The Influence of Classical Ancient Greek Architecture on Modern Architectural Design

THE INFLUENCE OF CLASSICAL ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE ON MODERN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN Ka thr yn Ka mme r e r

In its pursuit of innovation and a break from Classical design motifs, Modern architecture paradoxically embodies the very forms of traditional Greek architecture that it aims to reject.

This dichotomy between Modern and Classical architecture shows the dynamic relationship between tradition and progress, highlighting the underlying architectural language conceived by the ancient Greeks that remains prevalent in Modern design. Although not apparent on the surface, Modern Architecture actually embodies major themes of Classical Greek architecture despite its goal of renouncing it.

In order to fully understand this argument, there must be a precise definition of Modern Architectural Design. Modern, in this sense, refers to the Modernism movement that arose in the late 19th and early 20th century AD, not contemporary design in general. Modernism sought to abandon old conventions and experiment with new ideals. In the architectural world, this involved a departure from the ornate detail associated with the political agenda that classical and neoclassical design represented, and a shift towards new modes of expression brought forth by industrialization. The new materials engineering methods of plate glass, cast iron, and reinforced concrete opened up another realm of possibilities for structures to become lighter and taller, especially with the conception of the curtain wall. Specifically after the First World War, with the “emergent age of mechanization” (Fletcher, 1246), new building materials and techniques inspired architects to break away from Classical Greco-Roman influence towards minimalism and functionalism, allowing the material detail itself to become the ornament.

The Villa Savoye by Le Corbusier. Photo via ArchDaily.com.

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The Parthenon. Photo via Towards a New Architecture.

Much like Modernism, the greatness of Classical Greek architecture was achieved because of an institutional change with the new burgeoning democratic society. Pericles, who was instrumental in the development of the new Athenian democratic system, praised the polis of Athens in his Funeral Oration saying, “day by day fix your eyes upon the greatness of Athens, until you become filled with the love of her; and when you are impressed by the spectacle of her glory, reflect that this empire has been acquired by men who knew their duty and had the courage to do it” (Thucydides). His building campaign to restore what was destroyed in the Persian War and display the imperial might of Athens resulted in iconic structures, such as the Parthenon and the Propylaea, for this “Golden Era” of Athens, which are characterized by their emphasis on balance, harmony, and a profound sense of proportion. Flourishing from the 7th century BC to the 4th century BC, Greek architecture reflects the cultural, philosophical, and artistic achievements of ancient Greek civilization. This Hellenic period is best known for the creation of the three orders of architecture: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each with distinct characteristics 3

and roles. These pillars of design, both literally and figuratively, have stood the test of time. The columns are not merely structural elements but symbols of strength, order, and timeless beauty.

Materiality was also a driver of design decision, the use of vernacular marble from Mount Pentelicus, limestone, and wood influenced structure and appearance because of their unique properties. Focusing on civic and religious works of architecture, the main components of the facade of a Classical Greek building include the crepidoma, columns, entablature, and pediment.

The typical plan of a temple includes an inclosed cella or naos, a pronaos at the front, an opisthodomos at the back, with a varying number of colonnade arrangements in prostyle in front of the naos or peripteral surrounding the whole perimeter of the temple. Driven by a profound sense of balance and mathematical proportion, the architecture of ancient Greece aimed to create spaces that are not only functional but also aesthetically pleasing to the human eye, laying the foundations for a design philosophy that would echo through the ages.

“The Greeks on the Acropolis set up temples which are animated by a single thought , drawing around them the desolate landscape and gathering it into the composition...It is on this account that there are no other architectural works on this scale of grandeur . We shall be able to talk “ Doric ” when man, in nobility of aim and complete sacrifice of all that is accidental in Art, has reached the higher levels of the mind : austerity.”

- Le Corbusier

Labeling of the components of the Parthenon. Photo via Sir Bannister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture. Overlay Image of the Parthenon via Towards a New Architecture.

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The influence of these Classical compositional elements is self-evident in the design eras following the Hellenic period until the turn of the 20th century because of their literal interpretations, but that doesn’t make the figurative Greek typologies any less influential in the Modern era.

The Acropolos. Photo via Kathryn Kammerer.

