Theoretical Constructs of 'Hybridity' and the Associated Adaptability of Stadium Typology

Theoretical Constructs of ‘Hybridity’ and the Associated Adaptability of Stadium T ypology Jordan Halliday

B L ANK P AGE

A ut hor : J o rd an H al l i d ay

T MA 1160 M ast e r of A r c hi t e c t ur e Di sse r t a ti o n

W or d C ount : 9667

M . A r c h A r c hi t e c t ur e U ni v e r si t y of H ud d e r sf i e l d Z i ad a, H az e m J anuar y 2021

CONTENTS 1.0

Figure Li st . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 5

2.0

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 7

3.0

Introducti on . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3.1

Evol u ti on of Type . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 8

3.2

Typol og i c al Conta m i na t io n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 1 1

3.3

Cu rre nt S tu dy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 1 4

4.0

Methodol ogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 1 6

4.1

Li teratu re Re vi ew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 1 6

4.2

I ndu stry E xpe rt I nte r vie w s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 1 7

4.3

S pe c ul ati ve Di ag ram s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 1 7

5.0

Discussi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 1 8

5.1

P rogram m ati c Com bina t io n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 1 8

5.2

Un bounded Hybri di ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 2 3

5.3

Tra nsform a ti ve Hybrid it y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 2 6

6.0

Concl usi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3

7.0

Ref erence Li st . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5

1.0 FIGURE LIST Figure 3.1 – Garner, D. (2018) Palio Di Siena Horse Race in Piazza Del Campo.

at Stamford Bridge. [Image/Illustration]. From Complexity to Hybridity:

[Photograph]. What it’s like to witness the Palio di Siena, possibly the

Transformative Combinations of Different Programs in Stadium Architecture.

most lawless horse race on Earth. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/

Architectural research, 21(3), 59-67. https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/

long_reads/palio-di-siena-horse-race-italy-sport-festival-medieval-contrade-

JAKO201929064693841.pdf

tuscany-a8317956.html Figure 3.9 – Shin, Y.J. & Baek, J. (2019) Programmatic location of hotel at Figure 3.2 – Monti, P. (1960) Football pitch defined by the streets of Venice.

Twickenham Stadium. [Image/Illustration]. From Complexity to Hybridity:

[Photograph]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_football#/media/File:Paolo_

Transformative Combinations of Different Programs in Stadium Architecture.

Monti_-_Serie_fotografica_(Venezia,_1960)_-_BEIC_6328452.jpg

Architectural research, 21(3), 59-67. https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/ JAKO201929064693841.pdf

Figure 3.3 - Unknown Author (n.d.) Original stadium in Olympia, Ancient Greece. [Illustration]. https://twitter.com/thepatriotsasia/

Figure 3.10 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative modular composition for

status/1207977896771325952

adaptive recycling of alternative typological units. [Illustration].

Figure 3.4 - Britannica (n.d.) The Colosseum, Rome. [Photograph]. https://www.

Figure 4.1 – Authors Own. (2021) Thematic Map resultant from thematic

britannica.com/topic/Colosseum

analysis of interviews . [Chart].

Figure 3.5 - John, G. Sheard, R. & Vickery, B. (2013) London stadium

Figure 5.1 – Authors Own. (2021) Deconstruction of the section of Emirates

transformation. [Illustration]. In John, G. Sheard, R. & Vickery, B. (2013 Stadia:

Stadium to reveal fixed structure. [Illustration].

The Populous Design and Development Guide (p.232). Routledge.

Figure 5.2 – Ashton Gate Stadium (n.d.) Ashton Gate Concourse Figure 3.6 - Tapia-Owens, J. (2016) Repurposement of Handball Arena post-

Exhibition. [Photograph]. Non-matchday hospitality booklet. https://

Olympics. [Illustration]. https://inhabitat.com/adaptable-handball-arena-re-

www.ashtongatestadium.co.uk/media/21298/ashtongate_hospitality_

houses-people-displaced-by-the-olympic-games

nonmatchday_150dpi.pdf.

Figure 3.7 - Fisher, R. (n.d.) Retractable pitch at Lille revealing underground

Figure 5.3 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative transformation between event and

arena. [Photograph] https://www.johndesmond.com/blog/design/lilles-grand-

non-event day programs for an exposition centre (Occupation). [Illustration].

stadium

Figure 5.4 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative transformation between event and non-event day programs for an educational complex (Transfiguration).

Figure 3.8 – Shin, Y.J. & Baek, J. (2019) Programmatic loca tion of hotel

[Illustration].

F IG U R E L IS T

5

Figure 5.5 – Populous (2019) Brewery at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium.

Figure 5.12 – StadiaPitch (n.d.) Modular pitch deconstructed through automated

[Photograph]. https://populous.com/redefining-the-matchday-experience-for-

systems. [Photograph]. https://stadiapitch.com/#product

tottenham-hotspur-fans Figure 5.13 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative compartmentalised modular Figure 5.6 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative transformation between event and

pitch simultaniously rotating on regular axis. [Illustration].

non-even t day programs for an industrial factory (Disjunction). [Illustration].

Figure 5.14 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative compartmentalised modular Figure 5.7 – Clarke, R. (n.d.) West stand entrance at old Highbury Stadium..

pitch configuration for quick turnover between futsal and football. [Illustration].

[Photograph]. https://www.skysports.com/football/gallery/12772/8239333/ homes-of-football

Figure 5.15 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative compartmentalised modular pitch configuration for two community based programmes. [Illustration].

Figure 5.8 – Chestertons (n.d.) Residential compex in old Highbury Stadium stands. [Photograph]. https://www.chestertons.com/en-gb/property-to-buy/gb/

Figure 5.16 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative modular conveyor pitch situated

southstand/hea205614

underground. [Illustration].

Figure 5.9 – Tasche, S. (2008) Loftus Road main entrance. [Photograph].

Figure 5.17 – Authors Own. (2021) Spatial requirements for four educational

https://www.flickr.com/photos/23546003@N00/2903736939

programmatic configurations . [Illustration].

Figure 5.10 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative representation of the stadium

Figure 5.18 – Authors Own. (2021) Speculative collapsable stadium that is

formed as public square within dense residential setting. [Illustration].

transformative into pavilions. [Illustration].

Figure 5.11 – Tottenham Hotspur (2019) Retractable pitch at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium. [Photograph]. https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/ behind-the-scenes-look-at-tottenhams-retractable-pitch-04-04-2019

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F I GU RE L I S T

2.0 ABSTRACT

Stadia have evolved since the thirteenth-century BC, with the current design focus on iconism and post-event legacy, however despite the mass investment in these structures, stadia often lie dormant and have little communal ties. Recently steps have been taken towards more consistent utilisation of the stadium, however these applications are still limited. Shin and Baek (2019) suggested that to further the programmatic configurations of stadia, we need to consider ‘Complexity’ and ‘Hybridity’, however such research did not consider vital elements within the typology of stadia.

The present study aims to explore stadium typology for the programmatic unification between fifth-generation stadia and urban settings, through conducting interviews with industry experts and through speculative typological diagrams around three proposed constructs of ‘Hybridity’.

This study suggests that the ability to integrate alternative typologies is not limited by their programmatic complexity and that through careful specification, a range of typologies have the potential to be successfully integrated within the formal spatial organisation of stadia. The deconstruction of the physical typology of stadia is also seen to provide open access to the public domain, changing the dynamics of interactions, with such a space becoming a key part of the urban fabric. Furthermore, the subdivision of stadia into smaller components and the utilisation of transportable systems permits flexibility in the programmatic configuration, either through the transformation of their events, their formal spatial organisation, or their physical composition.

