From CRISIS to Campus

F RO M CR I S I S

A DDRE SSING THE EDU CATION CR ISIS IN NO RTHE RN UGANDA

B R EA K IN G CYC L IC A L BA RRIE RS

SPRING 2021

TO CAM P U S

University of Virginia

|

School of Architecture

|

Kendra Chow

|

ARCH 7100

|

T H RO UGH SPAC E & SUP P O RT

african oasis

Co ntents 01

ISSUE INT RO D UC T IO N

4

WHY GIRLS............................................... 8 WHY AFRICA............................................ 14

UNDERSTANDING & FRAMEWO R K

WHY UGANDA.......................................... 16 RESEARCH QUESTIONS........................ 20

02

LIT E RAT URE RE VIE W

22

EDUCATIONAL......................................... 24 ENVIRONMENTAL.................................. 30 ARCHITECTURAL................................... 31 ECONOMIC................................................ 34 REGIONAL................................................. 35

03

CO ND IT IO NS + P OT E NT IAL

36

BARRIERS + BENEFITS.......................... 38 OUTCOMES & ADVANTAGES............... 41

SIT E D E T E RMINAT IO N

A NALYSIS

04

EXISTING CONDITIONS........................ 44 POPULATION + POVERTY.................... 50 WHY LIRA.................................................. 52

42

p. 2

05

C AS E S T U D I ES

p. 3

Co ntents 54

IN FLU EN CE

EXAMPLES................................................. 56 LESSONS LEARNED................................ 60

06

E XP E RI E N T I A L RE FLEC T IO N

62

INSIGHTS................................................... 64 INTERVIEW............................................... 68

07

D E S I G N PA RAME T E RS

70

PROJECTIONS........................................... 74

08

CO N C LU S I O N

80

TIMELINE.................................................. 82 FUNDING................................................... 84 THESIS PROPOSAL................................. 86

09

AU XI L I ARY 90 REFERENCES............................................ 92 RESEARCHER PROFILE........................ 96

a campus design

DEVELOPMENT

INTENTIONS + INTERVENTIONS...... 72

01

ISSUE INT RO D UC T IO N

understanding + framework

“I was a girl in a land where rifles were fired in celebration of a son, while daughters are hidden away behind a curtain, their role in life simply to prepare food and give birth to children.”

- malala yousafzai p. 6

p. 7 01 | issue introduciton

25 worst countries according to the United Nations Development Programme’s Human Development Reports for Education Index

understanding + framework

W H Y G I RL S ?

e d·u · c a· t io n

(noun) an enlightening experience d e ri ve d f ro m the l atin root educare m e a n ing nour i sh, to b r i ng up

gi r l s are out of scho o l aro und the wo rld

of gi r l s drop out befo re they reach 7 th grade

out of 123 mi l l i on i l literate yo uth, 7 6 m illio n are fem ale

of gi r l s ages 15-24 never co m pleted prim ary scho o l

p. 8

Rahul Dhaker. “Education Meaning.”

Girl Up. “Girl Up | Education,”

p. 9

VULNERABILITY According to GirlUp, a UN Foundation focused on promoting the well-being and advancement of girls in hard to reach areas of the world,

“Those attending school often face gender bias and discrimination in textbooks, the curriculum, and from the teachers themselves. In poorer or more rural families, it is more difficult for girls to attend school, as education is often considered only important for boys.

Girls in Uganda are more likely to drop out of school, marry early, and experience poverty than their male counterparts.”

Yet studies have concluded that increased schooling of mothers is associated with larger improvements in child quality outcomes than is the increased schooling of fathers, which would indicate a higher return on investment argument for providing increased girls education.1 In terms of barriers to girls education, gender violence and safety are major concerns. A Ugandan study estimated that for each additional year of education, a girl’s chance of contracting HIV is reduced by 6.7%.2

1 Schultz, Paul. “Why Governments Should Invest More To Educate Girls.” World Development 30 (September 1, 2001): 207–25.

2 Walque, Damien de. “How Does the Impact of an HIV/AIDS Information Campaign Vary with Educational Attainment?

Evidence from Rural Uganda.” Journal of Development Economics 84, no. 2 (November 1, 2007): 686–714.

01 | issue introduciton

By providing safe spaces for students to focus on their studies, it also provides stable environments away from potentially dangerous homes or influences.

understanding + framework

C H I L D MA RRI AGE

a f f ec t s girl s

i n far great er n u m b er s t ha n b o y s

720

married before age married after age

15

15

but before age

18

million

156

women

million

men

Num be r of wom en + m en aged 1 8 years + older wh o were married or in u n ion before ages 1 5 + 18

p. 10

UNICEF DATA. “Ending Child Marriage: Progress and Prospects,” July 22, 2014.

p. 11

THE LINK BETWEEN EARLY MARRIAGE AND SCHOOL DROPOUT In the figure below, there is a clear correlation between the early marriage and lower levels of education. However, in 2015, the first African Girls’ Summit on Ending Child Marriage occurred, where African countries (including Uganda) made a joint commitment to eliminate child marriage by 2030.3 Hopefully, the decision will aid future generations secondary retention and enrollment rates.

C H I L D B RI D ES

t e n d t o h av e

l o w le v els o f ed u c at i o n

Percentage of women aged 20 to 49 years who were married or in union before age 18, by level of education Each dot represents a country

S ECONDARY EDUCATION OR HIGHER

100 90 Child

80

marriage is more common

a m o n g e d u c at e d w o m e n

70 60 Child

50

marriage is more common

a m o n g u n e d u c at e d w o m e n

40 30 20 Uganda

10 0 20

30

40

50

NO EDUCATION 3 “The Learning Generation | the Education Commission Report.”

UNICEF DATA. “Ending Child Marriage: Progress and Prospects,” July 22, 2014.

60

70

80

90

100 01 | issue introduciton

10

understanding + framework

THE LINK BETWEEN INCOME & EDUCATION LEVELS In a report by the International Commission

This paired with the fact that there is a

on Financing Global Education Opportunity,

significant gap between enrollment rates

the following education achievement level

for primary and secondary schooling in

estimations were published. The findings

Uganda as census data shows that for

make it clear that low-income countries such

every ten primary school students, only

as Uganda are in serious need of increased

one is enrolled in a secondary educational

secondary education completion.

institution, is reason to believe that there is a programmatic need.4

will not learn basic primary level skills a global learning

CRISIS

will learn basic primary level skills only will learn minimum secondary level skills

the expected learning outcomes of the cohort of children and youth who are of school age in 2030

low - i n co m e co u n t r i e s

middle-income countries

high-income countries

8%

8% 21%

23%

49%

22%

70%

69% 30%

26

million

school age children

1142

million

school age children

p. 12

4 odi.org. “Regional Inequality and Primary Education in Northern Uganda.”

“The Learning Generation | the Education Commission Report.”

198

million

school age children

p. 13

ENROLLMENT RATES ACROSS THE WORLD The following figures published in “Expanding Access and Increasing Student Learning in Post-Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence” demonstrate that while Sub-Saharan Africa has made significant improvements in enrollment rates in recent decades, its secondary rates are still far behind the rest of the world. Looking specifically at the second figure, it can deduced that the disparity between male and female enrollments actually increased over the ten year comparison.

Secondary Gross Enrollment Rates by Region and Gender. World Bank (2012a) 7

Banerjee, A,. Glewwe, P,. Powers, S., and Wasserman, M,. Expanding Access and Increasing Student Learning in Post-Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence, Jameel Poverty Action Lab, 2013, 64p

01 | issue introduciton

Primary and Secondary Gross Enrollment Rates: 1980 to 2010. World Bank (1998, 2012b) 6

understanding + framework

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

MALI GUINEA

CHAD

ETHIOPIA

BURKINA FASO

SOUTH SUDAN LIBERIA

NIGER

Most Difficult Counrties to be a girl

p. 14

ONE. “The Toughest Places for a Girl to Get an Education,” October 4, 2017.

p. 15

WHY AF RI CA ?

Being home to a majority of the world’s developing countries, it is no surprise that nine out of the top toughest countries to be a girl are located there.5 As seen in the previous statistics on how Sub-Saharan Africa compares to the rest of the world in terms of enrollments rates, it is clear that there is a particular need for increased education in this area. Due to the unique circumstances surrounding architecture in East Africa, it is vital that the design proposal make low-tech, local, affordable, and sustainable construction methods serious priorities in order to ensure a simple and replicable design be achieved.

Although this research is focused on East Africa, the potential for similar proposals is far reaching in relevancy as it could be applied to many location given the many shared barriers and benefits to improving access to education for girls in less developed countries. Similarly, precedents from for their advantageous qualities and strategies for dealing with compareable issues, resources, climates and conditions.