One of the first noteworthy theorists of Modern architecture was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, who, ironically enough, was well known for his work in historical preservation. Viollet-le-Duc’s main motivation in his practice was finding the forms that different materials naturally want to become, therefore the external appearance of a building should display the logical structure of the building because the materials are being used rationally. He praised Greek architecture for its correlation between structure and appearance when he said “the masonry assumes a function; it lives, so to speak, and ceases to be an inert mass” (Viollet-le-Duc, 7). The ancient Greeks used their vernacular materials, according to Viollet-le-Duc, in an honest manner, specifically the Pentelic marble of which the temples on the Acropolis are constructed. The marble performs well under tension, so the columns that are often built with marble exemplify this quality in the best 5

possible way. In a different sense, certain features of the facade of a Classical building, such as triglyphs and guttae, are placed as marble decoration that represent the construction of beams and pegs of older temples’ original wood assembly. These poetic portrayals of structure give clues to the inner framework and a richer meaning to the use of materials. Translated into the Modern era with the rise of industrialization, new technologies such as sheet glass, steel, and reinforced concrete allow for a more efficient use of structure. Renowned Modern architect Le Corbusier emphasized this shift in technology when he said, “A great epoch has begun. There exists a new spirit. Industry, overwhelming us like a flood which rolls on towards its destined ends, has furnished us with new tools adapted to this new epoch, animated by the new spirit” (Corbusier, 227). In the eye of the Modernist, their lack of ornament allows for the construction details in the joinery of materials to speak as the true and only necessary decoration, just like the triglyphs highlighting the end caps of the beams. Viollet-le-Duc believed this notion of the influence of antiquity when he said that “all architecture proceeds from structure” (Viollet-le-Duc, 3). In both the Classical and Modern era, the historical and economical contexts create a desire to show off the best technologies through the talented Greek stonemasons and the Modern industrial capabilities with modular materials.

Modern Window Detail. Photo via Towards a New Architecture.

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The Parthenon’s triglyphs and columns. Photo via Rahul Subramanian.

Plan of the Propylaea. Photo via Sir Bannister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture.

Another one of Viollet-le-Duc’s main principles for the Modernization of architecture invokes this same idea at a larger scale. In addition to the form exemplifying its structural and material language, the program of the building should be the driving force behind the design decisions of the plan. This notion was later popularized by the Modernist architect Louis Sullivan’s famous motto, “form ever follows function” (Sullivan, 408). As examined earlier, the Greeks achieved this, in a sense, through structural representations in ornament. However, Viollet-le-Duc intends this as a direct insult to Classical architecture’s pursuit of pure symmetry, saying that if the function is better served with an asymmetrical exterior, it should take priority.

There are several rebuttals to this sentiment, the first being that not all of the noteworthy ancient Greek structures are symmetrical, even on the Acropolis the Erechtheion is asymmetrical in plan for the sake of program arrangement. The Erechtheion is composed of several grids of symmetry that are merged into one. It replaced the Old Temple of Athena Polias that was destroyed during the Persian War, but it was moved directly North of its original site, in order to make room for the Panathenaic procession from the Propylaea to the Parthenon. In addition, the Propylaea’s design suggests that it was intended to be symmetrical, but its south wing was made smaller to accommodate the historical necessity to place the Temple of Athena Nike at that specific location.

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Plan of the Acropolis. Photo via Sir Bannister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture.

An additional defense for the idea that Classical architecture exemplifies the law of form follows function is through site plans rather than individual buildings. The Acropolis, for example, is home to several temples, most of which have different orientations that are not parallel to one another. It was the Modernist Corbusier who praised the misalignments of these temples, “The axis of the Acropolis runs from the Piraeus to Pentelicus, from the sea to the mountain…And because they are outside this forceful axis, the Parthenon to the right and the Erechtheum to the left, you are enabled to get a three-quarter view of them, in their full aspects.

Architectural buildings should not all be placed upon axes, for this would be like so many people all talking at once” (Corbusier, 189). This was intentional in the design process, for each building’s purpose. Some are oriented facing directly east with a geomagnetic understanding, while others point towards different important sites in other parts of the empire related to the program at hand. “There is but one entry to the Acropolis. It affords no other, being precipitous throughout and having a strong wall” (Pausanias, 1.22.4). The Propylaea designed by Mnesikles acts as the entrance to the Acropolis and strategically frames the visitor’s first view of the Parthenon against the backdrop of the blue Mediterranean sky, which was built directly on top of the foundation of the previously destroyed temple. Greek theaters, for example, are always 8

located according to the topography because they are built into the landscape, but they also are often oriented astronomically or towards the sea for the best acoustics like the Theatre of Dionysus. The Athenian Agora additionally stands as an example of symmetrical building situated askew in order to accommodate the site and program. Every building’s orientation has significance, whether it is towards another place of importance, in response to site contexts, framing a perspective of a neighboring structure, facing the sunrise of a pertinent date, or subtly guiding the circulation of people.