A BS T R A C T

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3.0 INTRODUCTION

Contemporary stadia are structures that typically acquire huge investments, with recent developments costing upwards of £1billion (Flowers, 2012). Stadia are also typically solitary, private and enclosed entities that oppose the urban settings in which they reside, often electing to retain no relationship with local communit ies. Many may assume because of this isolation from the ir setting that stadia are functioning to 100% capacity and are unable to accommodate additional communal typologies, however when considering that events only occur on average once a week, the reality is that lifetime occupancy rates of stadia are far below 10% (Vuk, Nikola, Milica, Miomir, & Dragan, 2014). With stadia beginning to relocate to urban settings following the shift to the peripheries in the 1990s, it has never been a more appropriate time to consider the programmatic configuration of stadia for the utilisation of non-event day activities.

The present study aims to explore stadium typology for the programmatic unification between fifth-generation stadia and urban settings. For the present study, the exploration of typology is considered to be the most efficient approach towards non-event day utilisation of stadia. Through the accommodation of additional programmatic activities and through careful specification, stadia will be able to become more dynamic in their relations to the urban settings in which they are situated. When referring to typology in an architectural framework, we refer firstly to the building or structures physical characteristics, including features such as scale, location and accessibility. Typology can also refer to the programmatic categorisation of a building or structure, with a variety of functions associated to it, such as an educational facility, medical centre or place of worship (Sooyoun Kim, 2014).

3.1

Evolution of Stadium Typology

In ord er to understand stadium typology, it is first useful to consider the evolution of stadia in terms of their physical characteristics and associated programmatic configurations to present day. A stadium is commonly defined as a venue that consists of a field of play either partly or completely surrounded by a tiered structure/terrace, designed for the spectatorship of events (Zetlin, 1999). For the purpose of this research however, the stadium is further inclusive

8

I N T RO D U CTI O N

of informal surfaces that do not incorporate tiered structures/terraces, as the act of spectatorship alone is considered enough to quantify the stadium. In their earli est forms, stadia lacked physical structure, instead encompassing informal surfaces on which events took place. For exam ple, Aboriginals have been known to traditionally use informal surfaces for a variety of events, ranging from traditional games to the resolution of tribal conflicts (Forsyth & Wamsley, 2006).

2018; Figure 3.1). Whilst these traditional events within publics square are the main formal usage of such surfaces in present day, it must be considered that these informal surfaces are not only tied to organised events. Many sporting spectators will associate with informal natures of play dating back to childhood or adolescence, as since the late nineteenth-century, imagined games with little to no rules have often been defined by the constraints of th e urban setting (Figure 3.2). For many – including elite athletes – this nature of play will have formed the origins of their contemporary relationship with sport.

Although often associated with events conducted before the introduction of formal stadia, the utilisation of informal surfaces is not something solely resigned to the historical origins of stadia. One such example are public squares, which have been utilised for centuries as sites for traditional events due to their significance as centres of social interaction within urban settings (Bale, 2000). Perhaps the most notorious of events to occur within such a setting is the Palio Di Sienna, dating back to 1656 AD. Situated in the Piazza Del Campo, Sienna, the event transforms the square twice a year into a chaotic sporting venue capable of accommodating over 10,000 spectators (Garner,

Stadium typology first evolved from informal surfaces to encompass the more traditional physical characteristics that we associate with in present day within Ancient Greece. The earliest of such stadia is believed to be the stadium in Olympia (1300 BC - Present; Figure 3.3), host of the inaugural Olympic Games in 776 BC. This stadium – along with the majority of other stadia within Ancient Greece – was composed of an open U-shaped athletics track surrounded on three sides by basic small-scale stone terraces. This model of stadia was further developed in the first-century BC (within Ancient Rome) through the conception

F i g u r e 3. 1 - P a l i o Di S i e na H o rs e R a c e i n P i a z z a De l Ca mp o . ( G a rne r, 2 0 18 )

F ig ur e 3 .2 - F oo t ball pit c h def ined by t he s t r eet s of V enic e (Mo nt i, 1 9 6 0 )

I N T R O D U C T IO N

9

of coliseums; stadia in which the event surface was entirely enclosed using stadia were obliged to provide more of a social experience rather than just a sporting event, leading to the introduction of amenities within secondgeneration stadia (Dureiko, 2014; Sheard, 2000). The concept of sociability was also built upon for third-generation stadia, in which Walt Disney’s leisure model of incorporating accommodations such as cinemas and shopping centres was introduced in order to attract entire families rather than a single social grouping (Geraint, Sheard, & Vickery, 2013; Sheard, 2000).

Since the 1990s, the majority of elite sports have undergone a process of globalisation, and as such stadia have become accessories for clients (club directors, governments, etc.) striving for the formation of global brands. The commercialisation of spectatorship (live and digital) and the transformation of stadia into revenue generating machines led to the conception of fourth-

Figur e 3.3 - O r i g i n al stad i u m i n O l y m p i a, A nc i e nt G re e c e ( U nk no w n A ut ho r, n. d . )

formal large-scale stone terraces (Figure 3.4), the design parameters for which still cons train the formal organisation of contemporary stadia (Guerreiro, 2021).

It wasn’t until the nineteenth-century AD that formal stadia were introduced within Britain. Following the growth of football as a sport and the subsequent formation of footbal l clubs by industrial factories (Van Rooij, 2000) cheap and undesirable land on the outskirts of cities became occupied by firstgeneration stadia. As these cities expanded, stadia became encased within the urban fabric and subsequently became deeply integrated within their urban settings (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021). Whilst still recognisable in their physical typology to date, it must be considered that these first-generation stadia are now considered dated architecturally, with many completely renovated or demolished due to compliance (or lack of) with modern safety codes and regulations. First-generation stadia were often composed of a combination of spectators viewing from hazardous wooden terraces, congregating around fields and observing from the rooftops of neighbouring dwellings (Dureiko, 2014; Sheard, 2000). The introduction of television in the 1950s meant that

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I N T RO D U CTI O N

F ig ur e 3 .4 - The C olo s s eum , R o m e (B r it annic a, n.d.)

generation stadia (Dureiko, 2014). The globalisation of sport also gave rise to iconism within stadia, with the scale of fourth-generation stadia continuously rising and facades becoming of a more excessive and elaborate nature. The transition to the peripheries of urban settings in the late 1970s was also able to facilitate the rise of iconism, allowing stadia the freedom to accommodate much larger sites without concern for the constraints posed by urban settings.

Vuk et al. (2014) argue that due to such iconism, the scale and significance of contemporary stadia now define the urban settings in which they reside.

The current fifth generation of stadia are intended to be initiators of urban regeneration and growth, but as demonstrated, the physical typology of stadia vastly prohibits a relationship between the stadium and the urban setting to be established. With the emphasis on the external envelope of stadia through their status as urban landmarks, programmatic configurations have become secondary during the design stage, evident through the limited adaptations to internal accommodations during previous decades (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021; Kim, 2021). This stagnation of programmatic evolution has left stadia with exceptionally low lifespan occupancy rates, which are further emphasised by huge investments demanded for contemporary stadia, with the recently completed Tottenham Hotspur Stadium (2019-Present) costing approximately £1billion. Whilst stadia in Britain may be privately funded, some may argue that income from tourism alone is not a sufficient return for the scale of personal investment from supporters.

The Coronavirus-19 pandemic has been a difficult time for many, including sports clubs, who (with stadia lying dormant) have had to rely on sustainabl e operational models for survival. The struggles experienced by sports clubs during the pandemic have provided a pertinent warning that it is now within their interests to re-evaluate the programmatic configurations of stadia for non-event day utilisation to prevent further instability in the future.

The anxieties and struggles of local communities during the pandemic initially acted as a catalyst for such transformations, with accommodations assembled for programmatic arrangements such as a hospital at Principality Stadium (1999 – Present), Cardiff, a maternity ward at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, London and a foodbank/kitchen at Old Trafford (1910 – Present), Manchester. Whilst it is of great testament that clubs and stadia have reacted to an emergency situation

by assisting communities, it must be considered that these accommodations are only temporary and are resultant from a reliance on specialist equipment and personnel, rather than shifts in programmatic configuration (Edge, 2020).

