Thesis Book was written and designed by Junrong Wang. All of the photographs and works by other artist are reproduced and credited for academic purposes. Every resonable attempt has been made to identify owners of copyright. Error or omissions will be corrected in subsequent editions.
Typeface: Roboto Mono, Perfect DOS VGA 437, Press Start 2P.
LOW CARBON ADAPTATION
THROUGH COMMUNITY COMPOSTING
Junrong Wang
MLA Landscape Architecture, RISD
A thesis submitted in partial fulfllment of the requirements for the Master of Landscape Architecture Degree in the Department of Landscape Architecture of the Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, Rhode Island.
By Junrong Wang
Date 05/23/2025
Approved by Masters Examination Committee:
Approved by Masters Examination Committee:
Johanna Barthmaier-Payne, Department Head, Landscape Architecture
Fatema Maswood, Primary Thesis Advisor
Theodore Hoerr, Secondary Thesis Advisor
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisors for their invaluable guidance and unwavering support throughout the course of this research. I am also thankful to my committee members and instructors for their constructive feedback and encouragement.
Special thanks to my peers and colleagues for their collaboration and thoughtful discussions, which enriched this work. I also acknowledge the institutions, organizations, and data providers whose resources made this research possible.
Finally, I am forever grateful to my family and friends for their patience, understanding, and constant belief in me during this journey.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Abstract
Introduction
Lexicon
CARBON EMISSION AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Literature review
Current food scrap treatment
Benifits to stakeholders
Case Studies
CARBON EMISSION IN RESTAURANT-DENSE DISTRICT
Carbon emission in NYC
Organic Waste in Sunset Park Region
Green Patches and Corridors in Sunset Park Region
Subway Ridership in Sunset Park Region
Detail on the Site
Vacant Lot on the Site
Green Space on the Site
Photos on the Site
Features and opportunites
Sections showing Site Opportunites and Carbon Emissions
This project utilizes landscape architecture to reduce the carbon emission of restaurants by employing carbon sequestration techniques. By using compost gardens that shorten the transportation route of compost, new local food sources are created which replace food shipped from afar. The gardens are placed on roofs and at ground-level. The gardens also provide materials to produce organic pesticides that replace traditional pesticides, thereby reducing the release of carbon intensive VOCs. The compost gardens are implemented in existing parking lots and vacant lots and are connected in a community garden network. The proposed renovation of streets increases carbon sequestration through street-side vegetation. These interventions help alleviate the urban heat island effect, improve the micro-climate, and consequently, reduce the energy consumption associated with air-conditioning use in buildings.
1.Sorensen, A. A., J.Freedgood, J. Dempsey and D. M. Theobald. Farms Under Threat: The State of America’s Farmland(Washington, DC: American Farmland Trust,2018),7-10
INTRODUCTION
Carbon emissions are a major contributor to global warming and sea level rise, making their reduction a critical priority in addressing climate change. These emissions include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). New York City offers a compelling case study for examining urban carbon emissions due to its detailed GIS data and complex urban systems. As part of its broader goal of achieving carbon neutrality, NYC began enforcing citywide curbside composting on April 1, 2025—an important step toward diverting organic waste from landfills and reducing methane emissions. However, the transportation of food waste to centralized processing facilities—such as the Staten Island Compost Facility, the Varick Facility in Brooklyn, and out-of-state sites—continues to generate significant carbon emissions[1][2]. The civilians are also reluctant to separte food scraps seeing no feedback from this act. This challenge presents an opportunity to leverage landscape architecture solutions, such as decentralized community composting, to reduce transport-related emissions. This scale change of food scrap dealing would encourage the residents and local restaurants to do the food scrap separating and composting by seeing the district beautified and harvesting vegetables and fruit through the process.
1.Chang, Clio. “Where Does New York City’s Smart Bin Compost End Up?” Curbed, 6 Apr. 2023, www.curbed.com/2023/04/smart-bin-compost-journey.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com. Accessed 7 Apr. 2025.
