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Experience Human Development 13th Edition Papalia

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Chapter 6: Psychosocial Development during the First Three Years

Introduction

Chapter 6 begins with a brief discussion of personality and how it intertwines with social relationships. This leads to an investigation of early signs of emotion, such as crying, smiling, and laughing in infancy, which are followed by more self-conscious emotions during toddlerhood. The discussion concludes with descriptions of brain growth and emotional development.

The next section explores temperament. The authors utilize the New York Longitudinal Study to support discussion of “difficult” children, “slow-to-warm-up” children, and “easy” children. Stability and cross-cultural differences in temperament are also illuminated. The family provides people with their earliest social experiences, and thus motherhood and fatherhood are explored. Gender differences are explored in social and emotional development.

The key developmental issue in infancy, according to Erikson, is developing trust. Attachment theories and patterns are presented, including Ainsworth’s typology:

 secure attachment

 avoidant attachment

 ambivalent attachment

 disorganized-disoriented attachment

Much of attachment theory has been based on the Strange Situation research that is explained in this chapter. The roles of temperament in attachment patterns and intergenerational aspects are discussed as well. Applications of attachment theory include stranger anxiety and separation anxiety. Also included is a brief discussion of the long-term effects of attachment. Introduction of the concepts of mutual regulation and social referencing conclude this section. Key developmental issues in toddlerhood include an emerging sense of self, growth of autonomy, and the internalization of behavioral standards. Sense of self is developed through:

 physical self-recognition and awareness

 self-description and evaluation

 emotional response to wrongdoing

Erikson identifies this period as autonomy vs. shame and doubt. This section of the chapter discusses the concepts of socialization, internalization, and self-regulation, as well as various aspects of developing a conscience. Sociability is also discussed in relationship to siblings and contact with other children.

Next, the chapter presents information on the effects of parental employment and the impacts of early child care. Included also is a section on the interaction of infants and toddlers with siblings and other children.

The chapter concludes with a discussion of childhood maltreatment, abuse, and neglect. Statistics, contributing factors presented from an ecological view, suggestions for helping troubled or at-risk families, and long-term effects of maltreatment are detailed in this section.

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the development of emotions and personality in infancy.

2. Describe infants’ social relationships with caregivers, including attachment.

3. Discuss the emerging sense of self, autonomy, and moral development in toddlerhood.

4. Explain how social contexts influence early development.

5. Explain child maltreatment and its effects.

The Total Teaching Package Outline: Chapter 6

Psychosocial Development during the First Three Years

Heading Resources

Research in Action: How Postpartum Depression Affects Early Development

Window on the World: Are Struggles with Toddlers Necessary?

Foundations of Psychosocial Development

Emotions

Temperament

Lecture Openers: 6-4

Lecture Opener: 6.1

Learning Objective 6.1

Checkpoint: 6-1, 6-2

Activity: 6.6

Learning Objective 6.1

Checkpoint: 6-3, 6-4; 6-5, 6-6

Essay Question: 6.1

Lecture Opener: 6.3

Video: Attachment and Temperament

Earliest Social Experiences: The Infant in Learning Objective 6.2

the Family

Gender: How Different Are Baby Boys and Girls?

Developmental Issues in Infancy

Developing Trust

Developing Attachments

Checkpoint: 6-7, 6-8

Lecture Opener: 6.4

Checkpoint: 6-9

Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.1

Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.2

Checkpoint: 6-11,9-12,6-13, 6-14

Activity: 6.2, 6.4

NOTE: Because Activity 6.4 is a very personal activity, it should be optional for students, with an alternative activity available for those who might feel uncomfortable with its personal nature.

Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.3

Video: Attachment Theory

Emotional Communication with Caregivers: Mutual Regulation

Social Referencing

Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood

The Emerging Sense of Self

Development of Autonomy

The Roots of Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization

Developing Self-Regulation

Origins of Conscience: Committed

Compliance

Factors in the Success of Socialization

Contact with Other Children

Siblings

Sociability with Nonsiblings

Children of Working Parents

Effects of Maternal Employment

Early Childcare

Maltreatment: Abuse and Neglect

Learning Objective 6.2

Checkpoint: 6-15

Checkpoint: 6-16

Learning Objective 6.3

Checkpoint: 6-17

Checkpoint: 6-18

Checkpoint: 6-

Checkpoint: 6-19

Checkpoint: 6-20

Checkpoint: 6-21

Learning Objective 6.4

Checkpoint: 6-22, 6-23

Activity: 6.5

Checkpoint: 6-24

Learning Objective 6.4

Checkpoint: 6-25

Essay Question: 6.2

Lecture Opener: 6.5

Checkpoint: 6-26, 6-27

Activity: 6.3

Essay Question: 6.3

Video: Quality Childcare Indicators

Learning Objective 6.5

Checkpoint: 6-28, 6-29

Activity: 6.1

Contributing Factors: An Ecological View Checkpoint: 6-30

Helping Families in Trouble

Checkpoint: 6-31

Lecture Opener: 6.2

Long-Term Effects of Maltreatment Checkpoint: 6-32

Detailed Chapter Outline with Key Terms

Chapter 6: Psychosocial Development during the First Three Years

FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

● Personality: A relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes each person unique.

● Psychosocial development: Personality development is intertwined with social relationships.

Emotions

● Emotions: Subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes.

First Signs of Emotion

Crying

● Hunger cry: A rhythmic cry, not always associated with hunger.

● Angry cry: A variation of the rhythmic cry in which excess air is forced through the vocal cords.

● Pain cry: A sudden onset of loud crying without preliminary moaning, sometimes followed with holding the breath.

● Frustration cry: Two or three drawn-out cries, with no prolonged breath-holding. Colic: Crying that occurs for over three hours on three or more days for three or more weeks.

Smiling and Laughing

Waking smiles: Voluntary smiles.

 Social Smile

 Anticipatory Smile

When Do Emotions Appear?

● Self-conscious emotions: Emotions such as embarrassment, empathy, and envy that require a degree of self-awareness.

● Self-awareness: Realization that one’s existence and functioning are separate from those of other people and things.

● Self-evaluative emotions: Emotions such as pride, guilt, and shame that involve evaluation of one’s own thoughts and behavior against socially appropriate thoughts and behavior.

Brain Growth and Emotional Development

● Cerebral cortex: Outer covering of the brain where higher mental functions occur.

● Frontal lobes: Front section of the cerebral cortex (one on each side of the brain), responsible, in part, for emotional responses.

● Limbic system: The seat of emotional reactions in the brain.

● Hippocampus: Structure in the limbic system of the brain.

● Hypothalamus: Structure of the brain involved in the limbic system and emotion.

● Sympathetic system: Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action.

● Parasympathetic system: Part of the autonomic nervous system that is involved in excretion and sexual excitement.

Altruistic Helping, Empathy, and Social Cognition

 Altruistic behavior: Acting out of concern for others with no expectation of reward

 Empathy: The ability to put oneself in another’s place and feel what that person feels.

 Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire when a person does something or observes someone doing the same thing.

 Social Cognition: The ability to understand that others have mental states and to gauge their feelings and actions.

Temperament

● Temperament: Characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations.

Studying Temperamental Patterns: The New York Longitudinal Study

● “Easy” children: Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and readiness to accept new experiences.

● “Difficult” children: Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional responses.

● “Slow-to-warm-up” children: Children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experiences.

How Stable Is Temperament?

Temperament and Adjustment: “Goodness-of-fit”

● Goodness-of-fit: Appropriateness of environmental demands and constraints to a child’s temperament.

Shyness and Boldness: Influences of Biology and Culture

● Inhibition to the unfamiliar: Shyness, or how sociable a child is with strange children and how boldly or cautiously the child approaches unfamiliar objects and situations.

Earliest Social Experiences: The Infant in the Family

The Mother’s Role

The Father’s Role

Gender: How Different Are Baby Boys and Girls?

● Gender: Significance of being male or female.

Gender Differences in Infants and Toddlers

How Parents Shape Gender Differences

● Gender-typing: Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles.

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES IN INFANCY

Developing Trust

● Basic trust vs. basic mistrust: Erikson’s first stage in psychosocial development in which infants develop a sense of the reliability of people and objects.

● Hope: The belief of infants that they can fulfill their needs and obtain their desires.

Developing Attachments

● Attachment: Reciprocal, enduring tie between infant and caregiver, each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship.

Studying Patterns of Attachment

● Strange Situation: Laboratory technique used to study attachment.

● Secure attachment: Pattern in which an infant cries or protests when the primary caregiver leaves and actively seeks out the caregiver upon his or her return.

● Secure base: Infant’s use of a parent or other familiar caregiver as a departure point for exploration and a safe place to return periodically for emotional support.

● Avoidant attachment: Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact upon his or her return.

● Ambivalent (resistant) attachment: Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact upon his or her return.