With evidence that typological transformation is possible, it therefore poses the question of what can be done to accommodate alternative typologies on a more permanent basis?

3.2 Typologic al Contamination

Based upon the exploration of typological evolutions with in stadia design, it is fair to classify the typical contemporary British stadium as a single, private and enclosed entity of an iconic scale, designed to oppose and contradict the composition of urban settings. The programmatic configurations of which are often simplistic, with limited opportunity for flexibility, accommodating functions tailored towards the commercial exploitation of spectators, i.e., bars, restaurants and corporate boxes.

Despite rigidity within the functional typology of stadia, more recently there has been an emphasis on utilisation of lifespan occupancy rates, with current trends focused upon the post-event legacy of major event stadia (Guerreiro, 2021). The primary example of such a project is the London Stadium (2011 – Present), host of the 2012 Olympic Games. Post-Olympics, the stadium was deconstructed following the usage of temporary and retractable systems in order to alter the playing surface and reduce the capacity to accommodate a new tenant (Figure 3.5). Conceptual academic thesis’ have also targeted the issue of major sporting event legacy. One such notable proposal for the 2016 Rio Olympics by John Tapia-Owens, where a handball venue is designed to be deconstructed post-games to create sprawl housing around the structural grid of the old venue, leaving reference to an important cultural event whilst offsetting displacement faced by residents for the original construction of the venue (Grozdanic, 2016; Figure 3.6). Whilst interesting conceptions, both cases are based around the legacy of international events, rather tha n the utilisation of typical urban stadia. The schemes are also designed upon permanent transformation to an alternative configuration, rather than a spiring towards flexible accommodations which are able to transverse between events.

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A significant hurdle in the implementation of flexible configurations within stadia design is the perceived difficulty of transformations between programs from an operational standpoint (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021; Kim, 2021), reflected through the limited precedents of such transformations. Grand Stade de Lille Métropole (2012 – Present) is probably the most innovative precedent of event-to-event transformation due to its adaptation of the visual characteristics of the seating bowl and physical characteristics of the field of

F ig ur e 3 .6 - R epur pos em ent of H andball A r ena pos t -O lym pic s (Tapia-O wens , 2 0 1 6 )

play. Concealed under the northern section of the stadium is an additional 7,000 seat arena, which is revealed through the transfer and segregation of the playing surface to the opposing section of the stadium (Maier, 2013; Figure 3.7).

Whilst all stadia discussed to date are pertinent and valuable to the evolution of stadium design, what is consistent is an avoidance in the confrontation of existing programmatic interactions and in the exploration for integration of new functional typologies within stadia.

Figur e 3.5 - Lo n d o n stad i u m tr an sfo r m at i o n ( J o hn, S he a rd & V i c k e ry, 2 0 1 3 )

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I N T RO D U CTI O N

Limited research has been conducted on the programmatic interactions present within British stadia, however one such paper to address this topic is Shin and Baek (2019), which aimed to identify a method of reutilising the idle urban space that is the stadium through the significant and communicative fusion of programmes. Within the paper the categories of ‘Complexity’ and

‘Hybridity’ are identified, with ‘Complexity’ defined as “reference to various programmes merely being inserted or stacked” and ‘Hybridity’ defined as “reference to a combination that elicits communication and transformation and gives rise to unexpected synergy”. Using hotels as their primary illustrations of the concepts, Shin and Baek (2019) reference two case studies of major British stadia – Stamford Bridge (1877 – Present) and Twickenham Stadium (1909 – Present). They note that in the case of Stamford Bridge the program is complex, as the hotel is simply affixed to existing accommodations (Figure 3.8), wher eas at Twickenham Stadium the program is considered hybrid, due to being vertically and horizontally connected and visually and acoustically linked (Figure 3.9). Although their findings are pertinent to the exploration of stadium typology, it must be noted that their exploration into the paradigm of ‘Hybridity’ could be considered timid, settling for an over-complementation of simple conversions of accommodations that pose minimal impact on the configuration of stadia during and/or between events. The case studies

F ig ur e 3 .8 - St am f o r d B r idg e P r og r am m at ic C onf ig ur at ion (Shin & B aek , 2 0 1 9 )

discussed by Shin and Baek (2019) may also possess synergy, but a visual and/ or acoustic relationship cannot be considered sufficient to alter the existing dynamics of stadia accommodation. Their lack of consideration for the impact on the urban context of such hybrid programs is also notable.

F i g u r e 3. 7 - R e t ra c t a b l e p i t c h a t L i l l e re ve a l i ng und e rgro und a re na ( Fi s h er , n.d.)

Koolhaas (1995) suggests that the evolution of socio-economic conditions should dictate constant adaptation to programmatic configurations, illustrating the cycle of urban blocks in the 1980s, which transformed from housing to offices to accommodate influxes in businesses, and then subsequently returned to housing to accommodate new working practices (working from home). Tschumi (1996) agrees that configurations should be transformative, although in a more permanent form, suggesting that one space should always accommodate at least two programs – a point reinforced by Moneo (2004). In contrast to these theoretical positions, Guilo Carlo Argan suggests that typology is a process

I N T R O D U C T IO N

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carried out for formal definite ends (Jacoby, 2015), whilst (Rossi, Eisenman, Ghirardo, & Ockman, 1982) posited that typology is the ‘analytical moment of architecture’ and the ‘study of elements that cannot be further reduced’.

Both Tschumi (1996) and Gregotti (1985) however argue that these attitudes towards typology are primarily due to the notion of program being prohibited territory during the 1970/80s, with concerns forbidden as remnants from ‘obsolete functionalist doctrines’. Tschumi (1996) also suggests that because of this attitude, architects are suspicious of time and transformation, instead favouring buildings read at a glance – a potential avenue of explanation for the stagnation of programmatic configurations within existing stadia.

To address the issue of fixed accommodations, Tschumi (1996) proposes the theoretical paradigm of programmatic ‘Contamination’, within which program amounts to one of three sequential categories. The categories include: Indifference (events/spaces are fundamentally independent), Reciprocity (events/spaces can become independent and condition each other’s existence), or Conflict (events/spaces occasionally contradict one another). From these sequential categories, programmatic sequences are further defined as either closed (fixed) or open (narrative), with open sequences undergoing a series of transformations reliant on rules such as compression, rotation, insertion and transference (Tschumi, 1996). It is through these sequences of contamination that programmatic configurations are able to be both flexible and adaptive.

3.3

Figur e 3.9 - Tw i cke n h am Stad i u m Pr o g r a mma t i c Co nf i gura t i o n ( S hi n & Ba e k , 2 0 1 9 )

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I N T RO D U CTI O N

Current Study

Stadia are typically private and enclosed entities with little communal benefit, often requiring mass investment whilst possessing poor lifetime occupancy rates. Steps have recently been taken towards more consistent utilisation of the stadium through the introduction of transportable systems, however there are still few examples of stadia accommodations currently utilised for non-event day activities deviating away from simplistic and commercially focused typologies. In response to non-event day utilisation, Shin and Baek (2019) outlined the paradigm of ‘Hybridity’ for which it was aimed to reutilise the stadium through the communicative fusion of various programmes, however this research was limited in scope, not considering key features associated with stadium typology such as programmatic complexity, integration

within the urban setting and the impact of time on socio-economic conditions.

The present study aims to explore stadium typology for the programmatic unification between fifth-generation stadia and urban settings. To achieve this, the following objectives were formulated: •

• • • •

Conduct a literature review to understand the past, present and future of stadium typology, as well as programmatic theories within architecture.

Design and conduct semi-structured interviews with industry experts to understand the current trajectory of stadium design.

Expand on the work of Shin and Baek (2019) through the proposal of three original constructs of programmatic ‘Hybridity ’.

Explore approaches towards the integration of alternative typologies within stadia through proposed constructs of ‘Hybridity’.

Produce a series of speculative typological diagrams to illustrate methods of programmatic unification within stadia.