5 ONE. “The Toughest Places for a Girl to Get an Education,” October 4, 2017.

01 | issue introduciton

multiple countries will be considered in the design process

understanding + framework

NORTHERN

EASTERN WESTERN

CENTRAL

EQUATOR

p. 16

Original Graphic (Chow, 2018)

p. 17

WHY U GAN DA ?

The Ugandan government recognizes education as a basic human right; however, a lack of funding, teacher training, rural populations, as well as inadequate facilities stunt the progress of education in Uganda. Education plays a vital role in the post-conflict transition in Northern Uganda as an ODI (Overseas Development Institute) project states, “it helps develop people’s abilities to break free of circles of violence and suffering.”7 The projects continues with,

“Furthermore, there is some evidence to suggest completion of secondary school is necessary to provide an individual with a proper chance to escape poverty, as employment and income levels for those who completed primary schools are similar to those who did not attend at all. Their region has particular difficulties as teachers are hard to find, the conflict created a lost generation without an adequate education themselves and the teachers from other areas are still highly

Higgins, Kate. “Regional Inequality and Primary Education in Northern Uganda Policy Brief No.2. Prepared for the World Development Report 2009, ODI.

01 | issue introduciton

concerned about security in the region.”

understanding + framework

POPULATION GROWTH With a population that is expected to nearly double, the nation faces a difficult path with limited resources to allocate. Increased secondary education is one way in which Uganda can attempt to mitigate the rapid rate of population growth. By helping women to stay in school longer, there is great potential for decreased birth rates as a result of delaying marriage and families by only a few years. Looking at the first table below, it is clear that

Uganda’s population is increasing at an unsustainable rate with population density expected to grow by nearly 150% over thirty years. However, those estimates were actually optomostic, rather than decline, the rate increased from 3.2 in 2010 to 3.6 in 2020.6 Although Uganda is a far smaller country than the United States, its rate of change is far greater, and even three times more than the world average, in a place is much less infrastructure and resources such as clean drinking water.

p. 18

“UNData App.” “Planning and Design for Sustainable Urban Mobility: Global Report on Human Settlements 2013 | UN-Habitat.”

KENDRA CHOW | PETER WALDMAN | ARCH 4020 | THESI STATISTICS STATISTICS

56%

31.1%

OF UGANDA'S of Uganda’s po pPOPULATION u lati o n i s u n d eIS r 1 8 ye a rs o ld UNDER 18 YEARS OLD

50% of gi rlsGIRLS a re m ARE a rri e d by th e a ge of 1 8 OFUgandan UGANDAN

60.7%

POVERTY RATE(2005-06) Pove r t y Rate

3.2% 4.2% ANNUAL An n ua l PoPOPULATION pu l at i o n Grow tGROWTH h

6.8

MARRIED BY THE AGE OF 18

35%

p. 19

Uga n da n Nat i o n a l Ave raAVERAGE ge UGANDA NATIONAL NORTHERN No r t h e r n Re gi oREGION n Ave ra geAVERAGE

7.9

Fe r t i l i t y Rate (Bi r t h s pe r WoPER ma n)WOMAN) FERTILITY RATE (BIRTHS

50

OFUgandan UGANDAN of gi rlsGIRLS d ro p oDROP u t of sOUT c h o o OF l due to early m a rri a geOF EARLY MARRIAGE SCHOOL BECAUSE

58

Pupi l : Te a c h e r RatRATIO io PUPIL : TEACER

10%

79

of pr i m a ry s tu d e nts co nti n u e OFUgandan UGANDAN PRIMARY STUDENTS on to secondary s c hSECONDARY ool CONTINUE ON TO SCHOOL

6.7%

59%

the of re d u ce dADDITIONAL c h a n ce of g i rls co ntra c t i n g THEamount AMOUNT EACH YEAR HI with each a d dFOR i ti o nGIRLS a l ye a r REDUCES of e d u c ati o n OFV EDUCATION

CHANCES OF CONTRACTING HIV

92

Pupi l : C l a s s ro o m Rat i oRATIO PUPIL : CLASSROOM

69%

RATE LLITERACY i te ra c y Rate WELFARE & EDUCATION INDICATORS BASED ON 2005-2006 DATA POPULATION GROWTH BASED ON 1991-2006 DATA

REGIONAL INEQUALITY A large majority of secondary schools in

By focusing on a school proposal in the

Uganda are located in the southern half

Northern region, it would hypothetically

of the country, which leaves the Northern

help to reduce the pupil to teacher and

region in serious need for more educational

pupil to classroom ratios and increase the

institutions. As visible in the chart above,

literacy rate. Although it may be indirectly

it is clear that the Northern region trails

correlated, more schools would ideally help

behind the rest of the country on education

keep more girls in school longer, which

and welfare indicators.

may help to reduce the fertility rates and

Welfare and education indicators based on 2005 - 2006 data. Population growth based on 1991 - 2006 data “Fighting for Girls’ Education in Northern Uganda | Blog | Global Partnership for Education.”

01 | issue introduciton

rapid population growth.

understanding + framework

“RESEARCH IS FORMALIZED CURIOSITY. IT IS POKING AND PRYING WITH A PURPOSE” - ZORA NEALE HURSTON

The goal of this research is to evaluate existing research and resources along with local precedents to develop a set of design goals to help meet the needs of the under-served girls of Northern Uganda by alleviating the struggle to access proper education. A challenge of this research will be to forgo western thinking towards architecture and design and to adopt culturally relevant styles and traditional methods and materials.

The intention of the project would be to empower the local community, not to impose outsider influence upon it.

p. 20

p. 21

R E S E A RC H Q U E S T IO N

What are the key design components needed to promote education for the under-served female youth of Northern Uganda?

As evident in the introduction, there is an ongoing learning crisis sweeping across the much of the developing world unproportionally affecting prospective female students.

Although this is an issue faced by many countries, it is especially difficult for girls in Uganda to complete secondary education. Using research on the low female enrollment rates in combination with particularly high birth rates and low literacy rates in Northern Uganda, it has been selected as the focus location of this research project.

There are many barriers preventing girls beginning or continuing their educations in this region, which can largely be placed into categories such as physical, economic, or social. Such barriers will be used for inspiration for design goals in identifying the key components needed to create a successful campus proposal.

E x p l o r at o r y To p i c s

to

G u i d e Re s e a r c h

Why are secondary school enrollment rates for girls so low in Uganda?

What are the major barriers to providing + obtaining education there?

Where in Uganda would a secondary school be most beneficial?

What construction methods are appropriate + attainable?

What does sustainable design look like in Uganda?

01 | issue introduciton

How do African + Western cultures, architecture + design strategies differ?

02

LIT E RAT URE RE VIE W

understanding + framework

EDU CAT I O N A L The State of the Wor l d ’s Chi l d ren 2 004 Carol Bellamy, UNICEF

Bellamy with UNICEF emphasizes a human rights approach to education. UNICEF notes that girls who do not attend school whether due to economic or cultural resistance, are disproportionately exposed to HIV/AIDS and exploitative child-labor, marry younger and have more children than those who do attend schools. She does address the fact that many countries made huge leaps in education enrollment numbers in the 1990s, but explains that there is still a large disparity between the numbers of girls versus boys in school.

The states that the wealthiest countries all invested seriously in educating their populations. This has clearly paid off as the following generations climbed up the economic ladder past their parents and successful and in some cases change-making innovators. That in mind, the link between poverty and education is undeniable. Many families with low education levels cannot afford to send all their children to school, often prioritizing the son over the daughter. As Bellamy discussed, removing school fees immediately increases enrollment dramatically, especially for girls.

p. 24

Bellamy, Carol, and UNICEF. The State of the World’s Children 2004. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund, The (UNICEF), 2004.

p. 25

EDU CAT I O N A L

Wh at Work s in Girls’ Educ ati o n :

Evide nce a nd Policie s From the Deve loping World

Barbara Knapp Herz, Gene B Sperling, and Council on Foreign Relations

This book provides a summary on the impacts of educating girls and understanding the disconnect between the benefits and the low levels of girl’s enrollment. The authors examine how girls’ education leads to increased income for the individuals as well as the nations, more women and children’s lives saved, reduced domestic violence and increased female empowerment.

The chapter on “What Works in Girls’ Education” has a lot of overlap in strategies discussed in UNICEF’s Strategies for Girls’ Education and Gennari’s Violence Against Women and Girls: Education Sector Brief, which reinforces the

Herz, Barbara Knapp, Gene B Sperling, and Council on Foreign Relations. What Works in Girls’ Education: Evidence and Policies From the Developing World. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2004.

