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The Medieval Period Five Skeletons Discovered? A new exhibition at Stirling Castle in Scotland will bring visitors face to face with knight and lady excavated from its lost royal chapel. Scientific research has revealed that at least five of the medieval people whose skeletons were discovered at Stirling Castle suffered brutally violent deaths. The discovery offers an extraordinarily rare insight into medieval warfare. One man, aged 26-35, endured some 44 skull fractures from repeated blows with a blunt object, and up to 60 more across the rest of his body. The skeletons were buried beneath a lost 12th-century royal chapel which was excavated as part of Historic Scotland’s project to refurbish the castle’s 16th century palace, which stands nearby. Historic Scotland has created 3D facial reconstructions of two of the people – visitors to the grand opening of the palace will be able to see them for the first time on 4 and 5 June. They will be on display as part of a new exhibition of the castle’s history in the Queen Anne Casemates overlooked by the palace block.
HOW MUCH MEAT DID MEDIEVAL PEOPLE EAT? One of the key conclusions of this article is that
cattle and sheep were the main sources of meat throughout Western Europe, and that consumption of pork went into general decline during the 14th and 15th centuries, which López attributes to changes in farming after the Black Death. There were also a lot of regional variation – in northern France and England beef was the most popular type of meat. According to the late 14th-century book Mesnagier de Paris, in a typical week Parisian residents consumed over 95 000 kilograms of beef, more than twice the amount of any other type of meat. López also notes that medieval cookbooks, like the Viandier and the Forme of Curye, had beef in their recipes more often than other meats. The situation in the Iberian Peninsula was different – the author makes use of a unique tax record from Barcelona which shows the meat consumption in that city during year of 1462. He finds that almost 70% of all the meat consumed was mutton (representing over 40000 animals), while beef consumption was just over 10%. Meanwhile, Catalan cookbooks dating back to the Middle
Ages also show that when meat was used in recipes, it was usually mutton. López notes that in Italy there was a lot of seasonal variation in meat consumption. In late 14th century Prato, for example, “mutton was the most popular meat from the end of spring through the beginning of winter, and pork rose in popularity in September and peaked in January. Veal was sold mainly during summer – especially in August and September.” The consumption of veal and beef from young cattle was higher in Italy than in other parts of Europe.
Newly rediscovered Da Vinci painting: FIRST PUBLIC SHOWING! The National Gallery in England will be having the first public showing of a long-lost Leonardo da Vinci work, Salvator Mundi, which was created in the late 15th or early 16th century. It will be featured during the Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan exhibition, from November 9, 2011 to February 5, 2012. It will be featured during the Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan exhibition, from November 9, 2011 to February 5, 2012. The Salvator Mundi (Savior of the World) depicts a half-length figure of Christ facing frontally, holding a crystal orb in his left hand as he raises his right in blessing. One of some 15 surviving Leonardo oil paintings, this is the first time that one of his painting’s was discovered since 1909, when the Benois Madonna, now in the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, came to light. Leonardo’s painting of the Salvator Mundi was long known to have existed, but was presumed to have been destroyed.
The Salvator Mundi (Savior of the World)
The composition was documented in two preparatory drawings by Leonardo and more than 20 painted copies by students and followers of the artist, as well as a meticulous 1650 etching made after the original painting by the Bohemian artist Wenceslaus Hollar. The recently rediscovered painting was first recorded in the art collection of King Charles I of England in 1649. It was sold after his death, returned to the Crown upon the accession of Charles II, and later passed to the collection of the Duke of Buckingham, whose son put it at auction in 1763 following the sale of Buckingham House (now Palace) to the King. All trace of the work was then lost until 1900, when the picture was acquired by Sir Frederick Cook, but by then the painting had been damaged, disfigured by overpaint, and its authorship by Leonardo forgotten. For the remainder of the 20th century, the painting was part of an American collection until it was sold following the death of a family member. In 2005, the painting was brought to Robert Simon, an art historian and private art dealer in New York for study and research.