● Disorganized-disoriented attachment: Pattern in which an infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory behaviors upon the caregiver’s return.

How Attachment Is Established

Alternative Methods of Attachment Study

The Role of Temperament

Stranger Anxiety and Separation Anxiety

● Stranger anxiety: Wariness of strange people and places, shown by some infants during the second half of the first year.

● Separation anxiety: Distress shown by an infant when a familiar caregiver leaves.

Long-Term Effects of Attachment

Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment Patterns

● Adult attachment interview (AAI): A semistructured interview that asks adults to recall and interpret feelings and experiences related to their childhood attachments.

Emotional Communication with Caregivers: Mutual Regulation

● Mutual regulation: Process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately.

Social Referencing

● Social referencing: Understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking out another person’s perception of it.

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES IN TODDLERHOOD

● Sense of self: The development of the toddler’s knowledge of being a separate person from those around him or her.

● Autonomy: Self-determination.

● Internalization of behavioral standards or socialization: The toddler’s tendency to make the behavioral standards of others, such as parents, a part of the toddler’s mental structures and memories.

The Emerging Sense of Self

● Self-concept: Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one’s abilities and traits.

● Agency: A feature of the I-self in which the baby realizes that one can control external events.

● Self-coherence: The sense of being a physical whole with boundaries within which agency resides.

● Self-awareness: Conscious knowledge of the self as a distinct, identifiable being.

Development of Autonomy

● Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: Erikson’s second stage in psychosocial development in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others.

● Will: Virtue that emerges during Erikson’s second stage.

● Negativism: The tendency of a toddler to shout “No!” just for the sake of resisting authority.

The Roots of Moral Development: Socialization and Internalization

● Socialization: Development of habits, skills, values, and motives shared by responsible, productive members of a society.

● Internalization: Process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own; fundamental to socialization.

Developing Self-Regulation

● Self-regulation: Child’s independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations.

● Attentional processes: The ability to pay attention to stimuli.

Origins of Conscience: Committed Compliance

● Conscience: Internal standards of behavior, which usually control one’s conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated.

● Committed compliance: Kochanska’s term for wholehearted obedience of a parent’s orders without reminders or lapses.

● Situational compliance: Kochanska’s term for obedience of a parent’s orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control.

 Receptive Cooperation: Eager willingness to cooperate with the parent.

Factors in the Success of Socialization

● Moral emotions: Emotions such as guilt and empathy.

● Moral conduct: Refusing to break rules or violate standards in the face of strong temptation.

● Moral cognition: Thought patterns that reflect responses to moral dilemmas.

CONTACT WITH OTHER CHILDREN

Siblings

Sociability with Nonsiblings

CHILDREN OF WORKING PARENTS

Effects of Maternal Employment

Early Child Care

Factors in Impact of Child Care

The NICHD Study: Isolating Child Care Effects

MALTREATMENT: ABUSE AND NEGLECT

● Maltreatment: Deliberate or avoidable endangerment of a child.

● Failure to thrive: Results of a combination of inadequate nutrition, disturbed interactions with parents, and other factors such as disease.

● Physical abuse: Action taken to endanger a child, involving potential bodily injury.

● Neglect: Failure to meet a child's basic needs.

● Sexual abuse: Sexual activity involving a child and an older person.

● Emotional maltreatment: Action or inaction that may cause behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders.

Contributing Factors: An Ecological View

Characteristics of Abusive and Neglectful Parents and Families

Community Characteristics and Cultural Values

Helping Families in Trouble

Long-Term Effects of Maltreatment

Suggested Lecture Openers

6.1 Show and Tell

Objective: To apply developmental concepts and encourage students to apply concepts to their own experiences.

Time necessary: 15–30 minutes or can be ongoing, depending on number of students who want to participate; can also be done in small groups.

Directions: Prior to the designated class meeting, students should be asked to bring some physical artifact from their own infancy or toddlerhood to class. Examples might include a baby picture, a toy that has special meaning, a transitional object, or a descriptive memory. On the day or time set aside for “show and tell,” you may want to organize the presentations in order of age or stage of development of the artifacts.

Wrap-Up: This exercise can be used as a practical demonstration of archival research and is a good way to ask students to speculate on the process of inference. It can also be used in a discussion of memory.

Reference:

Beers, S. E. (1987). Show and tell: For developmental psychology. In Makosky, V. P., Whittemore, L. G., & Rogers, A. M. (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: APA.

6.2 Foster Parent Panel

Objective: To expose students to issues involved in foster care.