This study hypothesises that it is through the proposed constructs of ‘Hybridity’ that stadia are able to become dynamic, adapting to a certain communities’ socio-economic conditions whilst retaining the potential to vary configurations from one community to another. The resultant type will be reinvented from a solitary entity disconnected from urban communities to a facility deeply integrated within their urban settings through advanced and flexible programmatic configurations (Figure 3.10).

F ig ur e 3 .1 0 - Spec ulat ive m odular c o m po s it io n f or adapt ive r ec yc ling o f alt er na tive typological unit s . (A ut ho r s O wn, 2 0 2 1 )

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4.0 METHODOLOGY

The proposed progression of the work of Shin and Baek (2019) will be achieved through the formation of three original constructs of ‘Hybridity’. These constructs were formulated to address the previously unexplored elements of programmatic complexity, urban setting and time. ‘Programmatic Combination’ first explores distinctive typologies to examine and categorise complexity variations within their programmatic configuration, before subsequently integrating such typologies into the formal configuration of stadia using the theories of ‘Contamination’ posed by Tschumi (1996). Following the exploration of programmatic complexity, ‘Unbounded Hybridity’ addresses a second limitation to the research of Shin & Baek (2019), for which urban setting is disregarded. For this, speculati ve proposals examining the deconstruction of the physical typology of stadia are produced in order to form synergy between internal and external landscapes – appreciating the stadium as a powerful symbol within urban settings. Finally, ‘Transformative Hybridity’ addresses a previously unexplored component of time within the study of stadium typology, intended to explore the adaptable capabilities of stadia and the avenues in which prompt modifications can be fac ilitated dependent upon events, typologies, or even soc io-economic conditions.

Three distinct methods were employed to form and support discussions on the proposed constructs. Firstly, a comprehensive literature review was conducted, analysing the evolution of stadia from informal surfaces to the iconic structures that we perc eive today. Secondly, a series of interviews were organised with representatives from two leading architecture firms that specialise in stadium design in order to gain expert opinions on the past, present and future of stadium typology. Based on findings from the literature review and industry expert interviews, a set of speculative typological diagrams were formed to define and illustrate discussions.

4.1 Literatur e Review

A liter ature review was conducted in order to understand the evolution of stadia from their historical origins through to the iconic physical typology that is familiar today. Exploration of these evolutions serve not only as a reference for the future trajectory of stadium design, but also as a basis for identifying the core elements of the stadium that establish the physical typology that we recognise and relate with to date. In addition to exploring the

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evolution of stadium design, current research was examined relating to the functional typology of stadia, as well as theoretical paradigms of programmatic combination. Through this literature review, it was possible to identify current limitations of stadium typology and gain an understanding of approaches toward resolutions.

4.2 Industry Expert Interviews Semi-structured interviews were conducted in order to gain insights from industry experts on the past, present and future of stadium typology, with discussions focused upon topics such as the implementation of digital infrastructure, the programmatic combination of various typologies and the physical deconstruction of stadia. Three participants were recruited from two leading firms within the sector of sports architecture, with interviews conducted online through a secure online collaborative platform. Participants were provided with an information sheet outlining the specifics of the study, as well as a copy of the interview schedule. Consent forms were also provided to participants, which were signed and returned prior to c ommencement of the interview. Formal references to participants names within the research were agreed by all participants following the interview.

Throughout discussion of the three progressive constructs of ‘Hybridity’, speculative typological diagrams are presented as an exploratory method of testing the boundaries of discussions as well as an illustrative demonstration of the physical principles of proposals. Typological diagrams are an “abstraction arising from a set of related conceptual, descriptive and design problems” which first emerged in the work of Julien-David Le Roy in the eighteenth century, used to define or limit possible manifestations of a concept without confining it to a finite formal representation (Jacoby, 2015). An additional benefit of typological diagramming is that causality of the diagram is objective, whilst its effects are subjective, thereby offering a simultaneity of generic and specific form (Kipnis, 2006). The typological diagrams produced within this paper are based upon the findings from the literature search and industry expert interviews, in addition to exploratory processes based upon to personal experience and intuition on the practical spatial requirements of stadia. The dia grams comprise of architectural plans, sections and isometric drawings.

Ethical approval was granted by the University of Huddersfield and complied with GDPR requirements in the collection and storage of data.

Interviews were transcribed before resultant data were analysed using a SixStage Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). A Thematic analysis is one of the most common forms of qualitative data analysis which “emphasises identifying, analysing and interpreting patterns of meaning within a data set” (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Following familiarisation of data, coding was conducted, a process of collecting data of a particular type, in which pre-existing theoretical and analytical knowledge is required for identification of codes. From coding, patterns (themes) were identified. Themes are defined as elements that “capture something about the data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set” (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Four themes were identified from the transcripts, along with various subthemes (Figure 4.1;).

4.3 Speculative Diagrams

F ig ur e 4 .1 - Them at ic Map r es ult ant f r om t hem at ic analys is o f int er views (A ut hors Own, 2021)

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5.0 DISCUSSION

As discussed previously, Shin and Baek (2019) define ‘Hybridity’ as “reference to a combination that elicits communication and transformation, and gives rise to unexpected synergy” and whilst pertinent to the exploration of stadium typology – specifically towards those of a hybrid nature – the research is of a limited scope. In order to further explore the true hybrid potential of stadium typology, three original constructs have been outlined. These include ‘Programmatic Combination’, ‘ Unbounded Hybridity’ and ‘Transformative Hybridity’. It is through these constructs of programmatic ‘Hybridity’ that approaches towards the integration of alternative typologies within stadia are able to be explored through the use of speculative typological diagrams.

5.1

Programmatic Combi nation

In order to progress the notion of ‘Hybridity’ proposed by Shin and Baek (2019), we first need to appreciate that distinct typologies possess a complex variety of spatial configurations, and as a result there is no ‘one size fits all’ ideal for stadia accommodations. The consideration of programmatic complexity allows for the strategic estimation of spatial requirements for alternative typologies under rules of Tschumi’s (1996) theory of programmatic ‘Contamination’. To address the omission of typological complexity within previous research, a framework has been established to represent variation, in which typologies are subdivided into three distinct categories based upon features of spatial organisation. Whilst these categories are not a strict code to define the complexity of typologies, they do enable explorations into the practicality of a stadiums programmatic configuration and permit the study of categorical limits to such applications. The categories include: (1) Occupation – temporary typologi es able to inhabit existing accommodations, (2) Transfiguration – flexible typolog ies able to transform existing accommodations, and (3) Disjunction – isolated typologies distinct from existing accommodations.

Discussed in detail below, the typologies associated with these programmatic categories have been studied to allow for the exploration of permanent hybrid configurations within stadia, whilst also for the examination of the subsequent relationships between event day and non-event day activities.

The programmes discussed include an exposition centre (Occupation), an

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deconstructed in section to remove all existing accommodations (Figure 5.1), thus permitting new approximate floor planes to be outlined and speculative configurations of the three typological categories of complexity to be produced. The Emirates Stadium has been selected due its scale, contemporary arrangement and situation within a dense urban setting.

5.1.1 Occupation Exposition centres are considered under the category of Occupation due to typically being conceived as seasonal events that slot within the existing programmatic organisation of buildings, requiring large-scale rudimentary accommodation that can be comfortably circulated by event attendees.

Expositions are a typology primarily utilised for events relating to educational, cultural or commercial events, such as conventions, expositions, or musical productions and typically take place within large warehouse style rooms (Law Insider, n.d.). Due to exposition centres possessing a large degree of flexibility

F i g u r e 5. 1 - D e c o ns t ruc t i o n o f t he s e c t i o n o f E mi ra t e s S t a d i um t o re ve a l f ixed s t r uc t ur e (A ut ho r s O w n , 2021)

educational complex (Transfiguration) and an industrial factory (Disjunction).

