Employee training and development 7th edition noe solutions manual 1

Solution Manual for Employee Training and Development

7th Edition by Noe ISBN 0078112850

9780078112850

Full download link at:

Solution manual: https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-employee-training-and-development7th-edition-by-noe-isbn-0078112850-9780078112850/

Test bank: https://testbankpack.com/p/test-bank-for-employee-training-and-development-7th-editionby-noe-isbn-0078112850-9780078112850/

Chapter Four

Learning and Transfer of Training

This chapter discusses theories of learning and transfer of training. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities, and transfer of training refers to trainees applying what they have learned on the job. A fundamental premise of this chapter is that learning is a complex process and that a variety of factors may help or hinder the successful application of trained skills. A number of theories and frameworks of learning and transfer are presented along with their implications for practice. With an understanding of the principles discussed in this chapter, those responsible for training will be better able to design, deliver, and support learning efforts to help ensure their benefits are realized.

OBJECTIVES

1. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.

2. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design.

3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program.

4. Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information.

5. Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to learn each type of capability.

6. Discuss the implications of open and closed skills and near and far transfer for designing training programs.

7. Explain the features of instruction and the work environment that are necessary for learning and transfer of training.

INTRODUCTION

Regardless of the training content and methods, a number of conditions must be present for learning to occur and for employees to use what they learned on the job. For example, trainees should complete prerequisites for training; training content must be meaningful; there must be opportunities for trainees to practice and receive feedback; and the work environment must support training and transfer.

In order for training to be effective, both learning and transfer are needed.

Page 1

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that can include knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, and competencies.

Transfer refers to trainees effectively and continually applying what they have learned in training to their jobs. There are two important goals for transfer generalization and maintenance. Generalization refers to a trainee’s ability to apply what was learned to situations that are similar but not necessarily identical to those encountered during training. Maintenance refers to the process of trainees continuing to use what they learned over time.

Effective learning and transfer require that consideration be paid to trainee characteristics, training design, and characteristics of the work environment. See Figure 4.1.

Page 2

WHAT IS LEARNING? WHAT IS LEARNED?

Understanding learning outcomes is important because they influence characteristics of the learning environment that are necessary for learning to occur. Specific learning outcomes include:

 verbal information: specialized knowledge, including names, labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge

 intellectual skills: concepts and rules critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products

 motor skills: coordination of physical movements

 attitudes: beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave in a certain way

 cognitive strategies: strategies that regulate thinking and learning; they relate to decisions regarding what information to attend to, how to remember, and how to solve problems

LEARNING THEORIES

Reinforcement Theory

The basic premise of reinforcement theory is that individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because of past outcomes of behavior In other words, behavior is controlled by its consequences. Behavior modification is primarily based on reinforcement theory.

 Positive reinforcement is a pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior

 Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant outcome

 Extinction is the process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behavior

 Punishment involves providing an unpleasant outcome after a behavior

Reinforcement theory suggests that trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most positive and negative and then link these outcomes to learners acquiring new knowledge and skills.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior

Learning is also influenced by self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief that he/she can successfully learn knowledge and skills. Self-efficacy can be increased several ways:

 verbal persuasion: offering words of encouragement to convince individuals they are capable of learning

 logical verification: creating a perceived relationship between a new task and a task already mastered

 modeling: showing individuals how to successfully perform a task

 past accomplishment: letting trainees build a history of successful accomplishments

Social learning theory specifies four processes involved in learning attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational processes.

 attention: learners must be aware of the important aspects of performance as demonstrated by the trainer

Page 3

 retention: learners must be able to code the desire behavior in memory

 motor reproduction: learners must practice desired behavior

 motivational processes: learners must receive positive reinforcement for desired behaviors to continue

Page 4

Goal Theories

Goal setting theories suggest that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions. Goals influence behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. In training, goal setting theory suggests that learning can be effectively facilitated by setting specific, challenging goals.

Goal orientation refers to the goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can include learning orientation and performance orientation. Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability and competence in a task. People with a learning orientation view mistakes as a useful part of the learning processes and not as something that should be avoided. They are focused on learning and not necessarily looking good. Performance orientation refers to a desire to look good in comparison to others. Individuals with a performance orientation value ability more than learning, and they avoid mistakes as they might make them appear “foolish” in the eyes of others.