A compost garden is a type of garden that integrates on-site composting as part of its growing system. It treats organic waste (like food scraps) and garden debris by converting them into nutrient-rich compost, which is then reused to nourish the soil and support plant growth. This creates a closed-loop system, reducing waste and enhancing sustainability.
Urban Landscaping
The planning, designing, and maintenance of green spaces and vegetation within urban areas to improve aesthetics, air quality, temperature, and the overall quality of life for residents. It includes parks, streetscapes, green roofs, and other planted areas.
Community Garden
A shared space where people from a local neighborhood collectively grow fruits, vegetables, herbs, or flowers. These gardens foster community engagement, increase access to fresh produce, and often promote environmental education and sustainability.
Permaculture
An agricultural and ecological design philosophy that mimics natural ecosystems to create sustainable, self-sufficient, and regenerative systems. In urban settings, permaculture principles are used to design gardens and landscapes that require minimal inputs and support biodiversity.
Green Infrastructure
A network of natural or semi-natural systems—like green roofs, rain gardens, permeable pavements, and urban forests—that manage water, reduce urban heat, clean the air, and support biodiversity. It provides ecological functions that complement or replace traditional “grey” infrastructure like pipes and sewers.
Compost Garden
Purpose
Low Carbon Emissions
A condition or strategy that results in releasing minimal amounts of carbon dioxide(CO2) and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere— typically through the use of renewable energy, sustainable practices, and energy-efficient technologies. The goal is to mitigate climate change.
Climate Resilience
The ability of communities, ecosystems, or infrastructure to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from the impacts of climate change—such as extreme weather, rising temperatures, and sea level rise—while maintaining functionality and minimizing harm.
Enhanced Urban Livability
Improvements in the quality of life in cities through factors like cleaner air, access to green spaces, efficient transportation, affordable housing, safety, and social inclusiveness. It reflects how pleasant, healthy, and sustainable urban life is for residents.
Strategies
Soil Carbon Sequestration
The natural process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide in the soil through plant roots, compost, and organic matter. It helps reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and improves soil health.
Water-Energy Nexus Optimization
The coordinated management of water and energy resources to increase efficiency and sustainability. Saving water reduces the energy needed to move, treat, and heat it—and saving energy reduces the water needed for power generation.
Passive Cooling through Vegetation
Using plants and green spaces to naturally lower temperatures in urban areas. Trees and vegetation provide shade and release moisture into the air, reducing the need for air conditioning and cutting energy use.
01 CARBON EMISSION AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
LITERATURE REVIEW
CURRENT FOOD SCRAP TREATMENT
1. Low-Carbon Composting: Strategies and Innovations
Composting is widely recognized as a low-carbon solution for managing organic waste, reducing methane emissions from landfills, and sequestering carbon in soils. However, traditional composting processes can still release greenhouse gases. Therefore, innovations aim to minimize emissions while maximizing compost benefits.
Studies highlight that microbial agents, especially cold-adapted consortia, can support low-carbon composting by accelerating decomposition at low temperatures and reducing startup emissions (Xie et al., 2017).
Optimizing the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio also influences compost quality and emissions. For example, a C/N ratio of ~14.6 was found optimal for minimizing nitrogen losses while retaining carbon in algal sludge composting (Wu et al., 2024).
2. Composting in New York City (NYC): Community and Policy Initiatives
NYC has tested various small- and medium-scale composting technologies, focusing on “in-vessel” systems that are space-efficient and odor-controlled. Though effective, cost and operational complexity remain barriers to widespread adoption (Regenstein et al., 1999).
NYC sanitation policy innovations such as Dumpster and Compost Accessibility Programs and Pay-As-You-Throw have been proposed to boost composting rates and reduce public waste costs, while improving street cleanliness (DiSilvio et al., 2022).
A comprehensive sampling of composts from 62 NYC facilities shows a wide variation in compost quality, reflecting diversity in feedstocks and operational methods. The findings emphasize the importance of quality control and end-use matching (Schwarz & Bonhotal, 2017).