02 | literature review

acceptance of these tactics as successful.

understanding + framework

EDU CAT I O N A L

It’s a Gi r l Thin g:

Me n s t r u ati o n , Sc h o o l Atten d a n ce , Spatia l Mobility a nd Wide r Ge nde r Ine qua litie s in Kenya

Sarah Jewitt, and Harriet Ryley

This study examines the linkage between poor sanitation, menstruation, and access to sanitary products in subSaharan African schools and low attendance rates amongst post-pubescent girls. The study is conducted in Kisumu, Kenya which utilizes a feminist political ecology framework to investigate cultural and spatial limitations associated with menstruation and puberty. Analyzing schoolgirls’ experiences, the authors examine how emotional geographies of puberty and menstruation are productive of and help to reproduce gender inequalities in mobility and access to social capital resources (especially education).

They also realize how poverty coupled with low levels of sexual and reproductive health and rights education can exacerbate gendered bodily inequalities as girls face an increased risk of sexual exploitation when they reach puberty. Although this study may be too specific for implementation of an architectural design project, it does confirm the need to break down any barrier to girl’s education by creating a safe space with adequate facilities.

p. 26

Jewitt, Sarah, and Harriet Ryley. “It’s a Girl Thing: Menstruation, School Attendance, Spatial Mobility and Wider Gender Inequalities in Kenya.” Geoforum 56 (2014): 137–47.

p. 27

EDU CAT I O N A L V i ol e n ce A g a ins t Wo m e n and Gi r l s: Ed uc ati on Sec tor Br i ef Floriza Gennari

Gennari explains the many barriers that prevent girls from enrolling in schools as well as dropping out of schools. In addition to the issues discussed such as bullying, sexual violence, household responsibilities, travel, and lack of enforced policy, the brief also makes recommendations for ways to improve the conditions and enrollment in girl’s education at both the institutional level and the community level.

Since safety is a main concern for girl’s seeking education, shortened lengths traveled to school, more perimeter fencing and monitoring, and an increase of female teachers would make parents more comfortable sending their daughters to school. Gennari also suggests that in addition to sexual assault prevention programs, schools should institute counseling programs to help victims cope and focus on their

Gennari, Floriza. Violence Against Women and Girls: Education Sector Brief. World Bank, Washington, DC, 2014.

02 | literature review

studies.

understanding + framework

EDU CAT I O N A L Strategi es for Gi r l s’ Ed uc ati on 2004 UNICEF

This source focuses on strategies that have been proven to increase the number of girls attending and completing school. Some of these tactics include train teachers on gender-sensitivity and child rights, promoting health and sports as part of school curriculum, and allowing the community to control lesson schedules in order to avoid girls being forced to miss school during harvesting season.

Of course it is a priority to keep girls in school, but UNICEF is also concerned with engaging those who have already dropped out of school by proposing alternative education to over-aged girls who those who did not continue their schooling due to domestic responsibilities such as housework, early marriage, or pregnancy.

Another vital strategy is the implementation of safe water and latrines in schools. By providing these it can help girls who previously missed or dropped out of school due to menstruation needs. It can also help reduce domestic workloads for girls who would have spent their time traveling to a well to retrieve water.

p. 28

UNICEF. Strategies for Girls’ Education. [S.l.] : [s.n.], 2004, 2004.

p. 29

EDU CAT I O N A L

Ex p a nding Acce ss and Increas in g Stu d ent Learn in g in Po s t-Prim ar y Ed uc ation in Deve lopin g Co u ntries : A Review of the Evidence Abhijit Banerjee, Paul Glewwe, Shawn Powers, and Melanie Wasserman

ABSTRACT | Effective, evidence-based policies on post-primary education are of vital importance as many developing countries start to the see a bulge in secondary and postsecondary enrollment, the product of the achievement of near-universal access to primary school. Finding ways to deliver and promote access to high-quality post-primary education, and to ensure that education is relevant to labor market needs, is one of the great challenges of our times. This must be accomplished in countries where governments face severe budget constraints and many, of not most, parents are too poor to cover the costs out of pocket. International reports such as A Global Compact on Learning, by the Center for Universal Education at the Brookings Institution, emphasize providing opportunities for post-primary education as a first-tier policy challenge (Center for Universal Education, 2011). In addition, there has been considerably less progress in gender parity at the secondary level. Meeting these challenges will require a combination of using existing resources more effectively – which requires both understanding which inputs are key and which are not—and a range of innovations that may fundamentally alter the current methods of instruction.

Conceptual Framework In very general terms, the amount and type of education obtained by the population is determined by both the demand for, and the supply of, education. The interaction of these supply and demand factors leads toeducation decisions that determine children’s education outcomes.

Background on Post-Primary Education There is also evidence of the many non-monetary benefits of education, such as improved health status and lowered crime (Lochner, 2011) and, among girls, delayed age of marriage and reduced fertility (Ozier, 2010; Schultz, 2002). In the regions with the largest gender gaps, these gaps persist (and in most places become larger, in percentage terms) at the secondary and tertiary levels.

Banerjee, A,. Glewwe, P,. Powers, S., and Wasserman, M,. Expanding Access and Increasing Student Learning in Post-Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence, Jameel Poverty Action Lab, 2013, 64p

02 | literature review

Distinguishing Aspects of Post-Primary Education A key issue in evaluating the literature on post-primary education is the extent to which post-primary education differs from primary education. For example, it is possible that some interventions that are effective at the primary level, especially in the upper grades of primary education, may also be effective in the lower grades of secondary education.

understanding + framework

ENV I RO N M E N TA L

Gi r l s Fe eling Good at Sc hool:

School Ge nde r Environme nt, Inte rna lization a nd Aware n e s s of So c i o - Cu l tu ra l Atti tu d es A ssociations With Se lf-Este e m in Adole sce nt Girls

Victoria L. Cribb and Anne M. Haase

Cribb and Haase describe that as society continues to idealize unrealistic bodies and expectations, low self-esteem has become increasingly problematic, especially for adolescent girls. They explain that school gender environments may play a role in this issue. The study examines the differences between two different school environments in appearance attitudes, social influences and associations with self-esteem.

Girls attending either a single-sex or co-educational school completed measures on socio-cultural attitudes towards appearance, social support and self-esteem.

Though marginal differences between school environments were found, significantly higher internalization was reported among girls at the co-educational school. Thus, in a singlesex school environment, protective factors may attenuate negative associations between socio-cultural attitudes towards appearance and self-esteem in adolescent girls.

This study is different in intention because it focuses on appearance, rather than the right to education. However it it still relevant to the topic of research with the notion that an all-girls environment boosts girls’ confidence and selfesteem.

p. 30

Cribb, Victoria L., and Anne M. Haase. “Girls Feeling Good at School: School Gender Environment, Internalization and Awareness of Socio-Cultural Attitudes Associations With Self-Esteem in Adolescent Girls.”

p. 31

A RCH IT EC T U RA L

Th e Powe r of De sign

Arc h i tec tu ra l Re cord 2 0 4 , no. 1 (Ja nua ry 2016)

Linda C. Lentz and Laura Raskin The article features a Afghanistan’s largest girls school, Gohar Khatoon Girl’s School. It is considered an oasis in the middle of the city center. Although the architect was American, it was his intent to combine the latest sustainable methods with the local building traditions. The kindergarten to 12th grade school includes a central ground-water well and has a separate hand washing station. The freshwater comes from a rooftop tank and the wastewater is treated and reused for irrigation. It only opened in 2015, but already gives students a sense of empowerment according to the article.

A Wom a n’s Place

Arc h i tec tu ra l Review 2 3 8 , no. 1 4 2 4 (Octobe r 2 0 1 5 )

Manon Mallard This article also features the Gohar Khatoon’s Girl School, but it is also useful because it gives more context and history to the situation than the “The Power of Design” source. Mollard explains that under the Taliban, women were mistreated and girls’ schools were shut down and destroyed in the five years of its reign. While girls were denied schooling, parents ran secret night schools, but the damage was done and literacy dropped to 10%. However, the new ruling power welcomes girls to pursue an education and the location is appropriate since the school is located within the university hub for every girl that is educated in school, 7 to 11 of their family members are positively affected.

Lentz, Linda C., and Laura Raskin. “The Power of Design.” Architectural Record 204, no. 1 (January 2016): 75–83.

Mollard, Manon. “A Woman’s Place.” Architectural Review 238, no. 1424 (October 2015): 83.

02 | literature review

city, Maar-i-Sharif. According this Sahar Education International,

understanding + framework

A RCH IT EC T U RA L

S EARCHING FOR IDE NTITY: ARCHIT ECT URE AND UR BAN ISM IN U GAN DA` Mark R. O. Olweny + Jacqueline Wadulo Introduction | What is ‘Ugandan Architecture’, or more significantly, ‘What is Ugandan’?

Before we can begin to discuss ‘Ugandan architectural identity’, we must firrst appreciate what exactly is it that we refer to as Uganda. Uganda as a country was created with little regard for the ethnic groups that inhabit the area. As such, within Uganda’s boundaries can be found four major African cultural groupings, the Bantu, the Eastern Nilotic, Western Nilotic, and the Central Sudanic. Within these broad groupings are forty or more distinct societies that constitute the Ugandan people. This lack of cultural homogeneity has been something a number of countries in Africa have been grappling with since ‘independence’, raising the spectre of imagined or invented (group) identity. Many nations, seeking legitimacy as nation states, attempted to define unique national identities through art, architecture, clothing and music. The representation of national identity in this context is clearly a paradox, (re)presenting a unified national identity which has never really existed (Olweny, M., 1998).