Time necessary: 30–45 minutes

Directions: Contact community service agencies that may be able to assist you with locating some foster parents to speak on a panel. If foster parents are unavailable, perhaps people from the regulatory agencies would be willing to speak on the same issues. Students should be encouraged to prepare questions such as the following:

1. How does foster placement affect infants?

2. What types of attachments do foster parents develop?

3. What are the best experiences you’ve had as a foster parent/caseworker?

4. What are some typical problems you encounter?

5. What is the average length of time children are in foster care?

6. How often do foster parents adopt children for whom they have cared?

7. What is involved in the adoption process?

Wrap-Up: Students can be asked to break into small groups and compose thank-you notes to the panelists detailing what they’ve learned from the experience.

6.3 Who Wants a “Difficult” Child?

Objective: To engage students in a discussion about labeling children and the practical outcomes of potential negative connotations.

Time necessary: 15 minutes

Directions: Thomas and Chess's choice of the labels "easy," "difficult," and "slow-to-warm-up" to describe temperament differences in infants is heavily laden with connotations for parents. Our societal stereotype of the "Gerber Baby" implies that all babies should be "easy." Who, if they had the choice, would choose to have a "difficult" baby? It sounds as though there is something dreadfully wrong with a "slow-to-warm-up" baby. The labels "less reactive," "more reactive," and "cautious" have very different connotations.

Wrap-Up: Students can become more aware of these implicit connotations by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of being each of the three types of babies. For example, who gets held more often, an “easy” or a “difficult baby”? Do parents learn to be more precise and slowerpaced with “slow-to-warm-up” babies, or do such babies produce hesitant and less secure parents? Which baby is most likely to be ignored? What temperament is at greatest risk for abuse?

6.4 Postpartum Depression

Objective: To discuss the prevalence and symptoms of postpartum depression, focusing on its effects on infants and some of the controversy surrounding its diagnosis and treatment.

Time necessary: 15–20 minutes

Directions: Present information from the Research in Action section found in Box 6-1 in the textbook. An attention-getting supplement for this lecture opener would be to show film clips of Tom Cruise and Brooke Shields discussing postpartum depression and their opposing opinions. Also clips from the media coverage of Andrea Yates, the mother who killed her five children while suffering from postpartum depression would be effective to show. These clips can usually be found online from sources such as YouTube or other online video sources. If clips are not available, remind students of the media coverage of these events.

Wrap-Up: Through group discussion, present opposing opinions about the treatment of individuals suffering from this disorder, the effects on infants of mothers who have this disorder, and the any personal experiences with this disorder that the students might be willing to discuss.

6.5 Working Mothers

Objective: To discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the mother working outside the home and to encourage students to express their opinions and share their experiences with this issue.

Time necessary: 15 minutes

Directions: Directions: Open up a class discussion of the effects of having a mother work outside the home. Have the students generate a list of advantages and disadvantages of the mother working outside the home and write these on the board.

Wrap-Up: Encourage students to share any personal experiences that influence their opinions about the issue if they feel comfortable.

Critical Thinking Exercises

6.1 Using Advice Column Letters or Internet Bulletin Board Postings as Case Studies

Objective: To have students apply developmental concepts to “real world” data or case studies.

Type/Length of activity: Small group discussions or short reaction papers

Time to complete: 45–50 minutes in small groups

Directions: Have each student collect at least two “case problems” related to parenting young children or issues of very young children, found in magazines, newspapers, or on Internet bulletin board postings such as leaving a child in a hot car, tantrums, refusals to eat, or others. Advice columns work especially well. Students should analyze the columns in terms of developmental concepts and assess whether or not the “expert” offering advice seems well versed in developmental issues. Then have students write a developmentally appropriate response or short reaction paper to doing the exercise. If this exercise is done in small groups, each group can select their best example and present it to the rest of the class.

Reference:

Cabe, P. A., Walker, M. H., & Williams, M. (1999). Newspaper advice column letters as teaching cases for developmental psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 26, 128–130.

6.2 Using Erikson’s Trust Vs. Mistrust

Objective: To understand how a continuum of trust and mistrust can apply to adults and children.

Time necessary: 10 minutes

Directions: Have each student make a quick list of all the people they truly feel that they can trust. Although this is a personal exercise, if students feel comfortable, they can share their lists or their information with the class The main focus of the exercise is for them to look at their own attitudes of trust and mistrust toward people. Students who find they have a very short list, or no one on their list, can be challenged to introspect about possible origins behind their lack of trust. The instructor might challenge students with very long lists to think about whether or not this is a good sign about their judgment of others. This is a quick icebreaker for a class and shows how trust and mistrust continues to be part of people’s interactions into adulthood. Be sure to allow students the opportunity to observe and not participate since this could be a very personal exercise for some students.