CENTRES OF ROYAL POWER: New findings about the realms of medieval itinerant kings. New findings about the realms of medieval itinerant kings In the 900-1000s the power of the monarch in Norway was consolidated through the establishment of a new system of royal estates. Similar systems can also be found in other Northern European countries. Kingston, Husebygård, Königshof. These three terms in English, Norwegian and German all describe the same thing: royal farmsteads that together formed a network and belonged to the early “state.” Kings such as the legendary Harald Fairhair, who gained control over large parts of Norway in the ninth century, travelled between the different royal estates. Thus, through their physical presence, the kings managed to control and govern larger kingdoms than previous Norwegian kings had done. With financing from the Research Council’s funding scheme for independent projects and in cooperation with colleagues in Sweden, Denmark, England and Germany, archaeologist Frode Iversen has shown how fundamental this system of royal estates and the king’s travels between the royal residences were for early state formation in Northern Europe. “The system of establishing a network of royal estates emerged as a new phenomenon in Northern Europe in the 500s. The system reached Norway a few hundred years later, making it possible for a king to control larger areas than had previously been the custom. Gradually a new type of estate, the husebygårdene , emerged. These are found in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, and we think they served as collection sites for fines and levies to the state. These were, perhaps, the first ‘tax offices’,” states Dr Iversen. The largest of the “network” kingdoms in medieval Europe was that of Charlemagne (742-812), whose kingdom extended over large parts of Western Europe. Here, too, a strategy of developing royal estates in the areas furthest from the centre was employed to hold the kingdom together. Another well known example can be found in England, where seven Anglo-Saxon kings in succession were crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames. Thus they gained access to the state residences, in addition to maintaining ownership of their own family holdings.
Opinion and Politics
Determine to Regain Power Justinian I, who took power in 527 and would rule until his death in 565, was the first great ruler of the Byzantine Empire. During the years of his reign, the empire included most of the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, as Justinian’s armies conquered part of the former Western Roman Empire, including North Africa. Many great monuments of the empire would be built under Justinian, including the spectacular domed Church of Holy Wisdom, or Hagia Sophia. Justinian also reformed and codified Roman law, establishing a Byzantine legal code that would endure for centuries and help shape the modern concept of the state. At the time of Justinian’s death, the Byzantine Empire reigned supreme as the largest and most powerful state in Europe. Debts incurred through war had left the empire in dire financial straits, however, and his successors were forced to heavily tax Byzantine citizens in order to keep the empire afloat. In addition, the imperial army was stretched too thin, and would struggle in vain to maintain the territory conquered during Justinian’s rule. During the seventh and eighth centuries, attacks from the Persian Empire and from Slavs, combined with internal political instability and economic regression, threatened the vast empire. Justinian I, detail of a mosaic, 6th century; in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna
In the Classical period, there were many Kings of Persia, but few were ever as powerful as the Achaemenids. As Kings of Persia, they ruled over the largest empire the ancient world has ever seen, which stretched from the Indus River in the east to the Balkan Peninsula in the west. The Kings of Persia were able to draw on enormous resources from all across this vast empire and exert influence far beyond their borders. Arranged chronologically, these are the twelve men who held the title “King of Persia” from the founding of the Achaemenid Empire to its destruction at the hands of Alexander the Great. Founder of the Achaemenid Empire, much of Cyrus’ life is shrouded by myth and legend. He was the son of the king of the Persians and the grandson of the king of the Median Empire. Following the death of his father, he revolted against the Medes and was able to overthrow them. This led Cyrus down the path of a conqueror and he embarked on a series of campaigns that saw Lydia, Western Anatolia, Elam, Babylonia, and much of Central Asia added to his domain. As King of Persia, Cyrus now ruled over the largest empire the world had ever seen. Cyrus also embarked on a number of administrative reforms and building projects. He famously allowed the Jewish people to return to Judea, thus endinjg the Babylonian captivity, and issued a general proclamation of freedom of worship and religious tolerance. He began the satrapy system to govern his kingdom and created the 10,000 Persian Immortals as the most elite warriors of his army. Cyrus met his death at the hands of the Massagetae, a nomadic tribe from Central Asia. After his death, he was buried in a relatively simple tomb, which belies his status as King of Persia and founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus the Great is one of the most admired kings of Persia and has exerted a profound influence on politics, religion, and philosophy from the ancient world to now.