Architecture in Uganda What can be defined as ‘Ugandan architecture’? Could it be de ned by the use of indigenous materials (mud, timber poles and thatch), materials synonymous with ‘African Architecture’.

An analogy based on discourse which has tended to freeze African Architecture in the distant past, portraying a continent in which the typical, if not the only form of architecture are grass thatched mud huts. This image has promoted the view that the African traditional way of life has not changed over time (Wright, 1997, p. 331). It has been argued that use of these indigenous materials and forms produces stereotypical ‘pseudo-African’ buildings, better placed in theme parks (Low, 2003). Without a doubt, architectural identity is more than just form and materials - the aesthetics of a building, but also about its function - the ability to de ne space in the context of a society.

Traditionally in Uganda, as in most tropical regions, the relationship between the built and the un-built is somewhat blurred by the fact that the climate ensured that the outdoors were a year-round extension of the living space. Indigenous buildings in many parts of Uganda have extended eaves not only at the entrances, but also in some cases right around the building. Under these wide eaves is where the activities often associated with the modern ‘living room’ were carried out outdoors.

Architecture in Uganda has developed with numerous cultural, political economic and religious facets in the development of the African continent. For the most part, modern architecture in Uganda is determined by foreign rather than local forces. A substantial number of construction projects, particularly housing projects, are funded by remittances by Uganda nationals resident abroad. The lack of discourse in the Architectural profession is further constrained by the fact that there are very few Architects in Uganda.

p. 32

Olweny, Mark & Wadulo, Jacqueline. (2008). Searching for Identity: Architecture and Urbanism in Uganda.

p. 33

A RCH IT EC T U RA L

Ug a n d a n Arc hite c ts Struggle with th e d ilemm a of Wh at’s Ap p ro p riate Arc h i te cture Uga nda , Vol 2 Issue 2

Tom Sanya Tradition and Context Architects can also initiate critical engagement with tradition and context. The quintessential Ugandan traditional building is a round grass-thatched mud hut in a homestead. Having evolved over centuries, it has responded to existing materials, technologies, skills and cultural practices and attitudes.

Arguably, it embodies lessons that can be unlocked through intense study. But the forces of modernisation have led to many people abandoning the hut in favour of tin and brick buildings.

A key characteristic of the traditional building was that it was built within the resources and expertise of a given community. It was therefore empowering and supportive of diverse and distributed niches of economic activity. The preferred brick-tin alternative obliges people to become ever more dependent on faraway manufacturers and suppliers. This ultimately weakens local societies.

Given modern aspirations, how can architects salvage tradition’s positive lessons? How to become modern and return to sources? The answer does not lie in the growing trend of designing modernised replicas of traditional buildings for entertainment and tourism.

Cross-pollination needed Tradition should not be static and frozen. Rather, it should be conceptualised as malleable and fluid. It should resiliently soak up the emerging demands and opportunities of modernity in the design and erection of buildings. This requires a double-pronged approach – one in which tradition and modernity are in dialectical opposition to constantly yield lessons for architecture.

Cross-pollination between tradition and modernity in terms of materials, skills and technologies is required.

The broader objective is to strengthen endogenous craftmanship and make the building process more responsive to diverse economic and socio-cultural niches.

Ultimately, the aim should be to design and erect buildings that do not brutalise but rather nurture societies and nature with multiple benefits.

Sanya, Tom. “Ugandan Architects Struggle with the Dilemma of What’s Appropriate.” The Conversation.

02 | literature review

Contextual sensitivity also demands design of spaces that utilise and make us more aware of the richness of the Ugandan natural environment. Think building materials, landscape forms, lakes and flowing rivers, the beautiful sunlight, sunrises and sunsets. Include sheltering shadows, framing of views, channelling breezes to cool people, diverse flora and fauna, and the array of natural colours in this country.

understanding + framework

ECONOM I C

Why Gove rnme nts Sh o u ld Inves t Mo re To Ed u cate Girls T. Paul Schultz

ABSTRACT | Women and men often receive the same percentage increase in their wage rates with advances in schooling. Because these returns decline with more schooling, the marginal returns for women will tend to exceed those for men, especially in countries where women are much less educated. The health and schooling of children are more closely related to their mother's education than father's. More educated women work more hours in the market labor force, broadening the tax base and thereby potentially reducing tax distortions. These three conditions, it is argued, justify the disproportionate allocation of public expenditures toward women's education.

Introduction Evidence from a growing number of countries in all regions of the world demonstrates that increasing investments in women’s human capital, especially education, should be a priority for countries seeking to increase both economic growth and human welfare. The case for directing educational investment to women is stronger, the greater the initial disparity in investments between women and men. Although gender equity is one possible reason for supporting a reallocation of public educational resources to favor females, the arguments advanced in this paper are based only on economic efficiency – or, in other words, maximizing social output -- which can also justify governments investing more in women than in men.

Enrollment in school represents the largest component of the investment in human capital in most societies, and arguably the component over which public policy has the most immediate control through its administration of public schools and regulatory capacity. This paper summarizes the mounting empirical evidence from around the world that the social returns to the years of schooling of females are greater than the return to males.

This evidence may explain why regions of the world which have achieved the most economic and social progress over the past several decades are those -- among other things -- that have most successfully promoted equal educational achievements for men and women. East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Latin America are examples of regions in which significant progress has been made. Conversely, regions that have lagged behind in their growth -- notably South and West Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa -- have lagged badly in their relative investments in women’s schooling, thus limiting women’s contributions to economic and social progress.

p. 34

Schultz, Paul. “Why Governments Should Invest More To Educate Girls.” World Development 30 (September 1, 2001): 207–25.

p. 35

R EG ION AL

Re g ional Ine quality and Primary Ed u catio n in No rth ern Ugan d a Pre pare d for t he World Development Report 2 0 0 9 Kate Higgins ABSTRACT | This brief examines Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Uganda and its impact on reducing regional inequality in education access and quality by focussing on the lagging northern region of Uganda.

The first part of the brief provides some context, briefly discussing the development and poverty context in Uganda. The second section examines regional inequality in Uganda, focussing specifically on northern Uganda. The third section explores the education dimension of this regional inequality, comparing primary education access and quality in the Acholi sub-region of Northern Uganda with the Ugandan national average. The fourth and final section examines the effectiveness of the universal policy approach to primary education, highlighting both the strengths and weaknesses of the approach as a policy mechanism for addressing regional inequalities.

Development and Poverty in Uganda Uganda remains one of the poorest countries in the world, however, ranked 145 out of 177 countries by the Human Development Index (UNDP, 2006). In 2006, per capita income was approximately US$300, life expectancy was approximately 49 years and population growth amongst the highest in the world at 3.3% (World Bank, 2007a).

Education Quality and Performance Indicators Teachers are not attracted to teaching in the North.

While in other regions parents tend to supplement teachers’ salaries, in the North families often do not have the capacity to do this. Teachers are also attracted to work for humanitarian agencies in the district, where salaries are higher and working conditions and allowances are more generous. High rates of teacher absenteeism in the North reflects the challenge faced by teachers: many schools lack teacher housing, forcing teachers to commute long distances, often along insecure routes; salaries are low and without hardship supplementation; and students are often traumatised and former LRA soldiers (Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 2005: 8).

Higgins, Kate. “Regional Inequality and Primary Education in Northern Uganda Policy Brief No.2. Prepared for the World Development Report 2009, ODI.

02 | literature review

The ‘lagging’ north Lacklustre progress in the North can be attributed to a vicious cycle of conflict, massive displacement, thwarted economic activity, complications in service delivery and the immense poverty that has gripped the northern region of the country (World Bank, 2007b: 3).

03

E XIST ING CO ND IT IO NS

C H IL D M A R R I AG E

ABU SE

EX P EN S E S

p. 38

E AR LY PA RE N THO OD

WAT E R CO L L ECT I O N

H O USE / FA R M WO R K

D I S TAN C E

P H YS I C AL

understanding + framework

BARRIE RS

CO UN SE L I N G

RURA L & UR BA N RE SOURCE S

FE MA L E TEACH E RS

03 | existing conditions

E L ECT R I CI T Y

FACIL I T I E S

P ROVI D E D SU P P LI E S

H E ALT H E D UC AT I ON

WAT E R ACC E S S

p. 39

NE E D S

D E L AYE D FA M I LY

ECO NO MIC GROW TH

+ E M POW ER M E NT

IN C R EASE D F E M A L E L EA DE R SH I P

p. 40

I N CRE ASE D CON FI D E NC E

H I V + A B USE P ROT ECT I O N

LOW E R M OT H E R + I N FA N T M O RTA L I T Y

H I G H E R L I T E R ACY

LOW E R BI RT H R AT E S

understanding + framework

B E NE FITS

p. 41

OUTCOMES + ADVANTAGES The built environment has profound effects on our lives, and in the case of education, it has been proven that over time, increased education decreases fertility rates since when girls are in school longer, they are more likely to wait until adulthood to marry and begin their families.