6.3 Goodness-of-Fit with Temperament Choosing a Life Partner

Objective: To understand how a person’s temperament may be involved in compatibility and satisfaction with relationships.

Time necessary: 5–10 minutes

Directions: Discuss how factors in temperament type such as “cuddlers” and “non-cuddlers” are part of relationship satisfaction. Cuddlers enjoy physical touch, such as snuggling, massage, and sleeping like spoons. Non-cuddlers like to observe but need personal space. What happens when these temperaments are compatible or non-compatible?

 A cuddler with a cuddler would enjoy touch and would have the interaction that would be expected.

 A non-cuddler with a non-cuddler might like separate rooms, separate beds, or at the least the other person staying “on his or her side of the bed.” Each person would be happy with the other because they give what each would like to receive.

 A cuddler with a non-cuddler could cause the cuddler to feel rejected and the non-cuddler to feel smothered.

Use this exercise to have students examine other traits, such as the ones with the New York Longitudinal study, that might affect goodness-of-fit in all types of relationships, from partners to parent-child.

Essay Questions

6.1 How do shy and bold children differ in styles of interaction with the environment?

Sample answers:

 Shy children are likely to withdraw from new situations, to observe new situations rather than to interact, and to experience higher levels of physiological responses such as increased heart rate. A shy child might not wander off when shopping, would need a very consistent day care center, and would need plenty of time to adjust to changes in the home, day care, or school.

 Bold children are likely to approach new situations, interact with strangers, and experience lower levels of physiological reactions to new situations. A bold child is more likely to wander from the parent when shopping, could more easily adjust to changes, and would be at greater risk for having contact with strangers.

6.2 List the positive and negative aspects of having a young child in day care.

Sample answers:

 Positive features include better socialization, greater opportunity to learn from other adults, improved verbal skills for children from poor families, and more independence.

 Negative features include the risk of having poor day care providers, a need for consistency, and the difficulty for shy or timid children to adjust to new situations.

6.3 How would a person select a good day care center?

Sample answers:

Students could use Table 6.5 to summarize all the features of a good day care center including:

 Licensing

 Clean and safe

 Good ratio of adult to children to allow small groups

 Training of staff

 Nurturing qualities of staff

 Healthy habits

 Balance between structure and free play

 Stimulating environment with toys and activities

 Encourages questions and learning

 Builds social skills

 Improves parenting skills

 Cooperates with schools and community

The features are the ones that should also be used by the students in doing Activity 6.3. This essay can be used prior to or after the activity to repeat the important features of finding good child care.

6.1 Investigation of Prevalence of Child Abuse

Due date:

Objective: To investigate the prevalence of child maltreatment both nationally and locally.

Type/Length of activity: Independent research, a 1–2 page summary, and a brief class presentation

Time to complete: Variable

Directions: The instructor will assign each class member to investigate the prevalence of child abuse, neglect, and maltreatment in their home town, county, or state.

Independent Research:

Compile data on abuse in your area use sources of information such as U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, which maintains a website with statistics, or local child protection agencies in your hometown or county, which may have statistics compiled and available, or any other types of statistics or information available to you. If possible, break down of the maltreatment statistics into categories, such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, or neglect.

Presentation:

During class time, each student will briefly and informally present what information he or she collected, followed by a class discussion of the data.

What do I turn in?

Turn in a brief, written summary of the information you gathered.

Your summary should:

 be one to two pages long

 be typed, double spaced, and have one-inch margins

 have a cover sheet that includes your name, the title of your paper, your ID#, course name and section number, and the date

 reference all sources using APA format

Activities

6.2 Identifying Your Attachment Style

Due date:

Objective: To understand attachment theory and apply it to individual life experience. NOTE: This is a very personal activity. If you feel uncomfortable with its personal nature, ask your instructor to allow you to participate in an alternative activity.

Type/Length of activity: Self-assessment using adult attachment interview (AAI) and a summary paper

Time to complete: Variable

Directions: The goal of this project is to learn about your own attachment style. Our text mentions the adult attachment interview (AAI) as a semistructured interview that asks adults to recall and interpret feelings and experiences related to their childhood attachments. A copy of the assessment can be found at the following link: http://www.iasa-dmm.org/index.php/about-attachment/Adult-Assessment-Attachment/

Summary Report:

Type out your answers to the questions. Although you will not be able to score it as professionals do, examining your own answers will give you much insight into your attachment style. Based on your answers, write a conclusion summarizing the evidence that supports the attachment style you think you had in childhood.