3. Broader Climate Adaptation in NYC
Composting is part of broader climate adaptation strategies in NYC. The city has implemented climate-adaptive planning for urban heat, air quality, and environmental equity. Compost use in soil enhancement also contributes to carbon sequestration in urban greening efforts (Rosenthal & Brechwald, 2013).
Conclusion
Composting offers a promising low-carbon adaptation pathway, especially in urban areas like NYC. With a combination of policy support, technological innovation, and community engagement, composting can contribute significantly to climate resilience and waste reduction.
1. Disilvio, Steven, Anthony Ozerov, and Leon Zhou. 2022. “Sorting Out New York City’s Trash Problem.”
2. Gaston E. Small, Marisa Smedsrud, Ivan Jimenez, and Eric Chapman. 2023. “Simulating the Fate of Compost-Derived Nutrients in an Urban Garden.” Ecological Modelling 483: 110441.
3. Regenstein, Joe M., David Kay, Paul Turci, and Thomas Outerbridge. 1999. “Small to Medium Scale Composting of Food Wastes in New York City.”
4. Rosenthal, Joyce Klein, and Dana Brechwald. 2013. “Climate Adaptive Planning for Preventing Heat-Related Health Impacts in New York City.” Climate Change Management, 205–225. Springer. https://link. springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-29831-8_13.
5. Schwarz, M., and Jean Bonhotal. “Characteristics of a Sampling of New York State.” http://hdl.handle.net/1813/48204.
6. Wu, Hainan, Chengkai Wang, Jiahui Zhou, Haibing Cong, Yu Gao, Wei Cai, Shaoyuan Feng, and Chi Zhang. 2025. “Feedstock Optimization with Low Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio During Algal Sludge Aerobic Composting: Quality and Gaseous Emissions.” Bioresource Technology 416: 131811.
7. Xie, Xin Yu, Yue Zhao, Qing Hong Sun, Xue Qin Wang, Hong Yang Cui, Xu Zhang, Yan Jie Li, and Zi Min Wei. 2017. “A Novel Method for Contributing to Composting Start-up at Low Temperature by Inoculating Cold-Adapted Microbial Consortium.” Bioresource Technology 238: 39–47.
8. Xiong, Jinpeng, Ya Su, Xueqin He, Lujia Han, and Guangqun Huang. 2023. “Effects of Functional Membrane Coverings on Carbon and Nitrogen Evolution During Aerobic Composting: Insight into the Succession of Bacterial and Fungal Communities.” Bioresource Technology 369: 128463.
Mandatory composting is starting April 1st, 2025, NYC.
Queens Botanical Garden offers recycling and compost collection in the parking lot through NYC Compost Project.
Compost can be dumped at community pick-up locations. BSW’s rooftop composting tumblers provide soil for their garden beds.
Compost is collected weekly with recycling. It covers all Queens and Brooklyn, and some parts of Manhattan and the Bronx.
These are public composting bins in select city neighborhoods for anytime drop-off. An app is needed to view, check availability, and unlock the bins.
1. NYC Department of Sanitation. Composting Is Mandatory: Avoid a Fine! PDF flyer. New York City Department of Sanitation, 2025. https://www.nyc.gov/ assets/queenscb2/downloads/pdf/2025/CompostEnforcementFlyer-2025.pdf.
3. NYC Department of Sanitation. “Curbside Composting.” New York City Department of Sanitation. Accessed May 4, 2025. https://www.nyc.gov/site/dsny/ collection/residents/curbside-composting.page.
3. Brooklyn SolarWorks. “How to Start Composting in NYC: A Beginner’s Guide.” Brooklyn SolarWorks Blog. Accessed May 4, 2025. https://brooklynsolarworks.com/blog/how-start-composting-nyc/.
BENEFITS TO STAKEHOLDERS
Citywide service: As of October 2024, DSNY has rolled out universal curbside composting to all NYC residents, including Brooklyn.
