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PLANNING AND ADMINISTERING EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS Eleventh Edition

Nancy K. Freeman

University of South Carolina, Columbia

Celia A. Decker

Northwestern State University

John R. Decker

Sabine Parish, Louisiana, School System

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Copyright © 2017, 2013, 2009, 2005, 2001, 1997 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Freeman, Nancy K. Planning and administering early childhood programs / Nancy K. Freeman, University of South Carolina, Columbia. –– Eleventh edition. pages cm ISBN 978-0-13-402731-9 –– ISBN 0-13-402731-0 1. Early childhood education––United States. 2. Educational planning--United States.

3. Day care centers––United States—Administration. 4. Instructional systems––United States. I. Title.

LB1139.25.F74 2015 372.210973—dc23

2015030223

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-402731-0 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-402731-9

N.K.F.: To my husband, John, and to my grandchildren, Beatrice, Julia, Connor, and Elliot, and their parents C. and J. D.: To our sons, Kelcey and Keith, their families, and our daughter, Kristiana

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About the Authors

Nancy K. Freeman is a professor emerita from the University of South Carolina in Columbia. She was a member of the early ehildhood faculty and was the director of the Child Development and Research Center. She is a former child care director and preschool teacher and worked closely with the campus child care center while at the university. Nancy has authored scholarly publications and made conference presentations on topic such as professional ethics, service learning, and the preparation of the child care workforce. She served as chair of South Carolina’s State Advisory Committee on the Regulation of Child Care Facilities for many years, has served as president of the National Association of Early Childhood Teacher Educators (NAECTE), and is coauthor of a regular column on professional ethics published by NAEYC. In 2012, she was recognized with the NAECTE/Pearson Outstanding Early Childhood Teacher Educator Award.

Celia A. Decker retired after 38 years of service in early childhood education. At the time of her retirement, she held the position of professor of early childhood education at Northwestern State University and served as the program coordinator of graduate studies in early childhood education. In addition to coauthoring this text, she is the author of Children:

The Early Years and its supplements and coauthor of Parents and Their Children, both published by Goodheart-Willcox Company. She has presented papers at national, regional, and state annual meetings of many professional early childhood associations. She has served as a consultant for Head Start, Even Start, and local school systems.

During her years as a kindergarten teacher in an inner-city school system and as a college professor, she has received many honors. In 1994, she was selected as the Outstanding Professor at Northwestern State University.

John R. Decker retired after an elementary teaching and administrative career of 37 years. Before entering the field of education, he served as a district scout executive for Kaw Council, Boy Scouts of America, Kansas City, Kansas. His educational career included elementary teaching positions in inner-city schools, in an open education program, and in rural public schools. He also served as assistant professor of education and taught college courses in education and supervised preservice teachers in a federally supported college-based program. He has frequently given speeches and workshops for professional organizations. He has been recognized for his 30-year membership in Phi Delta Kappa.

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Preface

P

lanning and Administering Early Childhood Programs, eleventh edition, continues a long tradition of excellence begun by Celia and John Decker. Its purpose is to contribute to the professional preparation of prospective and in-service early childhood program administrators by providing specific guidance on how to plan for, implement, market, and evaluate programs serving children from birth through school age.

NEW TO THIS EDITION The eleventh edition represents a significant revision of the text. Refinements have focused on making the book even more practical, relevant, current, and readable. This revision was led by Nancy K. Freeman, Ph.D., who updated the references while paying particular attention to ensuring that all chapters are logically organized, complete, and practical.

An Enhanced Pearson eText with Interactive Features The eleventh edition of Planning and Administering Early Childhood Programs is, for the first time, a true eText. If you are using the Pearson eText digital version of the book, you will find the following: Links to videos that illustrate the text. These can be watched via the Play button.

Opportunities to check your understanding of each major chapter section. Click on the checkmark icon hotlink near the Check Your Understanding headings to access short, multiple-choice quizzes for self-assessment after each major section you have just read.

At the end of each chapter, click Chapter Quiz to access a multiple-choice and short-answer self-assessment of chapter content.

• Key terms in boldface type link to a digital glossary of terms and definitions.

Content Revisions to This Edition In addition to new technological features, you will find: • Updated content throughout.

• All new photos illustrating best practices in early care and education. xiii

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• Examples and guidelines for identifying a program’s core values and developing its mission and vision statements.

• An expanded discussion of leadership styles, including information about program administrators’ roles as coaches and mentors.

• A refined focus on child and program assessment, with clear distinctions between those two essential functions.

• Updated resources on marketing, including the effective use of social media.

• An expanded discussion on financial planning, with detailed examples.

This edition reflects our ongoing commitment to children from birth through school age and their families. We are guided by our commitment to provide high-quality programs of early care and education that help all children and families reach their fullest potential. Administrators hold the key to quality programming. It is our goal to equip them with the expertise and skill they need to be effective instructional leaders while handling the responsibilities of running an efficient and fiscally sound operation. The extensive references and online and print resources listed in this edition can provide readers with in-depth understandings of many topics.

PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES Readers will find the three subdivisions of the book helpful because they follow a logical progression of program administration. We begin by situating early care and education into the current social and economic context. We then guide readers in the identification of the program’s core values, mission, and vision; describe the role of regulations and standards; and offer advice on program policies and procedures. Operationalizing an early childhood program requires administers to effectively lead personnel in the implementation of a quality program that supports children’s learning, growth, and development. In addition, the following features help engage students in becoming effective directors by involving them in authentic situations and challenges.

• Realistic vignettes in each chapter have been refined to highlight key points and demonstrate how an effective administrator might apply these principles to the center she directs.

• The Application Activities boxes in each chapter give readers opportunities to extend their learning beyond the text as they learn more about the profession and practice completing tasks that are the director’s responsibility.

• Photographs, tables, and figures appearing throughout the text (a) give practical examples, (b) summarize data and research, and (c) illustrate important concepts.