Specifics:

Your paper should:

 be two to four pages long

 be typed, double spaced, and have one-inch margins

 include a cover sheet that lists your name, the title of your paper, your ID#, course name and section number, and the date

 reference all sources using APA format

Activity Appropriate for Education Majors

6.3 Recommendations for Day Care Centers

Due date: _______________

Objective: To suggest ways day care centers can utilize developmental research in their curricula.

Type/Length of activity: A 4–6 page paper that is a proposal for program reform or improvement

Time to complete: Variable

Directions: You can use your textbook as well as magazines, articles, books, and the Internet for information and ideas.

What do I turn in?

A four- to six-page paper written for directors of day care centers that care for infants and toddlers. Choose two of the four domains of development listed below to include in your paper. Be sure to site specific research findings to back up your recommendations.

1. Physical Development: Try to list specific things a day care teacher can do, or things that the center could provide, to encourage physical development in infants and toddlers. What should the 3-year-old graduate of the toddler class be able to do before moving to the preschool class, for example?

2. Cognitive Development: Try to list specific things a day care teacher can do, or things that the center could provide, to encourage cognitive development in infants and toddlers. What abilities should the 3-year-old graduates of the toddler class demonstrate before moving to the preschool class, for example?

3. Emotional Development: Try to list specific things a day care teacher can do, or things that the center could provide, to encourage emotional development in infants and toddlers. How can teachers, for example, encourage self-regulation?

4. Psychosocial Development: Try to list specific things a day care teacher can do, or things that the center could provide, to encourage psychosocial development in infants and toddlers. What can be done to encourage healthy self-esteem and to foster the skills needed to share and get along with other children, for example?

The paper should have the following headings:

1. Introduction: Introduce the topics of day care for infants and toddlers, and the need for programs that encourage development.

2. Recommendations in one of your two domains.

3. Recommendations in the other of your two domains.

4. Conclusion: Encourage the day care directors to implement your suggestions. Remind them of the importance of these areas of development. Do not make your encouragement sound like a criticism of the day care. Only point out how research might benefit day care centers in developing better programs.

Specifics:

Your paper should:

 be four to six pages long

 be typed, double spaced, and have one-inch margins

 include a cover sheet that lists your name, the title of your paper, your ID#, course name and section number, and the date

 reference all sources using APA format

Activity Appropriate for Education Majors

6.4 Influences on Attachment

Due date: _______________

Objective: To understand and consider the ways in which current lifestyle choices may influence attachment style.

Type/Length of activity: Library research and 5–7 page paper

Time to complete: Variable

Directions: How might a baby’s reaction to the Strange Situation be different if the baby is raised in any combination of the following:

1. two-parent, intact family with a mother and father

2. two-parent family with a stepmother

3. two parent family with a stepfather

4. two-parent, intact family in which the parents are lesbian

5. two-parent, intact family in which the parents are gay

6. a single-parent family, living with mother

7. a single-parent family, living with father

8. stays with grandparents during the day

9. stays in a babysitter’s home during the day

10. stays in a day care center during the day

Library Research:

Look for sources that discuss any of the situations listed above in terms of attachment between the infant and the parental figure. You will want to check in books, journals, magazines, and newspapers and on the Internet for useful information.

The paper:

Your paper should begin with an introduction describing the focus of your paper. The body of the paper should describe the research on attachment styles that began with the Strange Situation. Explain how that research has evolved over the years and how it has included (or ignored) some of the situations listed above. The paper should end with a conclusion that summarizes your findings and offers suggestions for attachment research in the future.

Specifics:

Your paper should:

 be five to seven pages long

 be typed, double spaced, and have one-inch margins

 include a cover sheet that lists your name, the title of your paper, your ID#, course name and section number, and the date

 reference all sources using APA format

Activity Appropriate for Education Majors

6.5 Adjusting to New Siblings

Due date: _______________

Objective: To help understand the adjustment process when families incorporate new siblings or children.

Type/Length of activity: Write a brochure

Time to complete: Variable

Directions:

Research:

Look for books, journals, magazines, newspaper or Internet articles that discuss ways of introducing a toddler to new siblings. You might also find some children’s books written to help children with this issue.