This is beneficial as it reduces mother and child health risks and they are often better equipped to provide for such families. More educated women are able to more fully participate and contribute to their communities socially and economically, which benefits all individuals, not only the student.

S H O RT-T E R M

vs.

LO N G -T E R M

I N D I V I D UA L

vs.

CO M M U N I T Y

The immediate effects of introducing a

Countries should invest in girls education

secondary school would be to combat the

projects because it can have a multiplier

dangerous conditions a student may be

effect, by positively impacting those around

facing at home. By giving her a short-term

the student to create a substaintial and

solution, a safe environment to grow, it can

sustainable change in her community.

have long-term affects such as breaking free from violence and poverty through

What Works in Girls’ Education: Evidence for

gained independence through increased

the World’s Best Investment emphasizes the

social and economic opportunities.

serious economic growth opportunity of

Educated women are able to earn more

With a monetal value aligned with the

in wages, which is often invested back

imporance of lifting up communities, there

into her family, and hopefully she will be

is clearly incentive for those not directly

better equipped to provide an education

receiving the education. As a result of

for her own children, ending the cycle and

supportive school environments, girls are

improving the lifestyles and expectations of

promoted to take action toward female

future generations.

leadership.

Sperling, Gene B, Rebecca Winthrop, and Christina Kwauk. What Works in Girls’ Education: Evidence for the World’s Best Investment. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution Press, 2016.

03 | existing conditions

empowering women through education.

04

SIT E D E T E RMINAT IO N

analysis

ENVIRONMENT

Although most of Uganda is landlocked from the ocean, it does share a large boarder with Lake Victoria, the source of the Nile River.

Fortunately, the country has serveral additional water resources including Lake Albert, Lake Kyoga, and many rivers. The environmental conditions of the country consist of a warm tropical climate with both dry and rainy seasons.

CLIMATE CLIMATE

TROPICAL SAVANNA CLIMATE WARM SEMI-ARID CLIMATE MONSOON CLIMATE EQUATORIAL CLIMATE

WATERWAYS WATERWAYS LAKES RIVERS

p. 44

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

BOUNDARIES

p. 45

TOPOGRAPHY

The country is graced with picturesque hills which surround the plateaus as well as a rim of mountains along the eastern and western boarders. Unfortunately, physical barriers and distance can block or make the chance of reaching an educational facility very difficult in the more rural sections.

CONTOURS CONTOURS (25M)

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

TRANSPORTATION

04 | site determination

25 METERS

analysis

DIVISIONS

The country is divided into four main regions—Northern, Western, Central, and Eastern. Within those regions, land is broken up further by subregions. The Northern Region contains four subregions—West Nile to the western side, Acholi to the north, Lango to the south, and Karamoja to the east. Finally the most specific identification of an area is its district. For example, the city of Lira is in the Lira District, which is within the Lango sub-region.

BOUNDARIES BOUNDARIES DISTRICTS

SUBREGIONS REGIONS

WEST NILE

ACHOLI

LIRA

LANGO

p. 46

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

KARAMOJA

p. 47

ACCESSIBILITY

The mapping of existing transportation systems shows which locations are easily reached, which is of high importance for a boarding school.

Within the Northern Region, the city of Lira has the most adequate infrastructure with both a local train station and air strip, ensuring more travel options for students. The changing road density also reaffirms hat the majority of the region is of more rural conditions.

TRANSPORTATION TRANSPORTATION MAJOR ROADS RAILWAY

TRAIN STATIONS

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

04 | site determination

AIRPORTS

analysis

NATURAL RESOURCES

Uganda is well known for its forest landscape and wildlife, which is largely protected through 10 National Parks, 661 Forest Reserves, 7 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 12 Wildlife Reserves, 1 Sanctuary and 5 Community Wildlife Management Areas. Having nearby access to natural resources can provide unique opportunities for students to learn about the local landscape while also gaining urban exposure.

PROTECTED AREAS PROTECTED AREAS

p. 48

Institute, Open Sustainability. “Uganda Protected Areas.”

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

EDUCATION

p. 49

AVAILABILITY

By studying the existing mix of secondary schools in Uganda, broken out by typology, all-girls, all-boys, coed as well as colleges. As the data shows, there is a large disparity between the lack of the schools in the Northern Region and the rest of the country. This information paired with the low literacy rates solidifies the notion that the area is need of additional secondary education facilities.

EXISITING EDUCATION EDUCATION

MIXED/UNKNOWN SECONDARY GIRLS SECONDARY BOYS SECONDARY COLLEGE/UNIVERITY

NORTHERN

EASTERN

CENTRAL

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

04 | site determination

WESTERN

analysis

L I RA

< 50 50 - 99 100 - 149 150 - 199 200 - 299 300 - 499 > 500

p o p u l at i o n d e n s i t y # of people per sq km

p. 50

Model made in Spring 2018 by Kendra Chow. The City of Lira is located within the pink highlighted region.

p. 51 no data

< 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 200 > 200

poverty density # of people per sq km

Model made in Spring 2018 by Kendra Chow. The City of Lira is located within the pink highlighted region.

04 | site determination

major national park wildlife reserves (>50,000 ha)

analysis

BACKG RO U N D

Lira, Uganda—the third largest city is easily accessible through air and rail transportation. Located above Lake Kwania and between two of the country’s largest protected areas, Lira offers opportunities for natural exploration. As the most populated city of the Northern Region, it has the most resources and capability to house the project.

The chosen site is situated near Lira’s airport, train station, main market, and Lira Regional Hospital.

Additionally, there site is located directly across the street from an Anglican church which may become a sponsor of the school and opportunity for the students to receive religious exposure if interested. The site currently houses an open soccer, locally known as football, field and a kindergarten on the same block, which could eventually become a feeder school.

p. 52

The juxtaposition between exposure to urban amenities and nationally protected natural landscape provides a unique site to foster both independence and privacy.

04 | site determination

L I RA

SITE

PROTECTED AREAS p. 53

05

C ASE ST UD IE S

influence

E XA M P L E S

K AC H U M BA L A M AT E R N I T Y U N I T

M AT E R N I T Y WA I T I N G V I L L AG E

WO M E N S

Kachumbala, Uganda HKS Architects

Kasungu, Malawi MASS Design Group

Kayonza, Rwanda Sharon Davis Design

O P P O RT U N I T Y C E N T E R

p. 56

p. 57

+ LEARNING CENTER

WAT E R BA N K SCHOOL

CO F V I L L AG E

Masaro, Rwanda General Architecture Collaborative

Laikipia, Kenya PITCHAFRICA

Rakai and Lwengo Districts, Uganda Localworks

O U T R E AC H P R I M A RY S C H O O L

06 | case studies

M A SA R O S P O RT S

influence

E XA M P L E S

GIRLS’ HOSTEL B LO C K

RUHEHE SCHOOL

AU D O R M I TO RY

Gurugram, India Zero Energy Design Lab

Musanze, Rwanda MASS Design Group

Wakiso District ,Uganda Terrain Architects

p. 58

p. 59

NEW BRITISH

H I G H CO M M I S S I O N

MAISHA FILM GARDEN

A B I LO L I N O

Kampala, Uganda Kilburn Nightingale Architects

Kampala, Uganda TAMassociati

Lira, Uganda Lexicon + Ion

06 | case studies

CO M M U N I T Y P O LY T EC H N I C

influence

L ES S O N S L E A RN E D

From the many example precedents, certain common themes emerge such as simple, yet elegant style, unique lighting conditions, open air flow, and the utilization of standard elements to create intricate patterns. There are are many admireable qualities found within these designs, below are just a few of the observations made from the case study analysis.

Both the New British High Commission and the Maisha Film Garden projects highlight the importance of shade design in these high temperature climates. The balance of transparency and protection is perfectly on display in the Kachumbala Maternity Ward as well as the Girls Hostel at St. Andrews Institute of Techology. Through PitchAfrica the possibility of water collection is proven successful while maintaining program functionality. The COF Village Primary School uses the topogography to its advantage by introducing a natural amphitheater.

Several classroom examples use asymetric roofs to allow indirect light into the interiors and reflect through solid surfaces and light shelves. Similarly, exposed structural trusses are often seen, suggesting that elongating spaces vertically to improve air movement is commmon practice.