The program collects food scraps, food-soiled paper, and yard waste.
DSNY trucks pick up food waste and transport it to processing facilities, either for aerobic composting or anaerobic digestion.
The composting service follows a regular collection schedule, coordinated by sanitation districts.
Regulation making
Municipal treatment of large amount of food scaps
Long distance transportation of large amount of food scraps from all food scrap
collecting points
Supervising
Regulation making
Supervising
Mandatory Food Waste Separation
Large food service establishments
(over 25,000 sq ft or part of chains with 100+ locations)
must separate food scraps under NYC’s Commercial Organics Law.
DSNY Enforcement Restaurants are required to comply with organics separation rules or face fines. Inspections are conducted by the Department of Sanitation and Business Integrity Commission.
Citywide service: As of October 2024, DSNY has rolled out universal curbside composting to all NYC residents, including Brooklyn.
The program collects food scraps, food-soiled paper, and yard waste.
DSNY trucks pick up food waste and transport it to processing facilities, either for aerobic composting or anaerobic digestion.
The composting service follows a regular collection schedule, coordinated by sanitation districts.
Separate food scraps
Hire private carters for organic waste
Optional: Donate surplus food to reduce waste before disposal
Pay the fine if not following the regulation
Separate food scraps
Hire private carters for organic waste
Small distance bike transportation of food scraps
Optional: bokashi composting and roof garden maintaining
Hard to pursuave people to separate food scraps
Lighter duty
Duty shift from practicing to supervising
On-site education with community composting
No profits from separating food waste
Better street environment to increase the customer flow in the region
Better dining spaces outdoor Getting free organic vegetables and fruits
Hard to preserve the food scraps before municipal collection. The food scaps becomes stinky
Getting free organic vegetables and fruits
Having fun composting and growing plants
Regulation making
Municipal treatment of large amount of food scaps
Long distance transportation of large amount of food scraps from all food scrap collecting points
Supervising
Buy food scrap bin
Seperate food scraps
Optional: bokashi composting and roof garden maintaining
1. Finished Compost:
What it is: Nutrient-rich soil amendment made from decomposed food scraps, yard waste, and paper. Where it goes:
Used in city parks and gardens through the NYC Parks Department and community organizations. Distributed for free to residents at certain events or drop-off sites. Occasionally sold to commercial landscapers or farms.
2. Biogas and Fertilizer (via Anaerobic Digestion)
Biogas (methane):
Captured and converted into energy (used onsite or fed into the grid). Digestate: Can be processed into a fertilizer or soil amendment, although its use is more limited than compost.
3. Landfill Diversion
The primary purpose of NYC composting program is to divert organic waste from landfills, reducing methane emissions and overall waste volume.
1. Finished Compost:
2. Biogas and Fertilizer (via Anaerobic Digestion)
3. Biochar
Biochar can be incorporated into composting to enhance soil nutrient retention and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and it can also be used in porous asphalt production to improve durability and lower carbon emissions.
CASE STUDIES CASE STUDIES
1 - “Landscape Design for Carbon Sequestration | ASLA 2020 Student Awards.” Www.asla.org. https://www.asla.org/2020studentawards/1313.html. The first way to deal with carbon emission is through landscape design. This project’s authors addressed a significant void in the body of knowledge on carbon sequestration by investigating the possibility of using soil to actively absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This work suggests methods for boosting biodiversity with plant layers in an effort to provide a model for climate-positive design through better soil health. The implementation of these concepts is made possible by toolkits that come with corresponding instructions and readable illustrations.
2 - Green, Jared. 2022. “Designing with Carbon.” THE DIRT. February 5, 2022. https://dirt.asla.org/2022/02/05/landscape-architects-design-with-carbon/.