These typologies have been chosen due to their varying levels of programmatic complexity and their indirect relationships with ur ban socio-economic conditions – a potential avenue for stadia to have positive impressions upon urban communities. It must be noted that these configurations are for the purpose of suggesting hybrid organisations that can be recycled between event and non-event day activities and any subsequent planning would require careful specification to ensure the safety and comfort of inhabitants.

In order to explore the contamination of such programmatic configurations, we first need examine the functionality of such integrations through the injection of new typologies into the footprint of an existing British stadium. For this, the Emirates Stadium (2006 – Present), London, has been

F ig ur e 5 .2 - A s ht o n Gat e C onc our s e Exhibit ion (A s ht on Gat e St adium , n.d.)

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within their formal organisation, this type of programmatic combination is already being utilised by some stadia. Ashton Gate (1887 – Present) is one such example, with the installation of a large continuously looped concourse as part of a major renovation of the stadium in 2016, designed to accommodate a range of functions, including an exhibition hall (Ashton Gate Stadium, n.d.; Figure 5.2). Ashton Gate demonstrates that transformations to accommodate the configuration for such a typology are relatively undemanding due to the lenient specification and impermanence of accommodation, however the crucial limitation to existing exposition configurations within stadia is that they only cater for basic amenities such as vendor stalls, rather than providing a diverse range activities to further the distribution of knowledge.

The proposed exposition configuration (Figure 5.3) only exploits a select number of accommodations, recycling the remainder for the enhancement of

the exposition experience. The accommodations that are affected impose no formal organisational changes, as the implementation of specialist equipment and personnel are sufficient for the transformation, however the foremost impression on the permanent configuration of the stadium is that of additional storage, which is required to accommodate all appropriate equipment when not taking place. The simplicity in such a programmatic configuration results in minimal operational effort for the transference between event and nonevent day activities, and the number of inhabitants for such a typology also means that the existing scale of stadium accommodations are appropriate, with amenities such as bars, food vendors, and lavatories comfortable handing events of similar scales. Within the category of Occupation, it is likely that most typologies will possess similar simplistic spatial configurations to that of an exposition centre, potentially explaining the current regularity to which attempts at integration within the programmatic configurations of stadia are been made.

5.1.2 Transfiguration

Figur e 5.3 - Sp e cu l ati v e tr an sfo r m ati o n b e t w e e n e ve nt a nd no n-e ve nt d a y p ro gra ms f o r a n e x pos ition ce n tr e ( O ccu p ati o n ) . ( Au th o r s Ow n, 2 0 2 1 )

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Educational complexes are categorised under Transfiguration due to requiring a broad range of accommodations which possess similar spatial requirements, allowing existing accommodations to be recycled effortlessly to suit new programmatic configurations. For the purpose of this study an educational complex does not refer to a particular type of educational facility, instead generalised for the requirements of any traditional educational institution, ranging from primary care to higher education. Across all types of institutions – due to the variety of sessions that take place (workshops, studios, classrooms, lectures etc.) configuration of accommodations are often only loosely defined. This loose specification means that existing accommodations within stadia (such as conference rooms or executive boxes) can be easily reconfigured to accommodate an array of sessions. Although such transformations are perceived to be of a basic nature, precedents of stadia incorporating educational facilities are limited. During the Covid-19 outbreak we have seen stadia such as Telia Parken (1992 – Present), Copenhagen being temporarily repurposed as a school, and in Argentina the majority of schools permanently accommodate educational facilities following legislation in the 1920s, in which funding for stadia was provided in return for the inclusion

context (where applicable), providing a motivational education al setting whilst forming a visual relationship with external landscapes. On event days, these accommodations can be repurposed into commercially driven programmes such as restaurants and executive boxes, with semi-formal accommodations such as the study hall able to be transformed into concourses and circulation routes. The lower floors contain socially orientated accommodations, which due to programmatic similarities can be retained between events. Within this type of configuration, other formally single use accommodations such as the seating bowl could be repurposed to host lectures (weather permitting), utilising every aspect of the spatial composition.

F i g u r e 5. 4 - S p e c ul a t i ve t ra ns f o rma t i o n b e t w e e n e ve nt a nd no n-e ve nt d a y pr o g r am s f o r an e d u cati o n al c o mp l e x ( T ra ns f i gura t i o n) . ( A ut ho rs Ow n, 2 0 2 1 )

of communal-orientated accommodations (Inglis, 2011). Whilst it is positive that typologies providing social value are being introduced into the formal organisation of stadia, the limitation of schemes to date is that there is distinct segregation of the educational facilities from the main public concourses, enabling little interaction and/or synergy between event and non-event day activities.

The proposed educational configuration (Figure 5.4) first divides the stadium into a series of public and private spaces, representative of the confidential nature of some of the educational complexes’ accommodations. On non-event days, the upper floors comprise of study orientated accommodations, which provide either views of the field of play or the neighbouring urban

As with exposition centres, educational complexes host a large number of inhabitants, making the transformation of accommodations appropriate in scale for both programmatic configurations. The necessity for social accommodations within educational facilities also means there is less disruption in the transference between activities, with only selected accommodations requiring extensive treatment. It must be considered however that not all typologies within the category of Transfiguration will possess identical spatial characteristics to an educational complex and that in some cases the segregation of public and private accommodations may not be viable, making transformation more operationally complicated and time consuming than in this instance.

5.1.3 Disjunction Industrial factories are categorised under Disjunction due to typically requiring highly specialised spaces with limited allowance for flexibility (as a result of large-scale equipment and strict safety codes), however the degree of rigidness is typically dictated by the type of factory and the associated fabrication process. Industrial factories come in a variety of forms of both scale and fabrication processes, ranging from small-scale textile mills occupying single urban plots to large-scale aerospace warehouses occupying entire rural villages. Due to the rigidness of such configurations, the introduction of an industrial factory into stadia would most likely be a permanent configuration in which event-day activities occur around, rather than replace. Because of this, there are few examples of factory installations of any kind within stadia. The

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complex within Transfiguration, a permanent mode of employment will require a selection of private and confidential accommodations, limiting the freedom for transformation on event-days. Whilst limited in number, the remainder of the rudimentary accommodations within this proposal exist in a state of transference, due to the modest alteration of accommodations between activities. Although simplistic, these transformations do in turn preserve the open sequential nature of the scheme.

The primary component within the programmatic configuration of this proposal is the assembly line, which is designed to utilise the oval form of the stadium through operating adjacent to the lower tier concourse. The Tottenham Hotspur Stadium provides an interesting approach to the segregation of such an accommodation, where sensual connection of accommodations is obtained,

Figur e 5.5 - B r e w e r y at To tte n h am Ho tsp ur S t a d i um. ( P o p ul o us , 2 0 1 9 )

Tottenham Hotspur Stadium is probably the nearest example of such a scheme, with the installation of a brewery within one of the concourse bars (Figure 5.5). The brewery has its own isolated space, which is utilised on non-event days, however a visual connection has been established on event-days through transparent screens, maintaining a limited form of synergy between two highly contrasting programmes. The recency of the Tottenham Hotspur Stadium may suggest a promising trend in the application of more radical typologies within stadia, however this brewery is isolated, of a small-scale and only provides visual interaction, rather than influencing the spectator’s occupation of the stadium.

The proposed industrial factory (Figure 5.6) is based around an assembly style production process, from which the basis of the programmatic configuration is formed. The difficulty for integration of such a process within stadia is the permanence of the accommodation, which requires large-scale specialist equipment that is not typically transferable. As with the educational

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F ig ur e 5 .6 - Spec ulat ive t r ans f or m at io n bet ween event and non-event day pr o g r am s f o r an indus t r ial f ac t or y (Dis junc t io n). (A ut ho r s O wn, 2 0 2 1 )

even if a physical segregation is required due to safety issues. Within this proposal this sensual connection to the assembly line is ac hieved through visual connections from management offices and the restaurant. As discussed however, this relationship alone is timid, and therefore on event-days the spectator experience on the lower tier concourse is designed to possess a complete sensory experience of the non-event day activities through the distinctive sight, sound, smell and taste of an industrial process that may well define the urban settings cultural or economic identity. When considering the complexity of contamination for the two programmes – defined un der Tschumi’s (1996) sequential categorisation of Indifference – a unique experiential relationship is formed between event and non-event day activities, a relationship in which the stadium can be related back to a human level.