These examples also imply that many schools and dormitories are typically three stories or less in height.

p. 60

06 | case studies

INSP IRAT IO N p. 61

06

E XP E RIE NT IAL RE FLEC T IO N

influence

ACTIV I S M I N ARC H I T EC T URE

E R I N N M CG U R N SCALEafrica Erinn McGurn is the Co-Founder and Executive Director of SCALEAfrica, a non-profit organization directly addressing the growing need for access to education, responsible shelter, clean water, and sanitation by working within rural African communities that need design services the most. Through culturally-responsive, sustainable architecture and an active community participation model, SCALEAfrica leverages the power of design to increase access to education, boost local economies, and preserve the natural environment.

Accomplishments Erinn was a 2014 recipient of Architectural Record’s inaugural Women In Architecture Award, honoring an architect who has used her skills to design for social change, effect the public realm or perform pro bono work. SCALEAfrica was also named to “The Good List” by Architectural Record as one of the best non-profits “building for social change” and the “Public Interest Design 100” for working at the intersection of design and service.

From 2013-2016, SCALEAfrica selected for complimentary membership into the Clinton Global Initiative, where Erinn served as an advisor to the Clinton Foundation on Girls and Women Integration.

Vinza Commuhnity School by SCALEAfrica in Saweta, Zambia

p. 64

“People - Scale Africa Inc.” “Building Futures - CGI Commitment to Action - Projects - Scale Africa Inc.”

p. 65

“DESIGNING FOR IMPACT” HOW ARE WE DESIGNING OUR LIVES, OUR ENVIRONMENTS, AND THE GLOBAL SYSTEMS WE EMPLOY IN ORDER TO IMPACT THE CHALLENGES AT HAND?

But architects have a role to play. For more than three billion people living in poverty around the world, architecture means access: access to schools, access to safe water and sanitation, and access to the economic and physical security that comes with effective education.

With this increased awareness of global economic inequities and the instability and injustice that accompanies them, an emerging generation of architects is working within communities that had never before been labeled as “client.”

These architects are actively taking design out into the world to the people that need it most. In tackling solicited and unsolicited building projects to address these global challenges, design has become an effective and dynamic platform for the emergence of sustainable social change.

Erinn Mcgurn. “Clinton Global Initiative: The Case for Activism.”

07 | experienctial reflection

- erinn mcgurn

influence

T E DxCo o p e rUni on

DAV I D T U R B N U L L Atopia Research, PITCHafrica David was the former Design Director of ATOPIA Research Inc / PITCHAfrica and has over 30 years of international architectural teaching experience.

PITCHAfrica’s first WATERBANK School was completed in 2012 in Laikipia, Kenya, in collaboration with The Zeitz Foundation, and was named ‘The Greenest School on Earth’ by the USGBC. The high yield rainwater-harvesting Futsal Stadium, School & Environmental Centre was selected for ‘Designs of the Year 2015’ by Design Museum, London. As an inventor he has published patents for novel water and power technologies.

Design in Translation I want to talk about design.

I’m a designer, my background is architecture.

But actually my secret is that I don’t like architecture very much.

But I do like design.

And design is always in translation.

But I also like to work on big issues.

We work on big issues.

And if you work on big issues as a designer and you’re an educator, you have to always think about questions of design and questions of translation which refuse a singular approach.

P OV E RT Y WAT E R SA N I TAT I O N H E A LT H FOOD GENDER E D U C AT I O N

p. 66

Avci Architects. “DAVID TURNBULL” TEDx Talks. Design In Translation: David Turnbull at TEDxCooperUnion, 2012.

p. 67

I F T H E B I G I S S U E S A R E TO B E A D D R E S S E D BY D E S I G N , D E S I G N E R S M U S T B ECO M E

E X P E RT T R A N S L ATO R S

TEDx Talks. Design In Translation: David Turnbull at TEDxCooperUnion, 2012.

07 | experienctial reflection

- david turnbull

influence

I N T E RVI E W

E L L E N M I TC H E L L KOZ AC K Vice PresidenT, Chief Sustainability Officer at LEO A DALY Ellen applies a humanitarian and environmental lens to architecture through integrated design expertise in order to affect positive change. A nationally recognized voice in sustainable design and public interest design, as the former Director of Sustainability at HKS, she founded Citizen HKS, an impact initiative focused on leveraging sustainable design to address growing humanitarian needs of communities around the world.

Kachumbala Maternity Unit Questions KMC: What materials were used in the project in addition to the terra cotta tiles and bricks?

KMC: I can see some window screening--what are they preventing, insects?

EMK: The terra cotta tiles were sourced at a manufacturing facility in Mbale (about 20 miles away) and the bricks were made using a press and dried in the sun, which was great because it eliminated the need for combustion to harden (thus no burning of trees). Off the top of my head, the flooring inside was also tile, the windows, doors and cabinetry/desks were wood.

EMK: They are there to keep out insects yet allow for air flow within the interior rooms. They are positioned high up to provide privacy for the women but let in daylight.

KMC: Are the walls and columns concrete? I see in one picture what I assume are exposed steel beams. What material is used on the roof?

EMK: The floor slab and ring beam is concrete. The columns look to be modular concrete block with the mud bricks filling in for the interior walls.

The roof is metal and the roof joists are steel.

KMC: I read that electricity is unreliable, how do the lights work at night?

EMK: When we first started this project, we had to assume there would be no municipal electricity or water. During the course of construction, the site was connected to both, but it is highly unreliable.

We have a small solar installation that powers the lights the delivery suites and a small refrigerator used to house medicine. Everything else – the corridors, recovery room, bathrooms, etc, are at the mercy of the grid.

p. 68

www.leoadaly.com. “Ellen Mitchell-Kozack.”

Interview conducted over digital communication in March 2018.

KMC: How exactly do the rainwater cisterns allow for flushing toilets?

EMK: The cisterns allow for water (sinks) in the delivery suites and the ability for nurses/women to fill up their wash bowls at all times (gravity fed). However, the toilets require a pump to refill the tank, which only works when the electricity is on.

KMC: How safe did you feel in Uganda?

EMK: I felt relatively safe, but it was very typical to see walls and guards around everything. Even the shopping mall was gated with an armed guard, as was our hotel.

I asked some of the local expats if that was a sign of danger and they said it was more just a custom. Not that there was a lot of crime, but you felt like a target if you didn’t have it because it was so common.

And it gave people jobs, which was an added bonus.

p. 69 07 | experienctial reflection

Construction photos provided to Kendra Chow directly by Ellen Mitchell-Kozack

07

D E SIG N PARAME T E RS

development

I NTE N T I O N S + I N T E RVE NT IO NS

p. 72

General Architecture Collaborative. “ABOUT.”

p. 73

What are the key design components needed to promote education for the under-served female youth of Northern Uganda?

CO N C E R N S + L I M I TAT I O N S A challenge of this research will be to forgo western thinking towards architecture and design and to adopt culturally relevant styles and traditional methods and materials. The intention of the project would be to empower the local community, not to impose outsider influence upon it. Architects have a role in creating our enviornments, thus it is a crucial responsibility that a design proposal be created with respect.

D E S I G N G OA L S The key components of research to achieve an effective project are site determination based on existing secondary school access, travel availability, and natural and urban resources. Additionally, due to the safety concerns and large physical distances, residential boarding will be necessary to foster the best environment for learning and growth.

M AT E R I A L S + M E T H O D S Given the economic costs associated with construction and schooling, the proposal needs to be as affordable as possible to enable easy adoption and acceptance. Ideally, local materials will be incorporated to cut down on costs and provide work opportunities for the community. To compliment the Ugandan vernacular, traditional methods of construction and aesthetics will guide the design.

Utilizing sustainable practices will be crucial in the operation maintenance of the facilities as well as in the creatation of a replicable prototype to be tested elsewhere. Design decisions such has passive design, solar orientation, on-site water capture and storage, and other practices will be considered and integrated into the campus.

08 | design parameters

S U S TA I N A B I L I T Y

development

CA M P U S

SCALE I | DESIGN PROJECTION

“I don’t think that architecture is only about shelter, is only about a very simple enclosure. It should be able to excite you, to calm you, to make you think.”

- zaha hadid

At the largest scale, the research phase has led to a masterplanning design proposal. This intervention includes elements ranging from site determination to programming.

Each step of this phase requires careful consideration with selection. From a global issue to a specific site requires several levels of analysis which in this case, the determination began with a continent, narrowed to a target country, and further used research to find the region most in need. Within that region, a city with adequate resources and transportation was selected—Lira, Uganda.

Taking on a programmatic approach to the proposal, the campus would require residential and athletic facilities in addition to the clear educational focus of the research. This point in planning requires key decisions to be made in terms of expected student user groups to design accordingly. Due to a serious lack of secondary education in the Northern Region, the campus will be a secondary school (S1-S6) to fill the gap and provide boarding to combat the rural difficulties currently preventing higher enrollment rates. This scale must also consider health and community wellness through exercise opportunities.

p. 74

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

Original Graphics (Chow, 2020)

p. 75 08 | design parameters

PRO G RA M S - E D U C AT IO NAL, RE SID E NT IAL, AT HLE T IC S

development

CO LLECTIV E LIV ING

SCALE II | DESIGN PROJECTION

“The company, the conversation, the sharing, the communication, the knowledge that some is there.