“A view which shows the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, and the statue of Athena in front of the Propylaea. It should not be forgotten that the site of the Acropolis is very up and down, with considerable variations in level which have been used to furnish imposing bases or plinths to the buildings The whole thing being out of square, provides richly varied vistas of a subtle kind ; the different masses of the buildings, being asymmetrically arranged, create an intense rhythm. The whole composition is massive, elastic, living, terribly sharp and keen and dominating.”

- Le Corbusier

The Temple of Athena Nike Revealed behind the Propylaea. Photo via Rahul Subramanian.

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Optical Refinements of the Parthenon. Photo via Sir Bannister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture.

This brings up the topic of symmetry in general, not specifically in plan-program relation.

Focusing specifically on the Parthenon, at first glance it appears to be perfectly rectilinear and exactly symmetrical. While the overall facade is technically symmetrical on its central axis, the perceived perfect rhythm is a trick played by its architects Iktinos and Kallikrates and sculptor Phidias. The ancient Greeks established architectural standards for temple designs, such as the triglyphs being in alignment with the center of each column, referencing the structure. This brings up a problem for the columns on each edge of the facade. If the rhythm continues exactly, there is a gap in the entablature where the edifice turns the corner. This is resolved by narrowing the outermost intercolumniation, pushing the column off center from the triglyph but keeping the same width of the metopes between the triglyphs. The Parthenon also utilizes certain optical refinements that make it appear perfectly orthogonal, without the use of straight lines and right angles. One way in which the proportions are corrected is through the stylobate, or floor, of the temple being domed in both directions, responding in opposition to the cornea of the eye. The columns are angled inwards at the top and individually display entasis as they bulge outward at the center. These counterintuitive forms give the Parthenon its strong personification by preventing the sagging appearance of perspective. Ultimately, the geometry of the Parthenon disproves the notion that Classical Greek architecture is so tiresomely symmetrical, forcing the Modernists to react in opposition.

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The Villa Savoye compared to the Parthenon. Photo via Twenty-Five Buildings Every Architect Should Understand.

Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris, more famously known as Le Corbusier, was inspired

by Viollet-le-Duc and catapulted the Modernist architectural movement with his book The Five Points of a New Architecture that articulates his radical design ideologies. Le Corbusier traveled to Greece and studied the ancient Greek temples and proclaimed that “there has been nothing like it anywhere or at any period” (Corbusier, 219). If he had such an admiration for classical forms, why did he decide in his own practice to reject them? Corbusier said that “The Greeks created a plastic system directly and forcibly affecting our senses,” and in his own way he decided to try to do the same in constructing a new language of architecture (Corbusier, 208). Established in the 1920s, his five core points on architecture are that the building should be up on pilotis (columns), there should be a free design of the facade because the structure is in the pillars not the walls, horizontal ribbon windows should be used to allow for unencumbered views of the surroundings, the open floor plan should be a free design configuration without concern for supporting walls, and that the roof is a flat and inhabitable garden terrace. The Villa Savoye is Corbusier’s pinnacle project exemplifying these points. While Corbusier’s five points on architecture may not derive from the Classical era in a literal sense, they do invoke certain qualities that are subliminally derivative from the Greeks. The arrangement of structural columns is a more obvious correlation between Greek and Modernist design. Although the latter is devoid of all ornament, they both serve the same function, typically in a peristyle manner with the main difference being that the inner walls of the Greek temple are structural. If the columns elevate the living space of the Villa Savoye, then the corresponding place on the Temple of Athena Parthenos, for example, is the entablature. The ribbon-like window on the facade of the Villa is, in a way, Corbusier inhabiting the metopes and frieze of the Parthenon, where the relief sculptures of the Panathenaic Procession are displayed. This means, therefore, that Corbusier’s roof garden correlates with 11