• The end-of-chapter quizzes align with the Learning Outcomes and major sections of each chapter. They are designed to help learners revisit and apply the content they have read about.

We have designed this text to be useful for all early childhood administrators. Although early childhood programs are operated under a wide variety of auspices, there is a great deal of overlap among the competencies needed by their leaders. We have attempted to provide a balance of research-based statements, implementation strategies, and resources to prompt further investigation.

Like the ten previous editions, this book will aid in the initial planning of early childhood programs and be a source of helpful information after programs are underway. Its purpose will be realized when the reader makes wiser judgments about planning and administering early childhood programs.

Preface

TEXT ORGANIZATION Chapter 1 provides an overview of early care and education and program administration. It defines the most common types of programs for young children; emphasizes the importance of quality programming; and considers how recent social, economic, and political developments have affected the field.

Part One, Constructing the Early Childhood Program’s Framework, includes three chapters. Chapter 2 identifies how the field’s history and its prominent theorists provide the philosophical bedrock upon which programs of early care and education base their core values. It advises program administrators that the values of the community should shape the development of their program’s vision and mission statements and considers the role these foundational documents should play in the program’s operation. It includes guidance for the director as he takes steps to implement the program, including strategies to evaluate the program’s success in reaching its goals. Chapter 3 examines regulations related to many aspects of the program’s operation and explores the interplay among regulations, accreditation criteria, and other standards of practice, including the Quality Rating and Improvement Systems (QRIS) in place in many states. Chapter 4 guides administrators who are developing program policies and procedures as well as handbooks for staff, families, and administrators.

Part Two, Operationalizing the Early Childhood Program, includes four chapters addressing important administrative topics. Chapter 5 provides an overview of the director’s leadership and management roles. It addresses issues related to staffing, such as factors that contribute to high turnover and low levels of compensation. It identifies roles and qualifications of various personnel and provides sample job descriptions. It also includes specific strategies for recruiting, interviewing, hiring, and evaluating program personnel. Chapter 6 identifies issues to consider when planning a program’s facility. It addresses topics ranging from site selection, classroom floor plans, and playground design to equipping classrooms to support children’s learning, growth, and development.

Chapter 7 discusses the program’s financial management. It identifies potential sources for funding and the categories of expected expenditures, highlights the importance of accurately anticipating enrollment, and provides specific guidelines for developing a budget and for preparing financial reports. Chapter 8 addresses effective marketing. It stresses the importance of creating a comprehensive marketing plan designed to communicate how your program is unique and how it will meet the needs of the families in your community. The chapter describes some specific strategies that can help readers effectively market their program to potential families, including guidance about how to develop a quality website and to effectively use social media.

Part Three, Implementing the Children’s Program, discusses the administrator’s role in planning and overseeing the program’s services. Chapter 9 addresses the director’s role in leading curriculum development and implementation. It describes developmentally appropriate approaches to teaching and identifies how the program administrator shapes curriculum by implementing appropriate grouping and staffing patterns throughout the center. Chapter 10 concerns the administrator’s role in meeting children’s nutritional needs, reducing childhood obesity, encouraging breast-feeding, controlling infectious diseases, and ensuring a safe environment while instilling lifelong nutrition, health, and safety habits. Chapter 11 identifies approaches to assessing children’s learning, growth, and development. It offers practical advice about how to record, assess, and report children’s performance using appropriate assessment and screening tools. Chapter 12 describes effective strategies for creating respectful collaborative relationships with diverse families and working with stakeholders in the community.

Chapter 13 identifies the characteristics that set professionals apart from other workers,

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examines the ethical dimensions of early childhood program administration, and identifies strategies for becoming an effective advocate for children and families.

INSTRUCTOR ANCILLARIES The following materials are available to registered instructors in the Instructor Resources section of www.pearsonhighered.com.

Online Instructor’s Manual The Instructor’s Manual includes chapter overviews; To Reflect pieces, which serve as class discussion starters; and Instructional Activities, for both in-class and out-of-class use, which apply the material in the text.

Online Test Bank Test items in multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay format are available to instructors in the Online Test Bank.

TestGen This powerful assessment generation program helps instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and tests are authored online, allowing ultimate flexibility and the ability to efficiently create and print assessments anytime, anywhere. The online Test Bank has been converted to a number of LMS formats.

Online PowerPoint Slides Easily accessed and organized by chapter, PowerPoint slides of key concepts from the text are colorful, simple, and straightforward and may be customized to fit instructors’ needs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Janice Ironside for her careful review of the previous edition. Her comments informed this revision. Jeanene Varner’s knowledge of early childhood curriculum refined and informed the discussion of curriculum. Many friends and family contributed to this effort by providing encouragement along the way.

Julie Peters is an inspiring and skilled editor. Her knowledge, encouragement, and patience have made invaluable contributions to this text. Janet Domingo, Carolyn Schweitzer, Megan Moffo, and Pamela DiBerardino at Pearson, and Raja Natesan, Nancy Kincade, Doug Bell, and Cynthia Bond with Lumina Datamatics have offered valuable feedback and patiently answered many questions along the way. They have made significant contributions to this project’s success.

We thank the following reviewers for their helpful comments. Their insights and advice improved this revision in countless ways: Elizabeth Engley, Jacksonville State University; Beth Rice, Shawnee State University; Jo Sigmund, Concordia University; Cristy Smith, University of Central Oklahoma; and Denise Wessels, California State University, Sacramento.

Brief Contents

1 Overview of Early Care and Education and Program Administration PART I

1

CREATING THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAM’S FRAMEWORK

2 Identifying the Program’s Core Values, Developing Its Vision and Mission Statements, and Planning for Program Evaluation 19 3 Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and Other Standards of Practice 42 4 Policies and Procedures: Tools to Ensure Your Program’s Smooth Operation 67 PART II OPERATIONALIZING THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAM

5 Recruiting, Hiring, Leading, and Managing Personnel 94 6 Creating Quality Learning Environments 139 7 Managing Your Program’s Finances 195 8 Marketing Your Program of Early Care and Education 220 PART III

IMPLEMENTING THE CHILDREN’S PROGRAM

9 Teaching and Learning in the Children’s Program 238 10 Providing Quality Nutrition and Creating a Healthy and Safe Environment 268 11 Child Assessment: An Essential Component of Quality Early Childhood Programming 308 12 Working with Families and Communities 332 13 Contributing to the Profession 379 xvii

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Brief Contents

APPENDICES

1 Suppliers of Materials and Equipment for Early Childhood Programs

395

2 NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment 397 3 NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct Supplement for Early Childhood Program Administrators 406

4 Professional Organizations of Interest to Early Childhood Educators

414

References 415 Name Index 437 Subject Index 443

Contents

1 Overview of Early Care and Education and Program Administration 1 Why Are the Early Years Important? 2 Putting Programs of Early Care and Education into Context 3 National and State Child Care Initiatives 4 Types of Early Childhood Programs 6 Most Common Types of Child Care 6 • Special Services in Child Care 8 Quality: The Overriding Concern 10 Characteristics of Quality 10 • Parents as Consumers of Child Care 11 How Can Directors Move Their Programs Toward Excellence? 12 The Roles of a Director 12 • Effective Leadership 14 • The Journey Begins… 15 • Your Own Journey 16 Summary 17 Useful Websites 18 To Reflect 18

PART I CREATING THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAM’S FRAMEWORK

2

I dentifying the Program’s Core Values, Developing Its Vision and Mission Statements, and Planning for Program Evaluation

19

Developing a Statement of Your Program’s Core Values 20 Core Values of Early Childhood Education 20 • Theories of Teaching and Learning 21 • A Brief Review of Developmental Theories That Have Influenced Early Childhood Education 21 • Philosophical Views About the Purpose of Education 24 • Considering the Values of Your Community 25 • Your Program’s Core Values 26 Developing a Vision Statement: Identifying Where Your Program Is Headed 29 Developing a Mission Statement: Your Plan for Realizing Your Vision 33 Planning for Program Evaluation 35 Types of Evaluations 35 • Assessing Program Inputs 35 • Assessing Program Outcomes 37 Summary 40 Useful Websites 40 To Reflect 41 xix

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3

nderstanding Regulations, Accreditation U Criteria, and Other Standards of Practice

42

Considering Regulations 43 Regulations to Address When Establishing a New Program 43 Licensing Regulations That Guide Program Development and Implementation 45 Accreditation 51 Quality Rating and Improvement Systems 54 Staff Qualifications Addressed in Licensing and Head Start Regulations, Accreditation, and QRIS Systems 55 Directors’ Qualifications 55 • Teachers’ Qualifications 58 Meeting Legal Requirements 60 Selecting the Best Type of Business Entity 60 • Operating a Child Care Center Is a Business 63 • Laws That Protect Employees 63 Laws That Protect Children 65 Summary 65 Useful Websites 66 To Reflect 66

4

olicies and Procedures: Tools to Ensure P Your Program’s Smooth Operation

67

Policies and Procedures: Tools to Ensure Your Program’s Smooth Operation 67 Policies and Procedures Guide Both Employees and Families 68 Policies and Procedures Addressed in Licensing Regulations 69 Requirements Addressed by Voluntary Standards 70 • Characteristics of Viable Policies and Procedures 71 • How Do Policies and Procedures Contribute to the Center’s Smooth Operation? 71 • Who Is Responsible for Developing Policies and Procedures? 72 • Developing and Revising Your Center’s Family Handbook and/or Staff Manual 73 • Using Established Policies and Procedures 75 • Categories of Policies and Procedures 76 What Topics Need to Be Addressed in the Staff Manual? 78 What Topics Need to Be Addressed in the Family Handbook? 85 What Information Should Be in the Administrator’s Manual? 91 Summary 91 Useful Websites 92 To Reflect 93

PART II OPERATIONALIZING THE EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAM

5

Recruiting, Hiring, Leading, and Managing Personnel Early Childhood Program Personnel 94 Roles and Qualifications of Personnel 95 • Job Descriptions Recruiting and Hiring Program Personnel 106 The Recruitment Process 106 • Staffing Trends 117 The Director as the Program’s Leader 119 Be an Excellent Communicator 120 Make Your Center a Great Place to Work 121

94 100

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Enhance the Staff’s Professional Knowledge and Skills 123 • Providing Staff with Constructive Feedback on Their Performance The Director as Manager 132 Delegating Responsibilities 133 • Personnel Services 133 Insurance and Retirement Plans 134 • Essential Confidential Files 135 Summary 137 Useful Websites 138 To Reflect 138

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Creating Quality Learning Environments

139

Planning a New or Renovated Facility 140 The Facility’s Entry and Indoor Spaces 142 The Entry/Exit Area 142 • Designing Indoor Spaces 143 • Classroom Configuration, Furniture and Furnishings, and Room Arrangement 148 • Creating Learning/Activity Centers for Preschoolers and School-Age Children 153 • Appropriate Environments for Infants and Toddlers 155 • Learning/Activity Centers for Preschoolers 157 • Learning/Activity Centers for Primary-Grade Children 168 • Additional Areas in Classrooms 169 • Food Preparation, Feeding, and Dining Areas 171 • Napping Areas 171 • Developing Classroom Floor Plans 172 • Areas for Adults 173 Outdoor Spaces for Play 175 The Features of the Outside Play Environment 175 • Outdoor Space Arrangement 178 Purchasing and Maintaining Equipment and Materials 188 Purchasing Guidelines 188 • Purchasing Instructional Materials 189 • Caring for Equipment and Materials 192 Summary 193 Useful Websites 194 To Reflect 194

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Managing Your Program’s Finances

195

Tuition and Other Sources of Income 196 Determining What You Should Charge for Tuition 196 • How Families Manage Paying for Child Care 197 • External Funding Sources 199 • Securing Grants 202 • Fund-Raising 203 Costs of Operting an Early Childhood Program 205 Estimating Program Costs 206 Budgeting 210 Two Kinds of Budgets 211 • Managing the Budget 214 • Budget Reports 215 • Planning for Large Expense Items 217 Summary 218 Useful Websites 218 To Reflect 219

8

Marketing Your Program of Early Care and Education Developing and Implementing an Effective Marketing Plan 221 Developing an Effective Marketing Plan 222 Effective Marketing Strategies for Child Care 225 Internal Marketing 226 • External Marketing 231

220

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Contents

Summary 236 Useful Websites To Reflect 237

PART III

237

IMPLEMENTING THE CHILDREN’S PROGRAM

9

Teaching and Learning in the Children’s Program Planning for Instruction 239 Developmentally Appropriate Practices: The Foundation of Excellence 239 • Anti-Bias Education 243 Standards: Describing What Children Are Expected to Know and Be Able to Do 245 Curriculum 247 Teaching Strategies 251 Child-Initiated Activities and Scaffolding 252 • Direct Instruction • Technology as a Tool to Support Learning and Development 257 Setting the Stage for Learning 258 Grouping 260 • The Daily Schedule 260 Summary 266 Useful Websites 267 To Reflect 267

238

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10 Providing Quality Nutrition and Creating a Healthy and Safe Environment

268

Promoting Healthy Eating and Providing High-Quality Meals and Snacks 269 The Importance of Good Nutrition 269 • Serving Nutritious Meals and Snacks 272 • Hiring Staff and Meeting Food Service Program Requirements 279 • Nutrition Education 281 Promoting Good Health 284 Assessing the Health of Adults and Children 284 • Preventive Practices 285 • Informing Families About Issues Related to Their Children’s Health 290 • Providing Care for Children Who Are Ill 293 • Children’s Mental Health 294 Being Safe 298 Addressing Children’s Safety While They Are in Your Care 298 • Vehicular Safety 301 • Preparing for Emergencies 302 Summary 305 Useful Websites 306 To Reflect 307

11 Child Assessment: An Essential Component of Quality Early Childhood Programming

308

The Importance of Appropriate Assessment 309 Performance Assessment 311 Performance Assessments 312 • Interviews 322 • Collecting Work Samples 322 • Portfolios 323 • Tools for Structuring Documentation and Analysis 324 Sharing Child Assessment Information 326 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) 328 Kindergarten Readiness Assessments 329

Contents

Summary 330 Useful Websites To Reflect 331

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331

12 Working with Families and Communities

332

Early Childhood Educators’ Long History of Partnering with Families 333 Collaboration: A Crucial Element of Quality Programming 333 • Three Approaches to Working with Families 334 Benefits and Challenges of Working with Families 338 Threefold Benefits of Family–School Collaboration 338 • Challenges to Family Involvement 341 • Meeting the Challenges of Collaboration 346 Creating Trusting Relationships with All Families 348 Helping Families Become Acquainted with Your Program 349 • Communicating with the Families of Enrolled Children 354 • Resources for Families 364 • Welcoming Families’ Contributions 367 Early Childhood Educators’ Long History of Partnering with Their Communities 371 Tapping into Family and Community Support Through Advisory Committees and Boards of Directors 372 Summary 377 Useful Websites 378 To Reflect 378

13 Contributing to the Profession

379

Promoting Professionalization 380 Moving Toward Professionalism: Professional Preparation and Reliance on the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct 380 Engaging in Informed Advocacy 384 Becoming an Effective Advocate 385 • An Advocate’s Toolbox 387 • Important Reminders! 390 Investing in the Profession’s Future 391 Supporting Developing Professionals 391 • Supporting Research 391 • Teachers as Researchers 392 Summary 392 Useful Websites 393 To Reflect 394

APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 S uppliers of Materials and Equipment for Early Childhood Programs APPENDIX 2 NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment APPENDIX 3 NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct Supplement for Early Childhood Program Administrators APPENDIX 4 Professional Organizations of Interest to Early Childhood Educators

References

415

Name Index

437

Subject Index

443

395 397 406 414

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Chapter

1

Overview of Early Care and Education and Program Administration Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you will be able to: 1. Identify the unique characteristics of young children’s growth and ­development that make it particularly important that programs of early care and education are of high quality.

2. Describe the historical trends that have shaped early childhood policy and programming.

3. Identify the most common types of early childhood programs and the services that meet the needs of particular populations.

4. Describe the differences between structural and process quality in early care and education programs.

5. Identify the personal attributes and areas of competence of effective leaders.

C

hild care is a now a way of life for many of America’s young children, but this has not always been the case. In 1960, only about 10% of the 3- and 4-year-olds in the United States participated in a preschool (pre-K) program outside of their home. By 1970, twice as many 3- and 4-year-olds had enrolled in preschool, and by 1990 participation in preschool had doubled again to about 40% of all 3- and 4-year-olds. We know more mothers were working full time in 1990 than had been in 1960, but that is not the only explanation for the increased demand for early childhood education. Other factors, including the trend toward smaller families and a growing appreciation for the contributions preschool can make to children’s development, meant that more families were willing and able to seek out early educational experiences for their preschoolers (Barnett, Robin, Hustedt, & Schulman, 2003).

Today, child care is a part of many families’ daily routine; in fact, young children may attend child care for more than 2,000 hours per year.

That is about twice the amount of time older children spend in public school classrooms. In fact, the cumulative total time young children spend in child care may equal the total time they spend in school from the beginning of kindergarten until they graduate from high school (Children’s Defense Fund, 2006). These figures help us appreciate why young children’s experiences in child care have a lasting impact on their learning, growth, and development.

NAEYC Administrator Competencies addressed in this chapter: Management Knowledge and Skills 1. Personal and Professional Self-­ Awareness • The ability to be a reflective practitioner and apply a repertoire of techniques to improve the level of personal fulfillment and professional job satisfaction 3. Staff management and human ­relations • Knowledge of different supervisory and group facilitation styles 8. Leadership and Advocacy • Knowledge of organizational theory and leadership styles as they relate to early childhood work environments • Knowledge of the legislative process, social issues, and public policy affecting young children and their families

Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills 1. Historical and Philosophical ­Foundations • Knowledge of the historical roots and philosophical foundations of early childhood care and education • Knowledge of different types of early childhood programs, roles, funding, and regulatory structures • Knowledge of current trends and ­important influences impacting program quality 2. Child growth and development • Knowledge of current research in ­neuroscience and its application to the field of early childhood education 5. Children with special needs • Knowledge of licensing standards as well as state and federal laws (e.g., ADA, IDEA) as they relate to ­services and accommodations for ­children with special needs • The ability to work collaboratively as part of family-professional team in ­planning and implementing appropriate services for children with special needs 10. Professionalism • Ability to reflect on one’s professional growth and development and make goals for personal improvement

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Part I

Creating the Early Childhood Program’s Framework

Why Are the Early Years Important?

Early experiences actually build children’s brains. They determine the brain’s architecture while establishing a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all future learning, health, and behavior.

Watch this video to learn about children’s early experiences: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=VNNsN9IJkws.

As demand for early care and education has grown, results from compelling largescale studies have been used to raise the public’s awareness of the importance of the early years. Some of the findings that have influenced policy include the following: • Children’s brains are literally shaped by early experiences in their homes, child care settings, and communities. Early experiences influence the developing brain’s architecture and children’s lifelong learning potential (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007a; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

• Quality early childhood programs have been demonstrated to enhance children’s language, literacy, and mathematical learning as well as their social and emotional development. These advantages last throughout their school careers and beyond (Barnett, 2013; Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007b; Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, & Barnett, 2010; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Votruba-Drzal, Coley, Koury, & Miller, 2013).

• The economic benefits of investments in quality early childhood education outweigh their costs. Economists estimate that every $1 invested in large-scale programs like the ones implemented in Tulsa and Chicago produce a savings of up to $7. They reduce the likelihood that children will repeat a grade, need special education services, or be incarcerated; and increase the likelihood that they will graduate from high school to become productive, gainfully employed adults (Barnett, 2013; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Schweinhart et al., 2005).

• While all young children reap lifelong benefits from participating in high-quality early childhood programs, children from low-income homes and those with special needs benefit the most (Barnett, 2013; Votruba-Drzal, Coley, Koury, & Miller, 2013).

This appreciation for the vulnerability of very young children’s developing brains and the windows of opportunity that are uniquely open during their first 3 years, as well as a growing appreciation for their potential to make long-term contributions to children’s well-being, have led efforts to invest public monies on quality early childhood programming (Barnett, 1995; Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007a; Duncan & Magnuson, 2013; Yoshikawa et. al, 2013; Ramey & Ramey, 1998; Schweinhart et al., 2005; Votruba-Drzal, Coley, Koury, & Miller, 2013).

But even while science has provided mounting evidence of the importance https://www.youtube.com/ of the early years, the fact remains that too many children begin school with watch?v=7Qb3DXY_7fU disadvantages that are hard, and sometimes impossible, to overcome. As many as 49% of America’s children under 6 live in low-income homes, and 25% live in poverty where families of four have an income of $22,050 or less per year, and families of two try to manage with an annual income of just $15,130. These figures represent a significant rise in poverty in the past five years, a burden that is shouldered disproportionally by minorities; 70% of African American, 70% of American Indian, 67% of Hispanic, 35% of white, and 30% of Asian children live in low-income households (Addy, Englehardt, & Skinner, 2013). Poverty impacts children during their infancy and early childhood years in multiple ways. Low-income mothers are less likely to seek prenatal care and are more likely to have babies weighing less than 5½ pounds. Young children living in poverty are more likely to be poorly nourished; may not be fully immunized against childhood illnesses; and are more likely to be homeless or to live in unsafe, stress-producing neighborhoods (Addy, Englehardt, & Skinner, 2013; Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007b; Children’s Defense Fund, 2014).

This video gives you an opportunity to hear from the experts as they review brain development in early childhood, describe strategies to support brain development, and identify risk factors that can result in developmental delays. Watch this video to learn about optimizing early brain development:

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Overview of Early Care and Education and Program Administration

Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson Education

Chapter 1

Children thrive when they have their caregivers’ undivided attention.

Advocates who appreciate how children can benefit from participating in quality child care need to focus, in particular, on those children who are most at risk for school failure because they live in poverty, are being raised by a single parent with low educational attainment, or have unmet medical or mental health needs. These children have the most to lose by falling behind, and the most to gain by being enrolled in a quality early childhood program. It can give them an opportunity to break the cycle of poverty and put them on the road to success in the years to come.

Putting Programs of Early Care and Education into Context Effective program administration begins with an understanding of the history and traditions of early care and education. This overview will provide a starting point as you learn about program planning and implementation, effective management, and leadership.

An instructive place to begin is by considering how current events and national priorities have influenced the country’s interest in, and support for, programs of early care through the years.

• Kaiser Shipbuilding provided 24-hour on-site child care for “Rosie the Riveter,” women who were building ships and other materials needed by the war effort.

These centers, staffed by nurses and nutritionists as well as teachers, operated from 1943–1945. Their focus was on the well-being of the whole child and their families. The program’s services even included prepared foods for mothers to take home at the end of the workday (MacKenzie, 2011).

• Head Start was launched as the centerpiece of the 1960’s War on Poverty, and continues to serve America’s at-risk children. Head Start is a comprehensive program providing health, nutrition, and educational programming for young children. Head Start also involves families in local programs’ operation while offering job training and social services to help bootstrap families out of poverty (Hinitz, 2014).

1.1 Check Your Understanding

Click here to gauge your understanding of chapter concepts.

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Part I

Creating the Early Childhood Program’s Framework

• The women’s movement gained momentum in the 1970s, and the demand for child care increased dramatically to meet the needs of mothers with young children who were entering the workforce in record numbers (Lerman & Schmidt, 1999).

• The 1994 Goals 2000: Educate America Act set high expectations for America’s schools and challenged them to provide all children with opportunities to realize their full potential. Goal 1 stated that all children would come to school “ready to learn.” As a result, programs that were focused on strengthening families and ensuring that children were well nourished, received needed healthcare, and had access to quality early childhood programming attracted unprecedented support at the national, state, and local levels ( Johnson & Aulicion, 1998).

• Federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation enacted in 2001 put an unprecedented emphasis on standards and accountability. States benefited from the support NCLB provided for the development of Good Start Grow Smart early learning guidelines describing what young children should know and be able to do. NCLB prompted serious concerns, however, when program evaluation measures required the administration of assessments of children’s learning that early childhood experts believed were inappropriate and even harmful (Stipek, 2006).

• Goals 2000 and NCLB initiatives increased public spending on early education, but the economic downturn that began in 2008 threatened to drastically reduce the government’s investments in young children. In 2009 and 2010, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) stepped in to sustain states’ efforts to improve the quality and accessibility of early childhood programs (Schulman & Blank, 2010). This stream of funding expired in 2010, however, resulting in a return to bare-bones state budgets that stalled funding for initiatives designed to improve the quality of programs of early care and education and increase the number of children served (Barnett & Carolan, 2013).

• The federal Race to the Top Early Learning Challenge grants program launched in 2011 was designed to enhance states’ efforts to improve the quality of early learning and development programs, support a well-qualified early childhood workforce, integrate children’s services, and implement rigorous yet appropriate standards. States with successful proposals receive large infusions of monies to support their system of early care and education programming (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).

While it is true the United States does not yet have a robust infrastructure that provides all families with affordable, accessible, high-quality programming for their young children, these initiatives illustrate how early childhood care and education has, through the years, attracted the investments of national, state, and local monies.

National and State Child Care Initiatives One way to gauge public support for early childhood programs is to consider states’ investments in preschoolers, particularly 3- and 4-year-olds. In the 2001–2002 school year, 40 states served about 700,000 children (4.8% of all 4-year-olds and 3% of all 3-yearolds) in publicly funded programs. The low standards and minimal per-student funding typical during this period led some advocates to describe state-supported programs as being “poor to mediocre” and to question states’ commitment to educating their youngest citizens (Barnet, Robin, Hustedt, & Schulman, 2003, p. 6).

In 2013–2014, there were still 10 states with no state-funded program for preschoolers, while the 40 states and the District of Columbia that operated preschool programs served over 1.3 million children (29% of all 4-year-olds and 4% of all

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3-year-olds). It is heartening to see how the number and percentage of children served has increased in the past decade, and to see that funding and enrollment have begun to recover from the cuts caused by the 2008 recession (Barnett, Carolan, Squires, Brown & Horowitz, 2015).

Per-student spending is another way to measure states’ commitment to young children. In 2013–2014 the District of Columbia’s investment, of $15,372 per child was the highest and presented a sharp contrast to the funding level of ten states that allocated less than $3,000 per child. This variability alone is cause for concern. However, the most troublesome fact is that per-child support declined in 20 states between 2012–2013 and 2013–2014. These figures offer hope that state funding is recovering from the devastating effects of the recession, but have not yet fully recovered from the drastic cuts that began in 2011–2012 (Barnett, Carolan, Squires, Brown, & Horowitz, 2015).

A third way to gauge a state’s commitment to preschoolers’ education is to consider its commitment to quality. One indication of quality is the amount of specialized training teachers are required to bring to their work. In 2001–2002, only 74% of state-supported preschool programs required teachers to have specialized training in early childhood education. By 2008–2009, 84% of states’ programs required teachers to have specialized preparation. Efforts to continue to raise the bar for teachers’ education were stalled, however, by the 2008 economic downturn that made it impossible to reward well qualified teachers with the higher salaries they deserve (Barnett & Carolan, 2013). What’s more, public support for preschool programs remains consistently below that of programs for primary-age children, and teacher qualifications and other characteristics of quality are more likely to apply to programs for school-age children than for those in preschool (Barnet, Robin, Hustedt, & Schulman, 2003).

President Obama put early childhood education in the spotlight in his 2013 State of the Union Address when he proposed the Preschool for All federal—state partnership. The president’s initiative is intended to engage local school districts in the effort to increase the availability and quality of preschool for low- and moderate-income families. These efforts, coupled with continuing support for Race to the Top Early Learning Challenge grants and the expansion of Head Start and Early Head Start, could be the foundation of a durable system of publicly funded early care and education (The White House, 2013).

We know that challenges remain as the field strives to increase quality, affordability, and accessibility to meet the needs of increasingly diverse communities. We hope that this book will prepare you to advocate for the societal and governmental support required to provide all young children with opportunities to enhance their chances for success in school and beyond.

1.2 Check Your Understanding

Click here to gauge your understanding of chapter concepts.

Application Activity Find your state’s child care center licensing regulations by going to nrckids.org and clicking on the link for State Licensing and Regulation Information or by searching “child care licensing regulations YOUR STATE” or “day care licensing regulations YOUR STATE.” Find the requirements to serve as a program

director. Are you qualified now? What would you need to do to be eligible to serve as a director?

Are the qualifications the same or different in two neighboring states? What are these differences?

Bookmark this resource on your computer.

You will be referencing it frequently as you use this textbook.

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Types of Early Childhood Programs One of the first challenges encountered when studying programs of early care and education is the confusion about the meaning of early childhood. Professional organizations, state departments of education, researchers, and other stakeholders sometimes use vague synonyms or different chronological ages or developmental milestones when they refer to “young children.” The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has defined early childhood as the period from birth through age 8 (NAEYC, 2009). That is the definition we will use throughout this book, with a particular emphasis on children from birth to 5 years of age served in community child care settings.

One way to classify early childhood programs is by considering the program’s sponsor. Early childhood programs are operated by • state agencies (e.g., public prekindergarten, kindergarten, and primary-grade programs operated in public schools) • federal agencies (e.g., Head Start and Early Head Start) • private for-profit or nonprofit organizations (e.g., community preschools, parent cooperatives, employer-sponsored child care, faith-based programs, programs ­operated by service, or philanthropic organizations) • colleges and universities that use them as clinical settings and as research laboratories Early childhood programs may also be described by referring to their historical roots, which include health care, social services, home economics or family and consumer science, and education (Meisels & Shonkoff, 2000). Today, as in the past, early childhood programs reflect the social interests, political trends, and community priorities of the day (Garbarino & Ganzel, 2000; Sameroff & Fiese, 2000).

Most Common Types of Child Care In 2011, families made regular child care arrangements for about 61% of all children under age 5. About 42% of these children were cared for by a member of their family, most often a grandparent; about 5% were enrolled in family child care; and about 25% of America’s infants, toddlers, and preschoolers attended an organized facility such as a child care center, preschool, or Head Start (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013).

State-operated public schools and federally funded Head Start programs serve particular populations of young children from birth through age 4. State-funded pre-K programs are sometimes located in public schools, but they can also be housed in community programs that are reimbursed for their services. These publically funded programs have specific operating procedures and are governed by mandated standards. You will want to learn more about these programs if you anticipate a career in a government-operated program of early care and education.

The two most popular types of child care that are the primary focus of this book are child care centers and family child care. A child care center is a nonresidential facility serving 13 or more children and operating fewer than 24 hours a day (National Association for Regulatory Administration [NARA], 2013). Many programs serve children from birth through school age for 10 to 12 hours a day, adjusting their schedules to meet the needs of working families. Most serve the same children and families on a regular basis, but others accept children on a drop-in occasional basis.

Child care centers are regulated by states’ licensing agencies. While many for-profit

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Licensed Capacity In Millions

7.80 7.60 7.40 7.20

2005 Licensed Capacity

2008 Licensed Capacity

2011 Licensed Capacity

Figure 1.1 A Comparison of the Licensed Capacity of Child Care Centers 2005, 2008, and 2011.

Sources: Created from data from NARA/NCCIC, 2006; NARA, 2010; NARA, 2013.

centers are owned and operated by individuals or family corporations, some are operated as large chains or are franchises. Not-for-profit centers are typically sponsored by state or local governments, religious groups, service or philanthropic organizations, or parent cooperatives.

Consider how the licensed capacity of child care centers has fluctuated in recent years. Figure 1.1 illustrates how the capacity in licensed child care declined between 2008 and 2011 when demand was slowed by the economic downturn that put many families out of work.

Family child care is nonresidential care provided in a private home other than the child’s own. Just under 1 million (about 4.6%) of America’s children under age 6 attend family-based child care at least once a week (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). In small family child care homes, the number of children is limited—approximately six, including the caregiver’s own children. Many states differentiate between small home programs and those serving 7 to 12 children in large family child care homes or group child care homes. Family child care homes are most frequently operated as independent businesses, but they are occasionally part of a system (i.e., have a sponsoring organization authorized by the state to approve and monitor their services), as is the case for home providers operating on military bases.

Wide variation exists among states’ regulatory requirements for small and large family child care programs. In some states, operators must simply submit evidence that providers have undergone criminal background checks and have taken other essential steps to ensure children’s safety and well-being. In others, home-based programs are held to standards similar to those applied to child care centers. You will need to become familiar with your state’s requirements if you are considering opening a program for young children in your home.

Informal care includes a large network of often unregulated “kith and kin” providers.

Low-income families, families of color, and families with infants and toddlers are most likely to rely on these caregivers, who are most often relatives, friends, or neighbors of the children they serve (Shivers, 2012). Some researchers estimate that nearly one-half of all young children, particularly infants, in nonparental care are using informal and unregulated child care arrangements at least some of the time (Brown-Lyons, Robertson, & Layzer, 2001; Paulsell, Mekos, Del Grosso, Rowand, & Banghart, 2006).

As you study Figures 1.2 and 1.3, notice the child care arrangements families most often make for their preschoolers. Note the role that child care centers, preschools, and

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Creating the Early Childhood Program’s Framework Child Care Center 13.4%

Preschool 16% Head Start 15%

Preschool 6.0% Relative Care 42.1%

Head Start 5.6% Nanny In-Home Care 3.7%

Child Care Center 37%

Nanny In-Home Care 10% Family Child Care 13%

Family Child Care 4.6% Another Arrangement 9%

Another Arrangement 3.2%

Figure 1.2 Types of Regular Child Care Arrangements for Preschoolers reports the percentage of children cared for by relatives as well as those served in child care centers, preschools, Head Start, and family child care homes; by nannies in their own homes; and those who have another arrangement.

Figure 1.3 Regular Arrangements for Preschoolers Cared for by Nonrelatives reports the percentage of children cared for adults who are not members of their families.

Source: Created from U. S. Census Bureau, 2013 data.

Source: Created from U. S. Census Bureau, 2013 data.

Head Start programs play in families’ lives and reflect on the responsibilities they accept when children spend the majority of their waking hours in the care of adults who are not members of their families.

Special Services in Child Care Infant and toddler child care serves children from birth to age 3. Over 50% of the mothers of infants and toddlers are in the workforce, so the demand for services for these young children is great (Murphey, Cooper, & Forry, 2013). In 2011, about 16% of infants under 1 year old and 47% of toddlers between 12–36 months of age were enrolled in center-based care, and about 10% of infants under one and 14% of toddlers 12–36 months old were cared for in family child care settings (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). But, in spite of this high demand, the supply of infant/toddler care is inadequate. The lack of availability is due in part to the high cost of maintaining the low ratios (one caregiver to three or four children) that are the hallmark of quality. It is also particularly difficult to provide consistently highquality care for very young children. The now-classic Cost, Quality, and Outcomes study reported that 40% of infant/toddler programs were of poor quality and only 8% were determined to provide quality care (Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study Team, 1995).

Federal initiatives, including the Infant-Toddler Set-Asides that are part of the Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF), funnel increased funds to specialized The CCDF and its Child training and technical assistance for caregivers (ZERO TO THREE, n.d.). To date Care and Development these efforts have led to the creation of infant/toddler specialist networks in 27 Block Grant (CCDBG) have a long history of supportstates. These initiatives are designed to increase the knowledge and skill of careing children’s attendance in givers working with these youngest children by providing resources as well as quality child care. Watch this professional development and hands-on technical assistance (National Infant & video to learn about the history and contributions of the CCDBG Toddler Child Care Initiative, 2011). program from early childhood School-age child care (SACC) operates when school is not in session— policy leaders and parents: before and after school, on school holidays, and during the summer. These https://www.youtube.com/ programs are in great demand, as illustrated by the fact that half of today’s grade watch?v=319d9rPluxk. school children participate in an organized program in addition to school (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). SACC includes services provided by child care centers; large and small family child care homes; parks and recreational departments; day camps; and youth

Overview of Early Care and Education and Program Administration

Carla Mestas/Pearson Education

Chapter 1

Infant care is particularly intimate. Responsive caregiving supports babies’ emotional development.

groups such as YMCA/YWCA, Boy and Girl Scouts, and Boys & Girls Clubs of America.

As of 2013, 13 states had adopted separate school-age licensing standards that typically address the physical environment, child—staff ratios and maximum group size, staff qualifications and background checks, health and hygiene, and program activities. Many states continue to exempt these programs from regulation (NARA, 2013).

Children with identified special needs are often served in inclusive community child care programs. In this context inclusion, as used in the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), refers to the full integration of children with disabilities into their community. That means children with disabilities are placed in classrooms with typically developing peers, where they have the opportunity to become part of the classroom and school community. This federal mandate has been effective in giving children with disabilities the same opportunities as their typically developing peers. The U.S. Department of Education reports that over 48% of all young children covered by IDEA are served in inclusive community early childhood programs full time, and an additional 17% of young children with disabilities are enrolled in inclusive community programs part time (2009). Effective inclusion of young children requires meaningful collaboration among families, child care directors, classroom teachers, special education service providers, and local education agencies to ensure that the children and staff receive the services and professional development they need to be effective.

On-site child care is a growing trend that has attracted the attention of business leaders while earning the good will of parents seeking a healthy work—life balance (Sing, 2013). In fact, on-site child care has been recognized as setting a company apart as a “good place to work” (CNN Money, 2012). On-site child care has become more common in the workplace because it has proven to be a win—win investment. Parents are Employee-sponsored often happier and have improved morale when their children are nearby (Sing, on-site child care 2013). An added benefit is that employer-supported child care often comes with benefits both parents and a price tag well below what other families in their community typically pay (CNN employers. Watch this video to hear many statistics that Money, 2012). It has proven to be a good business investment because it makes illustrate why: employees more productive while reducing tardiness, absenteeism, and turnover. https://www.youtube.com/ That is why many employers find they save money in the long run when they watch?v=7czSawLjtrw. invest in bringing programs for young children into their workplace (Hahn, n.d.).

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1.3 Check Your Understanding

Click here to gauge your understanding of chapter concepts.

Another trend is the growing need for care for children who are mildly ill with a noncontagious condition or who are recovering from surgery. These programs provide a valuable service to working family members who would otherwise have to miss work.

Five types of care are available for children who are mildly ill: (a) centers that care only for sick children, (b) programs within hospitals, (c) “sick rooms” at regular child care centers, (d) specialized family child care homes, and (e) in-home care or visiting nurse services. Programs vary as to which illnesses or conditions they will admit or exclude; for example, many programs are not able to serve children with infectious diarrhea or a high fever. Some states have separate regulations for programs serving children who are ill (NARA, 2013).

There is also an increased demand for the overnight and weekend child care needed by families who work nonstandard or regularly shifting schedules that are common in nursing, retail, food service, manufacturing, construction, and other occupations (Chaudry, Pedroza, & Sandstrom, 2012; Enchautegui, 2013; Presser, 1999; Tavernise, 2012 U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Many parents employed in these industries earn low wages on an hourly basis. They may have little control over their schedules and face losing their jobs if they are not able to come to work promptly when told to report (McCrate, 2012). While most child care programs continue to operate Monday–Friday from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., licensing regulations in 35 states now address programs that care for children overnight (NARA, 2013).

A final trend is the growth of drop-in child care programs that care for children on an unscheduled or occasional basis. Some child care centers will accept children on a drop-in basis, but these programs are most often found in health clubs, shopping centers, or resort hotels (American Academy of Pediatrics, American Public Health Association, and National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care (AAP/APHA/NRCHSCC), 2011). A few states have separate regulations for these programs that care for children when a parent is nearby and easy to reach in the case of an emergency (NARA, 2013).

Application Activity Examine your state’s child care regulations to identify the kinds of programs they address.

Identify any programs, such as those serving

school-age children for a limited number of hours each day, that are exempt from regulation.

Quality: The Overriding Concern The growing appreciation for the potential benefits of quality programs of early care and education has strengthened funding agencies’ and policy makers’ commitment to ensuring that all families have access to programming that can support and enhance young children’s development, growth, and learning. These benefits can only be realized, however, in high-quality programs with characteristics linked to positive outcomes for children.

Characteristics of Quality Researchers and policy makers assess a child care program’s quality by evaluating its structural and process characteristics. Measures of structural quality include group size, child—adult ratio, and the extent of teachers’ and administrators’ specialized education

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have