The second way to deal with carbon emission is through App developing. In this article, landscape architects are increasingly designing with carbon in mind, using tools like Climate Positive Design’s Pathfinder to reduce carbon emissions and sequester more carbon in landscapes. Key strategies include minimizing carbon-intensive materials like concrete and metal, increasing planting, and protecting ecosystems. Sasaki’s Carbon Conscience App helps measure both embodied and operational carbon, guiding long-range planning. Natural carbon sequestration in soils and plants is complex but essential, with diverse, native plants and healthy soils playing a critical role in storing carbon and supporting resilient ecosystems.
3 - Yang, Fei, Dongdong Yang, Ying Zhang, Ru Guo, Jiaying Li, and Hongcheng Wang. “Evaluating the Multi-Seasonal Impacts of Urban Blue-Green Space Combination Models on Cooling and Carbon-Saving Capacities.” Building and Environment 266 (September 3, 2024): 112045–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. buildenv.2024.112045.
The third way to deal with carbon emission is through research for guidance for landscape and urban design. This research evaluates the cooling and carbon reduction capabilities of Urban Blue-Green Spaces (UBGS) in a high-density northern Chinese city, focusing on green spaces, river green spaces, and lake green spaces. Key indicators include Cooling Intensity (CI), Cooling Distance (CD), and Cooling Carbon Reduction (CS). Findings reveal that average Land Surface Temperature (LST) significantly affects UBGS functions, with green spaces showing the strongest carbon reduction in summer and spring. Lake green space outperforms river green space in summer and spring but falls short to river space in autumn and winter. It shows that an effective way of reducing carbon emission is through cooling by increasing green space.
02 CARBON EMISSION IN RESTAURANT-DENSE DISTRICT
All map data is from: 1 - NYC Open Data. https://opendata.cityofnewyork.us/.
CITY SCALE
MAP: CARBON EMISSION IN NYC
This is A map of carbon emission from building energy in NYC. The bluer the dots, the higher the carbon emission. The larger the dots are the older the buildings are. Many old buildings in observed in Sunset Park area, particularly from old buildings,just as the chart showing. We are going to focus on a part where Chinese restaurants are densely populated.
BACKGROUND: MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CARBON EMISSIONS
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2): THE LARGEST COMPONENT OF CARBON EMISSIONS, CO₂, IS PRODUCED BY THE COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS (COAL, OIL, AND NATURAL GAS) FOR ENERGY AND TRANSPORTATION.
IT IS A PRIMARY GREENHOUSE GAS AND ACCOUNTS FOR THE MAJORITY OF ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO):
Produced from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels.
It is a toxic gas but has a short atmospheric lifetime compared to CO₂.
METHANE (CH4):
Emitted during fossil fuel extraction, landfill decomposition, and agricultural practices (e.g., livestock digestion). Methane is a carbon compound with a much higher global warming potential than CO₂.
PARTICULATE CARBON (BLACK CARBON):
Also known as soot, it consists of fine particulate matter from incomplete combustion. Black carbon contributes to air pollution and climate warming by absorbing sunlight and reducing albedo when deposited on snow or ice.
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCS):
Organic chemicals that contain carbon and are released from fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, and natural sources (e.g., vegetation).
VOCs contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone and smog.
HYDROCARBONS (UNBURNED OR PARTIALLY BURNED FUELS):
Include a range of compounds such as benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that result from inefficient combustion.
SECONDARY CARBON COMPOUNDS:
OZONE (O ): Not directly emitted but formed when VOCs and nitrogen oxides (NO ) react in the presence of sunlight. Carbonates and Bicarbonates: Formed when CO₂ dissolves in water, contributing to ocean acidification.
CARBON EMISSION IN NYC
NEIGHBORHOOD SCALE
MAP: ORGANIC WASTE IN SUNSET PARK REGION
From this map, we can see there are lots of restaurants which are the light pink icons. The aggregated tonnage of organic waste is high here due to the restaurants, which is a possible cause for high carbon emissions. restaurants, which is labeled as multiuse housing in the chart in the corner and markets contributes to high carbon emissions. There are several smart composting bins and food scrap drop-off sites in the region, showing the commuting route for food scrap is long, which would also increase carbon emissions.
