by Emeran Mayer, Johanna Jarco and Matt Lieberman showed that placebo can have real, measurable effect on physiological changes in the brain.The objective physiological changes have been reported, from changes in heart rate and blood pressure to chemical activity in the brain, in cases involving pain, depression, anxiety, fatigue, and some symptoms of Parkinsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, but in other cases, like asthma, the effect is purely subjective, when the patient reports improvement despite no objective change in any of the underlying conditions. Placebos are commonly used in medical research and medicine, and the placebo effect is a pervasive phenomenon; in fact, it is actually part of the response to any active medical intervention. The placebo effect points to the importance of perception and the brain's role in physical health. However, the use of placebos as a treatment in clinical medicine as opposed to laboratory research) is ethically problematic as it introduces deception and dishonesty into the doctor and patient relationship.
acupuncture Acupuncture is the stimulation of specific acupuncture points along the skin of the body involving various methods such as the penetration by thin needles or the application of heat, pressure, or laser light. Clinical practice tvaries depending on the country. Traditional acupuncture uses needle insertion, moxibustion, and cupping therapy. It is a form of alternative medicine and a major component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). According to TCM, stimulating specific acupuncture points corrects imbalances in the flow of qi through channels known as meridians. However, the TCM theory and practice are not based upon scientific knowledge. Acupuncture aims to treat a range of conditions, though is most commonly used for pain relief. It is rarely used alone but as an adjunct to other treatment modalities. Any evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is "variable and inconsistentâ&#x20AC;? for all conditions. An overview of highquality Cochrane reviews suggested that acupuncture may alleviate some, but not all, kinds of pain. A systematic review of systematic reviews found that for reducing
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pain, real acupuncture was no better than sham acupuncture and concluded that there is little evidence that acupuncture is an effective treatment for reducing pain. Though it is minimally invasive, puncturing of the skin with acupuncture needles poses problems when designing trials that properly control for placebo effects. Some of the research results suggest acupuncture can alleviate pain but others consistently suggest acupuncture effects are mainly due to placebo. The evidence suggests that short-term treatment does not produce long-term benefits. Acupuncture is currently used throughout China and many other countries, including the United States. It is uncertain exactly when acupuncture originated or how it evolved, but it is generally thought to derive from ancient China.
shang dynasty The Shang dynasty, according to traditional historiography, ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Zhou dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the Classic of History, Bamboo Annals and Records of the Grand Historian. According to the traditional chronology based upon calculations made approximately 2,000 years ago by Liu Xin, the Shang ruled from 1766 BC to 1122 BC, but according to the chronology based upon the "current text" of Bamboo Annals, nals, they ruled from 1556 BC to 1046 BC. The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project dated them from c. 1600 BC to 1046 BC. Archaeological work at the Ruins of Yin (near modern-day Anyang), which has been identified as the last Shang capital, uncovered eleven major Yin royal tombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites, containing weapons of war and remains from both animal and human sacrifices. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artifacts have been obtained. The workmanship on the bronzes attests to a high level of civilization.
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The Anyang site has yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, which are mostly divinations inscribed on oracle bones– turtle shells, ox scapulae, or other bones. More than 20,000 were discovered ered in the initial scientific excavations during the 1920s and 1930s, and over four times as many have been found since. The inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization. The Shang moved their capital five times, with the final move to Yin in the reign of Pan Geng inaugurating the golden age of the dynasty. Di Xin, the last Shang king, is said to have committed suicide after his army’s defeat by Wu of Zhou. Legends say that his army and his equipped slaves betrayed him by joining the Zhou rebels in the decisive Battle of Muye. According to the Yizhoushu and Mencius, the battle was very bloody. The classic, Ming-era novel Fengshen Yanyi retells the story of the war between Shang and Zhou as a conflict where rival factions of gods supported different sides in the war.
grave robbery Grave robbery, tomb robbing, or tomb raiding is the act of uncovering a tomb or crypt to steal artifacts or personal effects. A related act is body snatching, disinterring a grave for the purpose of stealing a corpse rather than for stealing other types of objects. Grave robbing has caused great difficulty to the study of archaeology, art history, and history. Countless precious grave sites and tombs have been robbed before scholars were able to examine them. In any way â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the archaeological context and the historical and anthropological information is destroyed. Looting obliterates memories of the ancient world and turns its highest artistic creations into decorations, adornments on a shelf, divorced from historical context and ultimately from all meaning. In modern times, grave robbers are often lower-income individuals. Grave robbers sell their goods on the black market. Though some artifacts facts may make
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their way to museums or scholars, many end up in private collections. Ancient Egyptian tombs are one of the most common ex-amples of tomb or grave robbery. Most of the tombs in Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Valley of the Kings were robbed within one hun-dred years of their sealing. As most of the artifacts in these ancient burial sites have been discovered, it is through the conditions of the tombs and presumed articles that are missing in which historians and archaeologists are able to determine whether the tomb has been robbed. Egyptian pharaohs often kept records of the precious items in their tombs, so an inventory check is presumed for archaeologists. Oftentimes, warnngs would be be left by the Pharaohs in the tombs of calamities and curses that would be laid upon any who touched the treasure, or the bodies, which did very little to deter grave robbers.
great depression The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in 1930 and lasted until the late 1930s or middle 1940s. It was the longest and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the world's economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after the fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 The Great Depression had devastating effects in countries both rich and poor. Tax revenue, personal income, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. The U.S unemployment rate rose to 25%, and in some countries rose as high as 33%.
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Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming and rural areas areas suffered as crop prices fell by approximately 60%. Facing a plummeting demand with few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as cash cropping, mining and logging suffered the most. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s. In many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until after the end of World War II. Economic historians usually attribute the start of the Great Depression to the sudden sudden devastating collapse of US stock market prices on October 29, 1929, known as Black Tuesday; some dispute this, and see the stock crash as a symptom, rather than a cause, of the Great Depression.