Write a brochure:

Based on your research, write a brochure that gives parents very concrete and specific suggestions of ways of introducing their toddler to a new sibling. The material may need to be organized as to whether the new sibling is the result of mother’s pregnancy, an adoption, or the blending of two families.

What do I turn in?

1. A reference page listing the sources of your information.

2. A brochure that could be photocopied and given to parents. The brochure should involve one sheet of typing paper, but you can fold it any way you would like. You may turn the page sideways and fold it once for a booklet style or fold it three times for a tri-fold. You may type on both sides of the paper, but stick to one sheet of typing paper. The brochure must be typed. You may be creative in terms of the way you present the material (such as with the use of graphics). Be certain to put your name at the very end of the brochure.

Observation/Laboratory/Interview

6.6 Investigating Infant Emotions

Due date:

Objective: To explore infant emotions and mutual regulation concepts

Type/Length of activity: Observational experiment and 4–6 page paper

Time to complete: Variable

Directions:

Preparation:

1. Reread the sections of Chapter 6 that discuss research on infant emotions.

2. Gather pictures of infants showing different emotions. These can be gathered from magazines, newspapers, snapshots, or the Internet. Cut the pictures so that the baby’s face is the primary focus and contextual cues are at a minimum. For example, if the baby is laughing because someone is tickling him or her, it is easier to guess the emotion if the picture shows the baby being tickled. For this research you want to show primarily the baby’s face to see if people can identify the baby’s emotions.

3. Arrange the pictures in a notebook or on a series of cards for people to view. Number the pictures.

Experiment:

Show the pictures to five male and five female college students and ask them to identify the emotion the baby is showing. Write down the emotion given to each picture.

Write Your Results:

Write a paper with the following headings:

1. Introduction: Give a brief overview of the current research on infant emotions. You can use your textbook and library resources. A handbook of development psychology would also be very useful in providing you with background on infant emotion research.

2. Participants: Describe the 10 people who participated in your study. Include each one’s age and sex.

3. Methodology: Describe how you put your instrument together (the pictures) and how the experiment was administered to the participants.

4. Results: What emotions did the participants attribute to the babies in the pictures?

5. Discussion: Did you find much agreement among your participants? How confident were the participants in determining the babies’ emotions? Is this method of research a good one to determine what emotions an infant is feeling? Include a concluding paragraph in the discussion.

Specifics:

Your paper should:

 be four to six pages long

 be typed, double spaced, and have one-inch margins

 include a cover sheet that lists your name, the title of your paper, your ID#, course name and section number, and the date

 reference all sources using APA format

Ideas for Independent Study

1. Ask several people (parents and others) how they would respond in each of the following situations concerning a 6-month-old infant they were taking care of:

a. When handed to an unfamiliar person, the infant: 1) shows alert wariness at first but relaxes quickly and seems content; or 2) shows extreme wariness and cries with increasing volume and distress until "rescued" from the stranger.

b. When receiving an immunization in the doctor's office, the infant: 1) cries when the shot is given but calms down within a minute or two; or 2) cries when the shot is given and continues all the way into the parking lot and halfway home in the car.

Ask each participant to tell you: 1) what probably accounts for the baby's behavior in each situation; and 2) how they would respond to the infant at that moment. (The first infant behavior in each case represents an “easy” temperament, and the second represents a "difficult" temperament.) Then ask your respondents whether they would do anything differently to prepare the infant for such situations in the future. Write down the answers each respondent gives. Compare the answers given for the temperamentally “easy” and "difficult" infants. What sorts of care-giving responses are elicited by each hypothetical infant? How do these answers relate to the concept of goodness-of-fit?

2. Get permission to visit a play group for toddlers and their parents. Keep track (unobtrusively) of instances in which parents try to teach their young children about behavioral standards and expectations. Note how the parents correct their children's behavior and how the children respond to these corrections. For example, if a parent expresses disapproval verbally, how does the child respond? What if the parent uses physical restraint? Describe any differences in how parents respond to situations involving other children (such as pushing or grabbing something away from another child) and situations involving toys or other objects (such as throwing a toy on the floor). Also note whether one type of parental behavior seems to evoke more committed compliance than another type.

3. Visit a public play area and compare how toddlers react when they encounter unfamiliar children and unfamiliar adults. If possible, ask the adults caring for the children whether the behavior you observe is typical of the way their children usually respond to new people of different ages. You must respect the right to privacy and some people will not want a stranger asking questions about their children.