As can be seen from the exploration and discussion of speculative configurations, each category of complexity does possess the capability to be integrated within the programmatic configuration of stadia to some degree, both in a way that not only encourages synergy between accommodations, but also between event and non-event day activities. Not only are these speculative configurations productive in the practical integration of typologies of various complexities, but the introduction of proposed accommodations could also open further the possibilities for maximum utilisation of the stadium. For example, could lecture theatres become informal movie theatres during the evening with concourses repurposed as an indoor food market? The reality is that the possibilities are infinite, it just requires sufficient backing from the appropriate stakeholders or perhaps even a more radical overhaul in the stadiums model of governance (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021).

Once the characteristics of enclosure and privacy have been deconstructed and the apprehension of allowing public access from an operational standpoint has subsided (Guerreiro, 2021), the stadium has the potential to reconstruct its physical typology into a public venue at the forefront of communal activities within urban settings. Whilst possibilities are vast, it must be considered that not all typologies are appropriate for integration within stadi a (Kim, 2021). During the Coronavirus-19 pandemic for example, we have seen stadia temporarily

repurposed as field hospitals, hosting activities ranging from testing centres and maternity wards to critical care units (Edge, 2020). Whilst satisfactory during periods in which stadia are unoccupied, Kim (2021) justly identifies that once live attendances resume, how could the operational efficiency of ambulances be maintained on event-days with the site accommodating 50,000 spectators?

These are key considerations that need to be carefully examined before the successful integration of any new typology, regardless of their categorised complexity.

Although demonstrating the limited number of typologies examined to be capable of integration, this study does not imply that the proposed configurations are ideal. It does pose a basis however for future in-depth experimentations of such programmatic configurations, from which detailed specification of activities can be outlined. Whilst the study of programmatic contamination is pertinent for the progression of stadia typology, the exclusive exploration of internal configurations is a limited approach, as the stadium should not be viewed as a solitary entity void of context. Previous research does not consider that stadia are complex mechanisms deeply ingrained within urban settings and therefore for typological fusions to truly accomplish the ‘unexpected synergy’ to which Shin and Baek (2019) refer, both the internal configuration and the external landscape need to be considered. This deconstruction of the stadiums physical typology is a state to be referred to as ‘Unbounded Hybridity’.

5.2 Unbounded Hybridity ‘Unbounded Hybri dity’ refers to the state in which the relationship of the external landscape and the stadium is united in order to redefine the physical characteristics associated with stadia typology. Through the unification of internal and external landscapes, the stadium may be able to form robust relations with communities through utilisation on non-event days of publicly accessible accommodations orientated towards typologies of socio-economic value.

One approach to deconstructing the iconic type of contemporary stadia can be acquired through reference to the physical typology of historic British

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stadia, in which built forms were integrated as part of their formal organisation.

Verbruggen (2013) relates the scale of stadia to that of a typical American street grid, and as such the stadium should be able to be incorporated into the existing built environment with only a nominally imposing facade, in turn desegregating the stadium from the urban sett ing. This method of camouflage has previously been successfully implemented within dense urban settings where land is valuable. At Highbury Stadium (1913 - 2006) for example, the former home to Arsenal Football Club, the North and West Stands were accessible between rows of residential properties (Figure 5.7). Although the stadium was vacated in 2006 following the construction of the Emirates Stadium, Highbury Stadium has since been redeveloped as a residential complex, with the original structures preserved both for their architectural and cultural significance to the community (Figure 5.8). Loftus Road (1904 - Present) is an existing example of such stadia within London, with the stadium’ s terraces enclosed on all sides by commercial and residential properties (Figure 5.9). Whilst these examples are apt, it must be noted that they are dated i n architectural terms, with both constructed over 100 years ago and similar typological transformations rare these days within stadia design. This evolution was not resultant of practical limitations however but was instead due to the transfer of stadia to the peripheries of urban settings and then the subsequent rise of iconism within elite sports, eliminating the appeal for camouflaging stadia within urban settings.

In recent years stadia have begun to return to urban settings as land values have decreased and plots have become available (Edge, 2020), however the physical typology of large-scale iconic structures which oppose the urban setting have been maintained, i.e., Emirates Stadium and Tottenham Hotspur Stadium. In order to deconstruct this physical typology, what if we were to imitate e arly British stadia through the installation of new functional typologies related to the specific socio-economic conditions of individual urban sites?

This would allow for subtle integration of stadia within urban settings as well as the formation of a habitable environment capable of providing social value to communities. Although considered as ‘Unbounded Hybridity’ within this research due to the extended relationshi p of the stadium with the wider environment, this method of utilising the streetscape as the façade of the stadium would be categorised as ‘Complexity’ by Shin and Baek (2019) as it does not influence the stadiums configuration as a sporting venue, further demonstrating

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Ab ove : F ig ur e 5 .7 - W es t s t and ent r anc e at o ld H ig hbur y St adium . (C lar k e, n.d.)

Be low: F ig ur e 5 .8 - R es ident ial c om pex in old H ig hbur y St adium s t ands . (C hes t er t ons , n.d.)

F i g u r e 5. 9 - L o f t us R o a d ma i n e nt ra nc e . ( T a s c he , 2 0 0 8 )

the limitations of previous research. Shin & Baek’s (2019) categorisation of ‘Complexity’ does however present the question of how a similar conversion of typology c ould occur in a state in which the synergy between both the internal and external landscapes are fluid?

A radical method of achieving such synergy would be if we were to envisage not just the façade merging into the urban setting, but instead the entire venue. This could potentially be achieved through the reimagination of the field of play (surface) as a public square or street (Figure 5.10), relating the stadium back to the origin points of sport for many spectators, where children played games defined by the constraints of the urban setting. Using the street as a metaphor for the stadium elicits comparison to the Piazza Del Campo in Sienna, which twice a year transforms into a sporting venue accommodating over 10,000 spectators for the Palio Di Sienna festival (Garner, 2018; Figure 3.1). Spectators arrive hours before the event to secure desirable positions at the front or on high ground, with some even choosing to observe from windows or balconies, which function like opera boxes (Garner, 20 18).

Ab ove : F ig ur e 5 .1 0 - Spec ulat ive r epr es ent at io n of t he s t adium f or m ed as public square within dens e r es ident ial s et t ing . (A ut ho r s O wn, 2 0 2 1 ) Be low: F ig ur e 3 .1 - P alio Di Sienna hor s e r ac e in P iaz z a Del C am po (Gar ner , 2 018)

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By redefining the stadium as a public space, seating could become of an informal nature (although still ticketed and managed on event-days), with the introduction of landscaped terraces, and windows/balconies of surrounding buildings occupied as in Sienna – exposing a new manner of spectatorship.

Concourses could subsequently become redundant (although certain services would still be required), allowing local vendors to profit from increased numbers of patrons. The utilisation of retractable pitches – such as those at the Tottenham Hotspur Stadium or London Stadium – would also allow for the accommodation of a larger range of events, preventing peaks and troughs in economic activities throughout the week. The informal organisation of such a space – moulded by supporters and events rather than the venue – removes the privilege of spectatorship and creates synergy not just between programs, but between landscapes, with events – or festivals as they would become – expanding across entire neighbourhoods. By opening up stadia to the public domain, you can also deconstruct the physical characteristics such as scale and enclosure associated with stadium typology in order to contradict and redefine the earlier claim by Vuk et al. (2014) that the scale and significance of stadia defines the city.