King Ezana and the Peak of the Aksum Empire Aksum reached its peak under the leadership of King Ezana who ruled from around 325 CE to 360 CE. During this time, Aksum expanded its territory and became a major trade center. It was under King Ezana that Aksum conquered the Kingdom of Kush, destroying the city of Meroe. King Ezana also converted to Christianity. He was a devout Christian and Christianity became the major religion of the kingdom. Ezana is considered to have been the ablest and most politically astute of the brothers, and some scholars doubt that he even had a twin. At any rate, Ezana reigned over Axum at a time when it was flourishing as a viable political, economic, and agricultural African state. His tenure was marked by territorial expansion and significant economic growth, and Ezana opened up a major trade route with Egypt. Consequently, a large number of Greek traders immigrated to Ethiopia in order to take advantage of its rich resources of gold, ivory, spices, and tortoiseshell. By some accounts it was these Greek merchants who first introduced Christianity to Ethiopia. However, some scholars believe that Frumentius and his brother were entirely responsible for converting the royal family to Christianity. Most sources agree that Frumentius, either by his own initiative or on orders from Ezana, traveled to Alexandria to ask Patriarch Athanasius (c. 293–373) to send a bishop to start a church in Axum. Instead, the patriarch appointed Frumentius as the bishop. From the date of his return, somewhere around 305, Frumentius devoted his life to evangelizing. Within a few months tens of thousands of Ethiopians from all social classes had become Christians.
RULER: Mahmud of Ghazni The Yamini dynasty generally known as Ghaznavi dynasty, claimed its origin from the family of Persian rulers. During the course of Arab invasion, the family fled to Turkistan and became one with the Turks. Therefore, the family has been accepted as Turk. Alptigin founded the independent kingdom of this dynasty. He snatched away the kingdom of Jabul with its capital Ghazni from Amir Abu-Bakr Lawik in 963 A.D., but he died the same year. He was succeeded by his son Ishaq who ruled only for three years. Then, the throne was captured by Balkatigin, the commander of the Turkish troops. Balkatigin was succeeded by his slave Pirai in 972 A.D. But Pirai was a cruel king. His subjects invited Abu Ali Lawik, son of Abu-Bakr Lawik, to invade Ghazni. Jayapala, the ruler of the neighbourly Hindushahi kingdom who did not like the rise of a strong Muslim state at his border, also sent his army to help Abu Ali Lawik. But they were defeated by Sabuktigin, son-in-law of Alptigin. The success of Sabuktigin against the enemies of Ghazni enhanced his prestige. He, ultimately, dethroned Pirai and himself became the ruler of Ghazni in 977 A.D. Sabuktigin was a capable and ambitious ruler. Slowly, he conquered Bust, Dawar, Ghur and some other nearby places. Towards the east lay the Hindushahi kingdom of East Afghanistan and Punjab, Sabuktigin started attacking its boundaries and occupied some forts and cities. Jayapala, the Hindushahi ruler, could not ignore these attacks andattempted to crush the rising power of Sabuktigin. Since then began the long struggle of the kingdoms of Ghazni and Hindushahi which continued till Sultan Mahmud finally extinguished the Hindushahis. Twice Jayapala attacked Ghazni and was supported by certain other Rajput rulers also who sent their contingents to help Jayapala. But both his attempts failed and Sabuktigin succeeded in capturing all the territories which lay between Lamghan and Peshawar. Thus, the Hindushahi kingdom failed to check the growing power of the Ghaznavids towards the east. However, two conclusions can be drawn out of this conflict between the two. One, Jayapala knew the danger of the rising power of Islam on his border, tried to check its growth in the very beginning and pursued an aggressive policy for the purpose which we find lacking among other Rajput rulers afterwards. The other, that the Rajput rulers were not indifferent to the rising power of Islam in the west for which they are often blamed otherwise they would not havesent their forces to support Jayapala.
Medieval Entertainment It is more generally described as Late Antique art, covers the period from about 200 (before which no distinct Christian art survives), until the onset of a fully Byzantine style in about 500. There continue to be different views as to when the medieval period begins during this time, both in terms of general history and specifically art history, but it is most often placed late in the period. In the course of the 4th century Christianity went from being a persecuted popular sect to the official religion of the Empire, adapting existing Roman styles and often iconography, from both popular and Imperial art. From the start of the period the main survivals of Christian art are the tomb-paintings in popular styles of the catacombs of Rome, but by the end there were a number of lavish mosaics in churches built under Imperial patronage. Over this period imperial Late Roman art went through a strikingly "baroque" phase, and then largely abandoned classical style and Greek realism in favour of a more mystical and hieratic style a process that was well underway before Christianity became a major influence on imperial art. Influences from Eastern parts of the Empire Egypt, Syria and beyond, and also a robust "Italic" vernacular tradition, contributed to this process. Figures are mostly seen frontally staring out at the viewer, where classical art tended to show a profile view - the change was eventually seen even on coins. The individuality of portraits, a great strength of Roman art, declines sharply, and the anatomy and drapery of figures is shown with much less realism.
The critten was an instrument that was played in the Middle Ages. It was one of the few metal instruments that were used back then. The critten had four pairs of courses, which mean eight all together. The instrument does not have a very large range to play in the critten could be played with a song accompaniment or dances.
Another woodwind instrument that was used back then was the recorder. The recorder is an instrument that is like the flute. It is also closely related to the whistle. Because of the round melow sound the recorder made it was used a lot in the middle ages.
The art of the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire formed after the division of the Roman Empire between Eastern and Western halves, and sometimes of parts of Italy under Byzantine rule. It emerges from Late Antiquity in about 500 CE and soon formed a tradition distinct from that of Catholic Europe but with great influence over it. In the early medieval period the best Byzantine art, often from the large Imperial workshops, represented an ideal of sophistication and technique which European patrons tried to emulate. During the period of Byzantine iconoclasm in 730-843 the vast majority of icons (sacred images usually painted on wood) were destroyed; so little remains that today any discovery sheds new understanding, and most remaining works are in Italy (Rome and Ravenna etc.), or Egypt at Saint Catherine's Monastery. Byzantine art was extremely conservative, for religious and cultural reasons, but retained a continuous tradition of Greek realism, which contended with a strong anti-realist and hieratic impulse. After the resumption of icon production in 843 until 1453 the Byzantine art tradition continued with relatively few changes, despite, or because of, the slow decline of the Empire. There was a notable revival of classical style in works of 10th century court art like the Paris Psalter, and throughout the period manuscript illumination shows parallel styles, often used by the same artist, for iconic figures in framed miniatures and more informal small scenes or figures added unframed in the margins of the text in a much more realist style.
Migration Period art describes the art of the "barbarian" Germanic and Eastern-European peoples who were on the move, and then settling within the former Roman Empire, during the Migration Period from about 300-700; the blanket term covers a wide range of ethnic or regional styles including early Anglo-Saxon art, Visigothic art, Viking art, and Merovingian art, all of which made use of the animal style as well as geometric motifs derived from classical art. By this period the animal style had reached a much more abstracted form than in earlier Scythian art or La Tène style. Most artworks were small and portable and those surviving are mostly jewellery and metalwork, with the art expressed in geometric or schematic designs, often beautifully conceived and made, with few human figures and no attempt at realism. The early Anglo-Saxon grave goods from Sutton Hoo are among the best examples. As the "barbarian" peoples were Christianized, these influences interacted with the post-classical Mediterranean Christian artistic tradition, and new forms like the illuminated manuscript,[15] and indeed coins, which attempted to emulate Roman provincial coins and Byzantine types. Early coinage like the sceat shows designers completely unused to depicting a head in profile grappling with the problem in a variety of different ways.
This woodwind instrument, ancestral to the oboe, is called the shawm. The shawm is a double reeded instrument because of the shrill sounds it made, the shawm was mainly used for military bands during the Crusades sometimes you would see the shawm in dancing songs.
Sports in Medieval Ages Religion and the church may have played a central role in Medieval history but the inhabitants of that time period also knew how to entertain themselves. Aside from festivals, acrobatics, dancing and music, people from the Medieval times enjoyed playing a wide variety of games and sports. Many of the sporting events we know and play at present can be traced back to the Middle Ages. However, due to vague rules, many Medieval sports took on deadly proportions. Not only were they physically demanding but there was little to zero emphasis on safety. Animals were sometimes involved such as in the case of hawking and hunting. Despite the hazards that came with some sports, many Medieval residents were still eager to join in the fun.
Indoor Games in the Middle Ages Most of the sports played in the Middle Ages were designed to increase fighting skills of knights, soldiers, as well as peasants. But aside from these sports, the medieval society of Europe also enjoyed some peaceful and entertaining games such as chess, backgammon, nine men’s Morris, and alquerques. These were all strategy games which were considered as the ancestors of checkers, and fox and geese and they certainly had unusual sports equipment as well.
These were the type of sports that were played in the Middle Ages. Unlike today where we get instant scores on many sports at options like live score, back then it was all about the local scene. Even though this era was known to be dark and gloomy, it’s interesting to know that it also had a part where people were able to have fun.
This was the most popular sport in the Middle Ages. In fact, it wasn’t only a sport but was also a skill that every Englishmen between the ages 15 and 60 should attain according to the law that was passed in 1252. Archery training during the Medieval period of the Middle Ages were held in designated areas called Butts. The Long Bow was invented by Englishmen and it was an important weapon which defeated French in the Battle of Crecy in 1346. Based on historical estimates, there were about 2,000 French knights and soldiers that were killed by long bow arrows compared to the English who just lost 50 soldiers
Jousting tournaments were the really big sporting events in the Middle Ages. However, these sports were dangerous and many men were killed in these sports. Knights who participated in these sports had undergone Quintain and Pell Training. Men at arms as well as Feudal Lords and Knights used weapons such as swords, lances, daggers, and battle axes. In fact, most of the Medieval sports were designed to provide practice in using these weapons.
Aside from the popular archery and jousting tournaments, there were other sports played in the Middle Ages. Here are some of them: • Colf: This was the ancestor of Golf and considered as a sport for the nobles. • Gameball: This was the same as the simple football game we play in the present time. • Hurling or Shinty: This sport was similar to a game of hockey. • Horsehoes: The goal of this sport was to throw horseshoes at a target. • Skittles: This was an ancestor of the modern ten-pin bowling. • Stoolball: This was an ancestor of Cricket.
• Bowls
• Hammer-throwing
• Wrestling
• Quarter-staff contest
Science and Techonologies in Medieval Ages During the Medieval period, vertical windmills, eyeglasses, mechanical clocks, significantly improved water mills, and architectural styles including the Gothic style and three-field agricultural rotation were all created.Between 1000 and 1300 AD, medieval colleges arose, benefiting considerably from the translated books and establishing a new infrastructure for scholarly communities. Teaching and learning had transferred to monastic and cathedral schools by the sixth century. The study of the Bible was at the heart of education. In Italy, Spain, and the southern portion of Gaul, where Roman influences were strongest, lay education survived. In the 7th century, learning began to emerge in Ireland and the Celtic lands, where Latin was a foreign language but were eagerly studied and taught.
Mechanical artillery
∞ Counterweight trebuchet (12th) By employing counterweights, these weapons improved medieval siege weapons, allowing them to throw massive stones across large distances. The eastern Mediterranean basin was the first to employ it. By the 1120s, trebuchets had been utilized in the Crusades, Byzantium by the 1130s, and the Latin West by the 1150s.
∞ Steel crossbow (14th, late) The first hand-held mechanical crossbow, this European innovation Came with several different cocking aids to enhance draw power. Large and appear by the end of the 14th century. It extends the Crossbow's firing range from 400 to 500 yards. Learning to use a crossbow was easier for medieval crossbowmen than learning to wield a longbow. Crossbows were easier to load than longbows although the longbow was more effective.
Agriculture ∞ Heavy plough (5th - 8th) Before reaching Northern Italy, the large wheeled plough originally arose in Slavic countries (the Po Valley). It was in use in the Rhineland by the eighth century. The Heavy Plough was crucial in cultivating Northern Europe's rich, heavy, and sometimes rainy soils.
∞ Horse collar (6th - 9th) From the 6th through the 9th century, the Horse Collar underwent several changes. It allowed for additional horse pulling power, which came particularly handy while drawing big ploughs.
Architecture and construction
∞ Artesian well (1126)
A narrow rod with a strong iron cutting edge is inserted into a bore hole and hammered repeatedly. Without the use of pumps, underground water pressure propels the water up the hole. The first artesian well was dug by Carthusian monks in 1126 in the French town of Artois.
∞ Wheelbarrow (1170s)
Construction, mining, and agriculture all benefit from it. Between 1170 and 1250, wheelbarrows first appeared in tales and paintings in North-western Europe. In the 13th century, it was first shown in a sketch. This invention gave the Shu Han an edge in fights since one wheelbarrow could transport supplies for four warriors and could also be used to care the injured.
∞ Blast furnace (1150-1350)
Around 1150, cast iron makes its first appearance in Middle Europe. The approach was thought to be an entirely European invention. This allowed the iron to melt, allowing for a greater carbon content and the formation of new iron-carbon phases.
Medieval Entertainment ∞Hourglass (1338)
Clocks
Before the invention of clocks in the Middle Ages, a variety of innovative timekeeping devices were employed, including hourglasses. Sandglasses, sometimes known as sand timers, sand clocks, or egg timers, are a relatively new innovation. Hourglasses have been documented as far back as the 14th century.
∞ Mechanical clocks (13th -14th)
In medieval Europe, the mechanical clock, which was evolved from the water clock, was born. The early mechanical clocks were massive iron machines. By the fourteenth century, they were in widespread use across Europe.
∞Plate armour (14th, late)
The plate armour that shielded Europe's knights throughout the Middle Ages falls into the third group. That armour was made up of massive steel or iron plates connected by loosely closed rivets and internal leathers to provide the wearer the most mobility possible.
Other Medieval Inventions
∞Vertical windmills (1180s) Windmills were utilized throughout the high medieval and early modern periods; the horizontal or panemone windmill first arose in Greater Iran in the 9th century, and the vertical windmill first appeared in northwestern Europe in the 12th century.
∞Spectacles (1280s) At originally, medieval spectacles did not have arms to fit over the ears; instead, they were pince-nez glasses with two lenses riveted together in the middle. Wearers would have to either hold them while using them or pinch them hard against their noses to keep them in place.
∞ Spinning wheel (13th)
∞ Mirrors (1180)
Early machine for spinning fiber into thread or yarn, which was subsequently fashioned into cloth on a loom. Though its origins are unknown, the spinning wheel was most likely originated in India. During the European Middle Ages, it made its way to Europe via the Middle East.
∞ Chess (1450)
Mirrors were not considered commonplace during the Middle Ages. Instead, they served as a prestige symbol. Mirror cases were formerly regarded as pieces of art rather than merely a means of viewing one's reflection. A mirror was encased within two flat spherical discs in mirror cases.
∞ Oil paint (ca. 1410)
The rules of the game were slightly different in the Middle Ages than they are now. Queens could only move one space diagonally, while bishops could only travel two spaces. Pawns could only travel one square every turn and could only be swapped for queens when they reached the other side of the board (Parlett 302).
Painters employed mineral pigments (red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white) throughout the Middle Ages. Painters fashioned chalks by digging them out of the ground and shaping them into sticks using knives. From roughly 1500 to 1900, natural red chalks were popular because of their rich, warm hue.
∞ Quarantine (1377) Quarantine, as we know it now, started in the 14th century as a means of protecting coastal communities from plague epidemics. Ships coming in Venice from contaminated ports had to wait 40 days at anchor before docking.
Health and Beauty in Medieval Ages Medieval Beauty, Health & Hygiene Generally, the fashionable lady's look for the bulk of the medieval period was as follows- high forehead, plucked eyebrows, small even teeth, a fair complexion, long neck, narrow chest, low sloping shoulders, high small waist and in some cases, a prominent stomach. One of the first manuals of feminine beauty written at Salerno and is widely believed to be that of the lady physician and author, Trotula de Ruggiero from the 11th century. Trotula was credited to be the author of three treatises, but according to Henrietta Leyser in her book Medieval Women- A Social History of Women in England 450 - 1500, the authorship of them is doubtful. Although Trotta did write on the subject in The Practice According to Trota, it is believed that Trota herself did not write any of the works widely credited to her. Her treatise was little known in Europe and not translated into any vernacular. Henrietta Leyser goes on to explain where the texts are believed to have originated and why. Those treatises are known as- Trotula A, Trotula B (which is distinctive for its large number of cosmetic recipes for the face and hair), and Trotula C or The Book of Rota
HEALTH and HYGENE CLEANLINESS Bathing, deodorant, soap and perfume