MAP: GREEN PATCHES AND CORRIDORS IN SUNSET PARK REGION
This is a map of green corridors and patches. The greenery is scarce in the site, except for a railway region. The site is potentially linked to the Leif Ericson park and Bochino-Dente Plaza. There are raingarden in the Leif Ericson parkland near McKinley Park.
MAP: SUBWAY RIDERSHIP IN SUNSET PARK REGION
This map is showing the subway ridership. We can see the site is a place for high ridership for both weekdays and weekends, suggesting that there are many residents commuting in weekdays and also many people go for leisure during weekends, showing a need for improving the site environment and create opportunities for the people visiting here.
BACKGROUND: CARBON EMISSIONS FROM RESTAURANTS
1. Energy Consumption
2. Food Production and Supply Chain(High Carbon Footprint of Food,Food Waste,Single-Use Packaging)
3. Water Usage
4. Transportation
5. Building Construction and Maintenance(Pest Control)
The pink lots are parking lots, and the blue lots are vacant lots. The largest one is a parking lot under construction. These sites are possible sites for community cardens The colored road center lines are the pedestrian demand of the streets, we can see the 8th Avenue is of the highest demand. The 62 St is also of high demand. These demonstrates that the site requires improvement on its street quality.
MAP: VACANT LOT ON THE SITE
About 30 percent of the site is vacant lot, which is a great opportunity for landscape architect
MAP: GREEN SPACE ON THE SITE
The green space is scarce in the region, with mainly deciduous trees, no evergreen, no conifers.
MAP: PHOTOS ON THE SITE
The photos show the condition of outdoor space in the selected region.
MAP: FEATURES AND OPPORTUNITIES
The site photos shows that the restaurants are mixed use housing, with mainly indoor dining. There are markets within this region too. The landscape is mainly hardscape with little planting. The lowered railway is a potential place for rainwater catching. The fire ladders are also unused space as a opportunity.
SECTIONS SHOWING SITE OPPORTUNITES AND CARBON EMISSIONS
The site shows the relationship between parking lots, railway, subway, restaurants, and markets. The railway and subway are lower than the surrounding region.
3D MODEL
The model shows the selected region 3D terrain condition.
VACANT LOT ON THE SITE
GREEN SPACE ON THE SITE
PHOTOS ON THE SITE
FEATURES AND OPPORTUNITIES
SECTION C-C
03 STRATEGY-
REDUCING CARBON EMISSION WITH LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
~2,000–2,500 kg CO2e Net-negative or low emissions
After design(meat): 11337.9 feet by bike 0.0726kg CO2/person
This design reimagines food scrap transportation by shifting from long-distance, truck-based municipal composting to a hyperlocal composting system supported by bike collection. The environmental benefits are substantial:
Shorter Transportation Distances:
Before: Food waste traveled approximately 7,644.5 feet by truck to a distant composting facility, emitting 2.32 kg CO2 per ton. After: Food waste is collected locally by bike within the district (≈10,866.8 ft or 11,337.9 ft), cutting emissions drastically to 0.072–0.087 kg CO2₂ per person.
Transportation Mode Shift: Diesel trucks produce significant tailpipe emissions, especially over long routes. Bikes, by contrast, are zero-emission, making them ideal for last-mile collection in dense urban areas.
On-site Anaerobic Composting:
Food scraps are processed within the neighborhood using anaerobic composting methods. These systems capture methane (CH4) and convert it to energy, rather than allowing it to escape into the atmosphere as a potent greenhouse gas. The CO2₂-equivalent emissions drop from 2,000–2,500 kg CO2₂e/ton (landfilling) to net-negative or near-zero levels.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Waste Reduction Model (WARM), Version 15. Washington, DC: Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery, 2023. https://www.epa.gov/warm.