Of course, using the construct of ‘Unbounded Hybridity’ to unlock the multifunctional potential of stadia for utilisation on non-event days and to establish a relationship with the external context is a radical deconstruction of the existing physical type, but as with the examples of ‘Hybridity’ identified

by Shin and Baek (2019), these attempts are of a static nature and therefore do not fulfil the complete potential of stadium typology. There is still potential opportunity for the cross contamination of programmatic configurations, for form s that possess flexibility between events, and configurations which are adjustable to a variety of alternative programs dependant on live urban conditions – a state of ‘Transformative Hybridity’.

5.3 Transform ative Hybridity

The distinction between ‘Transformative Hybridity’ and earlier constructs of ‘Hybridity’ is the additional component of time. By complimenting program and setting with time, it is possible to create interchangeable and dynamic

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accommodations that simultaneously redefine both the physical and functional typology of stadia, but with enhanced flexibility that permits the stadium to adjust to the ever-changing conditions of urban settings. For the periodic transformation of stadium typology, it is first vital to establish the core/fixed elements that define the stadium. There is debate within the architectural profession regarding what elements of the stadium specifically are fixed, although it is unanimously agreed that existing design parameters related to concourses and the seating bowl are the principal restriction on flexibility (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021; Kim, 2021). The flexibility to which is referred incorporates internal programmatic configurations, physical composition, and the urban setting. Based upon this, three components of the stadium will be examined to explore the parameters of periodic transformation for hybrid stadium configurations: surface, frame and setting.

5.3.1 Surface

The field of play (or at least the surface bounding the field of play) is a core defining element of the stadium (Guerreiro, 2021; Kim, 2021).

Transformative pitches are a relatively recent development within stadium design, with retractable systems probably the most utilised to date, i.e., Tottenham Hotspur Stadium (Figure 5.11). More innovative attempts at the manipulation of the field of play have also been conceived, such as StadiaPitch

by Bosch Group, a fully automated modular pitch which can be stored elsewhere to accommodate various events (StadiaPitch, n.d.; Figure 5.12). The division of the surface (or any element for that matter) into smaller components has been attributed as vital for the flexibility of stadia and the automated nature of the StadiaPitch transformation addresses another major concern of converting accommodations in the associated operational effort (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021; Kim, 2021). The following two proposals work along a similar basis to that of StadiaPitch, using methods of modularisation to accommodate a range of configurations in an innovative method.

A limitation with the proposal by Bosch is the storage associated with transference of a footprint of approximately 7,000m2 – the average pitch dimension of Premier League stadia. To eradicate this constraint, what if we were to view the field of play as a fixed element, removing the requirement

F ig ur e 5 .1 3 - Spec ulat ive c o m par t m ent alis ed m odular pit c h s im ult anious ly r ot ating on regular axis . (A ut hor s O wn, 2 0 2 1 )

for excessive amounts of storage orientated accommodations, which only further wastes accommodations that could be utilised for socio-economically orientated typologies. Figure 5.13 illustrates a proposal in which the surface is still divided into series of modular components, however these are positionally fixed, transformative instead through the sequential rule of rotation (Tschumi, 1996). Within this proposal, regular 25m2 modules are able to rotate on either a regular or irregular axis, providing not only potential for the occurrence of multiple events, but also for the accommodation of various scale of events, such as the Paris La Défense Arena (2015 – Present), which is able to host concerts ranging from 15,000 to 40,000 (Guerreiro, 2021). Unlike the Paris La Défense Arena however, this proposal would not be limited to a single event, as appropriate segregation - or even no segregation for regional or national competitions – permits several games/events to occur at once.

A bo v e : F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 - R e t ra c t a b l e p i t c h a t T o t t e nha m H o t s p ur S t a d i um. ( T o t t enham H o t s pur , 2 0 1 9 ) B e lo w : F i g u r e 5 . 1 2 - M o d ul a r p i t c h d e c o ns t rc ut e d t hro ugh a ut o ma t e d s y s t em s (St adiaP it c h, n.d.)

The synchronised transference/rotation of smaller components through automated systems vastly reduces the turn-over duration between events (from weeks to potentially minutes), thus enabling the hosting of a larger number of

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annual events. A further approach towards increasing the number of annual events is the hosting of multiple events simultaneously, which would in turn redefine the event-day experience and the nature of spectatorship. Such configurations would partially replicate the advantages of digital spectatorship, in which the spectator is able to switch between games dependant on live conditions. The current model of sport is able to ensure spectators are retained within the stadium for the maximum duration to enable maximum revenue, and the speed of such transformations could accommodate multiple events within the same event day experience. For example, what if futsal matches preceded every football match, with a live transfer of the pitch during a 15-minute turnover period (Figure 5.14)? Not only would this type of event transformation enhance the reputation of smaller sports, but it would also diversify the live experience – a crucial criteria for stadia post Coronavirus-19 according to Jon Niemuth of AECOM Sports (Moran, 2020). It may be argued that such configurations may have adverse effects on the quality of spectatorship due to the constraints of existing design parameters, however Edge (2020) disputes that stadium F ig ur e 5 .1 5 - Spec ulat ive c o m par t m ent alis ed m odular pit c h c o nf ig ur at ion f or t wo c o m m unit y bas ed pr o g r am m es . (A ut hor s O wn, 2 0 2 1 )

parameters are not the primary stimulus of event-day atmosphere, instead arguing that both the nature of the event and of spectatorship possess an equally crucial role in ensuring an immersive atmosphere.

The benefits to such a scheme are also not solely confined to the utilisation of events, but instead also to the relationship with urban communities. This proposal allows the typically iconic scale pitch – seen as sacred ground by many spectators – to be reduced to a series of human scale components, which could in turn create networks within communities through grassroot sport, i.e., becoming a weekly junior league venue or a sports centre (Figure 5.15).

This formal association with activities by spectators would be a major supplier of social value for communities, especially for the younger generation of supporters for whom sport forms part of their identity. This social value would only further engrain the role of stadia within urban settings.

Figur e 5.14 - Sp e cu l ati v e co m p ar tm e n tali s e d mo d ul a r p i t c h c o nf i gura t i o n f o r q ui c k t urno ve r be twee n fu tsal an d fo o tb al l ( Au th o r s O wn, 2 0 2 1 )

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Another approach building upon StadiaPitch by Bosch – although through

Figur e 5.16 - Sp e cu l ati v e m o d u l ar co n v e y o r p i t c h s i t ua t e d und e rgro und . ( A ut ho rs Ow n, 2 0 2 1 )

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a distinctly different approach – is to consider the field of play as an intangible boundary, rather than a permanent physical component. For this proposal, the boundary allocated for the field in play could remain clear on non-event days, instead occupied only when required by one of an unlimited number of surfaces, suitable for an unlimited range of events. In this instance, the proposal is considered in the sense of a conveyor belt, in which a selection of modular surfaces are situated underground (Figure 5.16). When required, the conveyor is transported through automated hydraulic systems for the application of a selection of event specific surfaces within the intangible boundary. This method of transformation is considerably more financially intense than the previous proposal, principally due to the amount of infrastructure required for the implementation and maintenance of such a large-scale underground system, although debatably who are we to put a price on the value of lifespan utilisation rates of stadia? That being said, the proposal is primarily intended to explore speculative transformative solutions, and it is only through such speculation that conception and refinement of rational propositions (such as StadiaPitch) can be achieved.

which although still large-scale can be considered under the principles of modular construction. Through the utilisation of other appropriate structural systems (which may not be technologically viable at time of writing), previously rigid terraces can possess the potential to be strategically collapsed to form a collection of ‘pavilions’ which are arguably adjustable to an infinite number of programmatic configurations suitable to daily, weekly, monthly or annual conditions of the occupant. For the purpose of this proposal, the collection of pavilions have been arranged to accommodate a higher education campus.