BEAUTY SKIN CARE
Skincare, herbal remedies for clear skin
COSMETICS Foundation, eyeliner & eyeshadow, lip balm, rouge
HAIR STYLES Hairstyles, braids, cornetts, ramshorns, european style, false hairpieces & wigs, hairnets, eyebrows and hairline
BODY HAIR Body hair and what to do about it, the hairline, eyebrows and other hair
HAIR CARE Brushes, combs & gravours, hair balms & tonics, headlice treatments, dandruff treatments, colouring the hair
FEMININE HYGIENE Menstruation and what to do about it, premenstrual tension, the wandering womb, feminine hygiene products
ORAL CARE & DENTISTRY
GENERAL HEALTHCARE
Breath freshener, tooth whitening remedies, toothache remedies, tooth decay, dentistry, dentures
Headaches, weightless remedies, dealing with worms, warts & corns, mosquito repellants, antiseptics, toilet paper
Editorial
Medieval Views
Medieval society was not as harmonious as theorists would have us believe. Those who described an orderly society were attempting to build one. Nonetheless, even though there is a gap between reality and the ideal, knowledge of the ideal provides a deeper understanding of what distinguishes modern ideas about society. To comprehend what distinguishes the modern from what does not, to comprehend what was prone to change in the past and is likely to change again in the future, and to comprehend what has not changed significantly and is unlikely to change in the future. There are many institutions, ideas, beliefs, and values that we regard as peculiar to the modern period.The medieval period is also rich in technological innovation. If we were talking about technology, we’d have to flip the polarity of that old equation and say that the Middle Ages were rather cleverer.The clearest indicator we have of medieval technology, of its application and its connection to this population increase, is in the realm of cereal production, where medieval farmers vastly expanded it. They laid down most of the fundamental ways: By getting maximum cereal production out of the soil, before the advent of modern chemical fertilizers. This has been the greatest change in modern times, not anything else not even, for example, the use of motor-driven tractors it makes their job easier. How did medieval people increase cereal production, thus making it possible to feed a larger population? It was through greater use of horses as draft animals. For hundreds of years, technologies, construction and many more may not change significantly in more than minor details. Even health-care system has largely remained unchanged. It's still made in the same way and all the things for thousands of years.
Medieval Cartooning
REFERENCES HEADLINES: https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medievalists.net%2F2011%2F06%2F11%2Fhow-much-meat-did-medievalpeopleeat%2F%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR0rvmcG2sQFo7ka741iiZJXIMU8BFqysAZqQEngrNl9oBY_SceYpxnim80&h=AT1eFrstdlgqMEjdTCc9HAIc4u_rNN50 vyGacPdPsIOVJ28RkJfqqFy37Ax85EIEu-1kUhyNf9z0Byzd-5XUxYs0hlBHhtTZXxrNzoU4wolexL0J7ZNAyG2j67x6R-gyUYpwyQ https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medievalists.net%2F2011%2F07%2Fnewly-rediscovered-da-vinci-painting-to-goon-display-at-the-national-gallery%2F%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR1vpwwzheRK-BlYFG4UwacfHDUZGFOo95Nhn9hr23XdBvJrNrmbydSLYI&h=AT1eFrstdlgqMEjdTCc9HAIc4u_rNN50vyGacPdPsIOVJ28RkJfqqFy37Ax85EIEu1kUhyNf9z0Byzd-5XUxYs0hlBHhtTZXxrNzoU4wolexL0J7ZNAyG2j67x6R-gyUYpwyQ https://www.medievalists.net/2011/03/centres-of-royal-power-new-findings-about-the-realms-of-medieval-itinerant-kings/
OPINION AND POLITICS: https://www.britannica.com/summary/Justinian-I https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cyrus-the-Great https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ezana https://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/medieval-age/10-popular-rulers-of-the-medieval-india-history-india/6557
ENTERTAINMENT: https://groupprojectmiddleages.weebly.com/art-amp-entertainment.html
SPORTS NEWS: : https://mentalitch.com/what-type-of-sports-were-played-in-the-middle-ages/
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: http://medievalfayre.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=85
HEALTH AND BEAUTY: http://rosaliegilbert.com/beautyandhygiene.html#:~:text=Medieval%20Beauty%2C%20Health%20%26% 20Hygiene%20Generally%2C%20the%20fashionable,waist%20and%20in%20some%20cases %2C%20a%20prominent%20stomach
EDITORIAL: https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/rise-europe-middle-ages/