It must be psychological, because life seems easier if you

Diving into an essential design opportunity stemming from the research is to design living spaces to compliment the

have someone going through it

learning environment located within the campus. Being a

with you.”

single-sex school, safety is an important factor to consider

- eric klinberg

while designing living quarters. The goal of the proposal would be to create a variety of residential units that change as a student grows. Students will move from larger shared rooms in the earlier years of their education into more private rooms (fewer roommates) as they age and get closer to completing their secondary education while subtly increasing independence.

A complex issue surrounding education in the Northern region is female teacher retention due to past conflict fostering a generation with little education and high security concerns. As one design method to entice teachers to remain at the school, faculty residences will be designed with adaptability in mind. Each unit will consist of similar features, but with the ability to alter them in a way to make each their own through pocket and rotating doors—creating illusions of separate but changing spaces.

p. 76

Original Graphic (Chow, 2018)

p. 77

P ROPOSAL - RE S I D E N T I AL UNITS

Original Graphics (Chow, 2018)

08 | design parameters

ROOM TYPOLOGIES

development

CON S T RU C T I O N

SCALE III | DESIGN PROJECTION

“The details are not the details, they make the design” - charles eames

The detail scale is where the research on affordability and sustainability are most evident. Due to the constraints of designing in a developing country, the way to ensure maintainable, replicable success is to limit western methods of construction and keep elements low-technology. Similarly, as a result of the location, in order to reduce transportation needs and costs, local resources should be prioritized in construction. By proposing the use of local methods and materials, it aids the notion that the design should be of the local vernacular—avoiding imposing or foreign styles, but rather embracing the existing culture and community.

One way in which the design can implement proven successful elements is by emulating precedents of similar conditions. The campus design would benefit from recreating the cylindrical clay screened façade found in the Kachumbala Maternity Unit as the material is locally sourced and easily created, provides shade and physical barriers without sacrificing visual connection. Another feature that would enable free flowing air ventilation is the implementation of butterfy roofs to be used for sanitary water collection. p. 78

Original Graphic (Chow, 2018)

p. 79

MATERI A L I T Y C LAY

P REC E D E NT NAT URAL AIR COOLE R NE W DE HLI, INDIA

Ant Studio. “Deki Cooling Installation.”

“Terracotta by Serax.”

“2011 Photo Contest - New Construction: Residential/Single Family Home - Ludowici & Terreal North America.”

08 | design parameters

ANT ST UDIO, 2 0 1 7

08

CO NC LUSIO N

development

T IME LINE CONDUCT RESEARCH

01

ARCH 7100: SPRING 2021

CONFERENCES

02

March 19-20 2021 April 22-23 2021

EXPERIENCE

03

June 1-30 2021

MATERIAL CURATION

04

July - August 2021

THESIS PROPOSAL

05

ALAR 8100 FALL 2021

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

p. 82

06

ALAR 8995 SPRING 2022

01

p. 83

RESEARCH Develop a framework for a proposal through varying methods of research, resources, and representation to convey initial finding and observations

WIDEN UNDERSTANDING

02

LAUDER SYMPOSIUM -- The Future of Work in 21st Century Africa (Virtual) International Conference on Girls’ and Women’s Education (NYC, Virtual due to COVID-19)

EXPERIENCE

03

South Africa Study Abroad Program (Virtual due to COVID-19) Designing for Spatial Justice with Wandile Mthiyane from Ubantu Design Group

FINALIZE FINDINGS

04

Focus on materiality, construction methods, details, and sustainability efforts to conclude research and establish guiding aspects to translate into ultimate design concept.

DESIGN PROJECTION

05

Using precedents and collected research, generate original design and content from building forms to logistics of occupancy and accessibility.

DRAWING PRODUCTION

Lauder Institute. “Lauder Africa Symposium 2021.”

“International Conference on Girls’ and Women’s Education ICGWE in April 2021 in New York.”

DesignClass. “Designing for Spatial Justice with Wandile Mthiyane.”

09 | conclusion

06

Final content development and documentation to be completed and presented to an audience of reviewers for feedback and critique.

development

G RANT B UD GE T

DESCRIPTION The Lauder Institute’s Africa Symposium The Future of Work in 21st Century Africa

AMOUNT (USD) “Due to the generosity of our partners, tickets are complementary.”

South Africa Study Abroad Program, Virtual due to COVID-19. Designing for Spatial Justice with Wandile Mthiyane

$500.00

International Conference on Girls’ and Women’s Education, Virtual due to COVID-19.

(Listener Registration)

$350.00

Books & Materials

$150.00

TOTAL REQUESTED

$1000.00

“The Society established the Raven Fellowships in 1984 to encourage undergraduate and graduate student pursuit of scholarly, intellectual, and creative projects. The Raven Society endeavors to bring together outstanding students, faculty, administrators, and alumni of the various schools of the University so that they may derive the benefits of mutual acquaintance in pursuit of diligent scholarship and intellectual activity beyond the limits of systematic work in the classroom. As such, the Raven Fellowships target innovative research projects that cross disciplines in novel ways. While all applications will be reviewed, special consideration will be given to those projects with an interdisciplinary focus.

The Raven Society will award research fellowships in support of 2021 summer or fall independent research projects.”

The grant budget was created in response to an invitation for applications for the 2021 Raven Fellowship by the Raven Society at the University of Virginia. As a member of the Raven Society since 2018, the research grant opportunity was chosen as an appropriate source of funding to apply for this project.

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The Raven Society. “Raven Fellowships”

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P ROJ EC T F U N DING & PART NE RS

Girl Up was founded by the UN Foundation in 2010 as an initiative to help support UN agencies that focus on adolescent girls

UNGEI is a global partnership united by a shared commitment to advancing gender equality in and through education

Empowers girls to stay in school by providing them and their communities with resources and education on sexual and reproductive health and rights

A program led by SCALEAfrica, the WiSH Initiative works to increase access to Education for Girls in Zambia Through WiSH (Water, Sanitation, &

The foundation supports many different interests related to poverty and well-being, including measures to raise gender equality with Uganda as one of its focus countries

A source of funding and knowledge for developing countries with a commitment to reducing poverty, increasing shared prosperity, and promoting sustainable development

Girl Up. “Girl Up | Who We Are.” UNGEI. “Overview,” Uganda For Her. “Uganda for HER.” “WiSH Initiative - Scale Africa Inc.” “Gender Equality | Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.”

World Bank. “Who We Are.”

09 | conclusion

If this hypothetical project were to become a reality, it would heavily rely on the resources and support of outside groups from funding to local expertise and relationships. Potential partnerships include the following:

development

T H E S I S P RO P O SAL

LIVING + LEARNING IN LIRA Complex issues do not always require complex solutions, but more importantly, careful consideration and context appropriate decisions.

Architecture, Planning, and Design can be used a tool to impact the situation by using the challenges as guides for design goals. It is possible to combat the barriers preventing access to education through the creation of space and support. The proposal is to harvest the information curated through research to create parameters and priorities to lead to a design solution.

SITE

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A School for Adolescent Girls & Resident Faculty, adjacent to an Anglican Church & Hospital Complex and along a Main Street leading to the Central Market. To be systematically developed at the scales of age appropriate rooms, and around courtyards defined by shade and shadows framing a public municipal Football Field.

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PROJECT

PROBLEM

Of those who have been deprived of education opportunities, a majority of them are female. Using research on low enrollment rates of girls in developing countries’ schools, this project aims to identify the social and physical barriers affecting attendance. Attempting to promote girls’ education through the creation of a single-sex school, the project uses architecture to provide facilities of safe spaces for learning and empowerment for girls as well as for community gathering and bonding.

PROGRAM

A campus made up of educational, recreational, and boarding facilities for an all-female student population. User groups include lower and upper secondary students (Grades S1S6), faculty, and community members. The goal is to provide not only education, but also a safe place for young women to develop self-confidence and supportive relationships.

RELEVANCE

Beyond the scope of a thesis studio, the project prompt has great potential to raise awareness for the under-served community of women living in Northern Uganda.

Although the primary intention is to propose solutions that alleviate barriers to education as a way of battling the oppressive cycles of violence, poverty, and power, hopefully, this research may also serve as inspiration for students looking for ways to incorporate community driven design and social justice goals into their work and possible careers as activist designers.

09 | conclusion

Due to the specific user group and site of the research, the project is designed to be highly interdisciplinary with the ability to interact and be influenced by the following departments: Architecture, Urban & Environmental Planning, Global Studies, Global Sustainability, Education, African Studies, as well as Women, Gender, & Sexuality.