With such a typology, it is reasonable to expect that throughout the year a

5.3.2 Frame Flexibi lity in the formal composition of stadia is a difficult thing to achieve due to the dominance of the perceived fixed elements of the stadium in the concourses and the seating bowl (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021; Kim, 2021). There are limited examples of successful manipulation of the physical typology of the stadium, however the current trend of post-event legacy design provides a few notable examples, such as the London Stadium (2012 Olympics) and the Lusail Stadium (2021 – ; 2022 World Cup) Whilst these legacy projects are successful transformations, they undergo permanent adaptations targeted towards the recycling of the stadium for a new functional typology, or at least a new tenant. When we reflect however that for legacy projects structural systems are considered from the initial conception of stadium, is it therefore not possible that similar considerations can be made during initial design stages for temporary manipulation of the stadium composition between events?

One such method of dec onstruction could be through the division of the typic al formal arrangement of stadia into a series of smaller components,

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F ig ur e 5 .1 7 - Spat ial r equir em ent s f or f our educ at io nal pr og r am m at ic c o nf ig ur at ions (A ut ho r s O wn, 2 0 2 1 )

range of events will be hosted, including academic conferences, exhibitions and industry visitations, for which the stadium could convert to satisfy the variation in specific spatial requirements of each event (Figure 5.17). To demonstrate the potential variation in physical composition, Figure 5.18 presents the case of two alternative programmatic configurations: general teaching and an academic conference.

Whilst the use of pavilions creates a series of transformative accommodations that only utilises the necessary required space – in turn donating the residue back to the public domain – there are inevitably obstacles to the utilisation of such an approach. From a pragmatic standpoint, both the financial and operational viability of such a proposal is a non-starter, however it is impossible to predict technological or structural innovations in the next 1015 years, and therefore these concerns are being overlooked in this instance.

The primary constraint to such a proposal from a purely typological standpoint is the jack-of-all-trades attitude towards programmatic configuration, from which accommodations will be of a basic complexity, not specialising in any particular program. As we have seen during the Coronavirus-19 pandemic however, the use of specialist personnel and equipment to configure spaces into appropriate configurations is more than achievable, even if less than ideal (Edge, 2020). To achieve complete hybridity at such scale in a time dependant manner, there inevitably will be consequences, and unfortunately in this this case it is applicable to the complexity of the programmatic configuration. This does not necessarily mean that complex accommodations can’t be incorporated, but these will have to probably be in a different form, perhaps as transposable accommodations rather than transfigurative.

5.3.3 Setting

F i g u r e 5. 18 - S p e c ul a t i ve c o l l a p s a b l e s t a d i um t ha t i s t ra ns f o rma t i ve i nt o pavilions (A ut hor s O wn, 2021)

Koolhaas (1995) argues that due to the ever-changing socio-economic conditions of urban settings, program should be subject to constant revision, however this is not as simplistic as it is portrayed to be, especially within the strict formal configurations of stadia (Edge, 2020; Guerreiro, 2021; Kim, 2021).

As with all sectors of architecture however, not just stadia design, building typologies are failing to react to evolutions in urban conditions due to rigidity within their design and construction processes. This poses the question of

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how it is possible to create a dynamic and reactionary stadium that is able to fulfil its requirements as a sporting venue on event-days, yet can respond to the ever-changing conditions of urban settings through periodic integration of alternative functional typologies and physical compositions? Due to the general difficulty of integrating programmes regardless of flexibility, it is unsurprising that there are limited examples of such transformative configurations. The following proposal aims to address the issues of integrating complex programs, whilst also suggesting a radical approach towards a continuous transformative state of both programmatic configuration and physical composition.

The proposal operates t hrough modular construction techniques, in which a Tetris style approach to stacking units along a network of structural reference points (columns) is applied (Figure 3.10). The proposed configuration means that programmatic configurations are fixed, although they still operate as an open sequence due to incorporated typologies being adaptive to live urban conditions (Tschumi, 1996). For example, if industry grows within the urban setting, then industrial units can be added, however if there is

Figur e 3.9 - Sp e cu l ati v e m o d u l ar co m p o s i t i o n f o r a d a p t i ve re c yc l i ng o f a l t e rna t i ve t yp o l o gi c a l units . (Autho r s O w n , 2021)

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subsequently a shortage of skilled labour, educational units can replace a number of the existing modules. Such flexibility and transformation through the semi-frequent substitution or addition/subtraction of units would typically lead to an operational construction site for the majority of the stadium’s lifespan, however the current proposal addresses this point loosely through the integration of cranes into the fabric of the building. The physical integration of such machineries not only act as functional components, but also as a new type of iconic symbol for the stadium, one symbolic of temporality and growth. The crucial concern however for a composition in which alternative typologies are fixed is transformation to event-day activities, although for a proposal of this nature, allowances could be made within the units to accommodate horizontal circulation routes, with the fixed corner blocks potentially forming the main concourses and vertical circulation routes.

An interchangeable modular configuration of this manner can be instantaneously reactive to urban conditions, adept to both instigate growth in the city and retract from declines within urban economic conditions. Therefore, the scale, budget and typology of the stadium becomes entirely transformative, acting as a cultural rather than a physical landmark. The proposed configurations can also prevent excess operational costs, as the stadium is constantly operating at 100%, regardless of external conditions. This stadium subsequently prevents disused/abandoned spaces – a problem common within many deprived urban settings – as once modular units become redundant, their prefabricated nature enables them to be recycled onto other sites, providing vital services within the community whilst eliminating a large proportion of the construction cost associated with a new-build of a similar scale.

6.0 CONCLUSION

Stadia are private and enclosed entities that often require mass investment yet possess low lifetime occupancy rates and have little communal benefits.

Recently steps have been taken by architects and clients alike towards more consistent utilisation of the stadium through the introduction of transportable systems (such as modular or retractable), however these applications are still limited. Shin and Baek (2019) suggested that to further the programmatic configurations of stadia, we need to consider ‘Complexity’ and ‘Hybridity’, however such research did not consider vital elements within the typology of stadia such as programmatic complexity, relationship to the u rban setting, or time. Therefore, the constructs of ‘Programmatic Contamination’, ‘Unbounded Hybridity’ and ‘Transformative Hybridity’ were formulated as approaches toward the reintegration of stadia into the fabric of urban communities, and to explore the potential of stadia as drivers of regeneration and growth for urban settings.

This study suggests that the ability to integrate alternative typologies is not limited by their programmatic complexity and that through careful specification, a range of typologies have the potential to be successfully integrated within the formal spatial organisation of stadia. This must be considered on a case-bycase basis however, as the operational constraints of some typologies may limit their practicality for integration. The deconstruction of the physical typology of stadia to open access to the public domain changes the dynamics of the interaction, with such a space becoming a key part of the urban fabric. Such deconstruction also changes the nature of events within the stadium, embracing modifications to the way in which the stadium is inhabited through the informal organisation of spectators and events. Furthermore, the subdivision of stadia into smaller components and the utilisation of transportable systems (such as modular or retractable) permits flexibility in the programmatic configurations of stadia, either through the transformation of their events, their formal spatial organisation, or their physical composition.

Whilst current proposals are only speculative, they are intended to inform architects and clients of the potential of stadium typology in approaches towards transformative states of hybridity. From such states, stadia are able to become dynamic and adaptive to the live and ever-changing socio-economic conditions of urban settings, whilst retaining the potential to var y configurations

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from one setting to another. The resultant typology also has the potential to be reinvented from an isolated entity to a facility deeply integrated within their urban setting. To truly impose change however, changes to the existing model of governance for stadia needs to be adapted to remove the focus away from commercially orientated design objective, and to instead approach the stadium as an outcome, rather than an output (Edge, 2020). Discussions are beginning around t he benefits to alterations in the model of governance, however until these changes become a reality, the opportunity to truly seize the potential of alternative typologies within stadia is limited.

Further research on stadium typology should aim to produce detailed specifica tions of programmatic configurations for a wider range of typologies, in order to present a practical portf olio of proposals for the benefit of architects or clients. Further exploration should also be conducted on speculative proposals for transformative approaches to hybrid stadia, from which practical solutions for the incorporation of transportable systems can be examined.

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B L ANK P AGE

J o r d an H al l i d ay 2021