Trainers should strive to promote a learning orientation among trainees. Accordingly, they should set goals around learning and experimenting with new ways of having trainees perform trained tasks. They should also deemphasize competition among trainees, create a community of learning, and allow trainees to make errors. When trainees make mistakes, trainers should provide constructive feedback and avoid making trainees look incompetent.

Need Theories

A need is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at a given point in time. A need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the deficiency. Need theories help to explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes.

Maslow’s model includes five needs physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. According to this model, trainees must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs.

 physiological needs: air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep

 safety needs: protection from elements, security, stability, freedom from fear

 social needs: friendship, intimacy, affection, and love

 esteem needs: achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others

 self-actualization needs: realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment

Alderfer’s model includes three needs existence, relatedness, growth.

 existence: relates to a person's physical needs such as food, clothing, and shelter

 relatedness: relates to a person's interpersonal needs within his personal as well as professional settings

 growth: relates to a person's needs of personal development

McClelland’s need theory focuses primarily on the needs for achievement, affiliation and power, all of which can be learned.

 need for achievement: these people need to achieve challenging goals, need to prove something, and seek recognition

 need for power: these people have a need to dominate, influence others, and have power over them

Page 5

 need for affiliation: these people need to be a part of something and highly desire social relationships

Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how the training will help them meet their needs, and adapt training to meet their needs. If certain basic needs of trainees are not met, they are unlikely to be motivated to learn. Training should not necessarily attempt to meet all needs, however.

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is based on three factors expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

 Expectancy beliefs relate to whether an individual believes he or she can perform a specific behavior. These beliefs are related to self-efficacy.

 Valence is the value that individuals placed on an outcome or reward.

 Instrumentality relates to beliefs whether performing will result in a particular outcome. Will individuals receive something valued if they perform well?

Based on this model, trainers should: 1) ensure that trainees are confident in their ability to learn and perform (expectancy); 2) provide and communicate valued rewards (valence); and 3) ensure that valued rewards are receive if trainees successfully learn and transfer (instrumentality).

Adult Learning Theory

Adult learning theory, also called andragogy, is a theory or model of how adults learn. The theory is based on the following assumptions:

 Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.

 Adults have a need to be self-directed.

 Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.

 Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning.

 Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

There are several implications for training based on this theory.

 Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction

 Use learner experiences as a basis for examples and applications

 Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies

 Provide opportunities for immediate application

 Ensure training is problem centered v. subject centered

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory places greater emphasis on the internal processes that occur when training content is learned and retained. The theory proposes that information taken in by the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain. A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in shortterm memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to the message is organized. The final link in the model is feedback from the environment.

This model highlights how external events, such as the following, influence learning.

 Changes in the intensity or frequency of the stimulus affect attention

 Informing the learner of the objectives to establish an expectation

Page 6

 Enhancing perceptual features of the material (stimulus) draws the attention of the learner to certain features

 Verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, and maps suggest ways to code the training content so that it can be stored in memory

 Meaningful learning context creates cues that facilitate coding

 Demonstration or verbal instructions help organize the learner’s response and facilitate the selection of the correct response

Page 7

TRANSFER OF TRAINING THEORY

Closed vs. Open Skills

A distinction needs to be made between closed skills and open skills. Performing a closed skill involves responding to predictable situations with standardized responses. In contrast, performing an open skill involves responding to variable situations with adaptive, tailored responses. There is a one best way to perform closed skills; whereas there are multiple ways to perform open skills that are contingent upon the situation at hand. Examples of closed skills include preparing food in a fast food restaurant, cleaning a hotel room, filling out a report, and checking in an air-line passenger. Examples of open skills include facilitating discussions in a training session, performing a role in a stage play, motivating employees, and responding to difficult customers.

Means to promote transfer for closed skills involve providing detailed checklists to follow, providing highfidelity practice, shaping favorable attitudes toward compliance, and rewarding compliance.

Means to promote transfer for open skills include teaching general principles, shaping favorable attitudes toward experimentation, allowing trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment, and providing rewards for experimentation.

Theory of Identical Elements

The theory of identical elements proposes that transfer is maximized when what is being learned is identical to what the trainee has to perform on the job. Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, equipment, and other conditions in training are similar to those encountered in the work environment Identical elements are particularly important for promoting near transfer. Near transfer refers to trainees’ ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation. Identical elements are particularly important for closed skills.