the pediment of the Parthenon, where the gods are depicted in the scene of the birth of Athena, calling one back to nature’s origins. Despite having a rigid plan, the colonnades in varying Greek construction were occupied in different ways during different times of the day or year for festivals and markets. This relates, in a sense, to the Modernist concept of a free plan that is occupiable in many ways because of the structural column system. Another major concept of Corbusier’s is the “promenade” which describes the implied path which the observer takes that is defined by the designer to achieve certain experiences and views. The promenade up to the Acropolis, through the Propylaea, to the Parthenon orients one in certain ways to feel the grandeur of the space. In the same, more literal way, Corbusier places a ramp in his designs that guides one through a specific and uninterrupted itinerary of orientations. Both Modernists and ancient Greeks make these design moves of orientation and openness that enhance the overall environment and user experience.

Map of the Acropolis and quote from Le Corbusier. Photo via Towards a New Architecture.

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Da Vinci’s Virtuvian Man. Photo via Wikipedia.com.

The Corbusian Man. Photo via ICONeye.com.

Vitruvius, a Roman architect and historian in the 1st century BC, in his The Ten Books on Architecture describes his admiration for ancient Greek architecture in great detail. He says, “since nature has designed the human body so that its members are duly proportioned to the frame as a whole, it appears that the ancients had good reason for their rule, that in perfect buildings the different members must be in exact symmetrical relations to the whole general scheme. Hence, while transmitting to us the proper arrangements for buildings of all kinds, they were particularly careful to do so in the case of temples of the gods, buildings in which merits and faults usually last forever” (Vitruvius, 73). Inspired by Vitruvius’ writings, Leonardo Da Vinci drew out the proportions of the human body. The Greek’s obsession with the beauty that is revealed through the ideal human body is manifested in their many figure sculptures. The perfect proportions and hierarchical order of the body are self-evident and the model by which Classical architecture was formed. Polykleitos was a Greek sculptor in the 5th century BC who, inspired by Pythagoras’ geometrical theories, wrote a Canon of the ideal mathematical symmetry of the human body and sculpted harmoniously balanced compositions. The Greek’s belief in the divinely inspired math found in the human form translates into the fundamental principles that generate their architectural work. As the feet relate to the hand in the body, so too the base to the roof in the temple. The Caryatids are female scupltures acting as columns on the Erechtheion, manifesting this notion literally. These inter-relational proportions are not static, but are adjusted based on the needs and meaning of a space. Because of these underlying geometries, the 13

buildings feel natural to the eye and are comfortable to the personal experience, as opposed to the often overly massive Egyptian architecture. Da Vinci’s drawing has inspired architects for generations, just as the Greeks intended the ancient temples to relate to the proportional symmetry of the body in order to honor the gods. Le Corbusier in his The Modulor reinvents this ideal scale figure of a man for Modernists to use as a measure of space relation, without the confusion between metric and imperial systems. In creating a new scale, Corbusier’s proportionalities emulate Fibonacci’s golden ratio. Although the Greek-inspired Vitruvian man is not composed of the same mathematical ratios, the ideas of the Vitruvian man and Corbusier’s man are the same in that they diagram the divinely created beings that act as inspiration for man made structures. Vitruvius’ famous motto is “firmitas utilitas venustas,” meaning that great design must be equally durable, useful, and beautiful (Vitruvius, 17). The mathematical principles that both scale figures represent come into play here as the measure to which the built environment performs in relation to the human body. Not only are both Classical and Modern buildings inspired by their respective figures’ internal proportions, but they also must function in a manner that is comfortable for the scale of the human body to inhabit.

The Caryatids on the Erechtheion. Photo via Rahul Subramanian.

Standing in front of the Erechtheion. Photo via Rahul Subramanian.

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The Caryatids on the Erechtheion. Photo via Kathryn Kammerer.

Walter Gropius, the founder of Bauhaus School, designed the Fagus Factory as a prototype example for Modern architecture. Sir Bannister Fletcher noted that “there was nothing original about the structural system–columns in front and load bearing masonry at the back” (Fletcher, 1246). The Modern novelty that is added to this structure was the new glazed curtain wall system, but the overall structure is representative of the Greek stoa. The stoa in the ancient agora was a long portico, composed of a colonnade along a row of shops, that served as a public marketplace. The Fagus Factory also, in plan, is resemblant of a temple in antis, where the masonry walls on the sides align with the column at the entrance, but in this case the columns are enclosed by the curtain wall.