CONCLUSION
This project explores low-carbon urban adaptation through site-specific composting strategies in a high-emission, restaurant-dense district. By analyzing GIS data across city, neighborhood, and site scales, the study identifies key contributors to carbon emissions, including high food waste generation, limited green infrastructure, and insufficient sustainable design. The research employs tools such as QGIS, Python, and Rhino to construct a comprehensive spatial and volumetric understanding of the site. Through mapping, modeling, and diagramming, the study proposes a compost-centered strategy to mitigate methane emissions and enhance environmental performance. This approach positions composting not only as a waste management solution but also as a catalyst for broader ecological integration within the urban fabric.
05 APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Meng, Danyang, and Hangxin Cheng. 2022. “Progress on the Effect of Nitrogen on Transformation of Soil Organic Carbon.” Processes 2022, Vol. 10.
2. Huang, Nan, He Han Yi, and Rong Fan. 2025. “Planting of Nitrogen-Fixing Shrubs Promote Soil Carbon Sequestration by Increasing Mineral-Associated Organic Carbon.” Geoderma.
3. Lévesque, Vicky, and M. Oelbermann. 2021. “Biochar in Temperate Soils: Opportunities and Challenges.” https://doi.org/10.1139/CJSS2020-0129.
4. Liu, Jiawen, Hui Li, and John Harvey. 2021. “Application of Biochar on the Runoff Purification Performance of Porous Asphalt Pavement.” Transportation Safety and Environment.
5. Mesnage, Matthieu, and Rachel Omnée. 2025. “Porous Biochar for Improving the CO₂ Uptake Capacities and Kinetics of Concrete.” Journal Pre-proof.
6. Zhou, Xinxing, and Tahem Moghaddam. 2020. “Biochar Removes Volatile Organic Compounds Generated from Asphalt.” Science of The Total Environment.
7. Disilvio, Steven, Anthony Ozerov, and Nicole Gelinas. 2022. “Sorting Out New York City’s Trash Problem.” Manhattan Institute Report. https://manhattan-institute.org.
8. Rosenthal, Joyce Klein, and Diana Brechwald. 2013. “Climate Adaptive Planning for Preventing Heat-Related Health Impacts in New York City.” In Climate Change and Cities: Second Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network, edited by Cynthia Rosenzweig et al., 147–78. New York: Cambridge University Press.
9. Regenstein, Joe M., David Kay, and Tamara Thompson. 1999. “Small to Medium Scale Composting of Food Wastes in New York City.” Bioresource Technology.
10. Wu, Hainan, Chengkai Wang, and Zhiyong Zhang. 2025. “Feedstock Optimization with Low Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio During Algal Sludge Aerobic Composting.” Bioresource Technology.
11. Xie, Xin Yu, Yue Zhao, and Qing Sun. 2017. “A Novel Method for Contributing to Composting Start-Up at Low Temperature by Inoculating Cold-Adapted Microorganisms.” Bioresource Technology.
12. Xiong, Jinpeng, Ya Su, and Xueqing He. 2023. “Effects of Functional Membrane Coverings on Carbon and Nitrogen Evolution During Aerobic Composting.” Bioresource Technology.
3. Lévesque, Vicky, and M. Oelbermann. 2021. “Biochar in Temperate Soils: Opportunities and Challenges.” https://doi.org/10.1139/CJSS2020-0129.
4. Liu, Jiawen, Hui Li, and John Harvey. 2021. “Application of Biochar on the Runoff Purification Performance of Porous Asphalt Pavement.” Transportation Safety and Environment.
5. Mesnage, Matthieu, and Rachel Omnée. 2025. “Porous Biochar for Improving the CO₂ Uptake Capacities and Kinetics of Concrete.” Journal Pre-proof.
6. Zhou, Xinxing, and Tahem Moghaddam. 2020. “Biochar Removes Volatile Organic Compounds Generated from Asphalt.” Science of The Total Environment.
13. Small, Gaston E., Marcus Smedsurd, and others. 2023. “Simulating the Fate of Compost-Derived Nutrients in an Urban Garden.” Ecological Modelling.