Stimulus Generalization Approach

The stimulus generalization approach suggests that the best way to promote transfer is to emphasize the most important features, or general principles, during training. It is also important to identify the range of work situations in which these general principles can be applied. The stimulus generalization approach is particularly important to promote far transfer. Far transfer refers to a trainee’s ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment when it is not identical to that of the training session. The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate for open skills.

Cognitive Theory of Transfer

This theory is based on information processing theory discussed earlier. This theory proposes that the likelihood of transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve learned capabilities. The likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learned capability. It is also important to provide trainees with cognitive strategies for encoding learned capabilities in memory so they are readily retrieved

THE LEARNING PROCESS

Page 8

Mental and Physical Processes

Learning depends on the learner’s cognitive processes, organizing the content in a mental representation, and relating the content to existing knowledge from long-term memory.

From this perspective, learning is a function of eight processes:

 expectancy: the mental state that the learner brings to the instructional process

 perception: the ability to organize the message from the environment so it can be processed and acted upon

 working storage: rehearsal and repetition so material can be coded for memory

 semantic encoding: the actual coding process of incoming messages

 long-term storage: learning content residing in long-term storage

 retrieval: identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance

 generalizing: being able to adapt learning for use in similar situations

 gratifying: feedback the learner receives as a result of using learning content

Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration:

 rehearsal: learning through repetition

 organizing: finding similarities and themes in the training material

 elaboration: relating the material to other more familiar knowledge

The Learning Cycle

Learning can be considered a dynamic cycle involving four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. The key to effective learning is to be competent in each of the four stages.

 concrete experience: trainees encounter a concrete experience

 reflective observation: trainees think about the problem

 abstract conceptualization: trainees generate ideas how to solve the problem

 active experimentation: trainees implementation ideas to solve the problem

There are four learning styles that combine elements of each of the four stages of the learning cycle

 Diverger: uses concrete experience and reflective observation; good at generating ideas, seeing a situation from multiple perspectives, and being aware of meaning and value; interested in people, culture, and the arts

 Assimilator: uses abstract conceptualization and reflective observation; good at inductive reasoning, creating theoretical models, and combining disparate observations into an integrated explanation

 Converger: uses abstract conceptualization and active experimentation; good at decisiveness and practical application; prefers dealing with technical tasks rather than interpersonal issues.

 Accommodator: uses concrete experience and active experimentation; and is good at implementing decisions, carrying out plans, and getting involved in new experiences; tends to be at ease with people but may be seen as impatient and pushy

IMPLICATIONS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS AND TRANSFER OF TRAINING FOR INSTRUCTION

Based on the theories presented throughout this chapter, there are several implications for instruction. Instruction refers to the trainer’s manipulation of the environment in order to help trainees learn.

Page 9

Employees need to know the objectives

Objectives refer to the purpose and expected outcomes of the training activities. Individuals learn best when they understand the training objectives An objective may have three components:

 A statement of what the employee is expected to do or know

 A statement of the quality or level of acceptable performance

 A statement of the conditions under which the learner is expected to perform the desired outcome

Page 10

Employees need meaningful training content

Employees are more likely to learn when the training is linked to current job experiences and tasks that have meaning for them. To enhance meaningfulness, material should be presented using concepts, terms, and examples that are familiar to trainees. Content should also be aligned with trainees’ personal and professional goals.

Employees need opportunities to practice

For practice to be effective, it needs to involve the trainee actively, include overlearning (repeated practice), take the appropriate amount of time, and include the appropriate unit of learning. It is best to provide a variety of examples and practice, rather than all practice.

Employees need a number of pre-practice conditions

There are a number of steps trainers can take at the beginning of training to enhance trainees’ motivation to learn and facilitate retention of training content.

 Provide information about the process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning

 Encourage trainees to reflect on their own learning, which is known as meta-cognition

 Provide advanced organizers outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs

 Help trainees set challenging learning goals

 Create realistic expectations for trainees

 For training in teams, clarify roles and responsibilities for different members

Employees need practice involving experience

Learning will not occur if employees practice only by talking about what they are expected to do. They need direct practice and overlearning. Overlearning involves continuing to practice the new skill or behavior beyond the point at which the learner has demonstrated proficiency more than once. This maximizes the likelihood of transfer

Errors are also useful for learning, and therefore, trainers should provide error management training. Error management training refers to giving trainees the opportunities to make errors during training and then focusing on why the errors occurred and how to overcome them in the future.