The Stoa of Attalos at the Athenian Agora. Photo via Rahul Subramanian.

The Fagus Factory. Photo via ArchDaily.com.

The Stoa of Attalos at the Athenian Agora. Photo via Sir Bannister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture.

Plan of the Fagus Factory. Photo via ArchDaily.com.

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The Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion. Photo via Kathryn Kammerer.

In addition to these underlying morphologies, the building construction techniques of the Classical era of architecture are translated into these Modern materials. The Classical trabeated structure is composed of the post and lintel, or column and beam, and is a continued method of construction throughout Modern design, but with thinner materials. The Greeks took advantage of the structure by turning it into the focal point of decoration, such as the columns and entablature, whereas the Modernists use the same type of structure but let it speak for itself.

Modern concrete columns with reinforcing rebar give a nod to the construction of Classical columns with drums of marble connected by inner wood joinery. The Sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidaurus is a prime example of the Classical Greek semicircular theater. The concept of amphitheaters, where the collective human experience is elevated through shared spaces, lives on in Modern stadiums and theaters. The essential geometries and architectural brilliance of ancient Greek amphitheaters, created through the tiered seating that is designed for optimal visibility and acoustics, cannot be undone or denied in modernist agendas. Although construction has significantly evolved, they maintain ties to the techniques of Classical tradition.

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Did these revolutionary Modern architects truly reject the ideals of the Classical Greek architects? Perhaps it was a failed game of telephone over a millenia that resulted in the uncanny recreation of Classical design of which the Modernists rejected. The rise of Greek revival and neoclassical architecture that makes up many dignified government and public buildings resulted in copies of Greek elements, but not always with the correct proportions. The Greek architecture from the Classical era represents a strong democracy and great philosophy, so it is only natural to want to copy it. However, the great calculations and understanding of detail behind the Classical buildings were not always included in the re-creation, rather just a copy for copy’s sake even if its result was disproportionate. Regardless of whether or not they get the poetics of the architecture correct in their mimicking of Classical design, there is this major factor that is always missed: color. The ruins of the monumental Greek temples only have the natural marble remaining, but in their original design they were adorned with bright pigments and gold. When the greatness of Athens was “discovered” by western archaeologists, they discovered it in its worn, white state, and assumed that was the original intent. At the time, bright and contrasting colors were viewed as barbaric. With more scientific archaeology it became known that there were indeed pigments such as red and blue on the Parthenon. Later on, Modernists like the Bauhaus School re-embraced these bold colors. It is possible that the Modern architects were rejecting the appropriation of Classical geometries and color.

The Academy of Athens Reconstructed. Photo via Kathryn Kammerer.

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“The Plan proceeds from within to without ; the exterior is the result of an interior.

The elements of architecture are light and shade, walls and space. Arrangement is the gradation of aims, the classification of intentions. Man looks at the creation of architecture with his eyes, which are 5 feet 6 inches from the ground. One can only deal with aims which the eye can appreciate, and intentions which take into account architectural elements. If there come into play intentions which do not speak the language of architecture, you arrive at the illusion of plans, you transgress the rules of the Plan through an error in conception, or through a leaning towards empty show.”

- Le Corbusier

Ancient Greek architecture has had a profound and enduring influence on Modern architectural design. The principles of architecture that were formed in the classical era of Greece are still present in contemporary structures in the same way that the foundations of Democracy from the same era shapes Modern governments. Modernist architects are not rejecting the foundations of antiquity, but are actually balancing tradition and innovation. The polarity between Modern and Classical is perhaps a false dichotomy at its core. The Classical principles of proportion, innovation, and the human experience is what guided Modern architects. The socalled faults of Classical architecture that Modernists claim are often inaccurate. The shadows of the principles established in ancient Greece live on. Even if the Hellenic styles are not continued to be represented in literal form, their functional organization has a resounding impact such as the outer facade continuing to correlate with the inner patterns of structure. All of the great Modernists studied the Classics first, paving the way for its inevitable influence. The human condition seeks peace, comfort, balance, and order. In these Classical things that prevail namely democracy, philosophy, and architecture, the common factor is the human. In the end, the true human nature will out. Although Modernity appears to run away from Classical Greece with its lack of ornamental details, it is simply just a different interpretation and progression of the same human condition that persists throughout the ages.

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The Acropolis. Photo via Towards a New Architecture.

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