The different aspects and goals of the project need to take into account the female experience, environmental psychology, the education process as well as how to design appropriately for a foreign country.

development

P OT E N T I AL P ROJ EC T

With classroom and shared academic programs on the ground floor and dormitories raised above, students are segmented by grade but have central courtyards to gather.

These massings are consistent with the feminine design trait of low encompassing buildings and the three story height is consistent with local style.

The central dining area, accompanied by a terraced amphitheater create a space for the whole school to come together in a safe environment for shared living and educational and social development.

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09 | conclusion

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09

AUXILIARY INFO RMAT IO N

R EF ER EN C E S

i nfor m ati on

Avci Architects. “DAVID TURNBULL.” Accessed May 7, 2021. https://avciarchitects.com/en/team/david-turnbull/.

Banerjee, A,. Glewwe, P,. Powers, S., and Wasserman, M,. Expanding Access and Increasing Student Learning in Post-Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence, Jameel Poverty Action Lab, 2013, 64p.

Bellamy, Carol, and UNICEF. The State of the World’s Children 2004. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund, The (UNICEF), 2004.

Cribb, Victoria L., and Anne M. Haase. “Girls Feeling Good at School: School Gender Environment, Internalization and Awareness of Socio-Cultural Attitudes Associations With Self-Esteem in Adolescent Girls.”

DesignClass. “Designing for Spatial Justice with Wandile Mthiyane.” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://www.godesignclass.com/courses/ubuntuasa.

“Fighting for Girls’ Education in Northern Uganda | Blog | Global Partnership for Education.”

Accessed April 12, 2021. https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/fighting-girls-education-northern-uganda.

“Gender Equality | Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://www.gatesfoundation.org/our-work/programs/gender-equality/gender-equality.

Gennari, Floriza. Violence Against Women and Girls: Education Sector Brief. World Bank, Washington, DC, 2014.

Girl Up. “Girl Up | Education,” Accessed May 7, 2021. https://girlup.org/issues/education.

Girl Up. “Girl Up | Who We Are.” Accessed May 7, 2021. https://girlup.org/about.

Herz, Barbara Knapp, Gene B Sperling, and Council on Foreign Relations. What Works in Girls’ Education: Evidence and Policies From the Developing World. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2004.

Higgins, Kate. “Regional Inequality and Primary Education in Northern Uganda Policy Brief No.2. Prepared for the World Development Report 2009, ODI. Retrieved 10 March 2009 from Http://Www.Odi.Org.Uk/Resources/ Projects/Background-Papers/2007/11/Wdr-2009-Regionalinequalit.” Compare, 2009, 7–26.

Institute, Open Sustainability. “Uganda Protected Areas.” Harvard Dataverse, July 17, 2017. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/BEVMRY. “International Conference on Girls’ and Women’s Education ICGWE in April 2021 in New York.” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://waset.org/girls-and-womens-education-conference-in-april-2021-in-new-york.

Jewitt, Sarah, and Harriet Ryley. “It’s a Girl Thing: Menstruation, School Attendance, Spatial Mobility and Wider Gender Inequalities in Kenya.” Geoforum 56 (2014): 137–47.

Lauder Institute. “Lauder Africa Symposium 2021.” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://lauder.wharton.upenn.edu/lauder-africa-symposium-2021/. p. 92

Lentz, Linda C., and Laura Raskin. “The Power of Design.” Architectural Record 204, no. 1 (January 2016): 75–83.

p. 93

LEO A DALY. “Ellen Mitchell-Kozack.” Accessed May 7, 2021. https://leoadaly.com/people/mitchell-kozack-ellen/.

McGurn, Erinn. “Clinton Global Initiative: The Case for Activism.” Architect, September 24, 2012. https://www. architectmagazine.com/Design/clinton-global-initiative-the-case-for-activism_o.

Mollard, Manon. “A Woman’s Place.” Architectural Review 238, no. 1424 (October 2015): 83.

ONE. “The Toughest Places for a Girl to Get an Education,” October 4, 2017. https://www.one.org/us/the-toughest-places-for-a-girl-to-get-an-education/.

Sanya, Tom. “Ugandan Architects Struggle with the Dilemma of What’s Appropriate.” The Conversation.

Accessed May 9, 2021. http://theconversation.com/ugandan-architects-struggle-with-the-dilemma-of-whatsappropriate-61034.

Schultz, Paul. “Why Governments Should Invest More To Educate Girls.” World Development 30 (September 1, 2001): 207–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00107-3.

Sperling, Gene B, Rebecca Winthrop, and Christina Kwauk. What Works in Girls’ Education: Evidence for the World’s Best Investment. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution Press, 2016.

TEDx Talks. Design In Translation: David Turnbull at TEDxCooperUnion, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XmTNZWYYScc. The Raven Society. “Raven Fellowships,” November 27, 2012. https://aig.alumni.virginia.edu/raven/raven-resources/raven-fellowships/.

Uganda For Her. “Uganda for HER.” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://uganda4her.org/.

UNGEI. “Overview,” July 24, 2020. https://www.ungei.org/who-we-are/overview.

“UNData App.” Accessed May 9, 2021. http://data.un.org/en/iso/ug.html.

UNICEF DATA. “Ending Child Marriage: Progress and Prospects,” July 22, 2014. https://data.unicef.org/resources/ ending-child-marriage-progress-and-prospects/.

UNICEF. Strategies for Girls’ Education. [S.l.] : [s.n.], 2004, 2004.

Walque, Damien de. “How Does the Impact of an HIV/AIDS Information Campaign Vary with Educational Attainment? Evidence from Rural Uganda.” Journal of Development Economics 84, no. 2 (November 1, 2007): 686–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.12.003.

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World Bank. “Who We Are.” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/who-we-are.

R EF ER EN C E S

p h otos

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“Leave No Girl Behind” UNGEI. “Overview,” July 24, 2020. https://www.ungei.org/who-we-are/overview.Accessed “The Sights and Sounds of Uganda’s Culture,” Cross International. November 8, 2019. https://www.crossinternational.org/the-sights-and-sounds-of-ugandas-culture/.

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“LibGuides: A Research Guide for VTPMD 6181: Public Health Practice – Assessment: Searching the Gray Literature.” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://guides.library.cornell.edu/c.php?g=708503&p=5093644.

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“Women’s Opporunity Center.” Accessed April 4, 2021. https://sharondavisdesign.com/project/womensopportunity-center-rwanda/.

“Masoro Sports + Learning Center.” Accessed May 9, 2021. http://www.gacollaborative.org/mslc.

“PITCHAfrica” Accessed May 9, 2021. https://www.archdaily.com/616304/pitchafrica-creates-water-harvestingcampus-and-stadium-for-communities-in-need.

“COF Outreach Village Primary Schools” June 4, 2017. https://www.archdaily.com/872623/cof-outreach-villageprimary-schools-studio-fh-architects.

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p. 95

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org anize d in orde r of appearance

african oasis

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R ES EA RC H E R P RO F I L E

K E N D R A C H OW

02

R E S E A R C H TO P I C

Background

Personal Interest

My history is what initially sparked my interest in Girls Education worldwide.

I attended Presentation High School, a single‐sex high school in Northern California. There is where it was very clearly impressed upon the students what a privilege the opportunity to learn is, and one denied to many, but especially girls. The school actively teaches that the role of education is to empower young women.

My experience with designing in Africa is not one of physical qualities but rather conceptual through my work for the Woven Assemblies research studio

by M. Leighton Beaman, Co‐founder of the General Architecture Collaborative, which is focused on creating architectural spaces in East Africa.

During that high school experience, I was also introduced to the topic of social justice and as course material, studied the 1994 Rwandan Genocide.

This would later become crucial knowledge as I would participate in an architecture design studio, Woven Assemblies, based in Rwanda.

Following Presentation High School, I studied Architecture at the University of Virginia. There I earned a Bachelors of Science in Architecture as well as minors in Architectural History and Urban and Environmental Planning.

It was through my undergraduate experience that I realized how significantly the spaces around us impact our experiences.

Learning about the built environment and its role in the educational process has inspired this research with hopes of further growing as a designer.

Through that studio, I was given the opportunity to study and propose a sports and learning center for the community of Masoro, Rwanda. Over the years I have gotten the chance to meet with other individuals who have practiced in East Africa including David Turnbull, the Co‐founder of PITCHafrica, a project integrating architecture, athletics, and academics together to collect rainwater.

Beyond the scope of my thesis, I believe the project has great potential to raise awareness for the underserved community of women living in Northern Uganda. Although my intention is to propose solutions to alleviate barriers to education as a way of battling the oppressive cycles of violence, poverty, and power, I hope that this research may also serve as inspiration for students like myself looking for ways to incorporate community driven design and social justice goals into their work and possible careers as activist designers.

a campus design

01

KMC

2021

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA