Representative fauna and flora species of six European aquatic ecosystems.

“WATER UNITES US!” KA219 ERASMUS+ STRATEGIC SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP 2017 - 2019

“REPRESENTATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA SPECIES OF SIX EUROPEAN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS”

EUROPEAN UNION 2019

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“REPRESENTATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA SPECIES OF SIX EUROPEAN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS”

Edited by:

Spyridon Kavvadias Dr Biologist 1st General Lyceum of Argostoli “Marinos Korgialenios” Kefalonia GREECE

M. Francesca Calasso Teacher of English literature I.I.S.S. “E. Fermi” Lecce ITALY

EU 2019 WATER UNITES US!

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"The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein".

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION...……………………….………..…..5 CHAPTER 2 - REPRESENTATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA SPECIES OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS......................................….7 Ι) The ecosystem of Neretva River, Metkovic, Croatia…..…….....…..7 IA) Representative species of fauna………..……..………………..…….8 IB) Representative species of flora…………………………..………….13 ΙΙ) The ecosystem of Koutavos Lagoon, Argostoli, Kefalonia, Greece.................................................................................................17 IIΑ) Representative species of fauna………………………………..…...18 IIB) Representative species of flora…………………………...………...37 III) The ecosystem of the Eastern Coast of Salento - Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca – Alimini Lakes – Tricase – Italy.....................................................................................................51 IIIA) Representative species of fauna……………………………………54 IIIB) Representative species of flora………...…………………………..66 IIIB1) The flora species of Alimini Lakes............................................78 IV) The ecosystem of swamps, Melnais Lake Mire, Latvia....……...84 IVA) Representative species of fauna……………………………………87 IVB) Representative species of flora…………………………………….93 IVB1) Specially protected species of flora in Latvia…………………98 V) The ecosystem of Coura River, Paredes de Coura, Portugal............................................................................................102 VA) Representative species of fauna………...…………………………103 WATER UNITES US!

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VB) Representative species of flora…………………………………….106 VI) The ecosystem of the Lake Marmara, Turkey…...…………….113 VIA) Representative species of fauna………………………………..…114 VIAa) Observed bird species………………………...…………….……114 VIAb) Observed fish species………………………...………………..…149 VIAc) Other species: mussels and crayfish…………………..............158 VIB) Representative species of flora………………………………..….159 CHAPTER 3 – DISCUSSION………………………………………...172

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION “Water unites us!” was a two year (2017-19) KA219 Erasmus+ strategic school partnership focused especially on aquatic ecosystems, e.g. seaside, rivers, lakes, lagoons and wetlands. That project was carried out by six European schools, the 1st General Lyceum of Argostoli “Marinos Korgialenios”, Kefalonia, Greece (coordinating institution), the Istituto di Istruzione Secondaria Superiore "E. Fermi" from Lecce, Italy (partner), the Escola EB 2,3/S Paredes de Coura from Paredes de Coura, Portugal (partner), the Srednja škola Metković from Metković Croatia (partner), the Olaines 1.vidusskola from Olaine, Latvia (partner) and the Akhisar Anadolu İmam Hatip high school from Akhisar, Turkey.

"Water unites us!" was born because of our love for Mother Nature! There are many kinds of terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems in our countries with high biodiversity.

Our project was focused especially on aquatic ecosystems not only because a big part of our planet earth is covered by water but there is no life without water, as well! Each school chose a “target” ecosystem and students did research on their biotic features (flora and fauna) as an activity of the project.

Neretva River in Metkovic was the “target” ecosystem for the Croatian school, Koutavos Lagoon in Argostoli, Kefalonia for the Greek school, the Eastern Coast of Salento, Otranto WATER UNITES US!

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Natural Park, Santa Maria di Leuca and Tricase for the Italian school, Melnais Lake Mire for the Latvian school, Coura River in Paredes de Coura for the Portuguese school and Lake Marmara in Akhisar for the Turkish school.

Groups of students from Croatia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal and Turkey did the research in the field via direct observation on flora and fauna, taking photos and recording as well as surfing the internet and interviewing local fishermen, ecologists and officials. Our book with “Representative flora and fauna species of six European aquatic ecosystems” is one of the final products of our project.

According the distribution of tasks and responsibilities of “The water unites us!” this book is a common work of the Greek as well as the Italian school. Fauna data of the ecosystems were collected by the Greek school and the ones of flora by the Italian school.

Our book was created because among the concrete aims of our project was to mark out the particular biotic features (flora and fauna) of the different “target” ecosystems and highlight on representative species of aquatic organisms as well as to compare the results.

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CHAPTER 2 REPRESENTATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA SPECIES OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Ι) The ecosystem of Neretva River, Metkovic, Croatia.

Neretva Valley is known for its big variety of habitats which consists of river basins, river banks, ditches, damp meadows, forests of grass and canyons, seashore, but also those created by man's action: fields, embankments, canals and settlements. Particular importance for flora and vegetation in Neretva is water that comes from the river (figure 1) and its tributaries, as well as underground streams and springs.

Figure 1. Neretva River.

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IA) Representative ative species of fauna. f Eels, amphibians, amphibians mollusks (water snails, bivalvians), crabs, insects and birds are among the representative fauna species of the river.

Eel (fig 2) is born and dies in the sea and lives in the fresh water. There are many secrets and many doubts still around her life cycle, but one thing is for sure, it is very delicious. Eels living in Europe are not sexually mature. mature Sex maturation takes place between 6 and 30 years, depending on sex and area. Their color then changes in silvery with their darker hips, their noses and eyes grow, their jaw extends, and they go to the sea. sea They begin their journey towards the Sargasso Sea, and they go through the flock. The journey lasts for a year, and upon arrival at the Sargasso Sea, the eels are being spawned and killed. killed

Figure 2. Eel.

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Among the many amphibians is a large green frog (figure 3). It is, in fact, a symbol of our country.

Figure 3. Green frog.

In the waters of Delta there are as many as 16 fresh water species of water snails and several types of crabs. crabs It is quite understandable that in such a swampy area there must be many species of insects (fig 4, 5),, up to 307 species, only the butterfly has more than 250 species.

Figure 4.

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Figure 5.

The river is also habited by numerous bivalvians such as date shells, mussels, noble pen shells and clams (figures 6, 7, 8, 9).

Figure 6. Dateshells

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Figure 7. Mussels.

Figure 8. Noble pen shells.

Figure 9. Clams.

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In Neretva, a total of 310 species of birds (figure 10) have been recorded, of which 115 are nestling, and in Metković there is the second largest ornithological collection in Europe.

Figure 10.

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IB) Representative ative species of flora. flora Tree plants (Olea Olea europaea, Fig Fi tree) and herbaceous plants (Yellow iris, Bulrush, White water lily, lily Sage, Sage Immortelle and Lavender)) are among the representative flora species in the ecosystem of Neretva River.

White water lily (figure 11)) is a herbaceous plant. The root is in the sludge, while the leaves and flowers float on the surface. The leaves are large, rounded and leathery, deeply engraved and placed on long eyelets.

F Figure 11. White water lily.

Yellow iris (figure 12)) is a permanent herbaceous plant from a family of irises. The flowers are large, 7 to t 10 cm in diameter. It grows in wet places, swampy meadows, along the banks of rivers and canals. canals It is protected.

.

Figure 12. Yellow iris.

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Bulrush (figure 13) is a permanent, 1-2.5 2.5 m high water plant with slurry growing in the sludge, close to the water surface. The leaves are blue green, 1-22 m long and 1-2 1 cm wide. Flowers are developing only in the third year. year

Figure 13. Bulrush.

Olive tree (figure 14) is an ever green plant that can reach a height of 3 - 13 m. One olive tree can give 15 - 40 kg of olives, which corresponds to 3 to 8 kg of oil. oil In Mediterranean areas, the tree is born after eight years. Only healthy and fleshy fruits and those not damaged are used for canning.

Figure 14. Olive tree.

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Fig (figure 15)) is the oldest cultivated fruit.. The lifespan of fig trees is 50-70 70 years. years It is the better fiber source than most fruits. It helps control blood sugar levels and lowers cholesterol. It is rich ich in magnesium (dried fig shave 3 times more Mg+2 than fresh). fresh

Figure 15. Figs.

Sage (Salvia officinalis) officinalis (figure 16) shows antibacterial, antiviral and antifungicidal activity and improves memory.

F Figure 16. Salvia officinalis.

Immortelle (Helich Helich rysum) (figure 17)) works w against asthma and migraine. migraine It boosts collagen production. production WATER UNITES US!

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Figure 17. Helich rysum.

Lavender (Lavandula Lavandula) (figure 18) is a medicine for calming and alleviating insomnia and against headaches, anxiety, depression, tension and stress. stress Lavender oil is intensively used for breathing problems.

Figure 18. Lavandula.

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ΙΙ) The ecosystem of Koutavos Lagoon, Argostoli, Kefalonia, Greece.

Koutavos Lagoon (figure 19) is located at the south – south east in the Argostoli bay, Kefalonia island. It is approximately 200 acres in area. The average depth is 0.80 m (0.3 – 3 m) and the total coastline length is 4 km. To the south there is a small island, connected to the land, called “Pontikonisi”. The lagoon communicates to the north northwest with the sea through the arches of De Bosset Bridge. To the south – southeast spring water gushes and drainage ditches from Krania valley flow. The water is brackish – salt and the salinity ranges between 2.5 and 3.5 %.

Many species of fauna and flora are met in the ecosystem of the lagoon.

Figure 19. Koutavos Lagoon.

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IIΑ) Representative species of fauna.

Insects (e.g beetles, ants, firebug, honey bee), millipedes, birds (e.g. ducks, domestic geese, swans, great cormorants, Eurasian coots, gulls, grey herons), mammals, amphibians, reptiles (e.g. Caretta caretta), mollusks, crabs, fish (e.g. Mugil cephalus, Sparus aurata, Dicentrarchus labrax, Lithognathus mormyrus) and eels are among the representative fauna species of the lagoon. All the photos were taken by the Greek team participated in the project.

Beetles (figure 20) are a group of insects that form the order Coleoptera, in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings is hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal life-forms; new species are discovered frequently. The largest of all families, the Curculionidae (weevils) with some 70,000 member species, belongs to this order. They are found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions. They interact with their ecosystems in several ways: beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates.

Ants (figure 21) are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the Cretaceous period, about 140 million years ago, and diversified after the rise of flowering. More than 12,500 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been WATER UNITES US!

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classified. They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists.

Figure 20. Beetle.

Figure 21. Beetle and ants.

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The firebug (figure 22) Pyrrhocoris apterus, is a common insect of the family Pyrrhocoridae. Easily recognizable due to its striking red and black coloration, but may be confused with the similarly coloured though unrelated Corizus hyoscyam (cinnamon bug, squash bug). Pyrrhocoris apterus is distributed throughout the Palaearctic from the Atlantic coast of Europe to northwest China. It has also been reported from the USA, Central America and India. It has been reported as recently expanding its distribution northwards into mainland UK. They are frequently observed to form aggregations, especially as immature forms, with from tens to perhaps a hundred individuals.

Figure 22. Firebug.

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The honey bee (or honeybee) (figure 23) is a eusocial, flying insect within the genus Apis of the bee clade. They are known for construction of perennial, colonial nests from wax, for the large size of their colonies, and for their surplus production and storage of honey, distinguishing their hives as a prized foraging target of many animals, including honey badgers, bears and human hunter-gatherers. In the early 21st century, only seven species of honey bee are recognized, with a total of 44 subspecies, though historically seven to eleven species are recognized.

Figure 23. Honey bee.

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The best known honey bee is the Western honey bee which has been domesticated for honey production and crop pollination; modern humans also value the wax for candle making and other crafts. Honey bees represent only a small fraction of the roughly 20,000 known species of bees. Some other types of related bees produce and store honey and have been kept by humans for that purpose, including the stingless honey bees, but only members of the genus Apis are true honey bees. The study of bees, which includes the study of honey bees, is known as melittology.

Millipedes (figure 24) are a group of artropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments; they are known scientifically as the class Diplopoda, the name being derived from this feature. Each double-legged segment is a result of two single segments fused together. Most millipedes have very elongated cylindrical or flattened bodies with more than 20 segments, while pill millipedes are shorter and can roll into a ball.

Although the name "millipede" derives from the Latin for "thousand feet", no known species has 1,000; the record of 750 legs belongs to Illacme plenipes. There are approximately 12,000 named species classified into 16 orders and around 140 families, making Diplopoda the largest class of myriapods, an arthropod group which also includes centipedes and other multi-legged creatures.

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Figure 24. Millipede.

Duck (figures 25, 26) is the common name for a large number of species in the waterfowl family Anatidae which also includes swans and geese. Ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the family Anatidae; they do not represent a monophyletic group (the group of all descendants of a single common ancestral species) but a form taxon, since swans and geese are not considered ducks. Ducks are mostly aquatic birds, mostly smaller than the swans and geese, and may be found in both fresh water and sea water.

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Figure 25. Ducks.

Figure 26. Ducks.

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Domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus or Anser cygnoides domesticus) (figures 27, 28, 29) are domesticated grey geese (either graylag geese or swan geese) that are kept by humans as poultry for their meat, eggs, and down feathers since ancient times.

Figure 27. Geese.

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Figure 28. Geese.

Figure 29. Geese.

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Swans (figures 30, 31, 32) are birds of the family Anatidae within the genus Cygnus. The swans' close relatives include the geese and ducks. Swans are grouped with the closely related geese in the subfamily Anserinae where they form the tribe Cygnini. Sometimes, they are considered a distinct subfamily, Cygninae. There are six or seven living (and one extinct) species of swan in the genus Cygnus; in addition, there is another species known as the coscoroba swan, although this species is no longer considered one of the true swans. Swans usually mate for life, although “divorce� sometimes occurs, particularly following nesting failure, and if a mate dies, the remaining swan will take up with another. The number of eggs in each clutch ranges from three to eight.

Figure 30. Swan.

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Figure 31. Swan.

Figure 32. Swan.

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The Eurasian coot (Fulica atra) (figure 33), also known as the common coot, is a member of the rail and crake bird family, the Rallidae. The scientific name is from Latin; Fulica is "coot", and atra is "black". It is found in Europe, Asia, Australia and parts of Africa.

Figure 33. Eurasian coot.

The great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) (figures 34, 35), known as the great black cormorant across the Northern Hemisphere, the black cormorant in Australia, the large cormorant in India and the black shag further south in New Zealand, is a widespread member of the cormorant family of seabirds. The genus name is Latinised Ancient Greek from φαλακρός (phalakros, "bald") and κόραξ (korax, "raven"), and carbo is Latin for "charcoal".

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Figure 34. Great cormorant.

Figure 35. Great cormorant.

The grey heron (Ardea cinerea) (figure 36, 37) is a longlegged predatory wading bird of the heron family, Ardeidae, native throughout temperate Europe and Asia and also parts of Africa. It is resident in much of its range, but some populations from the more northern parts migrate southwards WATER UNITES US!

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in autumn. A bird of wetland areas, it can be seen around lakes, rivers, ponds, marshes and on the sea coast. It feeds mostly on aquatic creatures which it catches after standing stationary beside or in the water or stalking its prey through the shallows.

Figure 36. Grey heron.

Figure 37. Grey heron.

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Gulls or seagulls (figure 38) are seabirds of the family Laridae in the suborder Lari. Gulls are typically medium to large birds, usually grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They typically have harsh wailing or squawking calls; stout, longish bills; and webbed feet. Most gulls are ground-nesting carnivores which take live food or scavenge opportunistically, particularly the Larus species.

Live food often includes crabs and small fish. Gulls have unhinging jaws which allow them to consume large prey.

Gulls are typically coastal or inland species, rarely venturing far out to sea. The large species take up to four years to attain full adult plumage, but two years is typical for small gulls.

Large white – headed gulls are typically long-lived birds, with a maximum age of 49 years recorded for the herring gull.

Figure 38. Gulls.

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The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) (figures 39, 40), or loggerhead, is an oceanic turtle distributed throughout the world. It is a marine reptile, belonging to the family Chelonidae. The average loggerhead measures around 90 cm (35 in) long when fully grown, although larger specimens of up to 280 cm have been discovered. The adult loggerhead sea turtle weighs approximately 135 kg, with the largest specimens weighing in at more than 450 kg. The skin ranges from yellow to brown in color, and the shell is typically reddish brown. No external differences in sex are seen until the turtle becomes an adult, the most obvious difference being the adult males have thicker tails and shorter plastrons (lower shells) than the females.

Figure 39. Caretta caretta.

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Figure 40. Caretta caretta.

The most seen fish in Koutavos lagoon are: 1) The striped mullet Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus 1758) (figure 41), 2) The sea beam Sparus aurata (Linnaeus 1758), 3) The European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus 1758), and 4) The sand steenbras Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus 1758).

The flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) is an important food fish species in the mullet family Mugilidae. It is found in coastal tropical and subtropical waters worldwide.

It is known with numerous English names, including the flathead mullet, striped mullet (US, American Fisheries Society name), black mullet, bully mullet, common mullet, grey mullet, sea mullet and mullet, among others.

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The gilt-head (sea) bream (Sparus aurata) is a fish of the bream family Sparidae found in the Mediterranean sea and the eastern coastal regions of the North Atlantic. The gilt-head bream is generally considered the best-tasting of the breams. It is the single species of the genus Sparus – the Latin name for this fish – which has given the whole family of Sparidae its name. Its specific name, aurata, derives from the gold bar marking between its eyes.

The European bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) is a primarily ocean-going fish native to the waters off Europe’s western and southern and Africa’s's northern coasts, though it can also be found in shallow coastal waters and river mouths during the summer months. It is one of only six species in its family, Moronidae, collectively called the temperate basses. It is both fished and raised commercially, and is considered to be the most important fish currently cultured in the Mediterranean.

The sand steenbras or striped seabream (Lithognathus mormyrus) is a species of marine fish in the family Sparidae.

It is found in shallow water in the Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from France to South Africa. It also occurs in the Red Sea and off the coast of Mozambique in the Indian Ocean. The IUCN has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".

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Figure 41. Striped mullet.

Little egret (Egretta garzetta), common kingfishers (Alcedo atthis), European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus), European green lizards (Lacerta viridis), green frogs, butterflies, spiders, grasshoppers, mosquitoes, common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), common octopuses (Octopus vulgaris), crabs, mussels, clams, noble pen shells (Pinna nobilis), water snails and eels are also met in the ecosystem of Koutavos Lagoon.

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IIB) Representative species of flora.

Herbaceous plants (Asphodelus ramosus, Phragmites sp, Calendula arvensis, Malva sylvestris, Bellis perennis, Carduus pycnocephalus), shrub-likeplants (Medicago arborea, Rosmarinus officinalis, Nerium oleander, Tamarix sp) and tree plants (Pinus halepensis, Cupressus sempervirens, Arecaceae sp, Eucalyptus sp, Olea europaea) are among the representative species of flora in the ecosystem of Koutavos Lagoon. All the photos were taken by the Greek team participated in the project.

Calendula arvensis (figure 42) is a species of flowering plant in the daisy family known by the common name field marigold. It is native to central and southern Europe, and it is known across the globe as an introduced species. Calendula arvensis is an annual or biennial herb 10 – 50 cm tall. The leaves are lance-shaped and borne on petioles from the slender, hairy stem.

Figure 42. Calendula arvensis.

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The inflorescence is a single flower head up to four centimeters wide with bright yellow to yellow-orange ray florets around a center of yellow disc florets. The fruit is an achene which can take any of three shapes, including ringshaped, that facilitate different methods of dispersal.

Malva sylvestris (figure 43) is a species of the mallow genus Malva in the family of Malvaceae and is considered to be the type species for the genus. Known as common mallow to English-speaking Europeans, it acquired the common names of cheeses, high mallow and tall mallow (mauve des bois by the French) as it migrated from its native home in Western Europe, North Africa and Asia through the English-speaking world.

Figure 43. Malva sylvestris.

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Many related plants also share the name “daisy�, so to distinguish this species from other daisies it is sometimes qualified as common daisy, lawn daisy or English daisy.

Historically, it has also been commonly known as bruisewort and occasionally woundwort (although the common name woundwort is now more closely associated with Stachys). Bellis perennis (figure 44, 45) is native to western, central and northern Europe, but widely naturalized in most temperate regions including the Americas and Australasia.

Figure 44. Bellis perennis.

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Figure 45. Bellis perennis at the ecosystem of Koutavos Lagoon.

Carduus pycnocephalus (figure 46) with common names including Italian thistle, Italian plumeless thistle, and Plymouth thistle, is a species of thistle.

Figure 46. Carduus pycnocephalus.

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It is native to the Mediterranean region in southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia; East Europe and the Caucasus; and the Indian Subcontinent. The plant has become an introduced species in other regions, and on other continents, often becoming a noxious weed or invasive species.

Asphodelus ramosus (figure 47, 48), also known as branched asphodel, is a perennial herb in the Asparagales order. Asphodelus ramosus is native to the Mediterranean region of southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East. It can also be found in the Canary Islands. Its very numerous flowers are white with six tepals bearing a central brown streak. The fruits are small round capsules. It has been thought to be Homer’s asphodel of the underworld.

Figure 47. Asphodelus ramosus.

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Figure 48. Asphodelus ramosus.

Phragmites (figure 49) is a genus of four species of large perennial grasses found in wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world.

Figure 49. Phragmites at the ecosystem of Koutavos Lagoon.

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Medicago arborea (figure 50) is a flowering plant species in the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is found throughout Europe and especially in the Mediterranean basin, primarily on rocky shores among shrubby vegetation. It forms a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti, which is capable of nitrogen fixation. It is the only member of the genus Medicago which is used as an ornamental.

Figure 50. Medicago arborea.

Rosmarinus officinalis (figure 51), commonly known as rosemary, is a woody, perennial herb with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the Mediterranean region. It is a member of the mint family Lamiaceae, which includes many other herbs.

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The name “rosemary” derives from the Latin for “dew” (ros) and “sea” (marinus), or “dew of the sea”. The plant is also sometimes called anthos, from the ancient Greek word ἄνθος, meaning “flower”.

Figure 51. Rosmarinus officinalis.

Nerium oleander (figure 52) is a shrub or small tree in the dogbane family Apocynaceae, toxic in all its parts. It is the only species currently classified in the genus Nerium. It is most commonly known as nerium or oleander, from its superficial resemblance to the unrelated olive Olea. It is so widely cultivated that no precise region of origin has been identified, though southwest Asia has been suggested.

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Figure 52. Nerium oleander.

The genus Tamarix (tamarisk, salt cedar) (figure 53) is composed of about 50–60 species of flowering in the family Tamaricaceae, native to drier areas of Eurasia and Africa. The generic name originated in Latin and may refer to the Tamaris River in Hispania Tarraconensis (Spain).

Figure 53. Tamarix.

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The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial plants.

Their growth form can be climbers, shrubs, trees and stemless plants, all commonly known as palms (figure 54). Those having a tree form are colloquially called palm trees. They are flowering plants, a family in the monocot order Arecales.

Currently 181 genera with around 2,600 species are known, most of them restricted to tropical and subtropical climates.

Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, ever green leaves, known as fronds, arranged at the top of an unbranched stem. However, palms exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit nearly every type of habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts.

Figure 54. Palm.

Pinus halepensis (figure 55, 56), commonly known as the Aleppo pine, is a pine native to the Mediterranean region.

Its range extends from Morocco, Algeria and Spain north to WATER UNITES US!

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southern France, Italy, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, and east to Greece, all over Malta and northern Tunisia, with an outlying population (from which it was first described) in Syria, Lebanon, southern Turkey, Jordan, Israel, and Palestinian territories.

Figure 55. Pinus halepensis.

Figure 56. Male blossom of Pinus halepensis.

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Eucalyptus (plural eucalypti, eucalyptuses or eucalypts) (figure 57, 58) is a diverse genus of flowering trees and shrubs (including a distinct group with a multiple-stem mallee growth habit) in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae.

Figure 57. Eucalyptus.

Figure 58. Leaves of Eucalyptus.

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Cupressus sempervirens (figure 59), the Mediterranean cypress, is a species of cypress native to the eastern Mediterranean region, in northeast Libya, southern Albania, southern coastal Croatia (Dalmatia), southern Montenegro, southern Greece, southern Turkey, Cyprus, northern Egypt, western Syria, Lebanon, Malta, Italy, Israel, western Jordan, and also a disjunct population in Iran. Cupressus sempervirens is a medium-sized coniferous evergreen tree to 35 m tall, with a conic crown with level branches and variably loosely hanging branchlets. It is very long-lived, with some trees reported to be over 1,000 years old.

Figure 59. Cupressus sempervirens.

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Olea (figure 60) is a genus of about 40 species in the family Oleaceae, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Middle East, southern Europe, Africa, southern Asia, and Australasia. They are evergreen trees and shrubs, with small, opposite, entire leaves. The fruit is a drupe. Leaves of Olea contain trichosclereids. For humans, the most important species is by far the olive (Olea europaea), native to the Mediterranean region, Africa, southwest Asia, and the Himalayas, which is the type species of the genus.

Figure 60. Olea sp.

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III) The ecosystem of the Eastern Coast of Salento Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca – Alimini Lakes – Tricase - Italy.

The eastern coast from Lecce to Otranto presents a varied landscape that includes woods, lagoons, beaches, rocky coastline high and low. The peculiar features of the marshy territory preceding the reclamation are still visible (figures 61, 62, 63, 64).

Figure 61.

Figures 62, 63, 64.

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The ecosystems we focused on are the two basins, the Alimini Lakes that have different origins: Karst (Fontanelle) and lagoon (Alimini Grande). The landscape is rich in biodiversity and history too. It is an important mosaic of marsh, woodland and agrarian habitats. Big Alimini is a salty lake; Fontanelle is a fresh water lake. The present Alimini district relates about a past of great landscape transformations: from swampland to farmed land, from juniper dunes to pine forest near the sea (figures 65, 66, 67).

Figures 65, 66, 67.

The Bauxite quarry is an example of industrial archaeology with an ongoing process of naturalization.

Bauxite mining started in the 60s and went on for a decade in other parts of the area too. The lake water is surprisingly very clear and seaweed less despite it is a strongly eutrophic ecosystem. The presence of aluminium and iron released by the bauxite prevent the seaweed proliferation. Geological, botanical and fauna aspects are relevant (figures 68, 69).

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Figures 68, 69. The Bauxite quarry.

The regional natural Park “Costa Otranto-S.M.. di Leuca and Bosco di Tricase� enjoys one of the largest densities of coastal caves in Italy (about 120) (figures 70, 71).. Some of these represent ideal shelters of bats, very useful mammals, which once populated our countryside and coasts at dusk, while today are increasingly threatened by different pressures that have reduced their own populations.

Figures 70, 71.

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The “Poesia” small cave (figure 72) is considered a Time Shrine, a place of worship for the Messapians who worshipped the God Tator. The “Poesia” big cave (figure 73), in the archaeological park of Ancient Roca, is considered one of the most beautiful natural pools of the world. Natural beauty, particular erosion phenomena, archaeological sites and the Water and Beauty Myth are the features of the area.“POESIA” is a Greek word for water spring.

Figures 72, 73.

IIIA) Representative species of fauna.

Invertebrates (Italodytes stammeri, Typhlocaris salentina, Hadoblothrus gigas and Spelaeomysis bottazzii), reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds are among the representative fauna species of the Eastern Coast of Salento.

The richness of the karstic and erosive phenomena of the Salento coast, finds its maximum expression in the numerous coastal caves. In these environments, the fauna includes several rare species and some endemic invertebrates, such as Italodytes stammeri, Typhlocaris salentina (figure 73), WATER UNITES US!

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Hadoblothrus gigas and Spelaeomysis bottazzii (figure 74). In the closed to the public part of the cave of Zinzulusa, the misidaceous Spelaeomysis bottazzii and a large semi-blind shrimp (Typhlocaris salentina) live, they take refuge in the small lake of Cocito. They are diaphanous, fragile, soft beings, often with long appendages, strictly adapted to their very special environment and unable to survive in slightly different conditions.

Rare cave crustaceans (spelaeomysis botazzii and Typhlocaris Salentina)

Figure 74.

In the sea of the Salento coast it is possible to meet the Caretta caretta sea turtle (figures 75, 76). It is the most widespread species of sea turtle in the Mediterranean, but it is also in danger because of marine pollution, the reduction of nesting habitats, the collisions with boats, and accidents caused by trawl nets and other fishing systems.

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Figures 66, 67. Caretta caretta.

In the Museum of Natural Sciences of Calimera, in Salento, there is the turtles’ recovery center, where the wounded turtles are received, treated and released in the waters of the Adriatic (figures 68, 69, 70).

Figures 68, 69, 70.

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In the woods surrounding the Alimini Lakes, there are numerous reptiles such as the cervone (figure 71), the common viper (figure 72) and the leopardino colubro cervone (Elaphe quatuorlineata) (figure 73). It is the largest Italian snake. It lives in the centenarian olive groves near oak woods. The birds are his favorite prey. It is very gentle and is a great swimmer.

Figure 71. Τhe cervone.

The common viper (Vipera aspis) (figure 72) lives in cool and sunny places, preferring environments that are poor in vegetation, such as meadows, pastures and above all rocks.

It feeds on mice, lizards and small birds. The viper bite is unlikely to be lethal for the grown man; it can instead be a serious problem for children (due to limited body mass) and for people with heart disease and debilitating diseases.

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Figure 72. Τhe common viper.

Colopro leopardino (Zamenis situla) is a snake belonging to the family of the Colubrid. It is a less aggressive species never bites or rarely, its defence is the escape, if put to the straits rarely reacts. This snake is confused with the viper because of its bright colours.

Figure 73. The leopardino colubro cervone.

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many species of aquatic avifauna of the Alimini lakes. The biotope of the Lakes Alimini, in the municipality of Otranto, is one of the most important and diversified naturalistic areas of the province of Lecce. The area is characterized by the presence of two lakes: Alimini Grande and Alimini Piccolo.

Completing the natural area are lush pine forests and Mediterranean spots, impressive dunes and a long sandy coastline, set to the north and south by high cliffs. The avifauna of the Alimini Lakes includes many rare species: mallards, white and gray herons, ducks, marzaiole, lapwings, chiuri, piro piro, egrets, coots, moriglioni, white storks, swans, cranes, flamingos. There are also species of birds of prey such as harriers, marsh hawks, peregrine falcons, kestrels, buzzards, imperial eagles and nocturnal birds of prey such as owls, common owls, tawny owls, owls and barn owls. Male specimens (on the right) and female (on the left) of Anas platyrhynchos, known by the name of mallard, is considered as the progenitor of most of the duck's domestic breeds (figure 74).

Figure 74. Male specimens (on the right) and female (on the left) of Anas platyrhynchos.

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White heron (Ardea alba) nidifies both in couples and in colony (figure 75). In Italy it is considered a regular migratory species.It frequents humid environments, especially reeds, where it nests, the banks of lakes and rivers and uncovered tidal areas.

Figure 75.White heron.

Some of the grey herons cinerino (Ardea cinerea), in particular the Eurasian ones, are migratory and move mainly at night (figure 76). It prefers habitats rich in prey and with shallow waters.

Figure 76. Grey heron cinerino.

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In the name of marzaiola (Spatula querquedula) there is the word used to indicate the species (figure 77).

"Querquedula" is an onomatopoeia that is the characteristic sound of this species.

Figure 77. Marzaiola (Spatula querquedula).

Eurasian coot (Fulica atra) is a water bird of the Rallidi family (figure 78). It is a sedentary species that prefers calm ponds, moist soils and slowly flowing waters, with many aquatic plants and marsh reeds.

Figure 78. Eurasian coot.

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Kestrel Falco tinnunculus • It is widespread in various habitats but especially in the old pastures and glades.

• It feeds on small-sized rodents or lizards, frogs, small-scale insects.

• It often uses the nests of other birds and lays 4 to 6 eggs that incubates for 27-28 days.

Common toad (Bufo bufo) is an amfibio anuro of the Bufonidae family (figure 79). It is the largest amphibian in Europe. Its color is brown, which can tend to reddish; the belly tends to be whitish. The skin has many warts, which secrete urticants only if in contact with the mucous membranes.

Prevalently nocturnal, during the day tends to hide in holes or crevices, under the stones or in places sheltered from light.

Figure 79.Common toad.

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Among the mammals present in the caves we remember the numerous colonies of bats. In the spring of Charlemagne and in the great cave of Ciolo, the species Rhinolophus ferromequinumis (figure 80, 81) present, in the cave of Zinzulusa you can find Miniopterus myotis and Rinolophus euryale and in the cave of the Monk Miniopterus schreibersi.

Figures 80, 81. Rhinolophus ferromequinumis.

In the park area there was the last regional presence of the rarest mammal in Europe, the Foca monaca (Monachus monachus) (figure 82).

Figure 82. Foca monaca (Monachus monachus).

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The most common mammals that can be found in the Alimini Lakes area are hedgehogs, foxes, badgers, weasels, martens and oaks mice.

Hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus • Its rounded body is covered with short, pointed thorns, except the head, the belly and the limbs.

• For defense, he puts his head and paws on his belly and closes in a thorny ball.

• It feeds on insects, bird eggs, vegetables found in cultivated soils.

Fox Vulpes vulpes • Mammal still very common.

• It is a stealthy hunter, active by day and night, which feeds mainly on small birds and also backyard animals when approaching the inhabited countryside.

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Badger Meles meles • Sturdy and short-legged, it has a small, pointed head, a short neck and a small tail.

• It is a nocturnal omnivore and feeds on earthworms, insects, lizards, bird eggs.

• From its dialectal name, "Milogna", derives the name of the swamp of Rauccio, the Specchia of Milogna

Eliomys quercinus is a rodent of the Gliridae family that lives mainly in Europe. It is common throughout Italy and lives in oak woods. In winter it hibernates. Of mostly nocturnal habits, this animal seeks shelter during the day in the ravines of the rocks or in the cavities of the trees (figure 83).

Figure 83. Eliomys quercinus.

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IIIB) Representative species of flora.

The Italian ecosystem shows rich flora diversity, with tree plants (e.g. Quercus ilex), shrub-likeplants (e.g. Ephedra campilopoda, Thymus capitatus) and herbaceous plants (e.g.

Cymbo pogonhirtus, Limonium virgatum).

Leccio (Quercus ilex) is an evergreen, deciduous and spontaneous tree belonging to the Fagaceae family. It is common in the countries of the Mediterranean basin. The fruit is the acorn. It is resistant to drought.

Figure 84. Quercus ilex (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase)

Quercia (Quercus coccifera) is a shrub plant, belonging to the Fagaceae family, native to North Africa and southeastern Europe. In Italy it is present sporadically in Sicily, Sardinia, Liguria, Puglia and Calabria. The leaves have pronounced spines. The acorns (figure 85) have domes with thorny scales.

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Figure 85. Acorns (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Between Otranto and S.M. di Leuca, the Salento coast draws about 57 km of entirely rocky coastline. From a floristic - vegetational point of view, the coastal area can be divided into parallel bands that present, from the coast line towards the inside, different landscape and plant aspects; these areas extend parallel to the level curves downstream and upstream of the road.

The first strip, along the coast line, for a variable width (20-50 m, corresponding to the area of state property) is characterized by a rocky coast of compact limestone (Calcari di Castro) with poor vegetation cover. In the pockets of rock that host sediment deposits, there are halophilous species such as Limonio virgato (Limonium virgatum), Salicornia fruticosa (Arthrocnemum fruticosum), Marine fennel (Critmum maritimum) and Cappero (Capparis spinosa).

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Limonio virgato (figure 86) is a rhizomatous perennial plant, belonging to the Plumbaginaceae family, 15-50 cm tall.

The inflorescence is corymbose and the corolla is pink-violet with 5 petals welded at the base. It blooms in June-August.

Figure 86. Limonio virgato (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Salicornia fruticosa (figure 87) is a succulent plant of the Chenopodiacee family. It grows forming thick bushes. It is an edible plant, rich in vitamin A and C, iron, iodine, bromine, potassium and calcium. It blooms in July-August.

Figure 87. Salicornia fruticosa (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

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Marine fennel (figure 88) is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant belonging to the family of Umbellifers originating from the European Mediterranean regions. It has small lanceolate and fleshy leaves. The flowers are gathered in umbrellas and bloom from July to September. It is an edible plant.

Figure 88. Marine fennel. (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase)

Cappero (figure 89) is a small branched shrub with a prostrate - hanging habit. It belongs to the Capperaceae family. It blooms in May and June. It is a heliophilous and xerophilous plant with very limited water needs. Of the plant we consume the buds, called capers, and more rarely the fruits.

Figure 89. Cappero (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

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The line of rocky cliffs is occupied, instead, by a rupicola flora rich in plant species of great scientific relevance some of which are exclusive of Salento as Fiordaliso di Leuca (Centaurea leucadea), Fiordaliso noble (Centaurea nobilis) and Garofanino salentino (Dianthus japigicus). These are species included in the national "Red List" of species at risk of extinction.

Cornflower of Leuca (Centaurea leucadea) (figure 90) is a perennial plant of the Asteraceae family, endemic to the Salento peninsula. The stem and the leaves are covered with thick hair. It blooms in spring.

Figure 90. Centaurea leucadea( Photo by Piero Medagli).

Noble cornflower (Centaurea nobilis) (figure 91) is a biennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Asteraceae family, endemic to the Salento peninsula. It blooms from June to August.

Figure 91. Centaurea nobilis (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

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Garofanino salentino (figure 92) is a perennial plant endemic to the Salento family belonging to the Caryophyllaceae family. It blooms from June to September.

Figure 92. Garofanino salentino (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Veccia di Giacomini (Vicia giacominiana) (figure 93) is a very rare plant belonging to the Fabaceae family. It is endemic to Salento and blooms in May.

Figure 93. Vicia giacominiana (Photo by Paola Tassisto).

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Eastern Mediterranean area species having in this area the extreme western offshoot of their distribution are: Alisso di Leuca (Aurinia leucadea), Campanula pugliese (Campanula versicolor), Eastern Ephedra (Ephedra campylopoda), Cardo bullet (Echinops spinosissimus) and Navel of Venus greenish (Umbilicus cloranthus). These are species included in the national "Red List" of species at risk of extinction.

Figure 94. Aurinia leucadea (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Alisso di Leuca is perennial plant belonging to the Brassicaceae family which at full bloom reaches a height of 30-40cm. It has a racemose inflorescence formed by numerous bright yellow four-petal flowers. It blooms in March-April.

Species included in the national "Red List".

Figure 95. Campanula pugliese (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

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Campanula pugliese is a rare species present in Italy, almost exclusively in Puglia. It blooms from early July, throughout the summer. It lives in the cracks and crevasses of the rocky walls. It is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Campanulacceae family. Species included in the national "Red List".

Eastern Ephedra is typical species of the eastern Mediterranean region. It is hypothesized the recent introduction in Puglia through birds. It is a shrub plant belonging to the Gnetophyta division, Ephedraceae. Species family included in the national "Red List".

Figure 96. Eastern Ephedra (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Cardo bullet is a perennial herbaceous plant, belonging to the Asteraceae family. It has a spherical spherical head. It blooms from May to July. It is an endemic species of rock flora that is located on the rocky coast between Otranto and Leuca. Species included in the national "Red List".

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Figure 97. Cardo bullet (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Navel of greenish Venus is a perennial herbaceous plant, with underground bulbs, belonging to the Crassulaceae family. It blooms from March to June. Species included in the national "Red List".

Figure 98. Navel of greenish Venus (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

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Beyond the cliff line, at the highest altitudes, there is a large flat area where there are different formations of pseudosteppa and garigue. Of particular importance are the meadows with Mediterranean Poodle (Cymbo pogonhirtus) (figure 99) included in the phytosociological class TheroBrachypodietea, priority habitat of the Habitat Directive 92/43 EEC. It is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Poeaceae family (Graminaceae). It has laminar leaves and inflorescences formed by pairs of spikes.

Figure 99. Mediterranean Poodle (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

A large group of orchids (genera Serapias, Ophris, Orchis, Spiranthes, Anacamptis etc), enriches the floristic component of the Park with rarity and forms of extraordinary beauty. Butterfly Orchid (Orchis papilionacea) (figure 100) is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Orchidaceae family, with underground bulbs. It is a Mediterranean species and blooms from April to May. It grows in environments of prairie, garrigue and scrubland.

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Figure 100. Orchis papilionacea (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Fior bombo (Orchis fuciflora) is a plant belonging to the Orchidaceae family (figure 101). It represents an example of mimicry, because it imitates the appearance of a female bumble bee, to encourage entomophilous pollination.

Figure 101. Orchis fuciflora (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Green - brown Ofride (Ophrys sphecodes) (figure 102) is a herbaceous plant 15-50 cm tall. It blooms from March to June. It grows in arid meadows, bushes, thickets, prevalent on calcareous soils.

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Figure 102. Ophrys sphecodes (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

The Grove of Tricase is a site of extraordinary importance, preserving majestic and centuries-old specimens of Oak vallonea (Quercus macrolepis) that in this area finds the optimal pedoclimatic conditions for its spontaneous reproduction. We are facing the only Quercus macrolepis wood present in Italy and in general the westernmost outpost of this species in Europe. Near the Boschetto, the Serra area is dotted with isolated nuclei and specimens of this beautiful and mighty deciduous tree; on the road to Tricase Porto, there is the famous "Vallonea dei cento cavalieri" (figure ), an example that popular tradition dates back to the 12th century.

It is a species present in the eastern Mediterranean, in the Balkans, in the Greek islands and in Asia minor. From the acorns of the Vallonea tannin was extracted, a substance used in the tanning of the skins.

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Figure 103. The Vallonea of the hundred horsemen (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa OtrantoLeuca and Bosco di Tricase).

IIIB1) The flora species of Alimini Lakes.

For lovers of flora, the scenery of the Alimini Lakes is a natural paradise, dove, the lush and uncultivated vegetation, gives the place obviously incredible. The vegetation is a species of Mediterranean scrub, the richest of particular species, some of which are a risk of extinction, such as marsh orchids. Water chestnuts, another species endangered in Italy, which has large fruits similar to chestnuts and bladder grass, a carnivorous plant driven by tiny combs that, when touched by insects, open bladders that aspire to its interior the prey. In the small Alimini there is the swamp straw. Alimini grande is protected by pine (Pino d' Aleppo). Parallel to the lakes there is the coast. It is possible to reach the beach through paths immersed in the green among the typical scents of juniper and thyme. On the coastal dunes is the ammophila.

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Marsh orchid (acid plant) (figure 104), 20 to 60 cm tall, is a plant belonging to the Orchidaceae family. The flowers, quite large, are pink or pale purple. It blooms in April in marsh areas and wet meadows. It is increasingly rare due to the continued destruction of growth habitats.

Figure 104. Marsh orchid (Photo of Pancrazio Campagna).

Bladder grass (Utricularia vulgaris) (figure 105) is a carnivorous plant belonging to the family Lentibulariaceae. It is a perennial aquatic plant without roots.

Figure 105. Utricularia vulgaris (Photo festivaldelverdeedelpaesaggio.it).

Swamp straw (Phragmites australis) (figure 106) is a rhizomatous perennial herbaceous plant of the Poaceae family. It has a hard, empty, long, knotty and flexible stem and leaves 20 to 60 cm long, green or glaucous; at the apex of the WATER UNITES US!

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stem produces a brown or purple cob, about 40 cm long. It grows in dense reeds near marshes and wetlands, on the banks of lakes, ponds, ditches and on uncultivated wet lands; tolerates a moderate level of salinity.

Figure 106. Phragmites australis (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Pino d' Aleppo (Pinus halepensis) (figure 107) is an evergreen conifer of the Pinaceae family. It is a variety very resistant to the hot and humid climate of the Mediterranean and extends in central-southern Italy, but also in Croatia, Albania, Libya, Spain, Morocco, Israel, Jordan and Syria, from which derives the name Aleppo.

Figure 107. Pinus halepensis (Photo ormepuglia.it).

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Juniper coccolone (Juniperus oxicedrus) (figure 108) is a shrub or evergreen tree of the Cupressaceae family. It blooms in February-May and grows on the sandy dunes of the coastal areas. The plant is rustic and resistant and plays the important role of consolidating the marine sands.

Figure 108. Juniperus oxicedrus (Photo of Pancrazio Campagna).

Shrub Thyme (Thymus capitatus) (figure 109) is a perennial shrub plant belonging to the Lamiaceae family. It blooms in May-August and grows in garrigue, dry slopes and Mediterranean scrub.

Figure 109. Thymus capitatus (Photo of Pancrazio Campagna).

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Pungent spittle (Ammophila arenaria) (figure 110): it is a herbaceous plant of the Poaceae family, widespread in the Mediterranean basin and on the Atlantic coasts of France, Spain and Portugal. Although original for the European coasts, it has been introduced to other continents to stabilize the sand dunes.

Figure 110. Ammophila arenaria (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

Malva sylvestris is a species of the mallow genus Malva (family Malvaceae) and is considered to be the type species for the genus. M. sylvestris is a spreading herb, which is an annual in North Africa, biennial in the Mediterranean and a perennial elsewhere. It can be straight or decumbent, branched, and covered with fine soft hairs or none at all. M. sylvestris is pleasing in appearance when it first starts to flower, but as the summer advances, "the leaves lose their deep green color and the stems assume a ragged appearance".

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Figure 111. Malva sylvestris (Photo of the archive of the Regional Natural Park Costa Otranto-Leuca and Bosco di Tricase).

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IV) The ecosystem of swamps, Melnais Lake Mire, Latvia.

The swamp (figure 112) is the upper part or plot of the ground which has some typical features: a) periodical wetness, b) specific flora, c) accumulation of peat moss. Peat is more or less decomposed plant (humus) material that has accumulated in a water-satured environment and in the absence of oxygen.

The swamp can be formed in two ways: a) It forms where water collects on, near the surface of the soil, and it does not drain away and dry out, b) It forms overgrowing the water body.

Swamps occupy 10 % of the territory of Latvia but only 4.9 % are undamaged swamp areas. They have a number of wildlife species that have specifically adapted to living in them.

Figure 112.

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The total area of swamps is 317 ha. It is especially protected nature area in Latvia (nature reserve) and included in European network of protected territories Natura 2000. It is located in Olaine Municipality of the Olaine District and started to develop 5000–6000 years ago. The maximum thickness of peat layer is 5 m.

The main nature values of swamps are: a) Raised bog with hummock-bog pool complex (36 %), b) Dystrophic lakes (6 %), c) Permanent shallow lakes that have developed in place of the previous peat fields and are important for birds (12 %), d) In total,17 especially protected bird species, and e) Especially protected habitats (84 %).

Melnais Lake Mire (figure 113) has preserved as a small nature “oasis� within an intensively managed area. Most probably, the small territory around the lake remained intact among the vast fields of peat extraction due to its richness in water and many pools. Approximately 60 % of the territory is covered with 3 especially protected mire habitats of European importance that bear the human influence to the different extent: a) Intact raised bog occupies 35 % of the nature reserve.

Vegetation characteristic of the raised bogs dominates in the part that is less influenced by melioration. Despite various negative influences, the mire is rich in water in some parts, and several lakes and pools occur there. b) Transition mire and quacking bogs have developed in small areas near lakes and pools. In places, this habitat has WATER UNITES US!

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developed due to the lowering of water level of the lakes; as a result the lake has filled-in with Sphagnum mosses and sedges. c) Degraded raised bogs, where natural regeneration is possible or takes place covers 25 % of the territory of the nature reserve. Due to drainage, the mire has become dry and fire-hazardous – several fires have occurred in the territory, degrading the vegetation furthermore. In many European states almost no intact mires have remained. With the help of special management activities, the influence of drainage can be diminished and restoration of the mire favored, therefore this habitat is especially protected in the European Union.

Figure 113. Melnais Lake Mire.

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IVA) Representative species of fauna.

Reptiles (e.g. viper), amphibians (e.g. moor frog), birds (wood sandpiper, Cranes, White wagtail, bufflehead, Mallard duck, European golden plover), grasshoppers (Mecostethus grossus) and arachnids (Dolomedes fimbriatus) are among the representative fauna species of the swamps.

Viper (figure 114) is the only poisonous snake in Latvia.

Figure 114. Viper.

Moor frog (figure 115) is a small frog, characterized by an unspotted belly, a large, dark ear spot. They are generally described as a reddish-brown, but can also be yellow, gray, or light olive. Their bellies are white or yellow and they have a "bandit-like" black stripe going from their nose to their ears. They live in different habitat but in Latvia mostly in wetlands and swamps.

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Figure 115. Moor frog.

The wood sandpiper (figure 116) is a medium-sized wading bird, with a fine straight bill, yellowish legs and a conspicuous long white stripe from the bill over the eye to the back of the neck. In flight, it shows no wing-stripes and a square white rump. They migrate in spring and autumn, breeding in Northern Europe and wintering in Africa. They eat Insects, worms, spiders, shellfish, small fish and small aquatic invertebrates. It is an especially protected bird species in Latvia and Europe.

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Figure 116.Wood sandpiper.

Cranes are very large birds (figure 117), often considered the world's tallest flying birds. They are longlegged and long-necked birds with streamlined bodies and large, rounded wings. The males and females do not vary in external appearance, but males tend to be slightly larger than females. These species inhabits vast, open wetlands. Most of them nest in shallow wetlands. They migrate in spring and autumn. Cranes are especially protected bird species in Latvia and Europe.

Figure 117. Cranes.

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White wagtail (figure 118) is a slender bird, 16.5 to 19 cm long with the characteristic long, constantly wagging tail of its genus. Its average weight is 25 g and the maximum lifespan in the wild is about 12 years. They migrate in spring and autumn. It is a Latvian national bird.

Figure 118.White wagtail.

The bufflehead (figure 119) ranges from 32–40 cm long and weighs 270–550 g. Adult males are striking black and white, with iridescent green and purple heads and a large white patch behind the eye. Females are grey-toned with a smaller white patch behind the eye and a light underside. Their breeding habitat is wooded lakes and ponds.

Figure 119. Bufflehead.

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Mallard duck (figure 120) is 50–65 cm long – of which the body makes up around two-thirds – has a wingspan of 81– 98 cm and weighs 0.72–1.58 kg. Their habitat is near ponds, marshes, streams, and lakes, where they feed on plants, invertebrates, fish, and insects. Mallards are surface-feeding ducks because they eat by tipping underwater for food—head down, feet and tail in the air—rather than diving. Mallards also forage and graze for food on land. The male mallard duck has got a glossy green head, a white ring around its neck and a rich, chestnut-brown breast. The female duck has got brown feathers.

Figure 120. Mallard duck.

The European golden plover (figure 121) is quite thickset, with its wings only being slightly longer than its tail.

Its most distinct feature is a white "s"-shaped band stretching from its forehead to its flanks.

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Figure 121. European golden plover.

The habitat of Mecostethus grossus (figure 122) is typically wet meadow and marsh. They also live in sphagnum moss bogs.

Figure 122. Mecostethus grossus.

The main habitat of Dolomedes fimbriatus (figure 123) is Sphagnum bogs and pools. This spider also inhabits water margins of ditches, ponds and slow flowing streams.

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Figure 123. Dolomedes fimbriatus.

IVB) Representative species of flora.

The flora of the swamps is very specific – species, which are fully adapted to the wet habitat, grow here mostly. There are no special rarities in the flora. Sphagnum species make a dense moss cover and dominate in the vegetation of the swamps. The presence of Sphagnum moss is the main characteristic feature of raised bogs. When the lower parts of Sphagnum species decay, peat develops. And, while peat is developing, the mire is ‘alive’ and the layer of peat grows.

Tussock cottengrass, brown bog sedge, Scottish heather, marsh labrador tea, cattail, sphagnum, dwarf birch tree, pine trees, lingonberries and cranberries are representative species of flora in Latvian swamps.

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Tussock cottengrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) (figure 124) is a species of perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the sedge family Cyperaceae. It is native to bogs and other acidic wetlands. It is a 30–60 cm high tussock-forming plant with erect solitary spikelets.

Figure 124. Tussock cottengrass.

Brown bog sedge (Carexbux baumii) (figure 125) is widespread sedge with circumboreal distribution, brown bog sedge occurs in wet, often calcareours sites. This plant gets its specific epithet – Buxbaumii from Johann Christian Buxbaum (1693 – 1730), a German botanist who collected them in Greece, Middle East and Russia.

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Figure 125. Brown bog sedge.

Scottish heather (Calluna vulgaris) (figure 126) is a low -growing perennial shrub growing to 20 to 50 centimetres tall, rarely to 1 meter and taller. It is found widely on acidic soils in open sunny situations and in moderate shade. It is the dominant plant in most heath land, moorland and in some bog vegetation and acidic pine and oak woodland.

Figure 126. Scottish heather.

Marsh labrador tea (Rhododendronto mentosum) (figure 127) is a low shrub growing to 50 cm, rarely up to 120 cm tall with evergreen leaves 12–50 mm long and 2– 12 mm broad. The flowers are small, with a five-lobed white corolla, and produced several together in a corymb 3– WATER UNITES US!

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5 cm diameter. They emit strong smell to attract attra bees and other pollinating insects.

It grows in peaty soils, shrubby areas, moss.

Figure 127. Marsh labrador tea.

Cattail (Typha Typha) (figure 128)) grows in open wet areas, wet thickets, swamps, ditches, and moist fields. It has a brown cigar-shaped shaped head that stands atop a very long, stout stalk.

Young shoots first emerge in spring and once fertilized, the female flowers transform into the familiar brown "cigars" also called candlewicks that consist of thousands of tiny developing seeds.

Figure 128. Cattail.

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Sphagnum (figure 129) is a genus of approximately 380 accepted species of mosses, commonly known as "peat moss".

Accumulations of Sphagnum can store water, since both living and dead plants can hold large quantities of water inside their cells. Plants may hold 16–26 times as much water as their dry weight, depending on the species. The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions.

Figure 129. Sphagnum.

Dwarf birch tree (Betula nana) (figure 130) is found on boggy sites. It is up to 1–1.2 m high. Dwarf birch tree has got rounded leaves, these tress are food sources for birds and grazing animals.

Figure 130. Dwarf birch tree.

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IVB1) Specially protected species of flora in Latvia.

Rannoch-rush, round-leaved sundew, great sundew, lingonberries and cranberries are specially protected species of flora in Latvia.

Rannoch-rush Scheuchzeria palustris (figure 131) has totally adjusted to the wet conditions and can be found nowhere else but in mires. It is easier to notice it in the second half of summer, when the small, green fruits can be seen in the wet hollows of the mire.

Figure 131. Rannoch-rush.

Round-leaved Sundew Drosera rotundifolia and Great Sundew D. anglica (figure 132) grow only in mires, especially in the wettest habitats. The small insectivorous plants root in Sphagnum moss; however, due to poor nutrition in the mire, sundew feeds from the insects caught with its leaves as well.

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Figure 132.

Lingonberries (figures 132, 133) grow on low dark evergreen shrubs and it spreads by underground stems. The leaves are 5–30 mm long and dark green. The plant is similar to the bilberries but with darker and shinier leaves. The plant can withstand temperatures down below -35°C. Lingonberries contain flavonoids and lignans which both are said to prevent cancer. The berries also contain high levels of magnesium, vitamin A, vitamin C and a fairly high level of fiber. It naturally contains benzoic acid which is commonly added as a preservative to many other fruit and berry products.

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Figure 132, 133. Lingonberries.

Cranberries (figures 134, 135) are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 meters long and 5 to 20 cm in height; they have slender, wiry stems that are not thickly woody and have small evergreen leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with very distinct reflexed petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by bees.

The fruit is a berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant. It is initially light green, turning red when ripe. It is edible, but with an acidic taste that usually overwhelms its sweetness.

They are low in calories and high in vitamin C, vitamin A, and vitamin K.

Figures 134, 135. Cranberries.

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V) The ecosystem of Coura River, Paredes de Coura, Portugal.

Coura River (figures 136, 137) at the north of Portugal is famous for its abundance of trout. The 50 km long Coura River passes Paredes de Coura and Vilar de Mouros, remains of Celtic, Roman and Sueva civilizations. Finally it flows into the Minho River.

Figure 136.

Figure 137.

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VA) Representative species of fauna.

Reptiles (e.g. water snake), amphibians (e.g. Iberian frog), birds (e.g. Royal Crane, Kingfisher) and fish (e.g. trout, boga) are among the representative fauna species of the river.

Water snake (figure 138) is used as a descriptive term for any snakes that spend a significant time in or near fresh water.

Figure 138. Water snake.

Iberian frog or Rana patilarga (Rana iberica) (figure 139) is a species of frog found in Portugal and Spain. Its natural habitats are rivers, mountain streams and swamps.

Figure 139. Iberian frog.

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Trout (figure 140) is the common name for a number of species of freshwater fish. They belong to the genera Oncorhynchus, Salmo and Salvelinus of the subfamily Salmoninae of the family Salmonidae. Boga (figure 141), the river fish, is met as well.

Figure 140. Trout.

Figure 141. Boga.

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The Royal Crane (figure 142) belongs to the family Gruidae. They are large, long-legged, and longnecked birds of the group Gruiformes.

Kingfisher or Alcedinidae (figure 143) are a family of small to mediumsized, brightly colored birds in the order Coraciiformes.

Figure 142. Royal crane.

Figure 143 . Kingfisher.

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VB) Representative species of flora.

Oak, willow, pine tree, alder, beech, wolf's bane, the cyclamen-flowered daffodil, spear thistle and green alkanet are among the representative species of flora in the ecosystem of Coura River.

Oak (figure 144) is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus (stone oaks), as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta (silky oaks) and the Casuarinaceae (sheoaks). Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species; some have serrated leaves orentire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers (in the form of catkins) and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn or oak nut borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule; each acorn contains one seed (rarely two or three) and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on their species. The acorn sand leaves contain tannic acid, which helps to guard from fungi and insects.

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Figure 144. Oak.

Willows (figure 145), also called sallows, and osiers, form the genus Salix, around 400 species of deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Most species are known as willow, but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier, and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow (from Old English sealh, related to the Latin word salix, willow).

Some willows (particularly arctic and alpine species) are low-growing or creeping shrubs; for example, the dwarf willow (Salix herbacea) rarely exceeds 6 cm (2.4 in) in height, though it spreads widely across the ground.

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Figure 145. Willow.

Pine tree (figure 146) is any conifer in the genus Pinus of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The Plant List compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 126 species names of pines as current, together with 35 unresolved species and many more synonyms.

Figure 146. Pine tree.

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Alder (figure 147) is the common name of a genus of flowering plants (Alnus) belonging to the birch family Betulaceae. The genus comprises about 35 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, a few reaching a large size, distributed throughout the north temperate zone.

Figure 147. Alder.

Beech (Fagus) (figure 148) is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America. The European beech (Fagus sylvatica) is the most commonly cultivated, although few important differences are seen between species aside from detail elements such as leaf shape. The leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5– 15 cm long and 4–10 cm broad. Beeches are monoecious, bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant.

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in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinating catkins. They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear. The bark is smooth and light grey. The fruit is a small, sharply three–angled nut 10–15 mm long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks 1.5–2.5 cm long, known as cupules. The husk can have a variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the character of which is, in addition to leaf shape, one of the primary ways beeches are differentiated. The nuts are edible, though bitter (though not nearly as bitter as acorns) with a high tannin content, and are called beechnuts or beechmast.

Figure 148. Beech.

Arnica montana (figure 149), also known as wolf's bane, leopard's bane, mountain tobacco and mountain arnica, is a moderately ethnobotanical toxic European flowering plant in the sunflower family. It is noted for its large yellow flowerhead. The names "wolf's bane" and "leopard's bane" are also used for another plant, aconitum, which is extremely poisonous.

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Figure 149. Arnica Montana.

Narcissus cyclamineus (figure 150), the cyclamen-flowered daffodil, is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaryllidaceae, native to North West Portugal and North West Spain. It is a vigorous bulbous perennial, growing to 15–20 cm (6–8 in) tall, with grass-like leaves, and yellow flowers in early spring. The 4.5 cm long, pendent flowers are unusual in that the central trumpet (corona) is long and narrow, while the outer section (perianth) is fully reflexed (folded back on itself). This reflexion superficially resembles that of the distantly related cyclamen.

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Figure 150. Narcissus cyclamineus.

Cirsium vulgare (figure 151), the spear thistle, bull thistle, or common thistle, is a species of the Asteraceae genus Cirsium, native throughout most of Europe, western Asia, and north western Africa. It is also naturalised in North America, Africa and Australia and is an invasive weed in some areas. It is the national flower of Scotland.

The plant provides a great deal of nectar for pollinators.

Figure 151. Cirsium vulgare.

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Pentaglottis sempervirens (figure 152), the green alkanet, ever green bugloss or alkanet, is a bristly, perennial plant native to Western Europe. It grows to approximately 60 cm (24") to 90 cm (36"), usually in damp or shaded places and often close to buildings. It has brilliant blue flowers, and retains its green leaves through the winter. The plant has difficulty growing in acidic oil because it is calcicolous. The name "alkanet" is also used for dyer's bugloss Alkannat inctoria and common bugloss Anchusa officinalis.

Figure 152. Pentaglottis sempervirens.

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VI) The ecosystem of Lake Marmara, Turkey.

The Protected Area of Lake Marmara, Turkey (Central coordinates 38o 37’ 0” North (38.62o) and 28o 1’ 0” East (28.02o), Area: 6,911 ha, Altitude: 79-79 m, IBA Criteria: A1, A4i, A4iii, B1i, B2 (2004)) is a Ramsar wetland of international importance (figure 153).

Figure 153.

Gölmarmara is one of the smallest districts of Manisa Province which is named after Lake Marmara, located 12 km away from the district. Lake Marmara, which is a natural alluvial lake, has gained the characteristics of a dam reservoir through artificial channels. Channels which are connected to the lake work for flood control and for the storage of significant amounts of water during rainy seasons and contribute significantly to the irrigation the area during summer months. Also, water of Gediz River has begun to be transferred to the Lake Marmara. Lake Marmara has been WATER UNITES US!

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recognized as an internationally important wetland due to the diversity of wildlife. An irrigation reservoir averaging 3,400 ha in area (depth 3-4 m); reedbed (Phragmites) and marsh cover varies according to the water-level. It is rounded by hills to the north and north-east, with Gediz valley to the south and Akhisar valley to the north-west. Flood-plains are used for growing cotton, and cattle-grazing is widespread on the marshes. Birds, fish, mussels as well as crayfish are observed in the lake.

VIA) Representative species of fauna.

Birds, fish, mussels as well as crayfish are observed in the ecosystem of the lake.

VIAa) Observed bird species.

The lake is an important area for breeding and wintering water birds. The following thirty five (35) bird species, among the others, have been observed in Lake Marmara: Küçük batağan Karaboyunlu batağan Karabatak Küçük karabatak Tepeli pelikan Küçük ak balıkçıl Büyük ak balıkçıl Gri balıkçıl Saz delicesi Atmaca Şahin Sakarmeke

Suçulluğu Karabaş martı Gümüş martı Sumru Kumru Yalıçapkını Tepeli toygar Çayır incirkuşu Dağ incirkuşu Akkuyruksallayan Kara kızılkuyruk Taşkuşu WATER UNITES US!

Ökseardıcı Maskeliötleğen Saksağan Leş kargası Sığırcık Serçe İspinoz Saka Dikkuyruk Ördek Ketenkuşu, Flamingo

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Küçük batağan - Little Grebe - Tachybaptus ruficollis Incubationperiod 20 days Number of egg 4-6 The size of egg 33-43 x 24-28 mm

Height wingspan weight 25-29 cm 40-45 cm 117-236 g

Grebes are primarily fisheaters and the little grebe is no exception, but as it takes smaller fish than others in its family, they can establish themselves on ponds that are too small to accommodate big fish. This gives them a greater choice of habitat and means the little grebe has a more widespread distribution in the UK. However, they are quite shy birds and will often lurk within easy reach of cover along the margins of the water and will dive or disappear amongst the reeds when disturbed. The usual clutch consists of between four and six eggs, laid in April in a floating nest of vegetation anchored to submerged water plants. Young grebes are frequently carried on the adult birds' backs and are fed with small fish, crustaceans and mollusks. Grebes often give feathers to their chicks, which the young birds swallow in order to form a protective lining to their stomachs. This avoids the possibility of the stomach being damaged by the bones of their fish meals. They are perfect swimmers and divers, not very sociable. They are extinct in Western Sahara. They are visitors in Australia; Faroe Islands; Gibraltar; Mongolia.

Population estimated: a) England 5,000-10,000 couple, b) Ireland: 3,0006,000 couple, c) Russia: 500-5,000, d) Turkey: 5,000-50,000, e) World: 610,000- 3,500.000

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Karaboyunlu batağan – Black necked Grebe - Podiceps nigricollis Incubation period 20-22 days Number of egg (1-2)3-4(5-6) The size of egg 43.4x29.7 mm Height wingspan weight 28-34 cm 56-60 cm 265-450 g

This small grebe has beautiful golden tufts of feathers on its face, contrasting with its black head and neck. Its step forehead makes its head looked peaked. A rare breeding bird, it is also uncommon in winter. It eats insects, crustaceans and small fish. They live in colonies in inner lands. In winter, they are found in big lakes and seasides.

Population According to the data released by Bird Life International: Europe: 53,000 – 96,000 couples Turkey: 800 – 1,600 couples.

Karabatak - Great Cormorant - Phalacrocorax carbo Average lifespan 20 years Incubation period 29 - 31 days Number of eggs 3-4

Height wingspan weight 80 - 100 cm 130 - 160 cm 2000 - 2500 g

It is the biggest dark seabird in Turkey. Its wings are short, tails are long.

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lakes. It nests in the water and on the rocks in large colonies. They eat fish. It is a good diver and can dive up to 3 meters staying under water about 1 minute. It is on the red list of IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature).

Küçük karabatak - Pygmy Cormorant - Microcarbo pygmeus Incubationperiod 27 - 30 days Number of eggs 3-6

Height Wingspan weight 45-55 cm 80-90 cm 570-870 g

Compared to the great cormorant, it is smaller, and has a ticker neck. Its beak is shorter and thicker, its head is dark and round shaped, its tail is long and its eyes are black. It flies fast. It is the smallest cormorant in Turkey. It only eats fish. It is a good diver being able to dive up to 3 meters and stay under water up to 1 minute. It usually flies in long quees or in scattered groups, breeds in colonies. It lives in the reeds in fresh and hard water. It may also be seen in small ponds. It nests on tress or reeds.

Population It is on the red list of IUCN (The World Conservation Union) Europe: 37,600-50,400 çift (45,000-139,999 single) estimated.

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Tepeli pelikan - Dalmatian Pelican - Pelecanus crispus Averagelifespan 20-25 years Incubation period 30-32 days Number of eggs 2-3 Size of eggs 90-93 mm

height wingspan weight 160-180 cm 310-345 cm 10000-12000 g

It is the biggest of the pelicans. The feathers on its head give the name to this species. The general body color is greyish white, the breast is orangish yellow. The light color of eyes of it is not clear on its face. The feathers in the front wing are black. In winter, it feeds on in fresh water lakes, dams, river mouths in which there can be found lots of fish and it can be observed in the islands or islets having rest. During the breeding period, it can be observed within colonies around the water lands. It mostly eats fish, all the kinds of fish in the water land. It incubates in colonies. It nests on the rocky islets in the water lands. In our country it incubates in mid February. The number of breeding Dalmatian pelican couples increases in Turkey, Greece and Romania according to the recent years. The conservative studies for Dalmation Pelican-being an endangered species on the international scale- have a positive results and today in Greece, 1500 couples reproduced all around the country and around 1400 of them reproduced only in Lake Mikri Prespa.

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conservative studies on Dalmation Pelican done by Ege University Ornithology Department and also thanks to the Conservation of Nature and National Parks Directorates, the number of the breeding couples increased and has reached to 341 couples.

Büyük ak balıkçıl - Great Egret - Ardea alba Incubationperiod 25-26 days Number of eggs 3-5 Size of eggs 54-68 x 40-46 mm

height wingspan Weight 85-100 cm 145-170 cm 1000-1500 g

The great egret is a little over three feet tall with a wingspan of almost five feet. Its feathers are entirely white. It has a long, sharp yellow bill and long gray to black legs, with non-webbed feet with very long toes. The great egret lives along salt and freshwater marshes, marshy ponds and tidal flats. The male great egret chooses the nesting site and builds a nest platform of sticks and twigs in a tree or bush before he selects a mate. Both the male and female aggressively defend the nesting territory. Great egrets nest in colonies, often with herons and ibis. The great egret feeds alone in shallow water. It stalks prey like frogs, crayfish, snakes, snails and fish.

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Gri balıkçıl - Grey Heron - Ardea cinerea Averagelifespan

Max. 35 years

Incubation period

25-26 days

Number of eggs

3-7

Size of eggs

42x50 32x39 mm

height

Wingspan

Weight

84-102 cm 175-195 cm 1000-2000 g

This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern. This species is a generalist in its habitat use, although shallow water, relatively large prey, and four or five months of ice-free breeding season are among the essential characteristics of its habitat. Its diet consists predominantly of fish and eels 10-25 cm long, as well as amphibians, crabs, mollusks, crustaceans, aquatic insects, snakes, small rodents and small birds. The nest is a stick platform that is often re-used over successive years, usually positioned high in a tall tree up to 50 m, but also on the ground or on cliff edges, in reedbeds or in bushes.

The species commonly nests in colonies.

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Saz delicesi - Western Marsh Harrier - Circus aeruginosus Incubation period Number of eggs

height 48 - 56 cm

Wingspan 115 - 130 cm

31 - 38 days 3-8

Weight 400 - 800 g

The species inhabits extensive areas of dense marsh vegetation, in fresh or brackish water, generally in lowlands but up to 2,000 m in Asia and 3,000 m on its wintering grounds in Cameroon. It is a generalist predator taking a variety of prey types, with small birds generally preferred but mammals such as voles, rabbits and rats being more important in parts of its range. The nest is a pile of reeds built in dense marsh vegetation. It is mainly migratory, with populations in Western Europe, North Africa and at the south of its range in Asia being generally resident. Migrant birds leave their breeding grounds in September and October.

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Atmaca - Eurasian Sparrowhawk - Accipiter nisus Averagelifespan 13 years Incubation period 31-37 days Number of eggs 1-7 Size of eggs 36.0-47.2 x 29. mm

height wingspan weight 28-42 cm 55-74 cm 110-342 g

The species is migratory in the north of its range, with these birds wintering in southern Europe, southern Asia and less commonly in Africa.

Further south, birds tend to be resident or dispersive.

Migrants move south between July and November, returning between March and June. Birds are generally solitary, except when nesting, and tend to migrate singly although large concentrations do form at narrow sea crossings. It mainly inhabits forest, although preferring this to be interspersed with open areas. Small birds make up the vast majority of its diet. The nest is built in the lower crown of trees, on a fork or branch. Population trends are generally stable or increasing in areas where persecution has been controlled.

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Ĺ&#x17E;ahin - Common Buzzard - Buteo buteo Average lifespan 25 years Incubation period 33-36 days Number of eggs 3-6 Size of eggs 56x45 mm

height Wingspan Weight 46-58 cm 110-132 cm 550-1200 g

Generally, older subjects are much darker, showing nearly white under parts with brown stripes turning to reddish-brown on the abdomen. Primary feathers are dark, close to black. Tail is short and wide. Eyes are brownish yellow. Beak is dark and cere is yellow. Feet and claws are yellow. It lives in all kind of forests, country as well as mountains, but always close to an open space. It is also found in places where trees are scattered, in agricultural zones and in rocky areas in the mountains. Buzzard eats small mammals caught on the ground, but also birds, reptiles, batrachians and insects.

This species has a great adaptability. This is perhaps the reason why it has high breeding figures. Common Buzzards nest in high trees in forests, plains, mountains and also in rocky areas scrubs.

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Sakarmeke - Eurasian Coot - Fulica atra Averagelifespan

18-19 years

Incubation period

21-24 days

Number of eggs

6-9, rarely 15

Size of eggs

44-61 x 32-40 mm

height

wingspan Weight

36-42 cm undefined Undefined

The Eurasian Coot is recognized by its snowy white bill and forehead shield.

The remainder of the bird is dark sooty grey, except for its bright red eye. Immature birds are generally paler than adults with a white wash on the throat. Nestlings are downy, black with fine yellow tips. The head is orangered and the bill is red with a cream-white tip. It is a resident species in Turkey. Food is mainly obtained during underwater dives, lasting up to 15 seconds and ranging down to 7 m in depth. In Australia, Eurasian Coots feed almost entirely on vegetable matter, supplemented with only a few insects, worms and fish.

Birds of the northern hemisphere tend to take much more animal prey. Eurasian Coots may breed at any time that conditions are favorable, and may produce successive broods. During the breeding season pairs establish and maintain territories with vigor. The nest is often a floating raft of vegetation or is built on logs or tree stumps that are surrounded by water. Both sexes share incubation and care of the young. If food becomes scarce, the young birds may be killed by the parents.

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Suçulluğu - Common Snipe - Gallinago gallinago Averagelifespan Max. 15 years Incubation period 18-20 days Number of eggs (2-)4(5) Size of eggs 39.2x27.9 mm

height wingspan weight 25-27 cm 39-45 cm 100 g

The species breeds in open fresh or brackish marshland with rich or tussocky vegetation, grassy or marshy edges of lakes and rivers, wet hay fields, swampy meadows and marshy tundra, in forest tundra and extreme northern taiga zones. The species breeds in general in areas providing combination of grassy cover and moist soils, rich in organic matter.

Outside breeding season, generally occupies similar habitats, with more use of man-made habitats, e.g. sewage farms and rice fields, upper reaches of estuaries and coastal meadows. Its diet includes larval insects (10– 80%), adult insects, earthworms, small crustaceans, small gastropods and spiders. Plant fibers and seeds are consumed in smaller quantities. It typically forages in small groups. Lying takes place in April-June.

Monogamous, but both sexes show high degree of promiscuity. This species is mostly migratory.

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Karabaş martı – Black headed Gull - Chroicocephalus ridibundus Averagelifespan 32 years Incubation period 21-27 days Number of eggs 2-6 Size of eggs 52x37 mm

height wingspan weight 34-37 cm 100-110 cm 200-400 g

It is small gull white triangle in outer part of wing, blackish under tip of wing, back pale gray, under parts white. Its head is dark brown during breeding. Dark spot can be seen behind eyes in winter. Immature juveniles show much brown on head, neck, and back, a dark bar across the wing, and a black tail tip. Immature is similar to non breeding adult, but with brownish black bar across the base of the wing, much black in the outer wing, and a black band across the tip of the tail. In first breeding plumage the black head is partly mottled with white. This species breeds along lakes, rivers, bogs, moors, grasslands, swamps, and coastal marshes. In winter, found primarily along seacoasts, estuaries, and bays. In Europe the Blackheaded Gull is found scavenging in flocks in parks.

Perhaps this difference is because it usually is found associating with large flocks of Bonaparte's Gulls, which do not eat refuse or scavenge food from people.

The Black-headed Gull is one of the few hooded gulls that do not actually have a black head during breeding.

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use inland sites for breeding, roosting and foraging and are the gull species most commonly seen in urban and suburban gardens. Their diet consists of a variety of different foods, including insects, plant material, earthworms and human leftovers. Their catholic diet means that they regularly visit gardens in search of kitchen scraps. They are quite feisty birds and groups will often squabble over available food, especially when there are few feeding opportunities. While most of our breeding populations are resident birds, it is estimated that more than two-thirds of black-headed gulls wintering in the UK have come from mainland Europe.

This migration happens from late summer with earlier arrivals thought to be young birds from Western Europe.

Birds often seem to be site-faithful, returning to the same place year after year.

Gümüş martı – Yellow legged Gull - Larus michahellis Average lifespan 32 - 33 years Incubation period 26 - 32 days Number of eggs 2-3 Size of eggs 75,8-90x54-49,8 mm

height wingspan Weight 55 - 67 cm 137 - 142 cm 750-1200 g

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wintering areas occur from July to November, with the return migration occurring from mid-February to midJune. The species breeds from mid-March to April It breeds colonially in groups of up to 8,000 pairs, and may nest in monospecific clusters within mixed-species colonies. Outside of the breeding season the species remains gregarious, congregating around ports, harbors.

During the breeding season the species nests near lakes surrounded by reedbeds pastures reservoirs, river sand on grassy or shrubby river islands also forming colonies on sea cliffs, rocky and sandy offshore islands, rocky coasts sandy beaches, and brackish coastal marshes. During outside the breeding season it forages in cultivated fields and along rivers, and is especially common at refuse dumps. Its diet consists of fish, invertebrates (including insects, mollusks and crabs), reptiles, small mammals.

The nest is constructed of nearby vegetation, feathers, debris and old carcasses, and is preferably positioned close to or under bushes or on rocky and sandy islands, beaches, spits, sea cliffs, grassy or shrubby river islands, species breeds colonially in monospecific or mixedspecies groups, with pairs usually nesting a few meters apart.

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Sumru - Common Tern - Sterna hirundo Incubationperiod 20-26 days Number of eggs 2-5 Size of eggs 41.3x30.1 mm

height wingspan Weight 31-35 cm 82-95 cm 98-129 g

The global population is estimated to 1,600,000-3,600,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2015). The European population is estimated at 316,000-605,000 breeding pairs (Bird Life International, 2015). This species is a strongly migratory coastal seabird. It breeds between April and June in solitary pairs or colonially in groups of up to several thousand pairs. Palearctic breeders migrate south after breeding between August and October, returning to the breeding grounds in March or April. The species is opportunistic, its diet consisting predominantly of small fish and occasionally planktonic crustaceans and insects.

The species breeds in a wide variety of habitats in coastal and inland areas from sea-level to heights of greater than 4,000 m. Along the coast, it shows a preference for nesting on flat rock surfaces on inshore islands, open shingle and sandy beaches, dunes and spits, vegetated inter-dune areas, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or wellvegetated islands in estuaries and coastal lagoons, salt marshes, mainland peninsulas and grassy plateaus atop coastal cliffs.

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Kumru - Eurasian Collared Dove - Streptopelia decaocto Numberofeggs

height

wingspan

2

weight

31-33 cm 47-55 cm 150-220 g

Eurasian CollaredDoves have plump bodies, small heads, and long tails. They’re larger than Mourning Doves but slimmer and longer-tailed than a Rock Pigeon. The wings are broad and slightly rounded. The broad tail is squared off at the tip, rather than pointed like a Mourning Dove’s. Eurasian Collared-Doves are chalky light brown to gray-buff birds with broad white patches in the tail.

The bird’s collar is a narrow black crescent around the nape of the neck. In flight and when perched, the wingtips are darker than the rest of the wing. Eurasian Collared-Doves perch on telephone poles, wires, and in large trees. Males show females potential nest sites in trees and on buildings. The male dove brings the female twigs, grasses, roots and other nesting materials. They live in pairs and are loyal to each other. They eat mainly seed and cereal grain such as millet, sunflower, milo, wheat, and corn. They also eat some berries and green parts of plants, as well as invertebrates.

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Yalıçapkını - Common Kingfisher - Alcedo atthis Incubationperiod 19-21 days Number of eggs 6-7 Size of eggs 18-24 x 15-19 mm

height wingspan weight 17-19,5 cm 25 cm 40 g

This species has the typical short-tailed, dumpy-bodied large-headed and long-billed kingfisher shape. The adult male of the western European subspecies, A. a. ispida has green-blue upperparts with pale azure-blue back and rump, a rufous patch by the bill base, and a rufous ear-patch. It has a green-blue neck stripe, white neck blaze and throat, rufous under parts, and a black bill with some red at the base. The legs and feet are bright red. This species is resident in areas where the climate is mild year-round, but must migrate after breeding from regions with prolonged freezing conditions in winter. The food is mainly fish. Minnows, sticklebacks, small roach and trout are typical prey.

About 60% of food items are fish, but this kingfisher also catches aquatic insects such as dragonfly larvae and water beetles, and, in winter, crustaceans including freshwater shrimps. Both sexes incubate by day, but only the female at night. An incubating bird sits trance-like, facing the tunnel; it invariably casts a pellet, breaking it up with the bill.

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Tepeli toygar - Crested Lark - Galerida cristata

Incubationperiod 12-13 days Number of eggs 3-5, sometimes 6 Size of eggs 19-25*15-18 mm

height wingspan weight 17-19 cm 34 cm 46 g

It is a small, brown bird which has a short tail with light brown outer feathers. Its plumage is downy but sparse and appears whitish. The crested lark is a songbird. Largely vegetarian birds, the crested lark primarily feeds on grains and seeds, such as oats, wheat and barley, but will also eat insects, particularly beetles, with food either being scavenged from the ground or dug up. It nests in small depressions in the ground, often in wastelands and on the outskirts of towns. The nests are untidy structures composed primarily of dead grasses and roots. Three to five brown, finely speckled eggs, similar to those of the Eurasian skylark, are laid at a time and will hatch after 11â&#x20AC;&#x201C;12 days. The crested lark has been categorised by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as being of least concern, meaning that it is not currently threatened with extinction.

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Çayır incirkuşu - Meadow Pipit - Anthus pratensis Averagelifespan 8 years Incubation period 11-15 days Number of eggs 3-5 Size of eggs 19x15 mm

height Wingspan weight 14-15.5 cm 22-25 cm 16-25 g

A small, brown, streaky bird, the meadow pipit is the most common songbird in upland areas. Its high, piping call is a familiar sound. In flight it shows white outer tail feathers and in the breeding season it has a fluttering 'parachute' display flight. In winter, they are quite gregarious and gather in small flocks, often invisible among the vegetation, suddenly flying up with typical jerky flight.

Meadow pipit numbers in the UK have been declining since the mid-1970s, resulting in this species being included on the amber list of conservation concern. They eat insects - flies, beetles and moths - and spiders. They are found in open country - upland moors to salt marshes in summer, more agricultural land and marshes in winter.

They will even come to suburban parks and playing fields.

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DaÄ&#x; incirkuĹ&#x;u - Water Pipit - Anthus spinoletta Incubationperiod 14-15 days Number of eggs 4-6

height

wingspan weight

15.5-17 cm 23-28 cm 20-30 g

The species breeds on alpine pastures and high-lying mountain meadows with short grassland and scattered rocks, bushes or trees, usually with some wet areas, often on mountain slopes and also on stony scree with thickets in the far east of the range. In the winter it is found on coastal saltings, lagoons, marshes, grassy edges of lakes and rivers, sewage farms, watercress farms, rice fields and other irrigated cultivation. In Europe, egg-laying occurs from the end of April to early July. The nest is a cup made of grass stems and leaves with some moss incorporated and lined with finer material and some hairs. It is sited on the ground in the side of a bank or hollow, usually well concealed by vegetation or sometimes at the end of a tunnel. Normally four to six eggs are laid. It feeds mainly on invertebrates but also takes some plant material. The species is chiefly a short-distance or altitudinal migrant with regular migration from the high mountains down to the lowlands in autumn. ,

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Akkuyruksallayan - White Wagtail - Motacilla alba height 18 cm

wingspan 25-30 cm

weight 19-27 g

This species inhabits a very wide variety of non-forested wet and dry habitats, including seashores, rocky or sandy upland rivers and slow-moving lowland rivers, lakeshores, farmland, gardens, parks, short grassland such as that found in vicinity of factories in towns and cities. It is also often found in towns and villages. It mostly breeds from early April to August, starting later in the north. It is monogamous and both sexes build the nest which is a rough cup of twigs, grass stems, leaves, rootlets and mosses, lined with hair, wool or feathers and placed in a hole or crevice in a riverbank, wall or bridge. It also often nests in buildings or even machinery. Clutches are three to eight eggs. It feeds on a wide range of small terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, as well as fish fry, crumbs and other household scraps. Most populations are regular long-distance migrants, others are partial migrants or largely resident. In western and southern Europe some populations of the nominate race and of yarrellii are resident but northern populations of the latter are partial migrants.

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Kara kÄązÄąlkuyruk - Black Redstart - Phoenicurus ochruros Incubationperiod

13-17 days

Number of eggs

4-6

height wingspan weight 13-14,5 cm 23-26 cm 14-20 g

This species is found in sparsely vegetated rocky areas, including stony slopes with xerophytic vegetation, crags and gullies in high river valleys and rocky mountain tops up to snow-line as well as villages, towns and cities. In Carpathians, it is mainly found on mountain slopes covered with juniper (Juniperus), scree and boulders.

The breeding season runs from mid-April to mid-July in Western Europe but can be up to two weeks later in Eastern Europe. In Morocco it breeds late April-June, April-July in Israel, May-August in India, April-July in Nepal and June-July in China. The nest is a loose cup of grass, moss, hair, wool and feathers, which are set in a crevice of a wall or rock, or in an earth bank, pile of stones or on the ground. Clutches are four to six eggs.

The diet consists of invertebrates and berries. The species is resident, partially migrant, a vertical migrant and fully migrant in different parts of the range. Breeding populations in Morocco, Iberia, southern/central France, Italy, the Balkans and central Turkey are generally sedentary, with mountain breeders moving to lower elevations in winter. Populations breeding in northern WATER UNITES US!

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Europe migrate south-west towards the Balearic Islands, Spain, Morocco and Algeria. More eastern breeding populations move south-east and reach as far as Egypt.

TaĹ&#x;kuĹ&#x;u - European Stonechat - Saxicola rubicola Averagelifespan 4 - 6 years Incubation period 14 - 15 days Number of eggs 3 - 8 adet

Height wingspan weight 12,5 cm 18 - 22 cm 14 - 18 g

Both sexes have distinctively short wings, shorter than those of the more migratory whinchat and Siberian stonechat. The summer male has black upperparts, a black head, an orange throat and breast, and a white belly and vent. It also has a white half-collar on the sides of its neck, a small white scapular patch on the wings, and a very small white patch on the rump often streaked with black. The female has brown upperparts and head, and no white neck patches, rump or belly, these areas being streaked dark brown on paler brown, the only white being the scapular patch on the wings and even this often being buffy-white. European stonechats breed in heath land, coastal dunes and rough grassland with scattered small shrubs and bramble, open gorse, tussocks or heather. They are shortdistance migrants or non-migratory, with part of the population (particularly from northeastern parts of the WATER UNITES US!

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range, where winters are colder) moving south to winter further south in Europe and more widely in north Africa.

Ökseardıcı - Mistle Thrush - Turdus viscivorus Average Lifespan 11 years Incubation period 12-15 days Number of eggs 3-6 Size of eggs 13x15 mm

height wingspan weight 27 cm 42-48 cm 110-140 g

The species requires a mosaic of wooded and open country, and thus inhabits open mature forest, woodland glades, orchards, riverside forest, open grassland with scrub and mountain steppe with shrubs; often penetrating grassy-bracken moorland areas on low craggy hills and mountains at some distance from trees.

It is most typically found, in rolling, open landscapes with scattered trees or copses, including parkland and park-like farmland. In western and central Europe, it breeds from late March to late June and from late April in the north. It breeds from late March to July in Afghanistan east to the western Himalayas. In north-west Africa it breeds from March to June. The nest is a large cup of dry grass, plant stems, roots and moss, bound together with mud and lined with fine grasses and sometimes pine needles. Typically it is found two to ten WATER UNITES US!

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meters up in the fork of a tree and normally lays three to five eggs. It feeds on invertebrates as well as seeds and fruit in the autumn and winter. In the west of its range the species is sedentary or a partial migrant and in the north and east of its range it is more fully migratory.

Maskeliötleğen - Sardinian Warbler - Sylvia melanocephala Number of eggs

3-6

height wingspan Weight 13,5 cm 15-18 cm 14-23 g

As probably one of the most generalist of the Mediterranean warblers, this species is present in all types of warm habitat at low altitudes, and up to c.

1,200–1,300 m in most of its range and up to 1,800 m in north-west Africa. It is found in maquis, garrigue, dry coastal habitats, urban and suburban environments, abandoned farmland and dry coast sites. It will also inhabit Mediterranean cultures such as olives, almonds, orchards, citrus groves, vineyards, but favors mosaic landscapes with hedgerows, bushes and stands of pine. It is also frequently found in holm oak (Quercus ilex) forests. Breeding occurs mainly from March to June. The nest is a grass cup placed usually 30–60 cm above WATER UNITES US!

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ground in scrub or bush or, less frequently, among dense herbs or in a small tree. Most nests in Spain are in kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) at low height. Clutches are three to five eggs. It feeds mostly on arthropods but also takes a significant amount of fruit in the autumn and winter. Island and coastal populations appear to be mostly sedentary but the proportion of migrants increases inland and to the north, especially in the east.

Saksağan – Eurasian Magpie - Picapica Incubation period 20-25 days Number of eggs 4-7 Size of eggs 32.9 mm × 23 mm

height wingspan weight 40-51 cm 52-60 cm 200-250 g

The Eurasian magpie, European magpie, or common magpie (Pica pica) is a resident breeding bird throughout Europe, much of Asia and northwest Africa. The Eurasian magpie is one of the most intelligent birds, and it is believed to be one of the most intelligent of all animals. The expansion of its nidopallium is approximately the same in its relative size as the brain of chimpanzees, orangutans and humans. Its head, neck and breast are glossy black with a metallic green and violet sheen; the belly and scapulars (shoulder feathers) are pure white; the wings are black glossed with green or WATER UNITES US!

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purple. The legs and bill are black. The magpie is omnivorous, eating young birds and eggs, insects, scraps and carrion, acorns, grain, and other vegetable substances. In winter, magpies often form groups, feeding and roosting at night. Magpies prefer tall trees for their bulky nest, firmly attaching them to a central fork in the upper branches. These huge nests are conspicuous when the leaves fall. Where trees are scarce, though even in well-wooded country, nests are at times built in bushes and hedgerows.

LeĹ&#x;kargasÄą - Hooded Crow - Corvus cornix Averagelisfespan 8 years Incubation period 17-19 days Number of eggs 4-6 Size of eggs 43 x 30 mm

height wingspan Weight 48-52 cm 98 cm 510 g

The hooded crow is closely related to the carrion crow, which until recently was regarded as the same species. In areas where the two species overlap there may be some interbreeding with hybrids showing a mixed grey and black body plumage. Like carrion crows, hooded crows also feed on dead animals. Unlike crows they can be more sociable in the feeding habits and groups of them may be seen together in fields. They eat omnivorous includes carrion, invertebrates, grain, eggs, and young birds. They are resident.

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Sığırcık - Common Starling - Sturnus vulgaris Incubationperiod 12-15 days Number of eggs 4-9 Size of eggs 26-34 x 19-23 mm

height wingspan weight 19-22 cm 37-42 cm 75-90 g

During the breeding season this species occupies open country, including modified habitats, with access to suitable nesting and roosting sites. It requires cavity nestsites, typically in woodland or on man-made structures, close to open areas of short grassland for foraging. At other times it exploits a wide range of habitats, including moorland, salt marshes, seashore and tidal flats, stubble fields, orchards, refuse dumps and sewage-treatment works. It roosts in reedbeds, scrub and trees, as well as bridges and buildings and even in town centers. Breeding occurs mostly between March and July. The nest is a bulky structure of dry grass, conifer needles, twigs, string and other materials and the cup is lined with softer materials such as grass, feathers, moss, wool, hair and paper, fresh green leaves and flowers. It is typically built in a hole in a tree, cliff, building or other structure and nest boxes are also readily used. Clutches are normally four to six eggs. It is omnivorous, taking animal and plant material all year round but during the spring animal food predominates and is fed almost exclusively to nestlings. The northern and eastern populations are migratory whereas southern and western populations as well as those in urban areas tend to be resident.

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Serçe - House Sparrow - Passer domesticus Incubationperiod 14 days Number of eggs 3-5 rarely 8 Size of eggs 16-26x13-17 mm

height wingspan Weight 14-16 cm 21-25 m 24-32

House Sparrows are small stockily built birds with strong sturdy beaks. Sparrows’ plumage is similar to many bunting species, but can be distinguished by the absence of white edging to the tail. Sparrows’ tails are also shorter than those of buntings. Male House Sparrows have greyish cheeks, a grey cap, a black bib, and a reddish brown patch behind their eyes extending round the back of the neck. Females’ heads do not have these markings, and their only distinctive facial feature is a pale greyish eyebrow stripe. House Sparrows’ upper parts are brown with black markings, and their wings have a narrow white stripe. Their legs are pale brown and their irises are reddish brown. Breeding period is very long, even lasting all year in urban areas, with 2–3 broods raised annually. They nest in holes in buildings, nest boxes or sometimes in trees. Nest is made of dry grass, lined with feathers, hair, thread etc. They eat seeds, invertebrates. They are sedentary, though some birds may roam short distances, particularly in October and between March and May. Population around 3.600.000 couple.

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Ä°spinoz - Common Chaffinch - Fringilla coelebs Incubation period 11-13 days Number of eggs 4-5 Size of eggs 16-24 x 13-16 mm

height wingspan Weight 14-16 cm 24,5-28,5 cm 18-29 g

It has a black forehead and a blue-grey crown, nape and upper mantle. The rump is a light olive-green; the lower mantle and scapulars form a brown saddle. The side of head, throat and breast are a dull rust-red merging to a pale creamy-pink on the belly. The central pair of tail feathers is dark grey with a black shaft streak. This bird is not migratory in the milder parts of its range, but vacates the colder regions in winter. This species forms loose flocks outside the breeding season. The main food of the chaffinch is seeds, but unlike most finches, the young are fed extensively on insects, and adults also eat insects in the breeding season.

The date for breeding is dependent on the spring temperature and is earlier in southwest Europe and later in the northeast. In Britain most clutches are laid between late April and the middle of June. Nests are built entirely by the female and are usually located in the fork of a bush or a tree several meters above the ground. The nest has a deep cup and is lined with a layer of thin roots and feathers.

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Saka - European Goldfinch - Carduelis carduelis Average lifespan 6-8 years Incubation period 10-14 days Number of eggs 3-7

height Wingspan Weight 12 cm 21-25 cm 14-17 g

This species inhabits open or sparse deciduous woodland and mixed deciduous and conifer woods, forest edges, thickets, heaths, hedgerows, streams, riverine and marshy areas with bushes and trees, roadside verges, steppe grasslands with scattered trees to edges of semi-desert areas, scrub, orchards, edges of cultivation and parks and gardens.

Breeding occurs from April to early August. The nest is a compact small cup of grasses, moss, plant fibers and down, cobwebs, animal hair and feathers, a few aromatic flowers on outside, placed up to 10 m from the ground, concealed beneath foliage. Clutches are four to six eggs.

It feeds mostly on seeds (ripe and unripe), buds, flowers and the fruits of plants but also takes arthropods. The species is resident, migratory, partially migratory and nomadic. Carduelis carduelis is widely distributed across Europe and central Asia, from the British Isles, Western Europe and the northern tip of Africa through eastern Europe, the Balkans, Turkey and into the Urals, Israel, Azerbaijan and Iran.

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KetenkuĹ&#x;u - Common Linnet - Linaria cannabina Incubation period 11-13 days Number of eggs 4-7

height wingspan Weight 13,5 cm 21-25 cm 15-21 g

This species inhabits lowland open heaths and commons, moorlands and hills with scattered trees and light woodlands, open rocky hillsides, mountain slopes, alpine meadows and maquis or valleys with low shrubs.

It is also found in woodland and forest clearings and edges, edges of cultivation, fallow fields, scrub and weed patches, plantations, orchards, vineyards, hedgerows, parks and large gardens. During the non-breeding season it also occupies coastal dunes, salt marshes and shingle banks. Breeding occurs from mid-April to early August and it lays four to six eggs. The nest is built mostly from small twigs, plant fibers and down, roots, moss, animal fur and feathers and is placed low down, in dense bush or shrub, usually in a thorn bush or a hedge or conifer sapling. It feeds mainly on small to medium-sized seeds as well as buds and some invertebrates. The species is resident, migratory and partially migratory. Southern European, Mediterranean and Atlantic island races which are entirely sedentary.

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Flamingo -Lesser Flamingo- Phoeniconaias minor height wingspan Weight 80-90 cm 90-100 cm 1,2-2,7kg

This species is itinerant and makes extensive movements in response to environmental conditions The Asian and southern African populations are partially migratory, with many making regular movements from their breeding sites inland to coastal wetlands when not breeding. The species breeds in huge colonies of many thousands of pairs. The timing of breeding is irregular and varies geographically, depending on the timing of the rains. The species is an obligate filter feeder and feeds during the night and early morning when the surface of the water is calm. When necessary, the species forms large dense feeding flocks that create calm water for feeding near the centre of the flock. The species breeds on large undisturbed alkaline and saline lakes, salt pans or coastal lagoons, usually far out from the shore. It has a highly specialised diet consisting almost entirely of microscopic blue-green algae (Spirulina spp., Oscillatoria spp. and Lyngbya spp.) and benthic diatoms (Navicula spp., Bacillariophyceae) found only in alkaline lakes, salt pans and saline lagoons and estuaries. To a lesser extent, the species will also take small aquatic invertebrates such as WATER UNITES US!

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rotifers (Brachiomus spp.). The nest is built from mud substrates. The species will breed successfully on artificial breeding islands in ideal conditions.

Dikkuyruk Ördek – White Duck – Oxyura leucocephala They prefer semi permanently or continuously salty, bitter and sweet lakes having closed basin hydrology.

They generally prefer areas having large, deep and small flora or areas surrounded with larger watery areas as winter areas. They make their nests on small, swimming islands between water plants.

They are polygamic. Reproduction area varies between April and the first half of July. They have very big eggs and the number of eggs varies in between 4 - 9.

Incubation period is between 22 - 24 days. The larva feed with invertebrates and water plants. Turkey is one of the most important countries for Oxyura leucocephala. It spends the winter in Kuş Lake (max 34), Marmara Lake (max 20), Karataş Lake (max 128), Yarışlı Lake (Max 82), İrfanlı Dam (max 122).It has the biggest winter population among the countries where it shows distribution.

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VIAb) Observed fish species.

At least sixteen fish species (families Cyprinidae, Atherinidae, Cobitidae, Percidae, Poecilidae, Ariidae and Plotosidae) as well as eel (family Ophichthidae) have been observed in the lake.

The 2 endemic species of Turkey, found in Lake Marmara. Ladigeso cyprismermere, also known as the Izmir minnow, is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae. It is found only in Turkey. Its natural habitats are rivers, intermittent rivers, and freshwater springs.

It is threatened by habitat loss. Ladigeso cyprisirideus is the other member of the genus according to Fish base.

Family: Atherinidae Gümüş balığı - Atherina boyeri (Risso, 1810) This family has great adaptation capability and large spreading area on the world. Length frequency of population ranges from 0.6 to 20cm in the different regions. Age frequency of population changes between 0-4+. Breeding season is WATER UNITES US!

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between February and August. Weight frequency of population changes between 0.001-13.070 g. Basic food items of sand smelt are zooplankton.

Family: Cyprinidae İncibalığı - Alburnus battalgilae (Özuluğve Freyhof, 2007) The current systematic status of endemic Anatolian species, Alburnus nasreddini, has been enlightened by making its morphological description and comparing it with the closest species, A. escherichii. This species has distinguished from the closest species, A. escherichii, by fever perforated scales along lateral line (44-48 vs.

46-53), dipper body depth (26.64 vs. 23.92% SL), shorter snout (25.54 vs. 27.55% HL) and larger eye diameter (31.22 vs. 27.88% HL).

Sazan - Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus, 1758) The length at first maturity was determined for carp as 28 cm for males and 28.8 cm for females. The carp reproduce from the beginning of May to mid July.

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Kababurun balığı - Chondrostoma holmwoodii (Boulenger, 1896) A

diverse

genus

of

the

Cyprinidae

family

genus Chondrostoma Agassiz, 1832 has a wide distribution. More than half of the species distributes in Turkey, however there is little biological information about them.

Bergama Sirazbalığı - Capoeta bergamae (Karaman, 1969) The species is assessed as being of "least concern" according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Freyhof and Kottelat, 2008). Aegean scraper Capoeta bergamae (Karaman, 1969) is an endemic cyprinid species of southwestern Anatolia (Turkey).

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İlikbalığı - Ladigeso cyprismermere (Ladiges, 1960) It is under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Threads: limited habitat, presence of other species (Carassius gibelio, Pseudorasbora parva). Habitat: Akpınar spring (38o 41’40’’N 27o 58’40’’E) (Lake Marmara-Manisa) 20.

Çizgilisazancık Maviş - Pseudorasbora parva (Temminck & Schlegel, 1846) Head moderately small, pointed. Snout short, protractile. The eye is large and the interorbital space is broad. Mouth is small, superior, lower jaw longer than upper; barbels absent. Body elongated, slender, slightly compressed, belly rounded; dorsal profile slightly arched; caudal peduncle slender. Scales are moderately large, cycloid, lateral line complete. L.l.：35-38; dorsal fin rays：3+7; pectoral fin rays：1+12-14; pelvic fin rays：1+7-9; anal fin rays：3+6. Dorsal fin origin above pelvic fin origin; pectoral fin end distant from pelvic fin origin; pectoral and pelvic fins at lower side of body; caudal fin forked. Grayish dorsally and silvery white ventrally. Distal margin of scales is dark. Sexually dichromatic, a conspicuously dark stripe on side of WATER UNITES US!

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female and the young from snout tip to caudal peduncle end, absent in male.

Acıbalık - Rhodeus amarus (Bloch, 1782) Total lengths ranged from 1.60 to 8.30 cm and total weights from0.06 to 10.65 g for all individuals of the species in the freshwater of Turkey.

Eğrez - Vimba vimba (Linnaeus, 1758) It is under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Threads: pollution, dams, the usage of the water sources.

Total length and weight of the specimens ranged from14.2 to 24.9 cm and from 36.30 to 236.90 g. the spawning period of the species take place between April and May.

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Family: Cobitidae Taşyiyen - Cobitis fahirae (Erk'akan, Atalay-Ekmekçi & Nalbant, 1998) This species appears minute and rounded lateral spots. Head moderately long, with relatively small eyes placed in its anterior half. Mouth rather arched with three pairs of very short barbels. Both lips furrowed. Mental lobes well developed.

Taşyiyen balığı – Stone Eel Fish – Cobitis taenia Dorsal soft rays (total): 68; Anal spines: 3; Anal soft rays: 5; Vertebrae: 40 - 42.

Caudal fin with 15-16 rays (Ref. 2196). Single small spot on upper caudal base.

Pigmentation (Gambetta's longitudinal zone of pigmentation): zones Z1-Z4 usually well differentiated, extending backward to caudal peduncle; height of blotches of zone Z4 usually less than 2 times in their length; if more than 2 times, then height equal to or greater than horizontal eye diameter. The distribution is Europe and Asia. IUCN Red List Status: LC (Least Concerned).

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Family: Percidae Sudak - Sander lucioperca (Linnaeus, 1758) The stomach contents of 986 pikeperch. The diet of pikeperch consists of some fish species (Knipowitschia sp., Aphanius anatoliae anatoliae, Gambusia affinis, Nemacheilus lendli, Carassius gibelio, and Sander lucioperca), odonats (Calopteryx splendens), mysids (Mysis), amphipods (Gammarus) and dipterans (Chironomus).

Family: Poecilidae Sivrisinek balığı - Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard, 1853) The mosquitofish Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) is a member of family Poeciliidae (Poeciliids), subfamily Poeciliinae and inhabits standing to slow-flowing water; most common in vegetated ponds and lakes, backwaters and quiet pools of streams. G. affinis feeds on zooplankton, small insects WATER UNITES US!

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and detritus and is used as live food for carnivorous aquarium fishes. G. affinis is commonly present in the pond and streams near agricultural areas.

Sudak – Zander - Sander lucioperca The Zander has a long, slender body with two separated dorsal fins, a mouth filled with many small teeth and a few larger ones for catching prey, and large, reflective eyes. Coloration ranges from bluegray to green with a silver-white belly, several dark vertical bands on the body, and yellow-gray fins. The dorsal and caudal fins have rows of black spots on their membranes.

Yayın balığı - Catfish – Lacus Living catfishes constitute nearly 2,900 species placed in about 35 families. The majority of species inhabit fresh water, but a few, belonging to the families Ariidae and Plotosidae, are marine. Freshwater catfishes are almost WATER UNITES US!

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worldwide in distribution and live in a variety of habitats from slow or stagnant waters to fast mountain streams; marine catfishes are found in the shore waters of the tropics. Catfishes are generally bottom dwellers, more active by night than by day. Most are scavengers and feed on almost any kind of animal or vegetable matter.

All species are egg layers and may exhibit various types of parental care.

Yılan balığı - Eel Snake eel, any of numerous marine fishes in the family Ophichthidae (order Anguilliformes). Representatives of the more than 200 species are found throughout the world, mostly in tropical or temperate waters. These snakelike creatures are more benign than their aggressive relatives, the morays.

The tail of the snake eel is pointed and sharp compared with the flattened tail of the moray.

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VIAc) Other species: mussels and crayfish.

Mussels (TatlÄą Su Midyesi, Aquae Dulcis Hippopotami) are mollusks with two hinged shells (Bivalves) which filter their food from the surrounding water. Mussels can be found attached to gravel, seawall, and rocks in intertidal and subtidal coastal areas. They can survive out of water for an extended period of time if kept in a cold, moist environment. The most commonly marketed species is the Blue Mussel. A healthy mussel whose shell is open should close when gently tapped. If the shell is broken or the meat is dry, the mussel should be discarded.

Clawed Crayfish (Kerevit, Turkish Narrow) is the only taxa observed in Turkey.

Turkish Crayfish are also known as Turkish Narrow-clawed Crayfish and are usually about 15 cm long but can be up to 30 cm. Pale yellow to pale green in color. Sides of carapace are very rough.

Two pairs of ridges are behind the eye sockets. Rostrum well developed with parallel sides and long apex. Claws: Long and narrow, upper surface rough, underside same color as body.

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VIB) Representative species of flora.

At least eighteen species of flora have been observed in the ecosystem of the lake: Kızılçam (Pinus brutia), Meşe (Oak Tree), Sazlıklar (Reeds), Islak Çayırlar (Wet Meadows), Söğüt (Willow), Karaağaç (Ulmus), Defne (Laurus), Çınar (Platanus), Dut (Morus), Böğürtlen (Rubus), Ebegümeci (Malva sylvestris), Sarmaşık (Hedera helix hibernica), Zakkum (Nerium oleander), Isırgan (Urtica), Kuzukulağı (Rumex acetosella), Menekşe (Viola), Karanfil (Dianthus petraeus) and Lale (Tulipa).

Kızılçam – Pinus brutia The Turkish pine is a tree to 27-35 m, with a usually open crown of irregular branches. The bark on the lower trunk is thick, scaly, fissured, patterned redbrown and buff, and thin, flaky and orange-red higher in the crown. The shoots are slender, 3-7 mm thick, greybuff, and rough with persistent small decurrent scale-leaf bases. The winter buds are ovoid-acute, with red-brown scales with long free tips revolute and fringed with white hairs. The adult leaves are retained for 1.5-2.5 years, with a persistent 1-1.5 cm sheath; on most trees they are in fascicles of two, and 1018 cm long. They are bright green to yellow-green, WATER UNITES US!

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slender, about 1mm thick, with serrulate margins, fine lines of stomata on both faces, and several marginal resin canals. Primarily in Turkey and far Greece, secondarily in the Crimea, Caucasus coast, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Crete and Cyprus; primarily near coasts, in areas with a strongly Mediterranean climate. It grows at 0-1525 m elevation.

MeĹ&#x;e â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Oak tree Oak trees are hard to miss.

Their majestic branches cover a large area, though they are just one of the tree's most recognizable features. The oak's massive height is another key characteristic. Oak trees can grow to 100 feet tall, and have a spread of 150 feet across. Other notable traits of the oak tree include: Leaves: The simple leaves consist of a single elliptical shape and a solid stem. They vary in size from two to five inches in length and rarely exceed two inches in width. The upper portion of the leaf is dark green with a shiny texture, while the bottom has a dull gray tone with a leathery feel. In the fall, oak leaves turn awe-inspiring shades of red, orange and yellow.

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Bark: The oak's bark takes on a life of its own as it ages.

While younger oaks feature a dark brown bark, older trees develop a red tinge and often turn black. In addition, as the tree matures its bark furrows and develops scaly ridges.

Fruit: The fruit of the oak tree is the acorn.

The light to dark brown, bitter-tasting nut seldom grows beyond an inch and can be found attached to the tree by itself or in clusters of as many as five nuts. Generally, oak trees do not produce acorns for the first 20 growing seasons, though some have gone as long as 50 years before generating the popular nuts.

Turkey has a very rich fauna and flora. For instance there are at least 18 species of Oaks. They can be found in many situations, from sea level, up to an altitude of 2000m and from south to north part of the country. The species are adopted to different climatic and geological situations. Two of the Oaks species are endemic to Turkey. Quercus aucheri only exist in the south west part of the country in dry and hilly places. Often the trees are small and are a part of the typical maccia vegetation found in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean region.

Quercus aucheri have dark green, small and leather like leaves with a strong pubescens making them look grey in distance (Turkish Oak Habitat Project, TOHP).

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Sazliklar - Reeds Situated in Western Anatolia, Lake Marmara is a shallow freshwater lake and is among Turkey’s 184

Important Bird Areas (IBA). Until 1950 it was a natural lake when it was intended to be transformed to a reservoir via the construction of a retention wall in the southwestern part of the lake in order to prevent floods and to meet the needs of the regions agricultural water.

Despite these developments, extensive reed beds located in the north of the lake provides an important feeding, sheltering and breeding habitat for many water birds.

Herons and cormorants that breed in colonies nest on the willow trees in this region. Globally threatened Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus) winters in great numbers in Lake Marmara during winter months.

Islak Çayırlar – Wet meadows Wet meadows are a type of marsh that commonly occurs in poorly drained areas such as shallow lake basins, low-lying farmland, and the land between shallow marshes and upland areas. For most of the year WATER UNITES US!

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wet meadows are without standing water, though the high water table allows the soil to remain saturated. A variety of water-loving grasses, sedges, rushes, and wetland wildflowers proliferate in the highly fertile soil of wet meadows.

During periods of high rainfall, wet meadows collect runoff, reducing the likelihood of seasonal flooding to downstream low-lying areas. In the process of collecting and storing runoff, the vegetation of wet meadows removes the excess nutrients accumulated by the water, acting as a natural filter. This nutrient rich environment provides vital food and habitat for many insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Söğüt – Willow The willows are deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus Salix, part of the willow family Salicaceae.

The leaves are deciduous, often elongate but round to oval in a few species, and with a serrated margin. Willows are dioecious with male and WATER UNITES US!

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female flowers appearing as catkins on different plants; the catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves or as the new leaves open. The fruit is a small capsule containing numerous tiny (0.1 mm) seeds embedded in white down, which assists wind dispersal of the seeds.

Willows are very cross-fertile and numerous hybrids are known, both naturally occurring and in cultivation.

Karaağaç - Ulmus Overview: mature trees grow to 30m and can live for more than 100 years. The bark is grey brown, rough and fissured, often with suckers growing from the base of the trunk. The twigs are finely hairy. Buds are oval, pointed and hairy.

Leaves: smaller than those of the wych elm at 4–9cm in length. They are round to oval, toothed with a rough, hairy surface. They have a characteristic asymmetrical base and taper to a sudden point at the top.

Flowers: English elms are hermaphrodites, meaning both male and female reproductive parts are contained within the same flower. Flowers are dark pink to red and hang in tassels, appearing in February and March.

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Fruits: once pollinated by wind, the flowers develop into tiny winged fruits, known as samaras. These are dispersed by wind.

Many birds eat elm seeds and the leaves provide food for the caterpillars of many moths, including the peppered, light emerald and white spotted pinion moths.

Defne - Laurus  Family: Lauraceae  Trees of Genus Laurus are dioecious evergreen or large shrubs, with leathery aromatic leaves and small yellow flowers followed on female plants by black berries.  Details. 'Aurea' is a large evergreen shrub of broadly conical habit with leathery, aromatic, goldenyellow leaves, brightest in winter and spring, and dense clusters of small, greenish-yellow male flowers in spring. Çınar – Platanus Platanus orientalis, commonly called Oriental plane tree or oriental sycamore, is a deciduous, usually singletrunk tree with distinctive, flaky, brown-gray-cream bark, large maple-like leaves and spherical fruiting balls that persist into winter. The creamy bark on mature trees WATER UNITES US!

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facilitates identification from great distances. It is generally regarded to be the most massive shade tree indigenous to the area of its native range extending from southeastern Europe into western Asia. It typically grows to 60-80' (less frequently to 120’) tall with horizontal branching and a rounded habit. Large, dark green leaves (4-10” wide) with 5-7 palmate lobes have coarse marginal teeth. In fall, foliage typically turns an undistinguished yellow-brown. Small, non-showy, monoecious flowers appear in small rounded clusters in April. Female flowers give way to bristly, long-stalked, spherical fruiting balls (to 1 3/8” diameter) that ripen to brown in October and persist into early winter. Fruiting balls typically appear in groups of 3-6.

Dut - Morus Morus, a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, comprises 10–16 species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild.

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Böğürtlen - Rubus Rubus is a large and diverse genus of the Rosaceae subfamily Rosoideae. Main crops of Rubus include red raspberry (Rubus idaeus), black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) and blackberry (Rubus spp.) Black raspberries are also known as black caps. The subgenus Idaeobatus contains red raspberry and black raspberry, two diploid species (2n = 14) with a haploid number 7 and a genome size of 240 Mb.

Ebegümeci - Malva sylvestris Malva sylvestris has an importance on the creation of the humus soil and recovery of the soil besides being the food of many species. They grow bushy in the rainy and cool seasons. Snails and insects live in the bushy branches of it. It dries and rots in the soil which makes the soil more fertile.

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Sarmaşık – Hedera helix hibernica English ivy is an evergreen climbing vine in the Araliaceae (Ginseng) family. It has historically been a common garden ornamental and has more than 400 cultivars. It has escaped cultivation to become highly invasive in forests and natural areas.

These plants are characterized by long viny stems reaching up to 30 m in length, with aerial, clinging small roots. covers trees making them more susceptible to wind fall due to the additional weight of the ivy in the trees as well as the additional drag of the evergreen leafy vines.

Zakkum – Nerium oleander Nerium oleander is an evergreen Shrub growing to 4 m (13 ft) by 4 m (13 ft) at a fast rate.

It is in leaf all year, in flower from June to October.

Suitable for: medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in heavy clay soil.

Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The whole plant is very poisonous.

Skin contact with the plant can cause irritation whilst ingestion of only one leaf has led to death in children.

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Isirgan – Urtica The elongated, egg-shaped leaves are heart-shaped or rounded at the juncture between stem and leaf; the edges are roughly serrated and the leaves are arranged alternately along the stem. The plant flowers from July to September.

The stinging nettle is a widespread plant; it can be found all over the world in temperate regions. It is a ruderal plant, which means that it often grows on waste ground or contaminated areas. As a nitratophile plant, it grows close to human dwellings, flourishing in particular on soil which has been fertilized or contaminated either by human or animal excrement. It is harder to find the plant in unspoilt or untouched areas of the countryside.

The nettle is regarded as a very good source of iron; on account of its ability to regulate the iron content in the soil it has a positive influence on all plants that grow in the same area - iron being a prerequisite for the formation of chlorophyll needed by all plants.

The nettle is a light-sensitive plant; photosynthesis enables it to exist in very different light conditions.

Kuzukulağı - Rumex acetosella Rumex acetosella is a dioecious, herbaceous perennial with creeping rhizomes. This plant measures 10-40 cm (4-16 in.) in height and the roots can reach depths of 1.5 m (5 ft.). The stems of this plant are slender WATER UNITES US!

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and reddish in color. All the leaves have an ocrea at their base which is a thin, membranous sheath that surrounds the stem where the petiole meets it. The flowering stalks of these plants can be half as long as the plant.

The flowers appear from late May to June. The shiny, golden brown achenes of this plant are 3-angled and measure around 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) in length. The plant fruits from June to October.

MenekĹ&#x;e - Viola Viola is genus of about 500 species of herbs or low shrubs, including the small, solid-colored violets and the larger-flowered, often multicolored violas and pansies. Viola occurs naturally worldwide but is found most abundantly in temperate climates.

The flower, variable in color, but not red, usually grows singly on a stalk and has five petals.

Typically, Viola grows in meadows or damp woods. All wild species bloom early in the spring, but some cultivated varieties bloom later. Many species have two types of flowers. One type is showy and appears in the spring but often does not produce seeds in some species.

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Karanfil - Dianthus petraeus Intricate, frilly and powerfully fragrant the pure white flowers of this species pink are a delight. Forming tight colonies of fine deep green foliage it spreads slowly to form a clump up to 1' wide. Flowers appear from late May to July on wiry stems to 10" tall. Pure white snowflakes powerfully scented of cloves they make wonderful small cut flowers.

Lale - Tulipa Named of its place of origin, Turkey, award-winning tulip is a wild looking species with gray-green leaves, and up to 12 star shaped white flowers born on 10 inch (25 cm) stem. It performs best in full sun to light shade, in rich, fertile, medium moisture, well-drained soil.

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CHAPTER 3 DISCUSSION Each partner of the KA219 strategic school partnership “Water unites us!” chose a “target” aquatic ecosystem. We focused on ecosystems with special natural beauty such as Neretva River in Metkovic (Croatia) and Coura River in Paredes de Coura (Portugal), Koutavos Lagoon in Argostoli (Greece), Lake Marmara in Akhisar (Turkey), the Eastern Coast of Salento, Otranto Natural Park, Alimini Lakes, Santa Maria di Leuca and Tricase (Italy) and Melnais Lake Mire (Latvia).We tried to mark out fauna and flora species of the ecosystems. According to the data collected all the ecosystems show a rich biodiversity.

A large number of amphibians, aquatic organisms (fish, malacostraca and mollusks), arachnids, birds, insects, mammals and reptiles were found in the ecosystems (tables 1, 2, 3).

In the ecosystem of Neretva River up to 307 species of insects are observed and only the butterfly has more than 250 species. A total of 310 species of birds have been recorded, of which 115 are nestling. The ornithological collection in Metković is the second largest in Europe.

According to the collected data, at least thirty five (35) species of birds and sixteen (16) species of fish are observed in the ecosystem of Lake Marmara. At least WATER UNITES US!

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thirty three (33) fauna species are observed in Koutavos Lagoon, thirty five (35) in the ecosystem of the Eastern Coast of Salento, Otranto Natural Park, Santa Maria di Leuca, Alimini Lakes and Tricase, ten (10) in Melnais Lake Mire and eight (8) in Coura River.

A large number of organisms are common in more than one ecosystem (table 4). Eels, mollusks, amphibians, reptiles, insects, arachnids, reptiles and birds are among them, e.g. frogs, crabs, bivalvians, ducks, Eurasian coots, egrets, kingfishers, herons and cranes. On the other hand there are some endemic species. Furthermore, there are species of special interest, rare species, species that are strictly adapted to very special environment conditions as well as species on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.

Large green frog of Neretva River is the symbol of Croatia. Loggerhead sea turtle Caretta caretta observed in Puglia coast and Koutavos Lagoon is listed globally as endangered species on the IUCN Red List. In Salento coastal caves, the fauna includes several rare species and some endemic invertebrates, such as Italodytes stammeri, Hadoblothrus gigas, Typhlocaris salentina and Spelaeomysis bottazzii.

In the closed to the public part of the cave of Zinzulusa, the misidaceous Spelaeomysis bottazzii and a

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Table 1. Amphibians, arachnids, insects, mammals and reptiles observed in the ecosystems.

NERETVA RIVER Large green frog No data

KOUTAVOS LAGOON Green frog

ECOSYSTEM OF PUGLIA (1) Common toad

MELNAIS LAKE MIRE Moor frog

Spiders

Hadoblothrus gigas

Dolomedes fimbriatus

Beetles, ants, firebug, honey bee, butterflies, grasshoppers, mosquitoes.

European hedgehog

Italodytes stammeri (beetle)

Mammals

Up to 307 species of insects, only the butterfly has more than 250 species.

No data

Reptiles

No data

Loggerhead sea turtle, lizards.

Amphibians Arachnids Insects

COURA RIVER Iberian frog No data

LAKE MARMARA No data

Mecostethus grossus (grasshopper)

No data

No data

Bats, foca monaca, European hedgehog.

No data

No data

No data

Loggerhead sea turtle, common viper, lizards, colopro leopardino.

Common viper

Water snakes

No data

No data

(1) Eastern Coast of Salento - Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Alimini Lakes â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Tricase

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Table 2. Aquatic organisms (eels, fish, malacostraca, mollusks) observed in the ecosystems.

NERETVA RIVER Eels, crabs, water snails, noble pen shells, mussels, date shells, clams.

KOUTAVOS ECOSYSTEM MELNAIS LAGOON OF PUGLIA(1) LAKE MIRE Striped mullet, Typhlocaris sea bream, salentina, European sea Spelaeomysis bass, sand bottazzii steenbras, cuttlefish, octopus, crabs, mussels, clams, noble pen shells, water snails, eels.

COURA RIVER Trout, boga

LAKE MARMARA Ladigesocypris mermere, Ladigesocypris irideus, Atherina boyeri, Alburnus battalgilae, Cyprinus carpio, Chondrostoma holmwoodii, Capoeta bergamae, Pseudorasbora parva, Rhodeus amarus, Vimba vimba, Cobitis fahirae, Sander lucioperca, Gambusia affinis, catfish species.

(1) Eastern Coast of Salento - Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca – Alimini Lakes –Tricase

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Table 3. Birds observed in the ecosystems.

NERETVA RIVER A total of 310 species of birds (115 are nestling) are observed. In Metković there is the second largest ornithological collection in Europe.

KOUTAVOS LAGOON Ducks, geese, swans, eurasian coot, great cormorant, little egret, common kingfishers, grey heron, seagulls.

ECOSYSTEM OF PUGLIA (1) Ducks, mallard ducks, swans, white heron, grey herons, Eurasian coot, kestrel, lapwings, chiuri, piropiro, egrets, moriglioni, white storks, cranes, flamingos, harriers, marsh hawks, peregrine falcons, buzzards, imperial eagles, common owls, tawny owls, barn owls.

MELNAIS LAKE MIRE Wood sandpiper, cranes, white wagtail, bufflehead ducks, mallard ducks, European golden plover.

COURA RIVER Royal crane, kingfisher.

LAKE MARMARA Little grebe, black-necked grebe, great cormorant, pygmy cormorant, dalmatian pelican, great egret, grey heron, western marsh harrier, Eurasian sparrow hawk, common buzzard, Eurasian coot, common snipe, black-headed gull, yellowlegged gull, common tern, Eurasian collared dove, common kingfisher, crested lark, meadow pipit, water pipit, white wagtail, black redstart, European stonechat, mistle thrush, Sardinian warbler, Eurasian magpie, hooded crow, common starling, house sparrow, common chaffinch, European goldfinch, common linnet, lesser flamingo.

(1) Eastern Coast of Salento - Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca – Alimini Lakes –Tricase

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Table 4. Common fauna organisms that were observed in the ecosystems.

ORGANISMS Eels, crabs, water snails, noble pen shells, mussels, clams.

Frogs Arachnids Grasshoppers Butterflies Loggerhead sea turtles Lizards Viper Ducks Eurasian coots Cormorants Egrets Kingfishers Herons Gulls Swans Cranes Flamingos Harriers Hawks Buzzards White wagtail

NERETVA RIVER +

KOUTAVOS LAGOON +

ECOSYSTEM OF PUGLIA (1)

MELNAIS LAKE MIRE

COURA RIVER

+

+ + + + + +

+

+ + +

+

+

+ + + + + + + +

+ + + + +

+ +

+ + + + + + + + +

LAKE MARMARA + (eels, crabs)

+

+

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + +

(1) Eastern Coast of Salento - Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca – Alimini Lakes –Tricase WATER UNITES US!

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large semi-blind shrimp (Typhlocaris salentina) live.

They are, strictly adapted to their very special environment and unable to survive in slightly different conditions.

In the woods surrounding the Alimini Lakes, there are numerous reptiles such as the the Leopardino colubro Cervone (Elaphe quatuorlineata) which is the largest Italian snake.Common toad (Bufo bufo) observed in Alimini lakes is the largest amphibian in Europe.

In the Otranto natural park area there was the last regional presence of the rarest mammal in Europe, the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus). The monk seal’s IUCN conservation status has been updated from critically endangered to endangered in keeping with the IUCN’s speed of decline criteria with recommendation for re-assessment in 2020.

Viper is the only poisonous snake in Latvia.

The grey heron and the crested lark Galerida cristata have been categorised by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as being of “least concern”, meaning that it is not currently threatened with extinction.

The wood sandpiper is an especially protected bird species in Latvia and Europe. They migrate in spring and autumn, breeding in Northern Europe and wintering in Africa. Cranes are often considered the world's tallest flying birds. They migrate in spring and autumn and are especially protected bird species in Latvia and Europe.

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White wagtail, which migrates in spring and autumn, is a Latvian national bird.

The 2 endemic fish species of Turkey, Ladigesocypris mermere and Ladigesocypris irideus are found in Lake Marmara. Ladigesocypris mermere and Vimba vimba are under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The IUCN has assessed the conservation status of striped seabream (Lithognathus mormyrus) and Capoeta bergamae as being of "least concern".

A large number of Gymnospermae and Angiospermae species (Tree plants, Shrub-likeplants, Herbaceous plants) as well as Bryophyta were found in the ecosystems (table 5).

According to the collected data, at least thirty (30) species of flora are observed in the ecosystem of the Eastern Coast of Salento, Otranto Natural Park, Santa Maria di Leuca, Alimini Lakes and Tricase, among which eight (8) in the IUCN Red List (Ephedra campilopoda, Centaurea leucadea, Centaurea nobilis, Dianthus japigicus, Aurinia leucadea, Campanula versicolor, Echinops spinosissimus, Umbilicus cloranthus) and 4 endemic (Centaurea leucadea, Centaurea nobilis, Dianthus japigicus, Vicia giacominiana). At least fifteen (15) flora species are observed in Koutavos Lagoon, eighteen (18) in Lake Marmara, eleven (11) in Melnais Lake Mire, eight (8) in Neretva River and nine (9) in Coura River.

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Plants in the Latvian ecosystem are typical of the subarctic climate such as tussock cotton grass, brown bag sedge, scottish heather, sphagnum, rannoch-rush, round-leaved sundew, great sundew and plants of the genus Vaccinium and Oxycoccus. In the Portuguese ecosystem, mainly tree plants are observed, such as oak, willows, pine tree, alder and beech. In the Italian ecosystems there are relevant particular endemic plants and others belonging to the IUCN Red List. In Turkey and Greece many of the plants are typical of the Mediterranean scrub.

We can sum up (table 6) that Mediterranean basinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s countries present different plants in common, such as: olive trees, oaks, Lamiales, Malvaceae, rits, Caryophyllales, Asteraceae. The differences in flora species among the ecosystems are mainly attributed to climate difference.

Students and teachers did the research on fauna and flora of the aquatic ecosystems via direct observation in the field, taking photos and recording as well as surfing the internet (e.g. online encyclopedias, databases, scientific articles) and interviewing local fishermen, ecologists and officials. We learned a lot of things that we did not know concerning the biotic parameters (flora, fauna) of the ecosystems as well as the ecosystems in general. We visited ecosystems that we had never visited before. Our environmental groups marked out a lot of flora and fauna species. Carrying out the project WATER UNITES US!

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Table 5. Species of flora observed in the ecosystems.

Tree plants - Gymnospermae: No data - Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Olea europaea, Ficus

Shrub-likeplants - Gymnospermae: No data -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: No data

KOUTAVOS LAGOON

- Gymnospermae: Pinus halepensis; Cupressus sempervirens; - Angiospermae Monocotyledones: Arecaceae sp - Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Eucalyptus sp; Olea europaea

- Gymnospermae: no data -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Medicago arborea; Rosmarinus officinalis; Nerium oleander; Tamarix sp;

ECOSYSTEM OF PUGLIA (1)

- Gymnospermae: Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis); -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Holm (Quercus ilex); Oak vallonea (Quercus macrolepis);

- Gymnospermae: Eastern ephedra (Ephedra campilopoda), red list; Juniper cuddly (Juniperus oxicedrus), -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Kermes; oak (Quercus coccifera); Caper (Capparis spinosa); Thyme shrub (Thymus capitatus).

NERETVA RIVER

Herbaceous plants -Angiospermae Monocotyledones: Yellow iris; Bulrush (Typha); - Angiospermae Dicotyledones: White water lily; Sage (Salvia officinalis); Immortelle (Helich rysum); Lavender (Lavandula) -Angiospermae Monocotyledones: Asphodelus ramosus; Phragmites; - Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Calendula arvensis; Malva sylvestris; Bellis perennis; Carduus pycnocephalus

Bryophyta No data

-Angiospermae Monocotyledones: Mediterranean poodle (Cymbo pogonhirtus); Butterfly orchid (Orchis papilionacea); Flower bumblebee (Orchis fuciflora); Ofride green brown (Ophris sphecodes); Marsh orchid (Anacamptis palustris); Reed (Phragmites australis).

- Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Limonium virgatum; Salicornia fruticosa (Arthrocnemum fruticosum); Marine fennel (Critmum maritimum); Leuca cornflower (Centaurea leucadea) endemic, red list; Noble cornflower (Centaurea nobilis) endemic, red list; Carnation Salento (Dianthus japigicus) endemic, red list; Tare giacomini (Vicia giacominiana) endemic; Alyssum leuca (Aurinia leucadea) red list; Apulian bellflower (Campanula versicolor) red list; Bullet thistle (Echinops spinosissimus) red list; navel of Venus greenish (Umbilicus cloranthus) red list;

No data

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No data

183

MELNAIS LAKE MIRE

- Gymnospermae: Pine tree (Pinus); - Angiospermae Dicotyledones: No data

-Gymnospermae: No data -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Dwarf birch tree (Betula nana); Lingonberries (Vaccinium vitisidaea); Cranberries (Oxycoccus);

COURA RIVER

- Gymnospermae: Pine tree (Pinus); -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Oak (Quercus); Willow (Salix); Alder (Alnus); Beech (Fagus).

- Gymnospermae: No data -Angiospermae: No data

LAKE MARMARA

-Gymnospermae: Pinus brutia; -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Oak (Quercus); Willow (Salix); Ulmus; Platanus orientalis; Morus.

- Gymnospermae: No data -Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Laurus; Rubus; Hedera helix hibernica; Nerium oleander.

Water chestnuts (Trapa natans); Grassbladder (Utricularia vulgaris); Pungent spittle (Ammophila arenaria); Malva sylvestris.

-Angiospermae Monocotyledones: Tussock cotten grass (Eriophorum vaginatum); Brown bogsedge (Carexbux baumii); Cattail (Typha); Rannoch-rush (Scheuchzeria palustris) - Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Scottish heather (Calluna vulgaris); Marsh labrador tea (Rhododendronto mentosum); Roundleaved Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia); Great sundew (Drosera anglica) -Angiospermae Monocotyledones: Narcissus cyclamineus; - Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Arnica montana; Cirsium vulgare; Pentaglottis sempervirens.

-Angiospermae Monocotyledones: Reeds (Phragmites); Tulipa.

- Angiospermae Dicotyledones: Malva sylvestris; Urtica; Rumex acetosella (Rumex acetosa); Viola; Dianthus petraeus.

(1) Eastern Coast of Salento - Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Alimini Lakes â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Tricase

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Sphagnum

184

Table 6. Common species of flora observed in the ecosystems.

Olea europaea Coniferophyta Lamiales Asteraceae Ficus Arecaceae Eucalyptus Quercus Betulaceae Medicago arborea Nerium oleander Salix Vaccinium Fagus Laurus Morus Caryophyllales Capparis Rubus Ephedra campilopoda Hederahelix Acquatic plants

NERETVA RIVER + + + +

KOUTAVOS LAGOON + + + +

ECOSYSTEM OF PUGLIA (1)

MELNAIS LAKE MIRE

COURA RIVER

LAKE MARMARA

+ + +

+

+

+

+

+ + + +

+ +

+

+ +

+ +

+

+ +

+

+ +

+ + + +

+ + +

+

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Typha Asphodelus Malvaceae Phragmites Cymbo pogonhirtus Orchis Crithmum maritimum Eriophorum Carex Calluna vulgaris Rhododendron Narcissus Pentaglottis Tulipa Ammophila Viola Sphagnum Ulmus Platanus Endemic plants – Red List

+

+ + + +

+ + +

+ +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

(1) Eastern Coast of Salento - Otranto Natural Park - S. Maria di Leuca – Alimini Lakes – Tricase

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186

activities we enriched our ecological knowledge.

Furthermore, we exchanged opinions and ideas and enjoyed working and spending time together. We share our knowledge and interests with our partners as well as with the educational community and the local societies through proper dissemination activities. Our further target is to increase the interest and the sensitivity of our students and the local societies on ecological issues aiming to the protection of the environment as well as the sustainability. Many students are willing to participate in school environmental projects. Therefore, we are optimistic that we will carry out more environmental projects in the future, national or European ones!

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