Massed vs. spaced practice

Massed practice conditions are those in which individuals practice a task continuously without rest. In spaced practice conditions, individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session. Effectiveness of massed versus spaced practice varies by the characteristics of the task. Task characteristics include overall task complexity, mental requirements, and physical requirements.

Whole vs. part practice

One option with practice is focusing on all tasks at the same time (whole practice). Another option is practicing each component as soon as it is introduced in a training program (part practice). It is probably best to employ both whole and part practice.

Employees need to commit training content to memory

There are several ways trainers can help employees commit training content to memory.

 Make trainees aware of how they are creating, processing, and accessing memory.

 To create long-term memory, training programs must be explicit on content and elaborate on details.

Create concept maps and use multiple forms of review.

Page 11

Teach key words, a procedure, or a sequence, or provide visual images

Remind trainees of knowledge and skills they already know to create a link with current training content

Use external retrieval cues

 Over learning can help in retaining information in long-term memory.

Employees need feedback

Employees need feedback about how well they are meeting training objectives. The feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible.

Employees learn through observation, experience, and interaction

Individuals learn through observation and imitating the actions of models. There are three ways employees can learn through interaction.

 Learner-content interaction: learner interacts with training content, such as by reading content, listening to content, and practicing content

 Learner-instructor interaction: learner interacts with the instructors; trainers can present, demonstrate; and reinforce material

 Learner-learner interaction; learner interactions with other learners; such interactions include observing and sharing experiences

Communities of practice are groups of employees who work together, learn from each other and have a common sense about how to get work accomplished. The idea behind communities of practice is that learning occurs as a result of social interactions.

Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged

Training administration is the coordination of activities before, during, and after the training program. Training administration involves activities such as:

 Communicating courses and programs to employees

 Enrolling employees in courses and programs

 Preparing and processing pre-training instruction materials

 Preparing materials that will be used in instruction

 Arranging for the training facility and room

 Testing equipment that will be used in instruction

 Having backup equipment should equipment fail

 Providing support during instruction

 Distributing evaluation materials

 Facilitating communications between trainer and trainees during and after training

 Recording course completion in the trainees' training records or HR files

Encourage trainee responsibility and self-management

Trainees need to take responsibility for learning and transfer, which includes being involved and engaged during training and using content back on the job. Self-management training may help promote taking responsibility. Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control certain aspects of decision making and behavior. Self-management training involves setting goals to use skills on the job, identifying obstacles that might hinder transfer and ways to overcome them, and self-administering rewards.

Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer

Page 12

A number of obstacles in the work environment can inhibit learning and transfer obstacle work conditions, lack of peer support, and lack of management support.

 obstacle work conditions: time pressures, inadequate equipment, few opportunities to use skills, inadequate budget

 lack of peer support; peers discourage use of new knowledge and skills, are unwilling to provide feedback, and see training as a waste of time

 lack of management support: management opposes the ideas presented in training, does not discuss training opportunities, is unwilling to provide practice and feedback

One way to ensure that learning and transfer of training occur is to ensure that the climate for transfer is positive. Climate for transfer refers to trainees’ perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the work environment. Characteristics of a positive climate for transfer include:

 Supervisors and coworkers encourage transfer

 Task cues to use new skills

 Feedback consequences

 Lack of punishment for using new skills

 Extrinsic reinforcement consequences

 Intrinsic reinforcement consequences

INSTRUCTIONAL EMPHASIS FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

It is important to understand the difference between internal and external learning conditions. Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary for learning to occur These processes include how information is processed, stored in memory, and recalled. External conditions are processes in the learning environment that are necessary for learning to occur. These conditions include the physical learning environment and opportunities for practice and feedback. The external conditions should directly influence forms of instruction, and they should be designed to facilitate the internal conditions for learning to occur. One size does not fit all. Different internal and external conditions are necessary to facilitate different learning outcomes.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Compare and contrast any two of the following learning theories: expectancy theory, social learning theory, reinforcement theory, information processing theory.

Student answers would vary depending upon their choice of theory opted for comparison. The focus of each theory is as follows:

 Expectancy theory suggests that a person’s behavior is based on three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Trainees need to believe they can perform what is being trained, there must be valued rewards, and trainees must believe they will receive the rewards if they perform well.

 Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable. Learners then practice the observed behavior and receive feedback. Self-efficacy is also an important aspect of social learning theory.

 Reinforcement theory emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors.

Page 13

 Information processing theories propose that information or messages taken in by the learner undergo several transformations in the human brain.

2. What learning condition do you think is most necessary for learning to occur? Which is least critical? Why?

A host of learning conditions were presented throughout the chapter, and certainly student answers will vary. It is important that students justify their choices and provide examples from their own learning experiences.

3. Are learning and transfer of training related? Explain why or why not.

Learning refers to acquiring new knowledge and skills, while transfer refers to applying them. For training to be effective, both learning and transfer of training are needed. Learning is a necessary condition for effective transfer. Transfer, however, may facilitate greater learning, particularly for skills that were not fully developed during the training session and for more complex, open skills.

4. How do instructional objectives help learning to occur?

Instructional objectives refer to the purpose and expected outcome of training activities. In one respect, objectives help trainers design training sessions because objectives provide focus. With greater focus, greater learning can occur. Communication of objectives can help trainees learn by signaling to them what is important and what they should pay attention to.

5. Assume you are training an employee to diagnose and repair a loose wire in an electrical socket. After demonstrating the procedure to follow, you let the trainee show you how to do it. The trainee correctly demonstrates the process and repairs the connection on the first attempt. Has learning occurred? Justify your answer.

What is known is that the trainee performed the task correctly. If the trainee already knew how to perform the task, no learning has occurred. If this were not the case, a degree of learning has occurred. However, since the demonstration was immediately after the training, there is a possibility that the knowledge has only been stored in the trainee’s short term memory. To retain the learning, the knowledge has to move to long term memory. To help create long-term memory, training programs need to elaborate on details and provide practice opportunities to facilitate overlearning.

6. Your boss says: “Why do I need to tell you what type of learning capability I’m interested in? I just want a training program to teach employees how to give good customer service. Explain to the boss how “good customer service” can be translated into different learning outcomes.

At the beginning of the chapter, several learning outcomes were discussed verbal information, intellectual skills, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Delivering effective customer service is not necessarily straightforward, and training could focus on different learning outcomes.

 Regarding verbal information, training could focus on information about the product or service being provided.

 Intellectual skills could include how to serve customers and resolve customer complaints.

 Attitudes could focus on developing favorable attitudes toward customer service and the organization’s customer service philosophy.

Page 14

 Cognitive strategies could address how to solve customer problems and adapt service delivery based on customers’ unique needs and characteristics, similar to intellectual skills.

(Motor skills are likely not relevant in this context.)

7. How does practice help learning? What could a trainer do in a training session to ensure that trainees engage in self-regulation?

Practice is central to the learning process because it provides opportunities for rehearsal, whereby individuals try out new skills and assess strengths and weaknesses. Effective practice makes perfect. For practice to be effective, it needs to actively involve the trainee, include overlearning, take the appropriate amount of time, and include the appropriate unit of learning. Self-regulation is also key to effective practice.

Self-regulation can be encouraged by teaching trainees to engage in meta-cognitive activity. They should ask themselves a variety of questions while they practice, such as:

 Am I concentrating on the training material?

 Do I understand the key points?

 Am I setting goals to help me remember the material after I finish the course?

 What can I do better next time?

8. Can allowing trainees to make errors in training be useful? Explain.

Making errors is central to the learning process. Trainees should be allowed to make errors so they do not fear practice. When learning a new skill, there is the risk of appearing foolish in front of others. Trainers should thus strive to create a learning orientation among trainees, where trainees are more concerned with developing their skills and view mistakes as a natural part of the learning process. Furthermore, errors themselves are important in training because they provide for learning opportunities. In particular, in error management training, trainees are instructed that errors can help learning, and they are encouraged to make errors and learn from them.