Resources Available In Connect

The following are a selection of various resources available in McGraw-Hill’s Connect, which can be used in class or assigned as homework. For more about Connect, please visit: http://successinhighered.com/psychology/connect/.

Emotional Expression 8-36 Weeks

Emotional Expression 2 Weeks - 3 Years

Milestones

6.1 Discuss the development of emotions and personality in infancy.

6.1 Discuss the development of emotions and personality in infancy. Interactional Synchrony 3-40 Months

6.1 Discuss the development of emotions and personality in infancy.

Attachment and Temperament Video 2.04 min

Milestones

6.2 Describe infants' social relationships with caregivers, including attachment.

6.2 Describe infants' social relationships with caregivers, including attachment. Development of Attachment Between Child and Caregiver 2 Weeks - 17 Months

Attachment Theory Video 4.22 min

Milestones

6.2 Describe infants' social relationships with caregivers, including attachment. Rouge Test 6 Months - 18 Months

Development of Autonomy 13-15 Months

Milestones

Quality Childcare Indicators Video 1.30 min

6.3 Discuss the emerging sense of self, autonomy, and moral development in toddlerhood.

6.4 Explain how social contexts influence early development.

Audio Visual Resources

Broken child: Case studies of child abuse. (Films Media Group, 2000, video or DVD, 61 min.) Investigates children who are victims of prenatal substance abuse, criminal neglect, or physical or emotional violence. Case studies include children with developmental difficulties caused by maternal drug addiction, posttraumatic stress disorder brought on by scenes of extreme violence in the home, and life-threatening injuries from beatings.

Activity Title Activity Type Learning Objective

Social Smile 2-9 Weeks Milestones

Child abuse 1: Neglect and sexual abuse. (Insight Media, 2005, DVD, 30 min.)

This DVD defines neglect, discusses characteristics of negligent parents or guardians, and examines the effects of neglect on children. It also looks at characteristics of perpetrators and victims of sexual abuse and identifies the physical and behavioral signs of abuse.

Child abuse 2: Psychological and physical abuse. (Insight Media, 2005, DVD, 26 min.)

This DVD defines psychological abuse and discusses its effects on the emotional and social development of children. It also describes characteristics of adults who physically abuse children and illustrates common physical signs of adult-inflicted injuries.

John Bowlby: Attachment theory across generations. (Films Media Group, 2007, DVD, 40 min.)

John Bowlby's attachment theory shows how relational patterns set early in life affect emotional bonds later in life. This film's focus is on attachment theory as it explains many aspects of personality development from childhood through to adulthood.

Mary Ainsworth: Attachment and the growth of love. (Davidson Films, 2005, DVD, 38 min.)

The production details the developmental course of attachment behaviors and the different patterns that are captured by the controlled observational techniques of the “Strange Situation.”

Rock a bye baby (Time-Life, 1970, 30 min.)

Contains classic clips of the Harlow experiment as well as footage of real children who have been institutionalized. The complete documentary is available online with permission at the following Internet site: http://www.violence.de/tv/rockabye.html

Multimedia Courseware for Child Development

Charlotte J. Patterson, University of Virginia

This video-based two-CD-ROM set (ISBN 0-07-254580-1) covers classic and contemporary experiments in child development. Respected researcher Charlotte J. Patterson selected the video and wrote modules that can be assigned to students. The modules also include suggestions for additional projects as well as a testing component. Multimedia Courseware can be packaged with the text at a discount.

Web Resources

Attachment theory

http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/

This excellent site has numerous resources for people interested in attachment theory. It contains information on Bowlby and Ainsworth and has online articles and slides available.

A brief overview of adult attachment theory and research

http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm

Find our how your attachment to your parents as a baby might be affecting your relationships today.

Children’s Defense Fund

http://www.childrensdefense.org/

A nonprofit organization geared toward protecting children’s interests and rights, particular minority and poor children. The site contains some good information on children and poverty.

Child development database

www.nncc.org

This site is maintained by the National Network for Child Care and contains numerous articles on issues relevant to infancy and toddlerhood. There is a special section devoted to emotional/social issues that are directly related to this chapter.

Great ideas in personality

http://www.personalityresearch.org/

Take advantage of the self-quizzes and other student resources. Explore the information this site has to offer about attachment theory.

Prevent child abuse

http://www.preventchildabuse.org/

An informative site primarily for parents, this location provides good angermanagement tips and support networks.

The Shaken Baby Alliance

http://www.shakenbaby.com/

This site is designed as a support site for victims, parents, and others interested in combating shaken baby syndrome.

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