9. What learning conditions are necessary for short- and long-term retention of training content to occur?

Conditions necessary for short-term retention of training content to occur include:

 working storage: rehearsal and repetition of information occur, allowing material to be coded for memory

 semantic encoding: the actual coding process of incoming messages

Conditions necessary for long-term retention of training content to occur include:

 retrieval: identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance

 making trainees aware of how they are creating, processing, and accessing memory

 training programs must be explicit on content and elaborate on details

 creating a concept map to show relationships among ideas

 using multiple forms of review including writing, drawings, and role plays to access memory through multiple methods

Page 15

 teaching key words, a procedure, or a sequence, or providing a visual image gives trainees another way to retrieve information

 reminding trainees of knowledge, behavior, and skills that they already know that are relevant to the current training content creates a link to long-term memory that provides a framework for recalling the new training content

 if a lengthy process or procedure is to be taught, instruction needs to be delivered in relatively small chunks

 going beyond one-trial learning

 making trainees review and practice over multiple days

10. What is near transfer? Far transfer? What are their implications for training design?

Near transfer refers to trainees’ ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation. Near transfer is more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training that are very similar, if not identical, to the work environment. Thus, trainers should incorporate identical elements, where the training environment is as close as possible to the real work environment.

Far transfer refers to trainees applying what they’ve learned to a work environment that is not identical to the training situation. The stimulus generalization approach emphasizes far transfer. The stimulus generalization approach suggests that the best way to promote transfer is to teach general principles that are applicable to many work situations.

11. How can employees learn through interaction? Are some types of interaction best for learning in some situations but not others? Explain.

Employees learn best through interaction with training content, with other learners, and with the trainer or instructor. Table 4.12 shows the three ways that employees learn through interaction and when to use them.

Learner-content interaction means that the learner interacts with the training content. Learnercontent interaction includes reading text on the web or in books, listening to multimedia modules, performing activities that require the manipulation of tools or objects, completing case studies and worksheets, or creating new content based on learned information.

Learner-instructor interaction refers to interaction between the learner and the expert. Trainers can facilitate learning by presenting, demonstrating, and reinforcing content. Also, trainers provide support, encouragement, and feedback. Learner-instructor discussions can be useful for helping learners understand content, enhance learners’ self-awareness and self-assessment, gain an appreciation for different opinions, and implement ideas on the job.

Learner-learner interaction refers to interaction between learners. Learner-learner interaction, including observing and sharing experience with peers, may be especially useful for training interpersonal skills, acquiring personal knowledge based on experience, context-specific knowledge, and learning to cope with new situations.

12. How can the work environment inhibit learning and transfer of training? Explain what work environment characteristics you believe have the largest influence on transfer of training? Justify your answer.

Page 16

A number of obstacles in the work environment can inhibit learning and transfer obstacle work conditions, lack of peer support, and lack of management support.

 obstacle work conditions: time pressures, inadequate equipment, few opportunities to use skills, inadequate budget

 lack of peer support; peers discourage use of new knowledge and skills, are unwilling to provide feedback, and see training as a waste of time

 lack of management support: management opposes the ideas presented in training, does not discuss training opportunities, is unwilling to provide practice and feedback

These obstacles inhibit transfer because they cause lapses. Lapses take place when the trainee uses previously learned, less effective capabilities instead of trying to apply the capability emphasized in the training program. Lapses into old behavior and skill patterns are common. Given the restructuring, downsizing, and cost cutting occurring in many companies, these obstacles are often a reality for trainees.

One way to ensure that learning and transfer of training occur is to ensure that the climate for transfer is positive. The work environment needs to signal that learning is important, have policies and proceeds to support training, offer social support, and design jobs so that individuals can experiment with using new knowledge and skills.

13. You have a one-day classroom experience in which you need to help a group of engineers and software programmers learn to become project managers. After training, they will have to manage some significant projects. Discuss the instructional characteristics and activities you will use to ensure that the engineers and software programmers learn project management.

This chapter discussed a host of strategies to facilitate learning and training, and certainly many of them could be appropriate in this particular context. Below are a few examples that could be appropriate in this context.

 Given that these individuals are adult learners with experience, you could incorporate the principles of andragogy by drawing on their previous experiences, ensuring that training is problem focused, and providing opportunities for immediate application.

 Project management skills are open skills, where there is not necessarily one best way to perform in all contexts. As such, you should teach general principles, shaping favorable attitudes toward experimentation, allowing trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment, and provide rewards for experimentation.

 In addition to focusing on project management skills, the training could address principles of selfmanagement. Self-management training might be appropriate because these employees will largely be responsible for managing their own behavior on the job after training. Selfmanagement training involves setting goals to use skills on the job, identifying obstacles that might hinder transfer and ways to overcome them, and self-administering rewards.

 Encourage trainees for form “communities of practice” post-training where the trainees can learn from one another and share best practices.

Page 17

Turn static files into dynamic content formats.

Create a flipbook